Introduction To Hydrology by Warren Viessman

Contents
PREFACE xiii
PART ONE
CYCLE
THE HYDROLOGIC
CHAPTER1
lntroduction
1.1 Hydrology Defined 3
t.2 A Brief History 3
r.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 5
t.4 The Hydrologic Budget 5
1.5 HydrologicModels 11
1.6 HydrologicData 11
I.7 Common Units of Measurement 12
1.8 Application of Hydrology to Environmental Problems t2
CHAPTER2
Precipitation 1 5
2.1 Water Vapor 15
2.2 Precipitation 17
2.3 Distribution of the Precipitation Input
2,4 Point Precipitation 27
2.5 Areal Precipitation 29
2.6 ProbableMaximum Precipitation 34
2.7 Grossand Net PreciPitation 36
vi coNTENTS
CHAPTER3
Interception
and Depression
Storage 40
3.1 Interception 40
3.2 Throughfall 44
3.3 DepressionStorage 45
CHAPTER4
Infiltration 52
4.I MeasuringInfiltration 53
4.2 Calculation of Infiltration 53
4.3 Horton's Infiltration Model 57
4.4 Green-AMPT Model 64
4.5 Huggins-MonkeModel 67
4.6 Holtan Model 68
4.7 Recoveryof Infiltration Capacity 69
4.8 Temporal and Spatial Variability of Infiltration Capacity 70
4.9 SCS Runoff Curve Number Procedure 73
4.10 @Index 76
CHAPTER5
Evaporation
and Transportation 82 "
5.1 Evaporation 86
5.2 EstimatingEvaporation 86
5.3 EvaporationControl 95
5.4 Transpiration 95
5.5 TranspirationControl 100
5.6 Evapotranspiration 100
5.7 EstimatingEvapotranspiration 103
CHAPTER6
Streamflow 111
6.1 DrainageBasinEffects 111
6.2 The Hydrograph 11,2
6.3 Units of Measurementfor Streamflow 113
6.4 Measuringand RecordingStreamflow 113
6.5 Measurements of Depth and Cross-Sectional Area II4
6.6 Measurementof Velocity lI4
6.7 RelatingPoint Velocity to Cross-SectionalFlow Velocity 115
6.8 The Slope-AreaMethod for DeterminingDischarge II7
oONTENTS Vii
PART TWO
AND MONITORING 121
fT'IEASUREMENTS
HYDROLOGIG
CHAPTER7
DataSources
Hydrologic 123
7.1 GeneralClimatologicalData I23
7.2 Precipitation Data 123
7.3 StreamflowData 124
7.4 Evaporationand TranspirationData I24
CHAPTER8
fnstrumentation126
8.1 Introduction 126
8.2 HYdrologicInstruments 127
8.3 TelemetrySYstems 135
8.4 RemoteSensing 135
CHAPTER9
Networks 144
Monitoring
9.r The Purposeof Monitoring 144
9.2 SpecialConsiderations I45
9.3 Uie of ComPutersin Monitoring I47
9.4 Hydrological-MeteorlogicalNetworks 147
PART THREE
SURFACEWATERHYDROLOGY151
CHAPTER1O
Runoffandthe Catchnient 153
10.1 Catchments,Watersheds,and DrainageBasins 153
tO.2 Basin CharacteristicsAffecting Runoff 155
10.3 RudimentaryPrecipitation-RunoffRelationships 164
IO.4 StreamflowFrequencyAnalysis 166
10.5 StreamflQwForecasting 168
CHAPTER11
Hydrographs 171
11.1 StreamflowHYdrograPhs 171
Il.2 FactorsAffecting HydrographShape 172
11.3 HydrograPhComPonents 174
viii ooNTENTS
lI.4 BaseFlow Separation I77
11.5 HydrographTime Relationships 181
11.6 Time of Concentration I82
Il.7 BasinLae Time I82
CHAPTER12
UnitHydrographs 188
l2.I Unit HydrographDefinition 188
12.2 Derivation of Unit Hydrographsfrom StreamflowData 190
12.3 Unit HydrographApplications by Lagging Methods I94
12.4 S-HydrographMethod 198
12.5 The InstantaneousUnit Hydrograph 201
12.6 SyntheticUnit Hydrographs 205
CHAPTER13
Hydrograph
Routing 234
13.1 HydrologicRiver Routing 235
13.2 HydrologicReservoirRouting 245
13.3 Hydraulic River Routing 248
CHAPTER14
SnowHydrology 265
I4.l Introduction 265
I4.2 Snow Accumulation and Runoff 267
I4.3 Snow Measurementsand Surveys 268
I4.4 Point and Areal Snow Characteristics 269
14.5 The SnowmeltProcess 271.
14.6 SnowmeltRunoff Determinations 284
CHAPTER15
Urbanand SmallWatershedHydrology 309
15.1 Introduction 309
15.2 PeakFlow Formulasfor Urban Watersheds 311
i5.3 PeakFlow Formulasfor Small Rural Watersheds 33I
15.4 Runoff Effects of Urbanization 344
CHAPTER16
Hydrologic
Design 359
16.l Hydrologic DesignProcedures 360
16.2 Data for HydrologicDesign 363
CONTENTS IX
16.3 HydrologicDesign-Frequency Criteria 365
16.4 DesignStorms 373
16.5 Critical EventMethods 391
t6.6 Airport DrainageDesign 400
16.7 Designof Urban Storm Drain Systems 402
16.8 FloodplainAnalysis 409
PART FOUR
GROUNDWATER
HYDROLOGY 425
CHAPTER17
Groundwater,
Soils,and Geology 427
l7.l Introduction 427
I7.2 GroundwaterFlow-General Properties 429
I7.3 SubsurfaceDistribution of Water 429
I7.4 GeologicConsiderations 430
I7.5 Fluctuationsin GroundwaterLevel 433
I7.6 Groundwater-Surface Water Relations 433
CHAPTER 18
Mechanics
of Flow 435
18.1 Hydrostatics 435
t8.2 GroundwaterFlow 436
18.3 Darcy's Law 436
18.4 Permeability 438
18.5 Velocity Potential 440
18.6 HydrodynamicEquations 441
r8.7 ' Flowlines and EquipotentialLines 444
18.8 BoundaryConditions 447
18.9 Flow Nets 449
1 8 . 1 0 VariableHydraulic Conductivity 451
1 8 . 1 1 Anisotropy 452
18.t2 Dupuit's Theory 453
CHAPTER 19
Wellsand Collection
Devices 460
19.1 Flow to Wells 460
19.2 SteadyUnconfinedRadial Flow Toward a Well 461
19.3 SteadyConfined Radial Flow Toward a Well 462
19.4 Well in A Uniform Flow Field 463
19.5 Well Fields 465
X CONTENTS
19.6 The Method of Images 466

I9.7 UnsteadyFlow 467
19.8 Leaky Aquifers 4'13
I9.9 Partially PenetratingWells 473
19.10 Flow to an Infiltration Gallery 473
19.ll SaltwaterIntrusion 474
19.12 GroundwaterBasin Development 475
CHAPTER20
ModelingRegionalGroundwater
Systems 481
20.I RegionalGroundwaterModels 481
20.2 Finite-DifferenceMethods 484
20.3 Finite-ElementMethods 493
20.4 Model Applications 494
20.5 GroundwaterQuality Models 500
PART FIVE
HYDROLOGICMODELING 505
CHAPTER 21
Introduction
to Hydrologic
Modeling 5O7
2l.I HydrologicSimulation 508
2t.2 GroundwaterSimulation 509
21.3 Hydrologic Simulation Protocol 524
21.4 Corps of EngineersSimulation Models 526
CHAPTER22
SyntheticStreamflows 535
22.I SyntheticHydrology 536
22.2 Serially DependentTime SeriesAnalysis 539
CHAPTER23
Continuous
Simulation
Models 548
23.1 ContinuousStreamflowSimulationModels 549
23.2 ContinuousSimulation Model Studies 570
CHAPTER24
Single-Event
Simulation
Models 594
24.1 StormEventSimulation 594
24.2 FederalAgency Single-EventModels 597
24.3 Storm SurgeModeling 625
CONTENTS Xi
CHAPTER25
UrbanRunotfSimulation
Models 630
25.1 Urban StormwaterSystemModels 63I
25.2 Urban Runoff Models Compared 659
25.3 Vendor-DevelopedUrbanStormwaterSoftware 663
PART SIX
METHODS
STATISTICAL 669
CHAPTER26
Probability
and Statistics 671
26.1 RandomVariablesand StatisticalAnalysis 672
26.2 Conceptsof Probability 673
26.3 ProbabilityDistributions 676
26.4 Moments of Distributions 681
26.5 Distribution Characteristics 682
26.6 Types of Probability Distribution Functions 685
26.7 ContinuousProbabilityDistributionFunctions 685
26.8 Bivariate Linear Regressionand Correlation 690
26.9 Fitting RegressionEquations 692
2 6 .r0 Regressionand Correlation Applications 697
CHAPTER27
Frequency
Analysis 708
27.1 FrequencyAnalysis 708
27.2 GraphicalFrequencyAnalysis 709
27.3 FrequencyAnalysis Using FrequencyFactors 7Il
27.4 RegionalFrequencyAnalysis 7I9
27.5 Reliability of FrequencyStudies 730
27.6 FrequencyAnalysis of Partial Duration Series 734
27.7 Flow Duration Analysis 737
APPENDICES 751
INDEX 757
Preface
Watermanagementis taking on new dimensions.New federalthrusts,the grow-

protec-
ing list of global iisues,and strongpublic sentimentregardingenvironmental
tion havebeen the principal driving forces.
In the early yearsof the 20th century,waterresourcesdevelopmentand manage-
ment were focuied almostexclusivd on water supplyand flood control' Today,these
issuesare still important, but protecting
-and the environment,ensuring safe drinking
water, and providing aesthetic recriatioinal experiencescompete equally for
attentionand funds.Furthermore, an environmentally consciouspublic is pressingfor
greaterreliance on improved management practices, with fewer structural compo-
ients, to solve this nuiion'. water problems. The notion of continually striving to
provide more water has been replaced by one of husbanding this preciousnatural
resource.
There is a growing constituencyfor allocatingwater for the-benefitof fish and
wildlife, for protection-of marshesand estuary areas' and for other natural system
uses.But estimatingthe quantitiesof water neededfor environmentalprotectionand
for maintainingand/or restoringnatural systemsis difficult, and there are still many
unknowns.Scilntific data are ,putt", and our understandingof the complexinterac-
tions inherentin ecosystems of an scalesis rudimentary.Indeed,this is a critical issue'
sincethe quantitiesof water involvedin environmentalprotection can be substantial
of
and competitionfor thesewatersfrom traditional water usersis keen' The nations
decisions regarding natural systems-decisions that are
the world are facing major
ladenwith significantectnomic and social impacts.Thus there is_anurgencyassoci-
atedwith developinga betterunderstandingof ecologicsystemsand of their hydrologic
components.
Water policies of the future must thereforetake on broader dimensions'More
emphasismustbe placedon regionalplanningand management,and regionalinstitu-
tions to accommodatethis muJt be devised.Watermanagementmustbe practicedat,
more
andbetween,all levelsof government.Land useand wateruseplanningmustbe
tightly coordinatedas well'
XIV PREFACE
Water scientistsand engineersof tomorrow must be equipped to addressa

diversity of issuessuch as: the design and operation of data retrieval and storage
systems;forecasting;developingalternativewater use futures; estimatingwater re-
quirementsfor natural systems;exploringthe impactsof climate change;developing
more efficient systemsfor applyingwaterin all water-usingsectors;and analyzingand
designingwater managementsystemsincorporating technical, economic, environ-
mental, social, legal, and political elements.A knowledgeof hydrologicprinciplesis
a requisitefor dealingwith suchibsues.
This fourth edition hasbeendesignedto meet the contemporaryneedsof water
scientistsand engineers.It is organizedto accommodatestudentsand practitioners
who are concernedwith the development,management,and protection of water
resources.The format of the book follows that of its predecessor,
providing material
for both an introductory and a more advancedcourse.
Parts One through Four provide the basicsfor a beginninglevel course,while
Parts Five and Six may be used for a more advancedcourseon hydrologicmodel-
ing. This fourth edition has been updated throughout, and many solved examples
havebeen added.In addition, new computer approacheshave been introduced and
problem-solvingtechniquesincludethe use of spreadsheets as appropriate.New fea-
turesof eachchapterincludean introductory statementof contentsand,at the conclu-
sion of the chapter,a summaryof key points.
Many sourceshave been drawn upon to provide subject matter for this book,
and the authorshope that suitable acknowledgmenthas been given to them.
Colleaguesand studentsare recognizedfor their helpful commentsand reviews,par-
ticularly the following reviewers.
Gert Aron, ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity
JohnW. Bird, Universityof Nevada-Reno
IstvanBogardi, Universityof Nebraska
RonaldA. Chadderton,VillanovaUniversity
RichardN. Downer,Universityof Vermont
Bruce E. Larock, Universityof Califurnia-Davis
Frank D. Masch,Universityof Texas-SanAntonio
Philip L. Thompson,FederalHighwayAdministration
A specialnote of thanks is due to Dr. John W. Knapp, Presidentof the Virginia
Military Institute,coauthorof previouseditionsof this book, for his pastcontributions
andvaluableguidance.
WarrenViessman.Jr.
Gary L. Lewis
PARTONE
CYCLE
THE HYDROLOGIC
L.
Chapter1
lntroduction
I Prologue
The purPoseof this chaPteris to:
. Define hydrology. . earth

-,.1Lscience'
, Give a brief niJiory of the evolution of this important
. Statethe fundamentalequationofhydrology'
appliedto supplementdecision
. Demonstratetrow ffiofogic principle, "urib"
management'
support systemsfor water and environmental
DEFINED
1.1 HYDROLOGY
Hydrologyisanearthscience'Itencompassestheoccuffence'distribution,move-
A knowledgeof hydrologyis funda-
menr, and propertiesof the watersof the earth.
mentaltodecisionmutingp,o.",,e,*he,ewaterisu"ompon"nto.f.th.esystemof
inextricably linked' and it is important
concern.water and environmentalissuesare
toclear$understandhowwaterisaffectedbyandhowwateraffectsecosystem
maniPulations'
1.2 A BRIEFHISTORY
Ancient philosophersfocusedtheir i
flows
Production of surfacewater
oc"ur."n"e of water in variousstag
from the seato the atmosPhereto t
early speculationwas often faulty'l
of large subterraneanreservoirsth
is interestingto note, however'tha
*suoeriornumbersindicatereferencesattheendofthechapter.
CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
Greek aqueductson both conveyancecrosssectionand velocity.This

knowledgewas
lost to the Romans,and the proper relation betweenarea,velocity,
and rate of flow
remainedunknownuntil Leonardoda Vinci rediscoveredit duringihe
Italian Renais-
sance.
During the first century s.c. Marcus Vitruvius, in Volume 8 of his
treatiseDe
Architectura Libri Decem (the engineer'schief handbookduring the
Middle Ages),
setforth a theory generallyconsideredto be the predecessorof modern
notionsof the
hydrologiccycle. He hypothesizedthat rain und ,no* falling in mountainous
areas
infiltrated the earth's surface and later appearedin the lowlands
as streamsand
springs.
In spiteof the inaccuratetheoriesproposedin ancienttimes,it is only
fair to state
that practical applicationof varioustry-orotogic principleswas often carried out with
considerablesuccess.For example,about4000 s.c. u du- was constructed
acrossthe
Nile to permit reclamation of previously barren lands for agricultural production.
Severalthousandyears later a canal to convey fresh water from Cairo
io Suezwas
built. Mesopotamiantowns were protecteduguinrt floodsby high earthen
walls. The
Greek and Roman aqueductsand early Chineseirrigation and flood
control works
were also significantprojects.
Nearthe endof the fifteenth century the trend towarda more scientific
approach
to hydrology based on the observationof hydrologic phenomena
becameevident.
Leonardo da Vinci and Bernard Palissyindepende-ntly reachedan accurateunder-
standingof the watercycle.They apparentlybised theii theoriesmore
on our"*iion
than on purely philosophicalreasoning.Nevertheless, until the seventeenthcentury it
seemsevident that little if any effort was directed toward obtaining quantitative
measurementsof hydrologicvariables.
The adventof what might be calledthe "modern" scienceof hydrology
is usually
consideredto beginwith the studiesof suchpioneersasPerrault,Mariotte,
and Halley
in the seventeenthcentury.r'aPerraultobtainedmeasurements of rainfall in the Seine
River drainagebasin over a period of 3 years. Using these and measurements
of
runoff, and knowing,thedrainage areasize,he showeJthat rainfall
was adequatein
quantity to accountfor river flows. He also mademeasurements
of evaporati,onand
capillarity. Mariotte gaugedthe velocity of flow of the River Seine.
Recordedveloc-
ities were translatedinto termsof dischirgeby introducingmeasurements
of the river
crosssection'The English astronomerHalley measuredthe rate of evaporation
of the
MediterraneanSeaand concludedthat the amountof water evaporated
was sufficient
to accountfor the outflow of rivers tributary to the sea.Measurements
suchas these,
althoughcrude,permitted reliable conclusionsto be drawn reggrding
the hydrologic
phenomenabeing studied.
brth numerousadvancesin hydraulic theory
zometer,the Pitot tube, Bernoulli's theorem,
ples.8
perimental hydrology flourished.Significant
ydrology and in the measurementof surface
water. Such significantcontributionsas Hagen-Poiseuille'scapillary
flow equation,
Darcy's law of flow in porous media, und th" Dupuit-Thiem well
formula were
evolved'e-lrThe beginningof systematicstream guoling can also
be traced to this
period' Although the basis for modern hydrology wui tirrr
establishedin the nine-
,)
BUDGET
1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC 5
of
teenth century, much of the effort was empirical in nature. The fundamentals
physicalhydtotogyhad not yet beenwell establishedor widely recognized.In the early
years of tle twJntieth ""niury the inadequaciesof many earlier empirical formula-
to
tions becamewell known. As a result, interestedgovernmentalagenciesbegan
developtheir own programs of hydrologic From
research' about 1930to 1950, rational
analysis began to ieplace empiricism.3 Sherman's unit hydrograph, Horton's
infiltration theory, und Th"it's nonequilibrium-approachto well hydraulicsare out-
standingexamplesof the great progressmade'r2-'o
Since 1930 a theoreiical approachto hydrologicproblemshas largely replaced
permit a
less sophisticatedmethods of ttre past. Advancesin scientific knowledge
and '
better understandingofthe physicaibasisofhydrologic relations,and the advent
continueddevelopnientof high-speeddigital computershavemadepossible,in both -
would
a practical and an economiciense,extensivemathematicalmanipulationsthat
havebeen overwhelming in the past.
For a more compiehensivi historical treatment, the reader is referred to the
works of Meinzer,Jonls, Biswas,and their co-workers'1'2'4'5'15
CYCLE
1 . 3THE HYDROLOGIC
the
The hydrologiccycle is a continuousprocessby which water is transportedfrom
to the landind back to the sea.Many subcycles exist' The
oceansto the atmosphere
evaporationof inlan-dwater and its subsequent precipitation over land beforereturn-
ingio the oceanis one example. The driving force for the global watertransportsystem
is providedby the sun,which furnishes the energy requiredfor evaporation'Note that
the water quality also changes during passage through the cycle; for example,sea
water is convertedto fresh water through evaporation'
The completewater cycle is global in nature. world water problems require
Practical
studieson regional,national,internitional, continental,and global scales.16
significanceof the fact that the total supply of fresh water available to the earth is
has
limited and very small compared with ihe salt water content of the oceans
at the
receivedlittle attention.Thus watersflowing in one country cannotbe available
u's'
same time for use in other regions of the world. Raymond L' Nace of the
GeologicalSurvey has aptly sta=ted thatoowaterresourcesare a global problem with
local roots."tu Mtdern hydrologists are obligated to cope with problems requiring
definition in varying scales of oider of magnitudedifference.In addition, developing
techniquesto contiol weather must receive careful attention, since climatological
changesin one area can profoundly affect the hydrology and therefore the water
resourcesof other regions.
BUDGET
1 . 4 THE HYDROLOGIC
Becausethe total quantity of water availableto the earth is finite and indestructible,
subsys-
the global hydrolojic ,yrt"* may be lookedupon as closed.Open hydrologic
system'
temsare abundantlhowever,and theseare usuallythe type analyzed'For any
'
a water budgetcan be developedto accountfor the hydrologiccomponents'
FiguresI'I,I.2, and 1.3 showa hydrologicbudgetfor the coterminousUnited

States,a conceptualizedhydrologiccycle,andthe distributionof a precipitationinput,
respectively.Thesefiguresillustrate the componentsof the water cycle with which a
hydrologistis concerned.In a practicalsense,somehydrologicregionis dealtwith and
a budgetfor that region is established.Suchregionsmay be topographicallydefined
(watershedsand river basinsare examples),politically specified(e.g- couniy or city
limits), or chosenon some other grounds. Watershedsor drainagi tasins are the
easiestto deal with sincethey sharply define surfacewater boundaries.Thesetopo-
graphically determinedareasare drainedby a river/streamor systemof connecting
rivers/streamssuch that all outflow is dischargedthrough a single outlet. Unfortu-
nately,it is often necessaryto deal with regions that are not well suitedto tracking
hydrologiccomponents.For theseareas,the hydrologistwill find hydrologicbudgeting
somewhatof a challenge.
The primary input in a hydrologicbudgetis precipitation.Figures 1.1-1.3
illustrate this. Someof the precipitation (e.g.,rain, snow,hail) may be interceptedby
trees,grass,other vegetation,and structuralobjectsand will eventuallyreturn to the
, atmosphereby evaporation.Onceprecipitationreachesthe ground,someofit may fill
depressions (becomedepressionstorage),part may penetralethe ground (infiltraie) to
replenishsoil moisture and groundwaterreservoirs,and some may become surface
runoff-that is, flow over the earth's surfaceto a definedchannelsuchas a stream.
Figure 1'3 showsthe dispositionofinfiltration, depressionstorage,and surfacerunoff.
and vegetation '1.'

I
Consumptive
use
*r-d{i; 100bgd
bgd = billion gallons per day
Figure 1.1 Hydrologic budgetof cotermiriousunited States.(U.S. Geologicalsurvey.)

BUDGET 7
1.4 THEHYDROLOGIC
Clouds and water vaPor Clouds and water vaPor

ffi
( )
" 1 ) t t l l ,
--1vtivv
p\--
P P P P P P
E E E
t t
E' evaporation;P'
'surfac-e cycle: ?, transpiration;
Figure 1.2 The hydrologic
R, runoff; G, groundwater flow; and I'
p.Sqipi*i"tt
inflltration.
t
Precipitation inPut
(hyetogaph)
'l,r\
t
SSeamflow
(hyclrograPh)
Figure 1.3 Distributionof precipitationinput'

water enteringthe ground may take severalpaths.Somemay be directly evap-

oratedif adequatetransferfrom the soil to the surfaceis maintained.This can easily
occur where a high groundwater table (free water surface) is within the limits of
capillary transportto the ground surface.Vegetationusingsoil moistureor groundwa-
tei directly can also transmit infiltrated water to the atmosphereby a processknown
as transpiration.Infiltrated water may likewise replenishsoil moisture deficiencies
and enter storageprovided in groundwaterreservoirs,which in turn maintain dry
weather streamflow.Important bodies of groundwaterare usually flowing so that
inflltrated water reachingthe saturated,on" muy be transportedfor considerable'
distancesbefore it is discharged.Groundwatermovement is subject, of course,to
physicaland geologicalconstraints.
Water storedin depressionswill eventually evaporateor infiltrate the ground I
surface.Surfacerunoff otti-ut"ty reachesminor channels(gullies, rivulets, and the :
like), flowsto major streamsand rivers,and finally reachesan ocean.Along the course
of a stream,evaporationand infiltration can also occur.
The foregoing discussion suggeststhat the hydrologic cycle, while simple in
concept,is actually exceedinglycomplex.Pathstaken by particlesof water precipi-
tated in any arcaare numerousand varied before the seais reached.The time scale
may be on the order of seconds,minutes,days,or years.
A generalhydrologicequationcan be developedbasedon theprocessesillus-
trated in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. ConsiderFig. 1.4. In it, the hydrologicvariablesP, E, T,
R, G, and l are as definedin Fig. 1.2. Subscriptss and g are introduced to denote
vectorsoriginatingaboveand belowthe earth's surface,respectivd. For example,R,
["
Earth's surface
Surface channels
R2
Level of plastic rock .

(no water below this level)
Figure 1.4 Regionalhydrologiccycle.

BUDGET
1.4 THE HYDROLOGIC 9
signifies groundwaterflow that is effluent to a surface streamoand E, represents

evaporationfrom surfacewaterbodiesor other surfacestorageareas.Letter S stands
for storage.The regionunderconsiderationspecifiedasA hasa lower boundarybelow
which water will not be found. The upper boundary is the earth's surface.Vertical
boundsare arbitrarily set asprojectionsof the peripheryof the region.Remembering
that the water budgetis a balancebetweeninflows, outflows,and changesin,storage,
Fig. 1.4canbe translatedinto the following mathematicalstatements,whereall values
are given in units of volume per unit time:
1. Hydrologicbudgetabovethe surface
P+R1 -RrIRr-E"-7,- 1:AS" (1.1)
2. Hydrologicbudgetbelow the surface

I + Gt- G2- Rr- E, - 4: AS, (1.2)
3. Hydrologicbudgetfor the region (sum of Eqs' 1.2 and 1.3)

p - (Rr- R,) - (E" + E) - (r" + Tr) - (Gr- G,) : a(S, + ss),
(1.3)
If the subscriptsare droppedfrom Eq. 1.3 sothat letterswithout subscriptsrefer

to total precipitation and net valuesof surfaceflow, undergroundflow, evaporation,
transpiration,and storage;the hydrologicbudgetfor a regioncan be written simply as
p_R-G_E_T:LS (1.4)
This is the basicequationof hydrology.For a simplifiedhydrologicsystemwhereterms

G, E, and Z do not apply, Eq. 1.4 reducesto
p-R:AS (1.5)
Equation 1.4 is applicableto exercisesof any degreeof complexity and is therefore

basic to the solution of all hydrologicproblems.
The difficulty in solvingpractical problemslies mainly in the inability to mea-
sure or estimateproperly the various hydrologic equation terms. For local studies,
reliableestimatesoften are made,but on a global scaleqqantificationis usuallycrude.
Precipitationis measuredby rain or snowgaugeslocatedthroughoutan area.Surface
flows can be measuredusing various devicessuchas weirs, flumes,velocity meters,
and depthgaugeslocatedin the rivers and streamsof the area.Under goodconditions
these measurementsare 95 percent or more accufate,but large floods cannot be
measureddirectly by current methodsand dataon sucheventsare sorelyneeded.Soil
moisturecan be measuredusingneutronprobesand gravimetricmethods;infiltration
can be deterrnined locally by infiltrometers or estimated through the use of
precipitation-runoff data. Areal estimatesof soil moistureand infiltration are gener-
illy very crude,however.The extentandrate of movementof groundwaterareusually
exceedinglydifficult to determine,and adequatedataon quantitiesof groundwaterare
not alwaysavailable.Knowledgeof the geologyof aregion is essentialfor groundwater
estimatesif they are to be more than just rough guides.The determinationof the
1O CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
quantities of water evaporatedand transpired is also extremely difflcult under the

presentstateof developmentiofthe science.Most estimatesof evapotranspirationare
obtainedby usingevaporationpans,energybudgets,masstransfermethods,or empir-
ical relations.A predicamentinherent in the analysisof large drainagebasinsis the
fact that rates of evaporation,transpiration,and groundwatermovementare often
assumedto be highly heterogeneous.
The hydrologicequationis a usefultool; the readershouldunderstandthat it can
be employed in various ways to estimate the magnitude and time distribution of
hydrologicvariables.An introductory exampleis given here,and otherswill be found
throushout the book.
EXAMPLE 1.1
In a given year,a 10,000-mi2wabrshedreceived20 in. of precipitation.The average
rate of flow measuredin the river drainingthe areawasfound to be 700 cfs (cubicfeet
per second).Make a rough estimateof the combinedamountsof waterevaporatedand
transpiredfrom the region during the year of record.
Solution. Beginningwith the basic hydrologicequation
P - R - G - E - Z : A S (r.4)
and sinceevaporationand transpirationcan be combined,
ET:P-ft-G-AS (1.6)
The term EZ is the unknown to be evaluatedand P and R are specifled.The

equation thus has flve variables and three unknowns and cannot tre solved
without additional information.
In order to get a solution, two assumptionsare made. First, since the
drainageareais quite large (measuredin hundredsof squaremiles),a presump-
tion that the groundwaterdivide (boundary)follows the surfacedivide is proba-
bly reasonable.In this casethe G componentmay be consideredzero. The
vector R, existsbut is included in R. The foregoingassumptionis usually not
valid forsmall areasand mustthereforebe usedcarefully.It is alsopresupposed
that AS : 0, thus implying that the groundwaterreservoir volume has not
changedduring the year. For such short periods this assumptioncan be very
inaccurate,evenfor well-wateredregionswith balancedwithdrawalsand good
rechargepotentials.In arid areaswheregroundwateris beingmined (AS consis-
{4 tently negative),it would be an unreasonablesuppositionin many cases.Never-
t: theless,the assumptionis made here for illustrative purposesand qualified by
sayingthat pastrecordsof waterlevelsin the areahaverevealedan approximate
.+ constancyin groundwaterstorage.Hydrology is not an exact science,and rea-
v' a'E-;. sonablewell-foundedassumptionsare required if practical problemsare to be
solved.
Using the simplificationsjust outlined, the working relation reducesto
ET:P_R
1.6 HYDROLOGIC 'I1
DATA
which canbe solveddirectly.First, changeR into inchesper yearsothat the units
are compatible:
_ ft3 1 sec
r \ t - r . , , 6 ^ :R,in.
sec area (m n-l yt II
7 0 0 x 8 6 ; 4 0 0 x 3 6 5 x 1 :2
R _ 0.95in.
104x (5280)'
Therefore,ET : 20 - 0.95 : 19.05in./yr.
The amountof evapotranspirationfor the year in questionis estimatedto
be 19.05in. This is admittedlya crudeapproximationbut could serveasa useful
guide for water resourcesplanning. ll
1.5 HYDROLOGIC
MODELS
Hydrologic systemsare generally analyzedby using mathematicalmodels.'These
modelsmay be empirical, statistical,or foundedon known physicallaws.They may
be usedfor suchsimplepurposesas determiningthe rate of flow that a roadwaygrate
mustbe designedto handle,or they may guidedecisionsaboutthe bestway to develop
a river basinfor a rnultiplicity of objectives.The choiceof the modelshouldbe tailored
to the purposefor which it is to be used.In general,'thesimplestmodel capableof
producinginformation adequateto deal with the issueshouldbe chosen.
Unfortunately,most waterresourcessystemsof practicalconcernhavephysical,
social,political, environmental,andlegaldirnensions;andtheir interactionscannotbe
exactly describedin mathematicalterms. Furthermore,the historical data necessary
for meaningful hydrologic analysesare often lacking or unreliable. And when one
considersthat hydrologic systemsare generallyprobabilistic in nature, it is easyto
understandthat the modeler'stask is not a simpleone.In fact, it is often the casethat
the best that can be hoped for from a model is an enhancedunderstandingof the
systembeing analyzed.But this in itself can be of great value, leading,for example,
to the implementationof datacollectionprogramsthat canultimately supportreliable
modelingefforts.
For the most part, mathematicalmodels are designedto describethe way a
system'selementsrespondto sometype of stimulus(input). For example,a model of
'a groundwater
systemmight be developedto demonstratethe effectson groundwater
storageof various schemesfor pumping. Equations 1.1 and L2 are mathematical
modelsof the hydrologicbudget,and Figure 1.3 can be considereda pictorial model
of the rainfall-runoff process.In later chapters,a variety of hydrologicmodelswill be
presentedand discussed.Thesemodelsprovidethe basisfor informed watermanage-
ment decisions.
DATA
1.6 HYDROLOGIC
Hydrologic dataarc neededto describeprecipitation; streamflows;evaporation;soil
moisture; snow fields; sedimentation;transpiration;infiltration; water quality; air,
s9i!, and water temperatures;and other variablesor componentsof hydrologicsys-
12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
tems. Sources of data are numerous,with the U.S. Geological Survey being the
primary one for streamflow and groundwaterfacts. The National Weather Service
(NOAA or National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration)is the major collector
of meterologicdata.Many other federal,state,and local agenciesand other organiza-
tions also compile hydrologicdata. For a completelisting of theseorganizationssee
Refs.3 and 17.
1 . 7 COMMONUNITSOF MEASUREMENT
Streamandriver flowsare usuallyrecordedascubic metersper second(m3/sec),cubic

feetper second(cfs),or second-feet(sec-ft);groundwaterflowsand watersupplyflo\i/s
are commonly measuredin gallons per minute, hour, or day (gpm, gph, gpd), or
millions of gallonsper day (mgd); flowsusedin agricultureor relatedto water storage
' are often expressedas acre-feet (acre-ft), acre-feet per unit time, inches (in.) or
centimeters(cm) depth per unit time, or acre-inchesper hour (acre-in./hr).
Volumesare often given as gallons,cubic feet, cubic meters,acre-feet,second-
foot-days,and inchesor centimeters.An acre-footis equivalentto a volume of water
1 ft deep over 1 acre of land (43,560 ft3). A second-foot-day(cfs-day,sfd) is the
accuinulatedvolumeproducedby a flow of 1 cfs in a24-hr period.A second-foot-hour
(cfs-hr) is the accumulatedvolume produced by a flow of 1 cfs in t hr. Inches or
centimetersof depthrelate to a volume equivalentto that many inchesor centimeters
of water over the areaof concern.In hydrologicmassbalances,it is sometimesuseful
to note that 1 cfs-day : 2 acre-feetwith sufficient accuracyfor most calculations.
Rainfall depthsare usually recordedin inchesor centimeterswhereasrainfall
rates are given in inches or centimetersper hour. Evaporation,transpiration, and
infiltration rates are usually given as inchesor centimetersdepthper unit time. Some
usefulconstantsand tabulatedvaluesof severalof the physicalpropertiesof water are
given in Appendix A at the end of the book.
1.8 APPLICATIONOF HYDROLOGYTO ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS
It is true that humanscannot exist without water; it is also true that water, misman-
aged,or during times of deficiency(droughts),or times of surplus(floods),can be life
threatening.Furthermore,there is no aspectof environmentalconcernthat doesnot
relate in someway to water. Land, air, and water are all interrelatedas are water and
all life forms. Accordingly, the spectrum of issuesrequiring an understandingof
hydrologicprocessesis almost unlimited.
As waterbecomesmore scarceand as competition for its useexpands,the need
for improved water managementwill grow. And to provide water for the world's
expandingpopulation, new industrial developments,food production, recreational
demands,and for the preservationand protection of natural systemsand other pur-
poses,it will becomeincreasinglyimportant for us to achievea thoroughunderstand-
ing of the underlyinghydrologicprocesseswith which we must contend.This is the
challengeto hydrologists,waterresourcesengineers,planners,policymakers,lawyers,
economists,and others who must strive to see that future allocationsof water are
sufficient to meet the needsof human and natural svstems.
PROBLEMS 13
r summary
distribution' move-
Hydrology is the scienceof water. It embracesthe occurrence,
sense,an account-
-"nt, urii propertiesof the watersof the earth. In a mathematical
sothat a history
ing may be madeof the inputs,outputs,and waterStofagesof a region
of water movementfor the region can be estimated'
the hydrologic
After reading this chapter you should be able to understand
You shouldalso
budgetand make a simpleu".ouniing of water transportin a region'
be used facilitate
to
have gained an undersiandingof trow hydrologic analysescan
designand managementprocessesfor water resourcessystems'
PROBLEMS
of 50 mi2.Convertthis
1.1.. One-half inch of runoff resultsfrom a stormon a drainagearea
amount to acre-feetand cubic meters.
surfacearea of
t.2. Assume you afe dealing with a vertical walled reservoir having a will it take to
of 1.0 m3/sec occurs: How many hours
500,000 m' and that anlnflow
raise the reservoirlevel bY 30 cm?
time is 15 acre-ft and
1.3. consider that the storageexistingin a river reachat a reference
tie reach is 500 cfs and the outflow from the reachis
at the sametime the inflow to
650cfs.onehourlater,theinflowis550cfsandtheoutflowis630cfs.Findthe
meters'
changein storageduring the hour in acre-feetand in cubic
walled reservoir was
t.4. During a24-hr time period, the inflow to a 500-acre vertical
the same interval, evaporation was 1 in. was there a rise or fall in
100 cfs. During
in inches and centimeters'
surfacewaterelevation?How muchwasit? Give the answer
areais 3000 acres'
1.5. The annualevaporationfrom a lake is 50 in. If the lake's surface
daity evaporation rate in acre-feet and in centimeters?
what would beiire
time requiredto raise
1.6. A flow of 10 cfs entersa 1-mi2vertical walledreservoir.Find the
the reservoirlevelbY 6 in.
t.7. Adrainagebasinhasan areaof4511mi2. Iftheaverageannualrunoffis5l02cfsand
lossesfor the areain
the averalerainfall is 42.5 in.,estimatethe evaportranspiration
1 year. Iiow reliable do you think this estimate is?
Determinethe storage
1.8. The storagein a reachof a river is 16.0acre-ft at a given time.
(u"r"-f""tj t hr later if the averagerates of inflow and outflow during the hour are
700 and 650 cfs, resPectivelY.
areafor 3 days' (a)
L.9. Rain falls atataverage irrtensity of 0.4 in./hr over a 600-acfe the 3-day
feet per second; (b) determine
Determinethe averagerate ofrainfau in cubic
volumeofrainfallinacre-feet;and(c)determinethe3-dayvolumeofrainfallininches
of equivalentdepth over the 600-acrearea'
100 acre-ft/day'Deter-
1.10. The evaporationrate from the surfaceof a 3650-acrelake is
(feet) in the lake during a 365-dayyear ifthe inflow to the lake
mine the depthchange
is25.2cfs.1s the changein lake depth an increaseor a decrease?
acre-feetif the drainage
1.11. One and one-half inchesof runoff areequivalentto how many
areais 25-mi2?lNote: I acte : 43,560 ft"')
of how many cubic feet
L.12. one-half inch of rain per day is equivalentto an averagerate
many metersper second?
p". ,".ona if the areais 500 acrei?How
14 cHAPTER1 INTRoDUCTIoN
REFERENCES
1. P. B. Jones,G. D. Walker,R. W. Harden,and L. L. McDaniels,"The Developmentof the
Scienceof Hydrology," Circ. No. 60-03, TexasWater Commission,Apr. 1963.
2. W. D. Mead, Noteson Hydrology. Chicago:D. W. Mead, 1904.
3. Ven Te Chow (ed)., Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964.
4. O. E. Meinzer,Hydrology,Vol. 9 of Physicsof the Earth.New York: McGraw-Hlll, 1942.
Reprintedby Dover, New York, 1949.
5. P. D. Krynine, "On the Antiquity of Sedimentationand Hydrology," Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am. 70. l7 2I - l7 26(1960\.
6. RaphaelG. Kazmann,Modern Hydrology.New York: Harper & Row, 1965.
7. H. Pazwoshand G. Mavrigian, "A Historical Jewelpiece-Discovery of the Millennium
Hydrologic Works of Karaji," WaterResourcesBull. 16(6), 1094-1096(Dec. 1980),
8. Hunter Rouseand Simon Ince, History of Hydraulics, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Re- :.
search,State University of Iowa, 1957.
9. G. H. L. Hagen, "Ueber die Bewegungdes Wassersin engen cylindrischenRohren,"
Poggendorfs Ann. Phys. Chem.16, 423- 442(1839).
10. Henri Darcy, Les fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon. Paris:.V. Dalmont, 1856.
11. J. Dupuit, Etudesthdoriqueset practiques sur le mouvementdes eaux dans les canauxs
dtcouvertset d travers les terrainspermdables,2nded. Paris:Dunod, 1863.
12. L. K. Sherman,"Stream Flow from Rainfall by the Unit-Graph Method," Eng. News-
Rec.108(1932).
13. R. E. Horton, "The Role of Infiltration in the Hydrologic Cycle," Trans.Am. Geophys.
Union 14, 446- 460(1933).
14. C. V. Theis,"The RelationBetweenthe Lowering of the PiezometricSurfaceand the Rate l
and Duration of a Well Using Ground WaterRecharge,"Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 16,
519-524(1935\.
15. Asit K. Biswas,"Hydrologic EngineeringPrior to 600 s.c.," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.,
Proc. Paper5431,Vol. 93, No. HY5 (Sept.1967).
16. RaymondL. Nace,"WaterResources:A GlobalProblemwith Local Roots,"Environ. Sci.
Technol.1(7) (July i967).
17. D. K. Todd (ed.), The WaterEncylopedia.New York: Water Information Center, 1970.
Chapter2
Precipitation
r Prologue
The purposeof this chapteris to:
' Define precipitation, discussits forms, and describeits spatial and temporal
attributes.
' Illustrate techniquesfor estimatingareal precipitation amountsfor specific
storm eventsand for maximum precipitation-generatingconditions.
Precipitation replenishessurfacewater bodies,rbnewssoil moisture for plants, and

rechargesaquifers.Its principal forms are rain and snow.The relative importanceof
theseforms is determinedby ttre climate of the area under consideration.In many
parts of the westernUnited States,the extentof the snowpackis a determiningfactor
relative to the amountof waterthat will be availablefor the summergrowing season.
In more humid localities, the timing and distribution of rainfall are of principal
concern.
Precipitatedwaterfollows the pathsshownin Figs. r.2 and,1.3.some of it may
be intercepted,evaporated,infiltrated, and becomesurfaceflow. The actual disposi-
tion dependson the amountof rainfall, soil moistureconditions,topography,vegetal
cover soil type, and other factors
Hydrologic modeling and water resourcesassessments dependupon a knowl-
edgeof the form and amountof precipitation occurringin a region of concernover a
time period of interest.
2.1 WATERVAPOR
The fraction of watervapor in the atmosphereis very small comparedto quantitiesof
other gasespresent,but it is exceedinglyimportant to our way of life. Precipitationis
derived from this atmosphericwater. The moisture centent of the air is also a
significantfactor in local evaporationprocesses.Thus it is necessaryfor a hydrologist
to be acquaintedwith waysfor evaluatingthe atmosphericwatervapor contentand to
understandthe thermodynamiceffects of atmosphericmoisture.l
16 CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
Under most conditions of practical interest (modest ranges of pressureand

temperature,provided that the condensationpoint is excluded),water vapor essen-
tialiy obeys the gas laws. Atmospheric moisture is derived from evaporationand
transpiration,the principal sourcebeing evaporationfrom the oceans.Precipitation
overthe United Statescomeslargelyfrom oceanicevaporation,the watervaporbeing
transporatedover the continentby the primary atmosphericcirculation system.
Measuresof watervapor or atmospherichumidity are relatedbasicallyto condi-
tions of evaporationand condensationoccurring over a level surfaceof pure water.
Considera ilosed systemcontaining approximatelyequal volumesof water and air
maintainedat the sametemperature.If the initial condition of the air is dry, evapora-
tion takesplace and the quantity of water vapor in the air increases.A measurement
of pressurein the airspacewill reveal that as evaporationproceeds,pressurein the
airipaceincreasesbecauseof an increasein partial pressureof the watervapor (vapor
preJsure).Evaporationcontinuesuntil vapor pressureof the overlying air equalsthe
, surfacevapor pressure[a measureof the excessof water moleculesleaving(evaporat-
ing from) the water surfaceover thosereturning]. At this point, evaporationceases,
and if the temperaturesof the air spaceand water are equal,the airspaceis saidto be
saturated.If the containerhad beenopeninsteadof closed,the equilibriumwould not
havebeenreached,and all the water would eventuallyhaveevaporated.Somecom-
monly usedmeasuresof atmosphericmoistureor humidity are vapor pressure,abso-
lute humidity, specifichumidity, mixing ratio, relative humidity, and dew point tem-
Perature.
Amount of PrecipitableWater
Estimatesof the amount of precipitation that might occur over a given region with
. favorable conditions are often useful. These may be obtained by calculating the
amountof water containedin a column of atmosphereextendingup from the earth's
surface.This quantity is known as theprecipitable water 14{althoughit cannotall be
removed from the atmosphereby natural processes.Precipitable water is usually
expressedin centimetersor inches.
An equationfor computingthe amountof precipitablewater in the atmosphere
can be derived as follows. Considera column of air having a squarebase 1 cm on a
side.The total water masscontainedin this column betweenelevationzero and some
height z would be
W:
r p*dz (2.1)
J^
wherep. : the absolutehumidity and IVis the depthof precipitablewaterin centime-
ters. The integral can be evaluatedgraphically or by dividing the atmosphereinto
layersof approximatelyuniform specifichumidities,solvingfortheseindividually, and
then summing.Figure 2.1 illustratesthe averageamountof precipitablewater for the
continentalUnited Statesup to an elevationof 8 km.2
Geographicand TemporalVariations
The quantity of atmosphericwater vapor varieswith location and time. Thesevaria-
tions may be attributed mainly to temperatureand sourceof supply considerations.
The greatestconcentrationscan be found near the ocean surfacein the tropics, the
2.2 PRECIPITATION 17
Sault Ste.Mtrie
Portled
0;7
VCT
-NJ
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.8 b.z
o.d1'o
1.1
r.2
t.J Bromsville
Figure 2.L Mean precipitablewater, in inches,to an elevationof 8 km. (U.S. WeatherBureau.)2
concentrationsgenerallydecreasingwith latitude, altitude, and distanceinland from

coastalareas.
About half the atmosphericmoisturecanbe found within the first mile abovethe
earth's surface.This is becausethe vertical transport of vapor is mainly through
convectiveaction,which is slight at higher altitudes.It is also of interestthat there is
not necessarilyany relation betweenthe amount of atmosphericwater vapor over a
regionand the resultingprecipitation.The amountof water vapor containedover dry
areasof the Southwest,for example,at times exceedsthat over considerablymore
humid northern regions,eventhough the latter areasexperienceprecipitation while
the former do not.
2.2 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is the primary input vector of the hydrologiccycle. Its forms are rain,
snow,andhail andvariationsof thesesuchasdrizzle and sleet.Precipitationis derived
from atmosphericwater, its form and quantity thus being influencedby the action of
other climatic factors such as wind, temperature,and atmosphericpressure.Atmo-
sphericmoistureis a necessarybut not sufficient condition for precipitation. Conti-
nental air massesare usuallyvery dry sothat mostprecipitationis derivedfrom moist
maritime air that originatesoverthe oceans.In North America about50 percentof the
evaporatedwater is taken up by continental air and movesback againto the sea.
Formationof PreciPitation
Two processesare consideredto be capableof supportingthe growth of dropletsof
sufficient mass(dropletsfrom about 500 to 4000 p'min diameter)to overcomeair
resistanceand consequentlyfall to the earth asprecipitation.Theseare known as the
ice crystalprocessand the coalescence process'
The côalescence process is one by which the small cloud dropletsincreasetheir
size due to contact with other droplets through collision. Water droplets may be
consideredas falling bodies that are subjected to both gravitationaland air resistance
effects. Fall velocities at equilibrium (terminal velocities) are proportional to the
squareof the radius of the droplet; thus the larger droplets will descendmore quickly
than the smaller ones. As a result, smaller droplets are often overtakenby larger
droplets,and the resulting collisions tend to unite the drops, producing increasingly
largir particles.Very large drops (order of 7 mm in diameter) break up into small-
dropletsthat repeatitre coalescence process and produce somewhat of a chain effect.
In this *unn"r, sufficiently large raindrops may be produced to generate significant
precipitation. This processis ionsidered to be particularly important in tropical
regionsor in warm clouds.
An important type of growth is known to occurif ice crystalsand waterdroplets
-40'C- Under
are found toexist togetherat subfreezingtemperaturesdown to about
theseconditions,certain particles t
saltsserveasfreezingnucleisothat
theseconditionsis higher over the t
condensationoccurson the surface
unevenparticle sizedistributionsde'
with otherparticles.This is considet
mechanism.
The artificial inducementof precipitation has been studied extensively,and
thesestudiesare continuing.It has been demonstratedthat condensationnuclei sup-
plied to cloudscan induceprecipitation.The ability of humansto ensurethe produc-
iion of precipitation or to control its geographiclocation or timing has not yet been
attained,however'
Many legal as well as technologicalproblemsare associatedwith the prospects
of ..rain-makiig" processes. Of interesthereis the impacton hydrologicestimatesthat
uncontrolled oi onty partially controlled artificial precipitation might have. Many
naturally occurring Lydrologic variables are consideredas statisticalvariatesthat are
either randomty distrlUuted or distributed with a random component.If the distribu-
tion or time seiiesof the variable can be modeled, an inferenceasto the frequencyof
occurrenceof significant hydrologic events of a given magnitude(suchas precipita-
tion) can be made. If, however, artificial controls are used and if the effectsof these
cannot be reliably predicted, frequency analyses may prove to be totally unreliable
tools.
PrecipitationTyPes
Dynamic or adiabaticcoolingis the primary causeof condensationand is responsible
for most rainfall. Thus it can be seen that vertical transport of air massesis a
requirementfor precipitation.Precipitationmay be classifiedaccordingto the condi-
'1
2.2 PRECIPITATIOI'|9
tions that generatevertical air motion. In this respect,the three major categoriesof
precipitation type are convective,orographic, and cyclonic.
Convective Precipitation Convectiveprecipitationis typical of the tropicsand is

brought about by heatingof the air at the interfacewith the ground. This heatedair
expandswith a resultantreductionin weight.During this period,increasingquantities
of water vapor are taken up; the warm moisture-ladenair becomesunstable;and
pronouncedvertical currents are developed.Dynamic cooling takes place, causing
condensationand precipitation.Convectiveprecipitationmay be in the form of light
showersor stormsof extremelyhigh intensity (thunderstormsare a typical example).
Orographic Precipitation Orographicprecipitationresultsfrom the mechanical

lifting of moist horizontal air currentsover natural barriers suchas mountainranges.
This type of precipitation is very common on the West Coast of the United States
where moistureladen air from the Pacific Oceanis interceptedby coastalhills and
mountains.Factorsthat are important in this processinclude land elevation,local
slope,orientation of land slope,and distancefrom the moisture source.
In dealingwith orographicprecipitation,it is commonto divide the regionunder
study into zonesfor which influencesasidefrom elevationare believedto be reason-
ably constant.For eachof thesezones,a relation betweenrainfall and elevationis
developedfor usein producingisohyetalmaps(seeSection2,5).
Cyclonic Precipitation Cyclonicprecipitationis associated with the movementof

air massesfrom high-pressureregionsto low-pressureregions.Thesepressurediffer-
encesare createdby the unequalheatingof the earth's surface.
Cyclonicprecipitationmay be classifiedasfrontal or nonfrontal. Any baromet-
ric low canproducenonfrontal precipitationasair is lifted throughhorizontalconver-
genceof the inflow into a low-pressurearea. Frontal precipitation results from the
lifting of warm air over cold air at the contact zone between air masseshaving
different characteristics.If the air massesare moving so that warm air replacescolder
air, the front is known asawarmfront; if , on the otherhand,cold air displaces warm
air, the front is saidto be cold.If the front is not in motion,it is saidto be a stationary
front. Figure 2.2 illustratesa vertical sectionthrough a frontal surface.
Figure 2.2 Vertical cross-sectionthrough a frontal surface.

20 CHAPTER
2 PRECIPITATION
Thunderstorms
Many areasof the United Statesare subjectedto severeconvectivestorms,which are
generallyidentifiedasthunderstormsbecauseof their electricalnature.Thesestorms,
although usually very local in nature, are often productive of very intenserainfalls
that are highly significantwhen local and urban drainageworks are considered.
Thunderstormcells developfrom vertical air movementsassociatedwith intense
surfaceheatingor orographiceffects.Thereare threeprimary stagesin the life history
of a thunderstorm.Theseare the cumulusstage,the mature stage,andthe dissipating
stage.Figure 2.3 illustrateseachof thesestages.
All thunderstormsbeginascumulusclouds,althoughfew suchcloudseverreach
the stage of developmentneededto produce such a storm. The cumulus stageis
characterizedby strongupdrafts that often reachaltitudesof over 25,000ft. Vertical
wind speedsat upperlevelsare often as greatas 35 mph. As indicatedinFig.2.3a,
there is considerablehorizontal inflow of air (entrainment)during the cumulusstage.
This is an important elementin the developmentof the storm, as additional moisture
is provided.Air temperaturesinside the cell are greaterthart thoseoutside,as indi-
catedby the convexity of the isothermsviewed from above.The number and size of
the water dropletsincreaseasthe stageprogresses. The duration ofthe cumulusstage
is approximatelyi0-15 min.
The strong updrafts and entrainmentsupport increasedcondensationand the
developmentof waterdropletsand ice crystals.Firrally, whenthe particlesincreasein
size and number so that surfaceprecipitation opcurs,the storm is said to be in the
mature stage.In this stage strong downdrafts are created as falling rain and ice
crystals cool the air below. Updraft velocities at the higher altitudes reach up to
70 mptrin the early periodsof the maturestage.Downdraft speedsof over20 mph are
El
o
F
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.3 Cumulus,mature,and dissipatingstagesof a thunderstormcell. (Depart-

ment of the Army.)
2.2 PRECIPITATION 21
usual aboveabout 5000 ft in elevation.At lower levels,frictional resistancetendsto
decreasethe downdraft velocity. Gusty surfacewinds move outwardfrom the region
of rainfall. Heavyprecipitationis often derivedduring this preiod, which is usuallyon
the order of 15-30 min.
In the final or dissipatingstage,the downdraftbecomespredominantuntil all the
air within the cell is descendingand being dynamically heated.Since the updraft
ceases,the mechanismfor condensationends and precipitation tails off and ends.
PrecipitationData
Considerabledata on precipitation are available in publications of the National
WeatherService.a'sOther sourcesincludevariousstateand federal agenciesengaged
in water resourceswork. For critical regional studiesit is recommendedthat all
possibledata be compiled; often the establishmentof a gauging network will be
necessary(seealso Chapters7-9).
Precipitation VariabiIity
Precipitationvariesgeographically,temporally, and seasonally.Figure 2.4 indrcates
the mean annualprecipitation for the continentalUnited States,while Fig. 2.5 gives
an exampleof seasonaldifferences.It should be understoodthat both regional and
temporal variationsin precipitation are very important in water resourcesplanning
and hydrologicstudies.For example,it may be very important to know that the cycle
of minimum precipitationcoincideswith the peakgrowing seasonin a particular atea,
or that the periodofheaviestrainfall shouldbe avoidedin schedulingcertainconstruc-
tion activities.
Precipitation amounts sometimesvary considerablywithin short distances.
Recordshaveshowndifferencesof 20 percentor more in the catchof rain gaugesless
that2Oft apart.Precipitationis usuallymeasuredwith a rain gaugeplacedin the open
so that no obstacleprojects within the inverted conical surfacehavingthe top of the
gaugeas its apexand a slopeof45'. The catchofa gaugeis influencedby the wind,
which usually causeslow readings.Variousdevicessuchas Nipher and Alter shields
havebeendesignedto minimize this error in measurement.Precipitationgaugesmay
be of the recording or nonrecordingtype. The former are requiredif the time distri-
bution of precipitation is to be known. Information about the featuresof gaugesis
readily available.3
Becauseprecipitationvariesspatially,it is usuallynecessaryto usethe datafrom
severalgaugesto estimatethe averageprecipitation for an area and to evaluateits
reliability (seeChapter27). This is especiallyimportant in forestedareaswhere the
variation tendsto be large.
Time variations in rainfall intensity are extremely important in the rainfall-
runoff process,particularly in urban areas(seeFi g. 2.6a). The arealdistributionis also
significantandhighly correlatedwith the time history of outflow (seeFig. 2.6b).These
considerationsare discussedin greaterdetail in following chapters.
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,E
;
(
\
* \
i
:
\
,/
'' LH
lh
,,l..15
r+:
H=
: :
!
R
=-Y
F
!2-
H
. E \ \ H S au)
--II--LItr--I-----LIL,] 5
'r - - -
"
9999qa9
F h i -
: t h
R J
oooo h+6Nio
Ntr
o L
t s o
ooooo *odio
?1 ^
CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
- 3
5 6 ' 7 8 9
Time(x 102sec)
(a)
-/'?:;" Isohyets-lines of
equal rainfall depth
-"@l5
E [u Y.s. I o R.H.R.
i 3.50
t.e+
:.zsin.a'1t
Ashd
1.56
^ 1<
1.55
upl.
'k '&
&.1
*'uffi
Dsn. F,,**
1.08 v
s
(b)
Figure 2.6 (a) Rainfall distribution in a convective storm June 1960,

Baltimore, Maryland. (b) Isohyetal pattern, storm of SeptemberL0, 195'1,
Baltimore, Maryland. O, recording rain gauge.
OF THE PRECIPITATION
2.3 DISTRIBUTION INPUT 25
2.3 DISTRIBUTION
OF THE PRECIPITATION
INPUT
Total precipitation is distributedin numerousways.That interceptedby vegetation
and treesmay be equivalentto the total precipitationinput for relatively small storms.
Once interception storageis fllled. raindrops begin falling from leavesand grass,
where water storedon thesesurfaceseventuallybecomesdepletedthrough evapora-
tion. Precipitationthat reachesthe ground may take severalpaths. Some water will
fill depressionsand eventually evaporate;some will infiltrate the soil. Part of the
infiltrated watermay strike relatively imperviousstratanearthe soil surfaceand flow
approximatelyparallel to it as interflow until an outlet is reached.Other portions may
replenishsoil moisturein the upper soil zone, and someinfiltrated water may reach
the groundwaterreservoirthat sustainsdry weatherstreamflow.The componentof the
precipitation input that exceedsthe local infiltration rate will developa film of water
on the surface(surfacedetention)until overlandflow commences.Detention depths
varying from I to 1j in. for various conditions of slope and surfacetype havebeen
reported.3 Overland flow ultimately reaches defined channels and becomes
streamflow.
Figure 2.7 ilhxtrates in a generalway the dispositionof a uniform storm input
to a natural drainagebasin.Although suchan input is not to be expectedin nature,the
indicated relations are representativeof actual conditions. Modifications resulting
from nonuniform stormswill be discussedas they arise.
In Fig. 2.7anote that the storm input is distributeduniformly over time /o at a
rateequalto i (dimensionally equalto LT '). This inputis dissected intocomponents
I, through lo, the sum of which is equal to I at any time r. Figure 2.7b illustratesthe
manner in which infiltrated water is further subdividedinto interflow, groundwater,
and soil moisture. Figure 2.7c showsthe transition from overland flow supply into
strearhflow.The mechanicsof theseprocesseswill be treatedin detail in later sections.
The nature of the curvespresenteddepictsthe generalrunoff process.It should be
realized,however,that actual graphsof infiltration and/or other factorsversustime
might appear quite different in form and relative magnitudewhen comparedwith
theseillustrations becatrseof the effects of nonuniform storm patterns,antecedent
conditions,and other factors.
The rate and areal distribution of runoff from a drainagebasin are determined
by a combination of physiographicand climatiOfactors. Important climatic factors
includethe form of precipitation (rain, snow,hail), the type of precipitation (convec-
tive, orographic,cyclonic),the quantity and time distributionof the precipitation,the
characterof the regionalvegetativecover,prevailingevapotranspirationcharacteris-
tics, and the statusofthe soil moisturereservoir.Physiographicfactorsof significance
includegeometricpropertiesof the drainagebasin,land-usecharacteristics,soil type,
geologicstructure,and characteristicsofdrainage channels(geometry,slope,rough-
ness,and storagecapacity).
Large drainagebasinsoften react differently from smalleroneswhen subjected
to a precipitationinput. This can be explainedin part by suchfactorsas geologicage,
relativeimpact ofland-use practices,sizedifferential,variationsin storagecharacter-
istics, and other causes.Chow definesa small watershedas a drainagebasin whose
CHAPTER2 PRECIPITATION
(a/
\
I
I
Soil moisture
\a
Int".flot
Mechanics
of surface
runoff
(c)
Figure 2.7 The runoff process:(a) dispositionof precipitation, (b) componentsof

infiltration, and (c) dispositionof overland flow supply.
27
PRECIPITATION
2.4 POINT
characteristicsdo not filter out (1) fluctuationscharacteristicofhigh-intensity, short-
duration storms;or (2) the effectsof land managementpractices.6On this basis,small
basinsmay vary from lessthan an acre up to 100 mi2. A large basin is one in which
channelstorageeffectively filters out the high frequenciesof imposedprecipitation
and effectsof land-usepractices.
2.4 POINTPRECIPITATION
Precipitation eventsare recordedby gaugesat specificlocations.The resulting data
p"rmit determinationof the frequency and charactei of precipitation eventsin the
vicinity of the site. Point precipitation data are used collectively to estimateareal
variability ofrain and snowand are alsousedindividually for developingdesignstorm
characteristicsfor small urban er other watersheds.Design storms are discussedin
detail in Chapter 16.
Point rainfall data are usedto deriveintensity-duration-frequencycurvessuch
as those shown in Fig. 2.8. Such curves are used in the rational method for urban
storm drainagedesign(Chapter 25); thek constructionis discussedin Chapter27 'ln
applyingthe rational method,a rainfall intensityis usedwhich representsthe average
intensity of a storm of given frequencyfor a selectedduration.The frequencychosen
should reflect the economics of flood damage reduction. Frequenciesof up to
100 yearsare commonlyusedwhereresidentialareasare to be protected.For higher-
valuedistricts and critical facilities,up to 500 yearsor higherreturn periodsare often
selected.Local conditionsand practicenormally dictatethe selectionof thesedesign
criteria. (ExecutiveOrder 11988,Floodplain Management,I97 7).
\
00-yr frequency
50-yr frequency
\ \ I
-20-yr frequencyf-
t\ , 10-yrfrequency
B. \ 7 ,
5-Yr,frequencl
\
a
\ \1 tl=.t
Y
120
Duration (min)
Figure 2.8 Typical intensity-duration-frequencycurves

for Baltimore, Maryland, and vicinity.
Figure 2.9 Four quadrants surrounding

precipitation stationA.
It is occasionallynecessaryto estimatepoint rainfall at a given location from

recordedvaluesat surroundingsites.This can be doneto completemissingrecordsor
to determinea representativeprecipitation to be used at the point of interest. The
National WeatherServicehasdevelopeda procedurefor this which hasbeenverified
on both theoreticaland empiricalbases.T
Considerthat rainfall is to be calculatedfor point A in Fig. 2.9. Establisha set
of axes running through A and determinethe absolutecoordinatesof the nearest
surroundingpoints B, C, D, E, and F. These are recorded in columns 3 and 4 of
Table 2.L The estimatedprecipitationat A is determinedas a weightedaverageof the
other five points.The weightsarereciprocalsof the sumsof the squaresof AX and AY;
that is, D2 : LX2 + LYz, and W : llDt. The estimatedrainfall at the point of
interestis given by I (P x W)/> I{. In the specialcasewhere rainrall is known in
only two adjacentquadrants(e.g.,I and II), the estimateis given asI (p x lV). This
has the effect of reducing estimatesto zero as the points move from an area of
TABLE 2.1 DETERMINATIONOF POINT RAINFALLFROM DATA AT NEARBY

GAUGES
t1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Point Rainfall AX AY (D') wx103 PxWx103
(in.)
B r.60 4 2 20 50 80.0
C 1.80 1 6 37 27.O 48.6
D 1.50 3 2 1,3 76.9 115.4
E 2.00 3 3 18 55.6 111,.2
F r . 7 0 2 ? 8 125.0 2t2.5
Sums ,TT3 567.7
*Note.'Estimatedprecipitation(P) at A = 567.7/334.5; P = 1.70 in.
_l
29
PRECIPITATION
2.5 AREAL
precipitation to one with no records.This is consideredto be the most logical proce-
dure for handlingthis unusualcase.7The estimatedresult will alwaysbe lessthan the
greatestand greaterthan the smallestsurroundingprecipitation. For specialeffects
suchas mountain influences,an adjustmentprocedurecan be applied.
2.5 AREALPRECIPITATION
For most hydrologicanalyses,it is important to know the areal distributionof precip-
itation. Usually, averagedepths for representativeportions of the watershedare
determinedand used for this pwpose. The most direct approachis to use the arith-
metic averageof gaugedquantities.This procedureis satisfactoryif gaugesare uni-
formily distributedand the topographyis flat. Other commonly usedmethodsare the
isohyetalmethodand the Thiessenmethod.The reliability of rainfall measuredat one
gaugein representingthe averagedepth over a surroundingareais a function of (1)
the distancefrom the gaugeto the centerof the representativearea,(2) the sizeof the
area,(3) topography,(4) the natureofthe rainfall ofconcern (e.g.,stormeventversus
meanmonthly), and (5) local stormpatterncharacteristics.8 For more information on
errorsof estimation,the readershouldconsultRefs.7 and 8. Chapter27 alsocontains
a discussionof areal variability of precipitation.
Figures 2.10 and 2.11 illustrate how the measuredrainfall at a single gauge
relatesto the averagerainfall over a watershedwith changein ( 1) the relativeposition
of the gaugein the watershedand (2) the time period over which the averageis
calculated.In the first caseit is clearthat the more centralthe gaugelocation,the more
closely its observationswill match the averagefor a representativearea, providing
that the regionis not too large.Figure 2.11 shows,not surprisingly,that areal averages
o
bo
o o
> ? > a
J
o o
2, *, b 9
d 9 1 d 9 n
3.= B.E
/
k l
O ,.1:i'j (n
1 2 3 1 2 3
Storm rainfall at one gauge in inches Stormrainfall at one gaugein inches
(a) (b)
Figure 2.L0 Errors resultingfrom useof a singlegaugeto estimatewatershedaverage

(giuge location effect, Soil ConservationService),(a) Watershedarea is 0.75 mi2 and
gaugeis near the center. (b) Watershedareais 0.75 mi2 and gaugeis 4 mi outsidethe
watershedboundary.
d
o, bo
bI) 6
o
o
> 2
o
a
a
b 9
EE 2
d
220
5 . =
,/
'a
d l 10
r
I
U)
v)
1 ) { 1 2 3
Storm rainfall at one gauge in inches Stormrainfall at one gaugein inches

(a) (b)
estimatewatershedaverage
Figure 2.L1 Errors resultingfrom use of a singlegaugeto
(time period effect, Soil Service).
ConserVation (aiWatershed areais 5'45 mi2 and the
gaugeisontheboundary.(b)Watershedareais5.45In|zandthegaugeisonthe
boundarv.
to conform more closely

over long time periods, in this case one year, may be expected
storm event' This suggests
to a single guog" uu"ruge than those for an individual
tempered with both space and time
that the Oerlgn-of guuging networks should be
considerations.
lsohyetalMethod
are the isohyetal
The two principal methodsfor determiningareal averagesof rainfall
based on interpolation
method and the Thiessenmethod. The isohyetal method is
in surveyingand
between gauges.It closely resemblesthe calculation of contours
to plot the^rain gauge
-upptng."Tf" first step in developingan isohye?1..-up is
(Fig' 2'I2)' Next' an
locationson a suitablemap and to reJord the rainfall amounts
at selected incre-
interpolation betweengaugesis performed and rainfall amounts
connectedto form
mentsare plotted.tdenticaldepthsfrom eachinterpolationare then
the weighted averageof
isohyets(lines of equal rainfall depth)' The areafaverageis
isohyets' The isohyetal
depthsbetweenisohyets,that is, the meanvaluebetweenthe
precipitation over an
method is the most accurateapproachfor determiningaverage
attention to topographic
area,but its proper oserequir#a skilled analystand careful
the represen-
and other tactori that impact on areal variability. Figure 2. 13 illustrates
tationofamajorstormeventinNorthCarolinabyanisohyetalmap.
ThiessenMethod
is theThiessenmethod'In this
Anothermethodof calculatingarealrainfallaverages
intopolygonalsubareas usingraingauges ascenters'
theareais subdivided
procedure
Thesubareasareusedasweightsin estimitingthewatershed averagedepth'Thiessen
as shownin Fig. i.t+. fnis procedureis not suitablefor
diagramsare constructed
2.5 AREAL PRECIPITATION 31
Average
precipitation
for area A4
is 4.25 in.
----x------* -*!fl1
A2 Average preciPitation = 2 A i P i
\ i
--^ 3 in' for entire basin
(c)
Figure 2.12 Construction of an isohyetalmap:(a)locateraingaugesand

betweengauges;
pdt values;(b) interpolate and(c) plot isohyets'
network is fixed
mountainousareasbecauseof orographicinfluences'The Thiessen
if any gaugesare
io, u glu"o gaugeconfiguation, and polygonsmustbe reconstructed
relocated.
AccuracY
locatior\of the
Irrespectiveof the methodusedfor estimatingareal precipitation,the
guu* orra in derivingthe estimaterelative tothe point of application of the estimate
lbcattieso vertical distances may be
mustbe takeninto consideration.In mountainous
For gentle landscapbs, horizontal spacings are
-ft" irnpottant than horizontal ones.
32 CHAPTER
2 PRECIPITATION
a . !
!.1 a.l
- o
oo>
a h
I
I a ( h
I w t
t- i-
o
'r-r -a)
r'.
!?+
? z
+ r Q
r E

I f.\
o ( g
9
- 's
o ( )
c R
o >
sz'
\
s g
d . a
o Q
-
o
h r
c..l
& c]
o
(f)x
!-l +i
N i 4
e-H
TH
Averagedepthoverentirewatershed
=
+t
Figure 2.14 Constructionofa Thiessendiagram:(a) connectrain gaugelocations;(b)
draw perpendicularbisectors;and (c) calculate Thiessenweights l,er, ,qr, A3). (d)
A
completednetwork.
the most important. when a precipitation gauging network is to be developed,

both
spacing and arrangement of gaugei must be considered.
EXAMPLE 2.1
$yen 1rrcdrainagearea of Fig. 2.r5 and the rainfall data displayedin column 3 of
Table2.2, calculatethe averagerainfall over the areausing tne arithmetic mean,
1aj
and (b) the Thiessenpolygonweighting system.
Figure 2.15 Thiessendiagram for Exam-

ple 2.1.
TABLE 2.2 DATA AND THIESSEN POLYGON

CALCULATIONFOR EXAMPLE2,1.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
GaugeNo. "/" Area Precip.-in (2) x (3)
1.56 0.08
2 4 2.95 0.12
3 3 3.44 0.10
t5 2.91 0.44
ll 4.17 0.46
6 19 4.21 0.80
7 4 2.'| 0.11
8 7 2.45 0.17
9 21 3.88 0.81
10 6 3.98 0.24
ll 5 2.51 0.13
Total 100 3.45
Solution.
a. Identify thosegaugesfalling within the areaboundary.They includegauges
1, 4 through 6, 8, and 9. Averagingthe valuesfor thesesix gaugesyields an
estimatedmean areal rainfall of 3.20 inches.
b. Followine the Thiessen method as described in Section 2.5, construct
polygonsusingtrianglesto connectgaugepoints. Thesepolygonsare shown
on Fig. 2.15. Calculatethe percentof the total area associated with each
gaugeandrecord asin column2 of Table2.2.The Thiessenweightedaverage
is obtainedby multiplying the valuesin column 2by the yaluesin column 3.
The Thiessenaverageis computedas 3.45 inchesof rainfall. The use of a
spreadsheet(Table 2.2) facilitates computations and aids in organizing
data. lr
2.6 PROBABLEMAXIMUMPRECIPITATION
The probablemaximum precipitation (PMP) is the critical depth-duration-arearain-
fall relation for a given areaand seasonwhich would result from a storm containing
the most critical meteorologicalconditionsconsideredprobable.eSuch storm events
are used in flood flow estimatesby the U.S. Corps of Engineersand other water
resourcesagencies.The critical meteorologicalconditions are basedon analysesof
air-mass properties(effectiveprecipitablewater,depthof inffow layer,wind, temper-
ature, and other factors),synoptic situationsduring recorded stormsin the region,
topography,season,and locationofthe area.The rainfall derivedistermedprobable
maximumprecipitation sinceit is subjectto limitations of meteorologicaltheory and
data and is basedon the most e_ffectiwcqmbination of factors controlling rainfall
)
{)
H
o
q)
k
C)
9.'T\): .> o
E (.)
o
k
q
o
N
8 o L*
C)
- N r
,r)
ri
s
c'l
N F
N
k
o
o
H
-
X
H
g
\o
ol
I
b0
It
q6 ,/
)
{)
H
o
q)
k
C)
9.'T\): .> o
E (.)
o
k
q
o
N
8 o L*
C)
- N r
,r)
ri
s
c'l
N F
N
k
o
o
H
-
X
H
g
\o
ol
I
b0
It
q6 ,/
1000
800
600
400
$ zoo
9?
E 1oo
st r o9u 9
4 4 0
20
10
l0 20 30 40 50 6Q 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Percentageof 200 miz, 24-hr values
Figure 2.17 Seasonal variation, depth-area-duration relations;
percentage to be applied to 200 ni2-24 hr probable maximum
precipitation values for August in Zone 6. (U.S. Department of
Commerce,National WeatherService.)
intensity.eAn earlierdesignationof "maximumpossibleprecipitation" is synonymous.

Additional information on PMP is given in Chapter 16.
The seasonalvariation of PMP is important ip the designand operation of
multipurposestructuresand in floodingconsiderationsthat may occurin combination
with snowmelt. In both of these cases,annual probable maximums might be less
important than seasonalmaximums.Figures2.16 and,2.r7 display24-hr pMp for the
easternhalf of the United Statesfor 200-ffi2 watershedsduring the month of August
(similar figuresare availablefrom the National WeatherService).
2.7 GROSSAND NETPRECIPITATION
The net (excess)precipitation that contributesdirectly to surfacerunoff is equivalent

to the gross precipitation minus lossesto interception, storm period evaporation,
depressionstorage,and infiltration. The relation betweenexcessprecipitationP" and
grossprecipitation P is thus
P":P.-Ilosses (2.2)
where the lossesinclude all deductionsfrom the grossstorm input.

The paths that water precipitatedover an areamay take can be representedby
flow diagramsof the type given in Fig. 1.3 and by equationsof the form ot&q. 2.i.
Modelssuchastheseare the basisfor most hydrologicinvestigations,and muchbf the
contentof this book is devotedto the conceptualizationof individual componentsof
the various hydrologicprocessesand to synthesizingthesecomponentsinto holistic
representationsof hydrologicevents.
PROBLEMS 37
r Summary
precipitation is the sourceof fresh waterreplenishmentfor the planetEarth. Too much
or too little canmeanthe differencebetweenprosperityand disaster.In betweenthese
extremesare the normal precipitation eventsthat are experiencedwith a frequency
and intensity relatedmainly to geographicposition and topographicfeatures'
After reading this chaptei you should understandthat both the timing and
consid-
amountof precipitition occuiring over anareaareimportant and that thereis
areal
erable g"olrapttic variability in precipitation. You should be able to estimate
precipiLtiin amountsfrom gaugedata and conceptualizesimplehydrologic process
shed
models.It shouldbe recognizedihataveragevaluesofprecipitation for a region
uses,
some light on the quantiiy of water that might be made availablefor various
are
while a i<nowledgeof tne time-aistribution and time-dispositionof precipitation
requisitesfor developingmanagementplans for periods of excessand shortage'
PROBLEMS
2.1.
average,estimatethe amount of rainfall for gaugeX'

"r) compute the rainfall for gaugeX in Problem 2.1 if the storm readingsat A, B,
artdc
'werc
3.7,4.I, and4'8 in., respectively'
2.3. compute the meanannualprecipitationfor the watershedin the following figureusing
The
the arithmetic mean, the'itri"*"n polygon method, and the isohyetalmethod.
gaugereadingsfor gaugesA-K, respectively,are: 29.79,34.97,25.6,24.2i,24.6,
42.61,42.35,15.51,39.99,43.04,and28.41.
2.4. Computethe meanannualprecipitationfor the watershedin the figurefor Problem2.3
using the arithmetic mean and the Thiessenpolygonmethod.The gaugereadingsfor
gaugesA-K, respectively,are: 28.1, 33.7, 25.6, 23.9, 24.6, 40.1, 41.3, 37.2, 38.7,
41.1,and29.3.
2.5. The chart from a rain gaugeshown in the sketchrepresentsa record that you must
interpret.Find the averagerainfall intensity (rate)between6 e.r'1.and noon on August
10. Find also the total precipitation on August 10 and August 11.
0.30
o.25 Aus. l 0
0.20
0.15
0.10 / Ais..I7
d
0.05
0
Midnight 6 a.m. 6 p.m. Midnight 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. Midnight
Time
2.6. Refer to the chart of Problem 2.5. Calculate the rainfall intensity for the period
between6.q..1u.and noon on August 11. Would you considerthis to be a period of
intenserainfall?
2.7. Use the map of Fig. 2.6 andfrom it constructa setof Thiessenpolygons.Using these,
estimatethe mean rainfall for the region.
2.8. A meandraft of 100mgd is producedfrom a drainageareaof 200 mi2.At the flow line
the reservoiris estimatedto cover 4000 acres.The annualrainfall is 37 in., the mean
annualrunoff is l0 in., and the mean annual lake evaporationis 30 in. Find the net
gain or lossin storage.Computethe volume of water evaporated.How significantis
this amount?
2.9. A meandraft of 380,000m3/dayis producedfrom a drainageareaof 330 km2.At the
flow line, the reservoiris estimatedto cover about 1600hectares.The annualrainfall
is 96.5 cm, the meanannualrunoff is 22.8 cm, and the meanannuallake evaporation
is 77.1 cm. Find the net gain or loss in storageand compute the volume of water
evaporated. Calculatevolumesin m3.
2.10. Drainage areas within each of the isohyetal lines for a storm are tabulated for a
watershed.Use the isohyetal method to determinethe averageprecipitation depth
within the basin for the storm. Make a conceptualsketch.
lsohyetalinterval(in.) Area (acres)

0-2 2700
a i
1900
4-6 1000
6-8 0
2.11. ReworkProblem2.10 if the valuesin the secondcolumn of the table are2,500, 2,100
1,200, and 300, respectively,
REFERENCES 39
2.12. Discusshow you would go about collectingdata for analysisof the water budgetof a
region.What agencieswould you contact?What other sourcesof information would
you seekout?
2.13. For an areaof your choice,plot the meanmonthly precipitation versustime. Explain
how this fits the pattern of seasonalwater usesfor the area.Will the form of precip-
itation be an important consideration?
REFERENCES
I
TennesseeValley Authority, "Heat and Mass TransferBetweena Water Surfaceand the
Atmosphere,"Lab. Rep. No, 14, TVA EngineeringLab. Noiris, TN, Apr. 1972.
2. A. L. Shands,"Mean PrecipitableWater in the United States," U.S. WeatherBureau,
Tech.PaperNo. 10, 1949.
3. R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied Hydrology. New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
A
D. W. Miller, J. J. Geraghty,and R. S. Collins, WaterAtlas of the United States.Port
Washington,NY Water Information Center, 1963.
5. U.S. WeatherBureau,Tech. Papers1-33. Washington,DC: U.S. GovernmentPrinting
Office.
6. Ven Te Chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York, McGraw-Hill,l9&.
Staff, Hydrologic ResearchLaboratory, "National WeatherServiceRiver ForecastSys-
,1
tem ForecastProcedures,"NOAA Tech. Mem. NWS HYDRO 14, National Weather

Service,SilverSpring,MD,Dec. 1972.
8. V. Mockus, Sec.4, in SCSNational EngineeringHandbookon Hydrology,Washington,
DC: Soil ConservationService, A:ug.1972.
9. J. T. Riedel, J. F. Appleby, and R. W. Schloemer,"SeasonalVariation of the Probable
Maximum Precipitation East of the 105th Meridian for Areas from 10 to 1000 Square
Miles andDurationsof 6,12,24,and48 Hours,"Hydrometeorological Rept.No. 33, U.S.
WeatherBureau,Washington,D.C., 1967.
Chapter3
Interception
and Depression
Storage
r Prologue
. Define interception and depressionstorqge.

' Define the roles theseabstractingmechanismsplay in affectingthe amountof
precipitatedwater ultimately availablefor other distribution.
' Providesomeapproachesto estimatingthe quantitiesof waterinterceptedand
storedin depressionsduring precipitation events.
Figure 1.3indicatesthe pathsthat precipitatedwatermay take asit reachesthe earth.

The first encountersare with interceptingsurfacessuch as trees,plants, grass,and
structures.Waterin excessof interceptioncapacitythen beginsto filI surfacedepres-
sions.A film of water alsobuilds up overthe ground surface.This is known as surface
detention.Once this film is of sufficientdepth, surfaceflow toward definedchannels
commences,providing that the rate at which water seepsinto the ground is lessthan
the rate of surfacesupply.This chapterdealswith the first two mechanismsby which
the grossprecipitation input becomestransformedinto net precipitation.
3.1 INTERCEPTION
Part ofthe stormprecipitationthat occursisinterceptedby vegetationandotherforms

ofcover on the drainagearea.Interceptioncanbe definedasthat segmentofthe gross
precipitationinput which wets and adheresto abovegroundobjectsuntil it is returned
to the atmospherethrough evaporation.Precipitation striking vegetationmay be
retained on leavesor blades of grass,flow down the stemsof plants and become
stemflow,or fall off the leavesto becomepart of the throughfall. The modifying effect
that a forest canopycan haveon rainfall intensity at the ground (the throughfall) can
be put !o practical use in watershedmanagementschemes.
The amountof waterinterceptedis a function of ( 1) the stormcharacter,(2) the
species,age,and densityofprevailingplantsandtrees,and (3) the seasonofthe year.
Usually about 10-20 percentof the precipitationthat falls during the growing season
41
3.1 INTERCEPTION
is interceptedand returned to the hydrologiccycle by evaporation.Water lossesby
interceptionare especiallypronouncedunderdenseclosedforest stands-as much as
25 percentof the total annualprecipitation.Schomakerhasreportedthat the average
annualinterceptionlossby Douglasfir standsin westernOregonand Washingtonis
about24 percent.l A lO-year-oldloblolly pine plantation in the South showedlosses
on a yearlybasisof approximately14 percent,while Ponderosapine forestsin Califor-
nia were found to intercept abort 12 percent of the annual precipitation. Mean
interception lossesof approximately 13 percent of gross summer rainfall were re-
ported for hardwoodstandsin the White Mountainsof New Hampshire.Additional
information given in Table 3.1 includes some data on interception measurements
obtainedin Maine from a mature spruce-firstand, a moderatelywell-stockedwhite
and gray birch stand,and an improved pasture.r
Lull indicatesthat oak or aspenleavesmay retain as much as 100 drops of
wdtter.zFor a well-developedtree, interception storageon the order of 0.06 in' of
precipitationcould thereforebe expectedon the basisof an averageretentionof about
TABLE CATCH
PRECIPITATION
3,1 WEEKLYAVERAGE OFSTANDARD
U,S.WEATHER RAINGAUGES
BUREAU.WPE IN
LOCATED
A SPRUCE-FIR STAND, A HARDWOOD STAND, AND A
PASTUREDURINGTHE WINTER OF 1965_1966
Weekly average precipitationcatch Percent interception

(in. ot equivalentrain) by forest cover
Measuring
date' Spruce-fir Birch Pasture Spruce-fir Birch
tl/9t65 0.24 0.33 0.39 38 l5

11tL6/65 1.01 r.25 L45 30 l4
ru23t65 1.01 r.23 r.36 26 10
12tr0t65" 1.41 1.65 t.79 2l 8
12n7 t65 0.55 0.81 0.87 37 7
12/30t65 0.66 0.95 1.08 39 l2
lt4t66 0.20 0.25 0.26 23 A
1tr2t66 0.36 0.55 0.61 4l 10

U18t66 Trace Trace Trace
U25t66 0.25 0.58 0.59 58 2
2tr/66 1.38 l.9l 1.96 30 J
2t8t66 0.05 0.07 0.06 l7 t6

2n1t66 0.29, 0.02 Trace
2n5t66 0.76 0.81 0.98 22 t7
2t21t66 0.17 0.22 0.22 ZJ 0
3t2t66 0.86 l -za t.45 4l I6
3t7t66 0.76 0.84 0.97 22 13
3t15t66 0 0 0
3t29t66 0.73 1.13 1.27 43 1l
Total 10.69 13.83 15.31 30.2 9.5
" The period betweenmeasuringdatesis 7 days,exceptwhen precipitation occurred on the seventhday.
In this event, measurgmentwas postponeduntil precipitation ceased.
bMeasurementswere delayeduntil a method was devisedto melt frozen precipitation on the site.
'This measurementin the spruce stand was the result of foliage drip during a thaw from previously
intercepted snow.
"The Effect of Forest and Pastureon the Disposition of Precipitation,"
Source: Aftet C, E. Schomaker,
Maine Farm Res.(July 1966).
42 oHAPTER
s rNrER;;-;;rr;-.r,o* "ro*ou=
20 drops per leaf. For light showers(where gross precipitation P < 0.01 in.) 10t
percentinterceptionmight occur, whereasfor showerswhereP > 0.04 in., lossesin
the rangeof 10-40 percentare realistic.3
Figure 3.1 illustratesthe generaltime distribution pattern of interceptionloss
intensity.Most interceptionlossdevelopsduring the initial stormperiod and the rate
of interception rapidly approacheszero thereafter.l-6Potentialitorm interception
lossescan be estimatedbv usins2'3,6
Zi:,S+KEt (3.1)
where . L, : the volume of water intercepted(in.)
S : the interceptionstoragethat will be retainedon the foliage againstthe
forcesof wind and gravity (usuallyvariesbetween0.01 and 0.05 in.)
K : the ratio of surfaceareaof interceptingleavesto horizontal projection:,
of this area
E : the amountof waterevaporatedper hour duringthe precipitationperiod '
(in.)
r : time (hr)
i= it+i2+4+i4
Figure 3.1 Disposition of rainfall input in terms of inter-

ception, depressionstorage,infiltration, and overlandflow.
3.1 INTERCEPTION
43
Equation3.1 is basedon the assumptionthat rainfall is sufficientto fully satisfy
the storageterm S. The following equationwas designedto accountfor the rainfall
amountT-e
L;:S(1 -e-P/s)+KEt (3.2)
whereP : rainfall and e is the baseof natural logarithms.Note in Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2
that the storm time duration t is given in hours, while ,L,, S, and E are commonly
measuredin in. or mm.
It is important to recognizethat forms of vegetationother than trees can aiso
interceptlarge quantitiesof water. Grasses,crops,and shrubsoften haveleaf-areato
ground-arearatios that are similar to thosefor forests.Table3.2 summarizessome
observationsthat havebeen madeon crops during growing seasonsand on a variety
of grasses.Interceptedamountsare aboutthe sameasthosefor forests,but sincesome
of thesetypes of vegetationexist only until harvest,their annualimpact on intercep-
tion is generallylessthan that of forestedareas.
Precipitationtype, rainfall intensityand duration,wind, and atmosphericcondi-
tions affecting evaporationare factors that serve to determineinterception losses.
Snow interception,while highly visible,usually is not a major loss sincemuch of the
interceptedsnowfall is eventuallytransmittedto the ground by wind action and melt.
Interceptionduring rainfall eventsis commonly greaterthan for snowfall events.In
both cases,wind velocity is an important factor.
The importanceof interceptionin hydrologicmodelingis tied to the purposeof
the model. Estimates of loss to gross precipitation through interception can be
significantin annual or long-term models,but for heavy rainfalls during individual
storm events,accountingfor interceptionmay be unnecessary.It is important for the
modeler to assesscarefully both the time frame of the model and the volume of
precipitation with which one must deal.
TABLE3.2 OBSERVED
PERCENTAGES
OF INTERCEPTION
BY
VARIOUSCROPSAND GRASSES'
Vegetation
type Intercepted(%) Comments
Crops
Alfalfa 36
Corn 16
Soybeans 15
Oats 7
Grassesb
Little bluestem 50-60-.1
Big bluestem s7 l
Tall panic grass s 7 f Water applied at rate of ] in. in 30 min
Bindweed 17 l
Buffalo grass 31 )
Blue grass 17 Pdor to harvest
Mixed species )A
Natural grasses t4-t9
"Valuesroundedto nearestpercent.Data for table were obtainedfrom Refs.2,4, and 5,
'Grass heightsvary up to about 36 in.
44 CHAPTER3 INTERCEPTIONAND DEPRESSIONSTORAGE
Equations3.1 and 3.2 canbe usedto estimatetotal interceptionlosses,but for

detailedanalysesofindividual storins,it is necessaryto dealwith the areal variability
of suchlosses.Generalequationsfor estimatingsuchlossesare not available,however.
Most researchhas been related to particular speciesor experimentalplots strongly
associatedwith a given locality. In addition, the lossfunction varieswith the storm's
character.If adequateexperimentaldata are available,the nature of the varianceof
interceptionversustime might be inferred. Otherwise,common priictice is to deduct
the estimatedvolumeentirelyfrom the initial period of the storm(initial abstraction).
EXAMPLE 3.1
Using the following equationsdevelopedby Horton6for interceptionby ash and oak
trees, estimatethe interception loss beneaththesetrees for a storm having a total
precipitationof 1.5 in.
Solution
1. For ashtrees.
L ; : 0 . 0 1 5+ 0 . 2 3 P
: 0.015+ 0.23(1.5) : 0.36in.
2. For oak trees,
L;:0.03+0.22P
: 0.36in. rl
: 0.03+ 0.22(1.5)
3.2 THROUGHFALL
A numberof relationshipsfor estimatingthroughfall for a variety of foresttypeshave
been developed.ntt Deiermining factors for throughfall quantities include canopy
coverage,total leaf area,numberand type of layersof vegetation,wind velocity, and
rainfall intensity.The arealvariability ofthesefactorsresultsin little or no throughfall
in somelocationsand considerablethroughfall in others.In general,prediction equa-
tions for throughfall mustincludemeasuresof canopysurfaceareaand coverasprime
variables.An example of a throughfall relationship for an easternUnited States
hardwoodforest follows.l2
For the growing season

T n : 0 . 9 0 1 P- 0 . O 3 l n (3.3)
For the dormant season
T n : 0 . 9 I 4 P- 0 . 0 1 5 n (3.4)
where ?1,: throughfall (in.)
P : total precipitation (in.)
n : number of storms
3.3 DEPRESSIONSTORAGE 45
3.3 DEPRESSION
STORAGE
Precipitationthat reachesthe ground may infiltrate, flow over the surface,or become
trappedin numeroussmall depressionsfrom which the only escapeis evaporationor
infiltration. The natureof depressions, aswell astheir size,is largely a funition of the
original land form and local land-usepractices.Becauseof extremevariability in the
nature of depressionsand the paucity of sufficient measurements,no generalized
relation with enoughspecifiedparametersfor all casesis feasible.A rational model
can, however,be suggested.
Figure 3.1 illustratesthe dispositionof a precipitationinput. A studyof it shows
that the tate at which depressionstorageis filled rapidly declinesafter the initiation
of a precipitationevent.Ultimately, the amountof precipitation goinginto depression
storagewill approachzero,given that thereis alargeenoughvolume of precipitation
to exceedother lossesto surfacestoragesuch as inflltration and evaporation.Ulti-
mately, all the water stored in depressionswill either evaporateor seep into the
ground.Finally, it shouldbe understoodthat the geometryof a land surfaceis usually
complex and thus depressionsvary. widely in size, degreeof interconnection,and
contributingdrainagearea.In general,depressionsmay be looked upon as miniature
reservoirsand as suchthey are subjectto similar analytical techniques.
According to Linsley et a1.13 the volume of water storedby surfacedepressions
at any given time can be approximatedusing
Y:Sd(l -e-kP") r? 5)
where V : the volume actually in storageat sometime of interest
S, : the maximum storagecapacityof the depressions
P" : the rainfall excess(grossrainfall minus evaporation,interception,and
infiltration)
k : a constantequivalentto l/So
The valueof the constantcan be determinedby consideringthat if P" : 0, essentially
all the water will fill depressionsand dv/dp" will equal one. This requires that
k : r/Sa. Estimatesof s, may be securedby making samplefleld measurementsof
the areaunder study.Combiningsuchdata with estimatesof P" permits a determina-
tion of V. The mannerin which Vvarieswith time must still be estimatedif depression
storagelossesare to be abstractedfrom the grossrainfall input.
One assumptionregarding dVldt is that all depressionsmust be full before
overlandflow supply begins.Actually, this would not agreewith reality unlessthe
locationsof depressionswere gradedwith the largestonesoccurring downstream.If
the depressionstoragewere abstractedin this manner, the total volume would be
deductedfrom the initial storm period suchas shownby the shadedareain Fig.3.2.
Such postulateshave been used with satisfactory results under special circum-
stances.ra
Depressionstorageintensitycan alsobe estimatedusingEq. 3.5. If the overland
flow supplyrale oplus depressionstorageintensityequali - /, wherei is the rainfall
intensity reachingthe ground and/is the infiltration rate, then the ratio of overland
flow supply to overlandflow plus depressionstoragesupply can be proved equal to
(3.6)
i - f
46 CHAPTER
3 INTERCEPTION
ANDDEPRESSION
STORAGE
o
b0
!t
o
E
d
4 8 1 2 16 20
Time (min)
Figure3.2 Simpledepression
storageabstraction
scheme.
This expressioncan be derivedby adjudging

c : i - f - o
(3.7)
i - f i - f
and noting that o is equal to the derivativeof Eq. 3.5 with respectto time. Then
)
o:fiso1t_e-kP") (3.8)
u : (Soke-kg# (3.e)
It was shown that k : 1/S, so that
u : ,-o'"d!" (3.10)
dt
The excessprecipitationP, equalsthe grossrainfall minus infiltrated water, and since

the derivativewith respectto time canbe replacedby the equivalentintensity(i * f),
the intensity of depressionstoragebecomes
o:e-or.(i-f) (3.11)
a (i-f)*G-f)e-.""
(3.r2)
i - f i - f
o.125 o.25 0.315 0.50(turf)
Mass overlandflow and depressionstoragesupply ( P - F)
0.0625 0.0938 0.125(pavements)

- 1.00
All depressions filled
before overland flow I
supply begins -= ----l
:\ on
d
9)- RO 0.80
E
o
l-
bl I
" 7 n
-
Exponential relationship -
o.7o I
i,t tl
a -\
-lP-F)tS,
F = -I - e "
,
I I
i 6 0
o
6 OGEE sumrnationof the b!
g
o
standardprobability curve
n5n a
B
a o
E
{ -
.: 40 6
9
o o
d J U o0
s2
o
6zo I
o
!) E
t
o
0 50 100 150 200

Mean depth as a percentage of overall depth of depression storage
Figure 3.3 Depth distributioncurve ofdepressionstorage.Enter graph from top,

readdown to selectedcurve, and project right or left as desired.(After Tholin and
Kiefer.r5)
and o - - e-kP")
:(i f)(I
(3.13)
i * f i - f
: |
- g-kP" (3.r4)
Figure 3.3 illustratesa plot of this function versusthe massoverlandflow and

depressionstoragesupply(P - F), whereF is the accumulatedmassinfiltrationl5 and
48 CHAPTER3 AND DEPRESSION
INTERCEPTION STORAGE
P is the grossprecipitation.In the plot meandepthsof 0.25 in. for turf and 0.0625in.
for pavementswere assumed.Maximum depthswere 0.50 and0.125in., respectively.
The figure also depictsthe effect on estimatedoverlandflow supplyrate, which
is derivedfrom the choiceof the depressionstoragemodel. Three modelsare shown
in the figure: the flrst one assumesthat all depressionsare full before overlandflow
begins.For a turf area having depressionswith a mean depth of 0.25 in., the figure
showsthat for P - F valueslessthan 0.25 in., thereis no overlandflow supply,while
for P - F valuesgreater than 0.25 in., the overlandflow supply is equal to i - f .
For the exponentialmodel (Model 2), c alwayswill be greaterthanzero. Tholin
and Kiefer haverecommendedthat a relation betweenthosepreviouslymentionedis
likely more representativeof fully developedurban areas.15 A cumulative normal
probability curve was selectedfor this representation and is also describedin Fig. 3.3
(Model 3).
Depressionstoragedeductionsare usually madefrom the first part of the storm
as illustrated in Fig. 3.2. The amount to be deductedis a function of topography,
groundcover,and extentand type of land development.During major storms,this loss
is often consideredto be negligible.Someguidelinesfor estimatingdepressionstorage
losseshavebeen developedbasedon studiesof experimentaland other watersheds.
Values for depressionstoragelossesfrom intense storms reported by Hicks are
0.20 in. for sand,0.15in. for loam,and0.10in. for c1ay.16 Tholin andKieferhaveused
valuesof 0.25 in. inpervious urban areas and 0.0625 in. forpavements.ls Studiesof
four small imperviousdrainageareas by Viessman yielded the information shownin
Fig.3.4, where mean depressionstorage loss is highly correlated with slope.This is
0.15
I
Ei U.IU
0 1 2 3 4
Slope(70)
Figure 3.4 Depression storage loss versus slope for four

impervious drainageareas.(From Viessman.ra)
PROBLEMS 49
oo
Antecedent rainfall during

preceding 30 min
o
Time (min)
Figure3.5 Depression storage
intensityversustimefor animpervious
area.(After Turner.l7)
easilyunderstood,sincea given depressionwill hold its maximum volumeif horizon-

tally oriented. Using very limited data from a small, paved-streetsection, Turner
devisedthe curvesshownin Fig. 3.5.17Other sourcesof datarelatedto surfacestorase
are availablein the literature.2,18,1e
r Summary
Accountingfor the dispositionof precipitation is an important part of the hydrologic
modelingprocess.Two abstractionsfrom the precipitation input, intercepiion, and
depressionstoragewere coveredin this chapter.
Interception lossesduring the courseof a year may be substantial,but during
intensestorms,they may be sufficiently small to neglect.Precipitationtype, rainfall
intensity and duration, wind, and atmosphericconditions affeiting evaporationare
factorsthat serveto determineinterceptionlossesfor a given foresi standor ground
coverconfiguration.Interceptionduring rainfall eventsis commonly greaterihan for
snowfall events.
Depressionstoragedeductionsoccur early in a storm sequenceand they are a
function of topography,ground cover, and extent and type of land development.
During major storms,this loss is often consideredto be negligible.
PROBI.EMS
3.1. UsingFig. 3.2, estimatethe volume of depressionstoragefor a 3-acrepaveddrainage
area' Statethe volume in cubic feet and cubic meters.Convert it to equivalentdep;h
over the area in in. and cm.
50 CHAPTER3 INTERCEPTIONAND DEPRESSIONSTORAGE
3.2. Estimatethe percentageof the total volume of rainfall that is indicatedas depression
storagein Fig. 3.2.
3.3. Using the averageannual precipitationfor your state,estimatethe annual amountof
interceptionloss.
3.4. Refer to Fig. 2.4 and estimate the annual interception lossesin lllinois, Florida,
California, and New Mexico. How good do you think theseestimatesare?In which
estimatesdo you havethe most confldence?Why? In which of thesestateswould the
water budgetbe most affectedby interception?
3.5. Using Fig. 3.4, estimatethe percentageof rainfall that would be lost to depression
storagefor a l0-acre parking lot havinga mean slopeof 1 percent.Repeatfor a slope
of 3 percent.Using the total rainfall volume determinedin Problem 3.2, estimatethe
equivalentdepth over the area of the depressionstorageloss for both slopes.Stater
depthsin mm and in.
3.6. Refer to Fig. 3.3 and estimatethe ratio of overlandflow supplyto overlandflow and
depressionstoragesupplyif the areais turf, the OGEE summationcurve is the model,
and the mean depth of depressionstorageis (a) 75 percent and (b) 125 percent.
3,7. Explain how a relation such as that given in Fig. 3.3 could be used in a simulation
model of the rainfall-runoff process'
3.8. Using Eqs. 3.3 and 3.4, estimatethe throughfall in in. for 28 in. of rainfall during the
growing season(21 events), and 17 in. of rainfall during the dormant season(13
events).
3.9. Using Horton's equationsgiven in Example 3.1, estimatethe interceptionlossesby
ash and oak trees for a storm having a total precipitation of 1.33 in'
REFERENCES
"The Effect of Forestand Pastureon the Dispositionof Precipitation,"
1. C. E. Schomaker,
Maine Farm Res.(July 1966).
2. ven Te chow (ed.), Handbook of Apptied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964.
3 . JosephKittredge, ForestInfluences.New York: McGraw-Hill' 1948.
i
+ . O. n. Ctark,
"Interception of Rainfall by HerbaceousVegetation,"Science86(2243),
59r-s92(r937).
"Resultsof the Mountain Home Rainfall Interceptionand Inflltration Project
5. J. S. Beard,
on Black Wattle, 1953-1954," J. S. Afr. Foresty Assoc'27,72-85(1956)'
"Rainfall Interception," Monthly WeatherRev.47,603-623(L9I9)'
6. R. E. Horton,
"A Note on the InterceptionLoss Equation," J. Geoplrys.Res.65' 3850-
7. R. A. Meriam,
385 1 ( 1 9 6 0 ) .
8. D. M. Gray (ed.),Hand.bookon the Principles of Hydrology.National ResearchCouncil,
Canada,Port Washington:WaterInformation Center,Inc., 1973.
9. K. N. Brooks, P. F. Folliott, H. M. Gregersen,and J. L. Thames,Hydrology and the
Managementof Watersheds.Ames, IA: Iowa StateUniversity Press/Ames,1991.
"The InterceptionProcess."In Prediction in CatchmentHydrology,National
10. G. J. Blake,
Symposiumon Hydrology,eds.T. G. Chapmanand F. X. Dunin, MelbourneAust. Acad.
S c i . , 5 9 - 8 1 1, 9 7 5 .
"Throughfall in PlantedStandsof Fourth SouthernPines
11. F. A. Roth, II, and M. Chang,
Speciesin EastTexas,"WaterResources Bulletin 17' 880-885(1981)
REFERENCES 51
"canopy and Litter Interceptionby Hardwoodsof Eastern
J. D. Helvey and J. H. Patric,
United States,"Water Resour. Res.l, 193-206(1965)'
New York:
R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A' Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Apptied Hydrology'
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
"A Linear Model for synthesizingHydrographsfor Small Drainage
warren viessman,Jr.,
Areas," paper presented at the Forty-eighthAnnual Meetingof the AmericanGeophysical
Union, Washington, D.C., APr. 1967.
"The Hydrology of Urban Runoff," Trans. ASCE 125,
A. L. Tholin una C. J. Kiefer,
1 3 0 8 -1 3 7 91( 9 6 0 ) .
..A Method of Computing Urban Runoff ,', Trans' ASCE |09, I2L,7-
W. I. Hicks,
Aue. 1966.
Chapter4
lnfiltration
Prologue
. Defineinfiltration.
' Indicatethe role infiltration playsin affectingrunoffquantities and in replen-
ishing soil moistureand groundwaterstorages.
' Presentmodelsfor estimatinginflltration and provide examplesof how they
can be used.
Infiltration is that processby which precipitation movesdownwardthrough the sur-

face of the earth and replenishessoil moisture, rechargesaquifers,and ultimately
supportsstreamflowsduring dry periods.Along with interception,depressionstorage,
and stormperiodevaporation,it determinesthe availability,if any,of the precipitation
input for generatingoverland flows (Fig. 1.3). Furthermore,infiltration rates
influence the timing of overland flow inputs to channelizedsystems.Accordingly,
infiltration is an important componentof any hydrologicmodel.
The ratef at which infiltration occursis influencedby suchfactorsas the type
and extent of vegetalcover, the condition of the surfacecrust, temperature,rainfall
intensity,physicalpropertiesof the soil, and water quality.
The rate at which wateris transmittedthrough the surfacelayeris highly depen-
dent on the condition of the surface.For example,inwashof fine materialsmay seal
the surfaceso that infiltration ratesare low evenwhen the underlyingsoils are highly
permeable.After water crossesthe surfaceinterface,its rate of downwardmovement
is controlled by the transmissioncharacteristicsof the underlying soil profile. The
volume of storageavailablebelow ground is also a factor affecting infiltration rates.
Considerableresearchon infiltration hastakenplace,but consideringthe infinite
combinationsof soil and other factors existing in nature, no perfectly quantified
generalrelation exists.
OF INFILTRATION 53
4.2 CALCULATION
4.1 MEASURING INFILTRATION
Commonly usedmethodsfor determininginfiltration capacityare hydrographanaly-

sesandinfiltrometer studies.Infiltrometersareusuallyclassifiedasrainfall simulators
or flooding devices.In the former, arlificalrainfall is simulatedover a small test plot
and the inhltration calculatedfrom observationsofrainfall andrunoff, with consider-
. ation given to depressionstorageand surfacedetention.lFlooding infiltrometers are
usually rings or iubes insertedin the ground. Water is applied and maintainedat a
constantlevel and observationsmade of the rate of replenishmentrequired'
Estimatesof infiltration basedon hydrographanalyseshavethe advantageover
infiltrometers of relating more directly to prevailing conditions of precipitation and
field. However,they areno betterthan the precisionwith which rainfall andrunoff are
measured.Of partitular importancein suchstudiesis the areal variability of rainfall.
Several meth;ds have been developedand are in use. Reference1 gives a good
descriptionof thesemethods.
OF INFILTRATION
4.2 CALCULATION
Infiltration calculationsvary in sophisticationfrom the applicationof reported aver-
ageratesfor specificsoil types and vegetalcoversto the useof differential equations
g6verningthe flow of wateiin unsaturatedporousmedia.For small urban areasthat
iespondiapidly to storm input, more precisemethodsare sometimeswarranted'On
large waterlhedssubjectto peak flow production from prolongedstorms,averageor
representativevaluesmay be adequate.
The infiltration pto"".r is -omplicated at best. Even under ideal conditions
(uniform soil propertiei andknown fluid properties),conditionsrarely encounteredin
practice,the processis difflcult to characterize.Accordingly,therehasbeenconsider-
abtestudyof the infiltration process.Most of theseeffortshaverelatedto the develop-
ment of i1) empirical equationsbasedon field observationsand (2) the solution of
equationsbasedon the mechanicsof saturatedflow in porous media.l'2
Later in this chapter,severalcommonly usedinfiltration modelsare discussed.
As a prefaceto that discussion,a brief descriptionof the infiltration processfollows'
It reviews the principal factors affecting infiltration and points out some of the
problemsencounteredby hydrologicmodelers.
Webeginour discussionwith an idealcase,onein which the soil is homogeneous
throughout the profile and all the pores are directly interconnectedby capillary
purru!"r. Furtheimore,it is assumedthat the rainfall is uniformly distributedovef the
ur"u of "on"ern. Undertheseconditions,the infiltration processmay be chatactetized
as one dimensional and the major influencing factors are therefore soil type and
moisturecontent.3
The soil type characterizesthe sizeand numberof the passages through which
the watermustflow while the moisturecontent setsthe capillary potential and relative
conductivity of the soil. Capillary potential is the hydraulic head due to capillary
forces. capillary suction is the same as capillary potential but with opposite sign.
54 CHAPTER4 INFILTRATION
9 aoo
4
Ei
o
. 300
-.
d
d
t
2oo
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Moisture content, 0 (vol/vol)
Figure 4.1 Typical capillary suction-relativeconduc-

contentrelation.(AfterMein andLarson.e.)
tivity-moisture
Capillary conductivity is the volume rate of flow of water through the soil under a
gradient of unity (dependenton soil moisture content). Relative conductivity is the
capillary conductivity for a specifiedmoisturecontent divided by the saturatedcon-
ductivity. Figure 4.1 illustratesthe relations amongthesevariables.Note that at low
moisturecontents,capillary suctionis high while relative conductivityis low. At high
moisture contentsthe reverseis true.
With this background,an infiltration event can be examined.Consider that
rainfall is occurringon an initially dry soil. As shownin Fig. 4.l,the relative conduc-
tivity is low at the outsetdue to the low soil moistureconditions.Thus, for the water
to move downwardthrough the soil, a higher moisture level is needed.As moisture
builds up, a wetting front forms with the moisturecontentbehindthe front beinghigh
(essentiallysaturated)and that aheadof the front being low. At the wetting front, the
capillary suctionis high due to the low moisture content aheadof the front.
At the beginning of a rainfall event, the potential gradient that drives soil
moisture movementis high becausethe wetting front is virtually at the soil surface.
Initially, the infiltration capacity is higher than the rainfall rate and thus the
infiltration rate cannot exceedthe rainfall rate. As time advancesand more water
entersthe soil, the wetting zone dimensionincreasesand the potential gradient is
reduced.Infiltration capacitydecreases until it equalsthe rainfall rate. This occursat
the time the soil at the land surfacebecomessaturated.Figures4.2 and4.3 illustrate
l
4.2 CALCULATIONOF INFILTRATION 55
Moisturecontent.d
I
Figure4.2 Typicalmoistureproflledevelopment
with a constantrainfall
rate.
these conditions. Figure 4.2 showshow a moisture profile might developwhen a

rainstormofconstant intensityoccurs.In the diagramthe soil moistureat the surface
is shownto rangefrom its initial value at the top left to its saturatedvalue at the top
right. Thus in moving downwardon the left-handside of the diagram,one can trace
the downward progressionof the wetting front for varying levels of soil moisture
92
::
Time,r
Figure 4.3 Infiltration rate versustime for a given rainfall
intensity.(After Mein and Larson.e)
contentat the land surface.Figure 4.3 indicatesthat until saturationis reachedat the
surface,the infiltration rate is constantand equalto the rainfall applicationrate at the
surface.At Point 4, apoint that coriespondsto the time at which saturationoccursat
the surface,the infiltration rate beginsto proceedat its capacity rate, the maximum
rate at which the soil can transmit water acrossits surface.As time goes on, the
infiltration capacity continues to decline until it becomesequal to the saturated
conductivity of the soil, the capillary conductivity when the soil is saturated.This
ultimate infiltration rate is shown by the dashedline to the right of K" in Fig. 4.3.
Of particular interest is the determinationof Point 4 on the curve of Fig. 4.3.
This is the point at which runoff would beginfor the conditions specifiedabove.It is
also the point at which the actual infiltration rate/becomes equal to the infiltration
capacityratefo ratherthan the rainfall intensityrate i. The time of occurrenceof this
point depends,for a given soil type, on the initial moisture content and the rainfall
rate. The shapeof the infiltration curve after this point in time is also influencedby
thesefactors.
Another factor that must be reckonedwith in the infiltration processis that of
hysteresis. In Fig. 4.1 it can be seenthat the plot of capillary suctionversussoil
moistureis a loop. The curve is not the samefor wetting and drying of the soil. The
curves shown on the figure are the boundary wetting and boundary drying curves,
curves applicableunder conditions of continuouswetting or drying. Betweenthese
curves, an infinite number of possiblepaths exist that dependon the wetting and
drying history of the soil. A numberof approachesto the hysteresisproblemhavebeen
reportedin the literature.3
The illustration of the infiltration processpresentedwas basedon an ideal soil.
Unfortunately,suchconditionsare not replicatedin natural systems.Natural soils are
highly variable in composition within regions and soil cover conditions are also
far-ranging. Becauseof this, no simpleinfiltration model can accuratelyportray all
the conditionsencounteredin the fleld. The searchhas thus beenfor modelsthat can
be called upon to give acceptableestimatesof the rates at which infiltration occurs
durine rainfall events.
Mein and Larson have describedthree generalcasesof infiltration associated
with rainfall.3The first caseis one in which the rainfall rate is lessthan the saturated
conductivity of the soil. Under this condition, shownas (4) in Fig. 4.4, runoff never
occurs since all the rainfall infiltrates the soil surface.Nevertheless,this condition
mustbe recognizedin continuoussimulationprocessessincethe level of soil moisture
is affectedeven though runoff doesnot occur. The secondcaseis one in which the
rainfall rate exceedsthe saturatedconductivity but is lessthan the infiltration capac-
ity. Curves(I), (2), and (3) of Fig. 4.4 illustratethis condition.It shouldbe observed
that the period from the beginningof rainfall to the time of surfacesaturationvaries
with the rainfall intensity.The final caseis one in which the rainfall intensityexceeds
the infiltration capacity.This condition is illustratedby the infiltration capacitycurve
of Fig. 4.5 andthoseportionsof infiltration curves(l), (2), and (3) of Fig. 4.4 that
are in their declining stages.Only under this condition can runoff occur. All three
caseshaverelevanceto hydrologicmodeling,particularly when it is continuousover
time.
4.3 HORTON'SINFILTRATIONMODEL 57
tsatt tsal, tsat,
Time, t
Figure 4.4 Inflltration curves for several rainfall intensities.(After

Mein and Larson.e)
fo: f"+ Ao-f")"u'

Infiltration capacitY curve
f,
0
o
,r*"
Figure 4.5 Horton's infiltration curve and hyetograph.
MODEL
INFILTRATION
.I3 HORTON'S
The inflltration processwas thoroughly studiedby Horton in the early 1930s.oAn
outgrowth of his work, shown graphically in Fig. 4.1, was the following relation for
determininginfiltration capacity:
-
fo: f, + ("fr f")e'n'
(+.r;
where fo : the infiltration capacity(depth/time) at sometime /

k : a constantrepresentingthe rate of decreaseinf capacity
f" : d final or equilibrium capacity
,fo : the initial infiltration capacity
It indicatesthat if the rainfall supply exceedsthe infiltration capacity,infiltration
tendsto decreasein an exponentialmanner.Although simplein form, difficulties in
determininguseful valuesfor/. and fr restrict the useofthis equation.The areaunder
the curve for any time interval representsthe depth of water infiltrated during that
interval. The infiltration rate is usually given in inches per hour and the time r in
minutes,althoughother time incrementsare usedand the coefficientk is determined
accordingly.
By observingthe variation of inflltration with time and developingplots of /
versus/ asshownin Fig. 4.5,we canestimatefsandft. Two setsof/and / are selected
from the curve and enteredin Eq. 4.1. Two equationshavingtwo unknownsare thus
obtained;they can be solvedby successiveapproximationsforfi and k.
Typical infiltration ratesat the end of t hr ( f) areshownin Table4.1. A typical
relation betweenf, and the infiltration rate throughout a rainfall period is shown
graphically in Fig. 4.6a; Fig.4.6h showsan infiltration capacity curve for normal
antecedentconditionson turf. The data given in Table4.1 are for aturf areaand must
be multiplied by a suitablecover factor for other types of cover complexes.A range
of cover factorsis listed inTable 4.2.
Total volumes of inflltration and other abstractionsfrom a given recorded
rainfall are obtainablefrom a dischargehydrograph(plot of the streamflowrate versus
time) if one is available.Separationof the base flow (dry weather flow) from the
dischargehydrographresultsin a direct runoff hydrograph(DRH), which accountsfor
the direct surfacerunoff. that is. rainfall less abstractions.Direct surfacerunoff or
precipitation excessin inchesuniformly distributedover a watershedcan readily be
calculatedby picking valuesof DRH dischargeat equal time incrementsthrough the
hydrographand applyingthe formulas
(0.0371e)()
q') ( a) \
P":
Ano
where P" : precipitation excess(in.)

4r : DRH ordinatesat equal time intervals (cfs)
A : drainagearea(mi2)
r?7: hurrber of time intervalsin a 24-hr period
For most casesthe differencebetweenthe original rainfall and the direct runoff
can be consideredas infiltrated water. Exceptionsmay occur in areasof excessive
subsurfacedrainageor tracts of intensiveinterceptionpotential.The calculatedvalue
of infiltration can then be assumedasdistributedaccordingto an equationof the form
of Eq. 4.1 or it may be uniformly spreadover the stormperiod. Choiceof the method
employeddependson the accuracyrequirementsand size of the watershed.
To circumvent some of the problems associatedwith the use of Horton's
infiltration model,someadjustmentscanbe made.6ConsiderFig. 4.5. Notethat where
the infiltration capacitycurve is abovethe hyetograph,the actual rate of infiltration
MODEL
4.3 HORTON'SINFILTRATION 59
o - 1
q 1
1.0
Time (hr)
(a)
3.0
2.8 -TT
2.O - I l
0691ty
l l l
f=0.53+2.4
,4
2.4 l, = U.UUUUJTIu . ) 9 ( l e
2.2
fle
2.0 rOa"
d
1.8 r\$4"
9l
1.6 o\
rras!
t.4
7.2
-iro$dts"
h 1.0
0.8
l l l l l l
Infiltration capacity curve (/.
U 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10 70 80 100 t20 140 160 t80
Time (min) from beginning of infiltration capacity cuve' t/

(b)
Figure 4.6 (a) Typical infiltration curve. (b) Infiltration capacity and mass
curvesfor normal antecedentconditionsof turf areas.fAfter A. L. Tholin and
"The Hydrology of Urban Runoff," Proc. ASCE J. Sanitary
Clint J. Kiefer,
Ens. Div. S4(SA2),56 (Mar. 1959).1
TABLE 4.1 ryPICAL f, VALUES
Soilgroup f, (in./hr) f' (mm/h)
High (sandysoils) 0.50-1.00 t2.50-25.00

Intermediate(loaps, clay, silt) 0.10-0.50 2.so-r2.50
Low (clays,clay loam) 0.01-0.10 0.25-2.50
Source: After ASCE Manual of Engineering Practice,No.28.
TABLE4,2 COVERFACTORS
Cover Cover fac{or
Permanentforest and grass Good(1 in. humus) 3.0-7.5

Medium(f-1 in. humus; 2.0-3.0
Poor(< j in. humus) 1.2-1.4
Close-growingcrops Good 2.5-3.0
Medium t.6-2.0
Poor 1.11 - .3
Row crops Good 1 . 3 -1 . 5
Medium 1.1-1 3
Poor 1 . 0 -1 . 1
Source: After ASCE Manual of Engineering Practice, No.2t.
is equal to that of the rainfall intensity, adjustedfor interception,evaporation,and

other losses.Consequently,the actuafinfiltration is given by
f(t) : minlfof), i(t)l (4.3)
where/(r) is the actual infiltration into the soil and i(l) is the rainfall intensity.Thus
the infiltration rate at any time is equal to the lesserof the infiltration capacity,f,(t)
or the rainfall intensity.
Commonly,the typical valuesof foandf" are greaterthan the prevailingrainfall
intensitiesduring a storm. Thus, when Eq.4.l is solvedforS as a function of time
alone, it shpwsa decreasein infiltration capacity even when rainfall intensitiesare
much lessthanfo. Accordingly,a reductionin infiltration capacityis maderegardless
of the amount of water that entersthe soil.
To adjust for this deficiency,the integratedform of Horton's equationmay be
used,
F(tp): o, : f,tp + (t - a' *,,1 (4.4)

lr'' ,
whereF is the cumulativeinfiltration at time to, as shownin Fig. 4.7.rnthe figure, it
is assumedthat the actual infiltration has been equal to$. As previouslynoted, this
is not usually the case,and the tnie cumulativeinfiltration must be determined.This
MODEL
4.3 HORTON'SINFILTRATION 61
0
0 tptpt tl
Equivalent time
Figure4.7 Cumulativeinfiltration.
can be done using
l,',u,o,
F\t) : (4.s)
where/(r) is determinedusingF,q.4.3.
Equations4.4 and4.5 may be us6djointly to calculatethe time t, that is, the
equivalent time for the actual infiltrated volume to equal the volume under the
infiltration capacity curve (Fig. 4.7). The actual accumulatedinfiltration given by
Eq. 4.5 is equatedto the area under the Horton curve, F,q. 4.4, and the resulting
expressionis solvedfor r' This equation,
F:fJrt (l-e-k'n) (4.6)
cannotbe solvedexplicitly for to,but an iterativesolutioncan be obtained.It should

be understoodthat the time to is lessthan or equal to the actual elapsedtime r. Thus
the availableinfiltration capacityas shownin Fig. 4.7 is equalto or exceedsthat given
by Eq. 4.1. By makingthe adjustments described,fbecomesa functionof the actual
amount of water infiltrated and not just a variable with time as is assumedin the
original Horton equation.
In selectinga model for use in inflltration calculations,it is important to know
its limitations. In somecasesa model can be adjustedto accommodateshortcomings;
in othercases,if its assumptions are not realisticfor the natureof the useproposed,
the model shouldbe discardedin favor of anotherthat better fits the situation.
Part One of this book deals with the principal componentsof the hydrologic
cycle. In later chapters,the emphasisis on putting these componentstogetherin
varioushydrolqgicmodelingprocesses.When thesemodelsare designedfor continu-

ous simulation,the approachis to calculatethe appropriatecomponentsof the hydro-
logic equation,Eq. 1.4, continuouslyovertime. A discussionof how infiltration could
be incorporatedinto a simulation model follows. It exemplifiesthe use of Horton's
equationin a storm water managementmodel (SWMM)."
First, an initial value of /o is determined.Then, consideringthat the value of$
dependson the actualamountof infiltration that hasoccurredup to that time, a value
of the averageinfiltration capacity,fo, availableover the next time stepis calculated
using
f o : * 1 " = ' *fo' o' ' : l W

-tp
(4.7)
Equation 4.3 is then usedto find the averagerate of infiltration, /.

iti >1,
'v - [f, iri <f,
(4.8)
tt
where i is the averagerainfall intensity over the time step.
Following this, infiltration is incrementedusing the expression
F(t + Lt) : F(t) * AF : F(t) + f Lt (4.e)
whereAF : f Lt is the addedcumulativeinfiltration (Fig.4.7).
The next stepis to find a new valueof ro.This is doneusingEq. 4.6.If LF :
f o Lt, tp : to t Ar. But if the new /oris lessthanto + A/ (seeFig. 4.7),Eq. 4.6 must
be solvedby iteration for the new value of lo. This can be accomplishedusing the
Newton-Raphsonprocedure.6
When the valueof tp > I6f k, the Horton curve is approximatelyhorizontal and
fo : f". Once this point hasbeenreached,there is no further needfor iteration since
f is constant and equal to f" and no longerdependenton F.
EXAMPLE 4.I
Givenan initial inflltrationcapacityfiof 3.0 in./hr anda time constantft of 0.29hr-',

derive an infiltration capacity vs. time curve if the ultimate infiltration capacity is
0.55 in./hr. For the first ten hours, estimatethe total volume of water infiltrated in
inchesover the watershed.
Solution. Using Horton's equation(4.1), valuesof infiltration can be com-
puted for various times. The equationis as follows:
f : f" + Lfo + f")e-k,

Substitutingthe appropriatevaluesinto the equationyields
-
,f = 0.55 + (3.0 0.55)s-o'zo'
Then for the times shownin spreadsheetTable4.3, valuesof f atecomputedand
enteredinto the table. Using the spreadsheetgraphics package,the curve of
Fig. 4.8 is derived,
4,3 HORTON'SINFILTRATIONMODEL 63
TABLE 4.3 CALCULATIONSFOR EXAMPLE4.1
Time lnfiltration Time lnfiltration

(hr) (in./hr) (hr) (in./h0
0.00 3.00 5.00 t.l2
0.10 2.93 6.00 0.98
0.25 2.83 7.00 0.87
0.50 2.67 8.00 0.79
1.00 2.38 9.00 0.73
2.00 t.92 10.00 0.68
3.00 1.58 15.00 0.58
4.00 r.32 20.00 0.56
4.1 can
To find the volumeof waterinfiltrated duringthe flrst 10hours,Eq'
be integratedover the range of 0-10
I -
v : [0.5s + (3.0 0.55)e-o2e' ldt
J
Y: [0.55/ + (2.45I-0.29)e-o2s\o
V : 12.47in'
ll
The volume in inchesover the watershedis thus 12'47 in'
3.0
-
; 2.0 -\-\
l?
6
.: 15
1.0
"'-0
0.5
2 4 6
L
8 10 12 t4 18
Time (hr)
Figure 4.8 GraPh for ExamPle 4'1.

4.4 MODEL
GREEN-AMPT
The Green-Ampt infiltration model,originallyproposedin 1911,has had a resur-
genceof inte1gs1.3'6-1tThis approachis basedon Darcy's law (seeChapter18).In its
original form, it was intendedfor use where infiltration resultedfrom an excessof
water at the ground surfaceat all times. In 1973, Mein and Larson presenteda
methodologyfor applying the Green-Ampt model to a steadyrainfall input.eThey
alsodevelopeda procedurefor determiningthe valueof the capillary suctionparame-
ter usedin the model. In 1978,Chu demonstratedthe applicability of the model for
useunder conditionsof unsteadyrainfall.lo As a result of theseand other efforts, the
Green-Ampt model is now employedas an option in such widely used continuous
simulation modelsas SWMM.6
The original formulation by Greenand Ampt assumedthat the soil surfacewas
coveredby ponded water of negligible depth and that the water infiltrated a deep
homogenoussoil with a uniform initial watercontent(seeFig. 4.9). Wateris assumed
to enter the soil so as to define sharply a wetting front separatingthe wetted and
unwettedregions as shown in the figure. If the conductivity in the wetted zone is
definedas K", applicationof Darcy's law yields the equation
" K"(r + s) (4.10)
Io: r
where I is the distancefrom the ground surfaceto the wetting front and S is the
capillary suction at the wetting front. Referringto Fig. 4.9, it can be seenthat the
cumulativeinfiltration F is equivalentto the product of the depth to the wetting front
L and the initial moisture deficit, 0, - 0, : IMD. Making these substitutionsin
Ponded depth
considerednegligible
I
Ho
I I
I
II
I
Figure 4.9 Definition sketch for Green-

Ampt model.
4.4 GREEN-AMPTMODEL 65
Eq. 4.10 and rearranging,we obtain

t * jt' ) (4.11)
f- : -K.(
rp - , \ -, *
F /
Considering thatfp : dFldt. we can state
#: *,(t.'#) (4.r2)
: 0 at t : 0' we obtain
Integratingand substitutingthe conditionsthat F
+ I MD X {) : (4.r3)
F - S x I M D X l o g " ({ K.t
IMD X s
This form of the Green-Ampt equationis more convenientfor usein watershed
modelingprocesses than Eq. 4.l}beciuse it relatesthe cumulativeinfiltrationto the
ponded
time at which infiltration began.The derivation of this equation assumesa
equal to the infiltration capacity at all
surfaceso that the actualrate of infiltration is
cumulative infiltration at any time, a
times.Using Eq. 4.13, we can determinethe
featuredesiiablefor continuoussystemsmodeling. All the parameters in the equation
are physicalpropertiesof the soil-water systemand are measurable.The determina-
particu-
tion of suitablevaluesfor the capillary suctions is often difficult, however,
larly for relationssuchas that ihown for a clay-type soil in Fig. 4.10. It can be
observedfrom the figure that for this curve there is a wide variation of capillary
suctionwith soil moisturecontent.3
The Mein-Larson formulation using the Green-Ampt model incorporatestwo
The first stagedealswith prediction of the volume of water that infiltrates
stages.3,6
before the surfacebecomessaturated.The secondstageis one in which infiltration
water
capacityis calculatedusingthe Green-Ampt equation.In the widely usedstorm
model of infiltration is one of the
,nunug"*"nt model, the irodif,ed Green-Ampt
Computations are made using
optiois that can be employedto estimateinfiltration.6
v)
Figure 4.10 Capillary suction versus

moisture contentcurves.
Moisture content,0
the following equations:for F ( F,(f : i),

IM?
F. :7: rori > K" \4.r4)
i/K" - |
and thereis no calculationof F"for i < K"; for F > F,(f : fi):
*\ t * j")
f,: x,(t
' F l (4.11)
where f :acttal infiltration rate (ftlsec)

fo: infiltration capacity(ftlsec)
I :
rainfall intensity (ftlsec)
F :cumulativeinfiltration volume in the event (ft)
{ : cumulative infiltration volume required to causesurfacesaturation
(f0
S : averagecapillary suctionat the wetting front (ft of water)
IMD : initial moisture deficit for the event (ftlft)
K" : saturatedhydraulic conductivity of soil (ftlsec)
Equation 4.10 showsthat the volume of rainfall neededto saturatethe surface
is a function of the rainfall intensity.In the modelingprocess,for eachtime stepfor
which I ) K", the value of d is computedand comparedwith the volumeof rainfall
infiltrated to that time. If F equalsor exceeds{, the surfacesaturatesand calculations
for infiltrationthenproceedusingEq.4.I4. Notethat by substituting/fori in Eq.4.l4
and rearranging,the equationtakesthe sameform as Eq. 4.11.
For rainfall intensitieslessthan or equal to K", all the rainfall infiltrates and its
amount is used olly to update the initial moisture deficit, IMD.6 The cumulative
infiltration volume {" is not altered.
After saturationis achievedat the surface,Bq.4.l1 showsthat the infiltration
capacityis a function of the infiltrated volume,and thus of the infiltration ratesduring
previous time steps.To avoid making numerical errors over long time steps,the
integratedform of the Green-Ampt equation(Eq. .B) is used.This equationtakes
the following form as it is usedin SWMM:
&Gr- tr): Fz- Cln (F2+ C) - Fr* Cln(F1+ C) (4.15)

where C : IMD X .t (ft of water)
/ : times (sec)
1,2 : subscriptsindicating the starting and ending of the time steps.
Equation4.15 mustbe solvediteratively for F2,the cumulativeinfiltration at the

end of the time step.A Newton-Raphsonroutine is used.6
In the SWMM model, infiltration during time step tz - tt is equal to (t, - tr)i
if the surfaceis not saturatedand is equal to F, - F, if saturationhas previously
occurred and there is a sufficient water supply at the surface.If saturationoccurs
-
during an interval, the infiltrated volumesover each stageof the processwithin the
time stepsare computedand summed.When the rainfall endsor becomeslessthan
MODEL
4.5 HUGGINS_MONK 67
theinfiltrationcapacity,anypondedwaterisallowedtoinfiltrateandisaddedtothe
cumulative inflltration volume'
MODEL
4.5 HUGGINS-MONKE
thetimedependency
havecircumvented problemby introducing
Severalinvestigators by
the followingequationproposed
soilmoistureas the depenO"niuutluUfe.2'10-13
HugginsandMonkeis an examPle:2
f : f,*A( I
(4.16)
where AandP: coefficients

layer (Q
s - itr" ,,orug" potential of a soil overlying the impeding
minus antecedentmoisture)
F _ the total volume of water that infiltrates
impeding stratum
T o = the total porosity of soil lying over the
sprinkling infiltrometer studies'The
The coefficientsare determinedusing data from
in the iteration process'At the
variableF mustbe catculatedfor eachtime increment
exceedsthe inflltration capacity,the rate

zone," which determinesthe soil moistu
evaluatedasfollows:10 (1) wherethe moist
the field capacity(amountof waterheld in
drained),the drainagerate is consideredz
to the infiltration rate when the soil is s
constan| and (3) if the watercontentis be
drainagerate is comPutedas
rate: ,"(t - 2)'

(4.r7)
drainage
where P, : the unsaturatedpore volume

G:maximumgravitationalwater,thatis,thetotalporosityminusthefield
caPacitY
Datafromsprinklinginfiltrometerstudiesofvariouswatershedsofinterestare
usedto estimatethe coefficientsin Eq' 4'16''
5.6 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 101
of a masstransferequationthat has often been employedfor this purpose.However,
Linsley and co-workers indicate that there is some question as to the adequate
The equation is
verification of this model to estimate evapotranspirationlosses.27
expressed as - -
833x2(e1 er)(V, V,)
^
E : @ (s.2s)
E : evaporation(in./hr)
K: von K6rm6n's constant(0.4)
1,2 : vaporpressures(in. Hg)
Vr, Vz : wind speeds(mph)
Z = the mean temperature("F) of the layer betweenthe lower level zt
and the upper level z2
It is assumedin Eq. 5.25 that the atmosphereis adiabatic and the wind speedand
moistureare distributedlogarithmically in a vertical direction. In view of the sm4ll
differencesbetweenwind and vapor pressureto be expectedat two levelsso closely
spaced,and sincethesegradientsare directly relatedto the sought-afterevaporation,
highly exactinginstrumentationis required to get reliable results.
PotentialEvapotranspiration
"the waterlosswhich will occur
Thornthwaitedeflnedpotential evapotranspirationas
if at no time there is a deficiencyof water in the soil for the use of vegetation."In a
practical sense,however,most investigatorshave assumedthat potential evapotran-
spiration is equal to lake evaporationas determinedfrom National WeatherService
ClassA pan records.This is not theoreticallycorrect becausethe albedo(amountof
incoming radiation reflectedback to the atmosphere)of vegetatedareas and soils
rangesas high as 45 percent.28As a result, potential evapotranspirationshould be
somewhatlessthan free water surfaceevaporation.Errors in estimatingfree water
evapotranspirationfrom pan recordsare such,however,asto make an adjustmentfor
potential evapotranspirationof questionablevalue.
An equationfor estimatingpotential evapotranspirationdevelopedby the Agri-
cultural ResearchService (ARS) illustratesefforts to include vegetalcharacteristics
and soil moisturein sucha calculation.The evapotranspirationpotentialfor any given
day is determinedas follows:2e
E T : G I x k ux , " ( # l (s.26)
where ET : evapotranspirationpotential (in./day)

GI : growth index of crop in percentageof maturity
K : ratio of G1 to pan evaporation,usually 1.0-I.2 for short grasses'
1,.2-L6 for cropsup to shoulderheight,and 1'6-2.0 for forest
Eo: pan evaporation(in./day)
,S: total porosity
SA : availableporosity (unfilled by water)
AWC : porosity drainableonly by evapotranspiration
x : AWC/G (G : moisture freely drainedby gravity)
102 CHAPTER5 EVAPORATIONAND TRANSPIRATION
0.2
0.1
,.} 0.0
ti
> n ,
0.1
J J
Months
(b)
Figure 5.5 Averagedaily consumptionof water: (a) for

year 1953 by corn, followed by winter wheat under
irrigation; (b) for year 1955, with irrigated first-year
freadow of alfalfa, red clover, and timothy. Both
measurements taken on lysimeterY 102 C at the Soil and
Water ConservationResearchStation. Coshocton.Ohio.
(After Holtan et al.2e)
l x
N I F
rrllS
]l{
tl
rH
0 8 1 6 2 r ' . 3 2 4 0 4 8
Weeks
Figure 5.6 Growth index GI = ETfET^,, from
lysimeterrecords,irrigatedcorn,andhayfor 1955,from
Coshocton, Ohio.(AfterHoltanet al.2e)
5.7 ESTIMATINGEVAPOTRANSPIRATION 103
TABLE 5.5 HYDROLOGICCAPACITIESOF SOIL TEXTURECLASSES
sa GD AWC" x
Textureclass (v") (Y") ('/") AWC/G
Coarsesand 24.4 t'7.7 6.7 0.38

Coarsesandy loam 24.5 15.8 8.7 0.55
Sand 32.3 19.0 13.3 0.70
Loamy sand 37.0 26.9 10.1 0.38
Loamy fine sand 32.6 27.2 5.4 0.20
Sandyloam 30.9 18.6 t2.3 0.66
Fine sandy loam 36.6 23.5 13.1 0.56
Very fine sandy loam 32.7 21.0 11.7 0.56
Loam 30.0 14.4 15.6 1.08
Silt loam JI,J 11.4 19.9 1.74
Sandy clay loam 25.3 13.4 tr.9 0.89
Clay loam 25.7 13.0 12.7 0.98
Silty clay loam z5-J 8.4 t4.9 r.77
Sandy clay 19.4 rl.6 7.8 0.6'l
Silty clay z l.+
o 1 12.3 r.34
Clay 18.8 7.3 11 . 5 r.58
aS = total porosity - 15 bar moisture 7o'
bG : total porosity - 0.3 bar moisture 7o.
"AWC: S - G.
"Land Capability: A Hydrologic ResponseUnit in
Source: Adaptedfrom C. B. England,
Asiicultural'Watersheds," U.SlDepartmentof Agriculture,ARS 41-172' Sept' 1970'
Aiter H. N. Holtan et a1.2e
The GI curveshave been develoPed

evapotranspirationfor severalcrops (Fig. :
daily rate(Fig. 5.6).Equation5.26is used
USDAHL-74 model of watershedhydrolq
late daily evapotranspiration.Represental
Table5.5.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
5.7 ESTIMATING
Transpirationis an important componentin the hydrologicbudgetof vegetatedareas,
but it is a difficult quantity to measurebecauseof its dependenceon phytological
variables.It is a function of the number and types of plants, soil moisture and soil
type, qeason,temperature,and averageannual precipitation. As noted previously,
evaporationand tianspiration are commonly estimatedin their combinedevapotran-
spiration
' form.
If the precipitation and net runoff for an atea ate known, and estimatesof
groundwateiflow and storagecan be made,rough estimatesof ET canbe had using
ihe basic hydrologicequatiJn,Eq. 1.1. A more sophisticatedapproachdevelopedby
peaman foilows.t3It iJ representativeof the methodsmost often used'
104 CHAPTER
5 EVAPORATION
ANDTRANSPIRATION
The PenmanMethod
Both the energybudgetand masstransportmethodsfor estimatingevapotranspiration
(ET)have limitations dueto the difficulties encounteredin estimatingparametersand
in making other required assumptions.To circumventsomeof theseproblems,pen-
man developeda method to combinethe masstransport and energybudgettheories.
This widely usedmethodis one of the more reliableapproachesto estimatingETrates
usingclimaticdata.13'rs'23,30
The Penmanequationis of the form of Eq. 5.18; it is theoreticallybasedand
showsthat EZ is directly related to the quantity of radiative energy gained by the
exposedsurface.In its simplified form, the Penmanequationisls
LH + 0.27E
t s t : - (s.27)
L + 0.21
where A : the slopeof the saturatedvapor pressurecurve of air at absolute
temperature(mm Hg/'F)
H : the daily heatbudgetat the surface(estimateof net radiation) (mm/day)
E : daily evapoiation(mm)
ET : the evapotranspirationor consumptiveusefor a given period (mm/day)
The variablesE and.Fl are calculatedusing the following equations:
E : 0.35(e"- e)(l'+0.0098ar) ( s .28)
:
where eo the saturationvapor pressureat mean ak temperature(mm Hg)
e6 : the saturationvapor pressureat meandew point (actualvapor pressure
in the air) (mm Hg)
u2 : the mean wind speedat 2 m abovethe ground (mi/day)
The equationusedto determinethe daily heat budget at the surface,11,is
11 : R(1 - r)(0.18 + 0.55.t)- 8(0.56 * 0.092e2s)(0.10 + 0.905) (5.29)
where R : the mean monthly extraterrestrialradiation (mm HrO evaporatedper
dav)
: the estimatedpercentageof reflecting surface
B = a temperature-dependent coefficient
s : the estimatedratio of actual duration of brisht sunshineto maximum
possibleduration of bright sunshine.
The empirical reflectivecoefficientr is a function of the time of year,the calmnessof
the water surface,wind velocity, and water quality. Typical rangesfor r are 0.05 to
0.12.31valuesof e" andA can be obtainedfrom Figs.5.7 and 5.8, thosefor R and B
can be obtainedfrom Tables5.6 and 5.7. The use of Penman'sequationrequiresa
knowledgeof vaporpressures,sunshineduration,net radiation,wind speed,and mean
temperature.Unfortunately,regular measurements of theseparametersare often un-
availableat sites of concern and they must be estimated.Another complication is
making a reductionin the valueof EZwhen the calculationsare for vegetatedsurfaces.
While results of experimentsto quantify reduction factors have not completelyre-
solved the problem, there is evidencethat the annual reduction factor is close to
5.7 ESTIMATINGEVAPOTRANSPIRATION 105
"C .F
"C .F
50 111
60 t40
r04 313 =
't22 40
50 !? ts
86 303 ct
I : o
+ o 104 o
ro? !d
o
B t ^ 68 6
t r 1 n 86 - 1 0
14
o
F
s0l. z6J 6
F.
68 | | I I I t273
20 0 zzV | |
0.2 0.4 0 6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
10 50
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
satuated vapor pressure' ea (mm Hg)
Valueof A (mmHg/'F)
Figure 5.7 Relation betweentemperatureand Figure 5.8 TemperatureversusA relation for use
*i?rt ,n" PenmanLquation. (After Criddle'23)
saturatedvapor Pressure.
that using
Thus,unlessthereis evidenceto supportanothervalue'it appears
unity.32-34
satisfactoryresults for surfaces
a value of 1 for the reduction coefficient may give
of free water evaporation
having varied vegetal covers.Accordingly, aty estimate
by an appropriatereduction
could be used ro estimaieEZ, providin[ it is modified
coefficient.
EXAMPLE 5.4
using the PenmanMethod, Eqs.5.21
': to 5.29, estimateET, giventhe following data:
: 30 degreesc'
temperatureat warer r"tru"" 20 degreesc, temperatureof 1l
: (48 mi/day)' the month is
relative humidity : +O p"r""nt, wind-velocity i mph
S is found to be 0'75'
Juneat latitude 30 degreesnorth, r is given ut 0'07' and
Solution
l.Giventhedatafortemperature,thevaluesofeoandeacanbedetermined.
UsingFig.5.TorAppendixTableA.2,thesaturatedVaporpressuresare
31'83'andfor
foundto be l7.53unO-:t'Sl mm Hg respectively'ThI'"-:
:
: X 0'4 12'73'
a relativehumidity of 40 percent,e,t 31'83
Then,usingEq. 5.28'
E : 0.35(31 .83 - 12.73)(1+ 0.0098x 48)
E:9.83 mm/daY
2.ThevalueofAisfoundusingFig.5.8;forthegivenlatitudeandmonth,R
isobtainedfiomTable5.6;andBisgottenfromTable5.'Tforatemperature
: 1'0' R : 16'5' andB : I7 '01'
of 30"C.fne vatuesfound are A
Then,usingEq.5.29,
H: 16'5(I - 0'07)(0'18+ 0's5 x 0'75)
6 - 0.092x 12j30)(0.10 + 0'90 x 0'75)
- 17.01(0.5
H = 6.04 mm/daY
O \ O h O \ 6 \ t o O \ \ O r )
O o r) F. O N + r) \O F- t-- l-- F-
O\ O F- * C.l * \O F- :+ f.-' r) O Ol
d \ + \ O O \ i o * r ) \ O \ O \ O \ O n
ft
o
LL
6
t- * co o o\ * o co cn oo oo n F-
trJ tF-O\dcl\fh!nv1<.cqolO
o
IL
tr
f
U) nv?qnnqqnv.t-nv.tol
J oN catf,r +s+coNooo\o
: : * * * d d i * -
F
z
o
N F. O\ cn ci O e.l O \n \O h N O\
tf
o c.i ri + r; ri ri { cd -.j oi F ri c.i
I
z
\ -.: dl .l \ oq v? q g oq 9 q cl
z r.) \O \O \O r.) !f c.l r O f\ \A tri d
I * * - i * d
=
o
E. r F- tr - \r ) $\O\O**6
(r \o \o \o \o r) * c7) d o\ F- r) N o
5
o
q)
lJ-
9nqq\qqn\\-q*: q
o $ h n \ o r ) h c n N o \ o $ *
* i i i i * i * d
6
z
uJ H t1
F F- O\ oo a] N a- 6 oo oo \O o
z -j 6i di + ri ri + ri 6i ci *, <j +
J
T
F
z
o e-:q\qoq.l-9qqvln
\ O O \ : c . l o $ n h * o a l ( )
H * * * * r *
4 Z
tIO
>tr q q \ g o q q - \
ds
u O
n q q n r t
O r} oO O al cn r) r) \O r) r) <+ C.l
olu
6 Z E
ui<
f > cn\oor)66r)ooooo6*\o
1 z .j d; \o od o 6i + r; \ci i-- r- r- \c;
S IIJ i : : a
2O-
ft+
t=P
) z
muJ
4 ,Ct)
F ]
q
s
\Or ) *6al - - 6l o+r ) \O
E V
lo
UJ E:
6
z a > 6
SUMMARY 107
TABLE5.7 VALUESOF TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT
B FORUSEINTHEPENMAN
COEFFICIENT
EQUATION
Tu B T" B
(K) (mmHrO/day) fF) (mm HrO/day)
270 r0.73 Jf 11.48

275 11.51 40 I 1.96
280 12.40 A< 12.45
285 13.20 50 12.94
290 14.26 55 13.45
295 15.30 60 13.96
300 16.34 65 14.52
305 r7.46 70 15.10
310 18.60 75 15.65
315 19.85 80 16.25
320 21.15 85 16.85
325 22.50 90 t'7.46
95 18.10
100 18.80
Source: Afler Criddle.23Note that B = oT1 where o is the Boltzmann
c o n s t a n t . 2 . 0xl l 0 - e m m / d a y .
3. UsingEq. 5.27,
Er : 0.0 x 6.04 + 0.27 x 9.83)/(1+ 0.27)
ET : 6.85 mm/day
is 6.85 mm/day. ll
Thus the estimatedevapotranspiration
Simulating Evapotranspiration
The volume of water evaporatedor transpiredfrom a watershedover time can be
substantial.Accordingly, continuoushydrologicmodelingprocessesshouldincorpo-
rate an EZcomponent.The modelsgiven in this chaptertypify suchan approach(see
aboundon this subjes1.28'2e'rs':o':z
alsothe flow chart of Fig. 1.3).References
Summary
Figure 1.1 and Table5.1 showthe overall importanceof ET in the hydrologicbudget.
In many regionsof the United States,annual ET exceedsannual precipitation by a
significantamount.As a result, plans for water resourcesdevelopmentand use must
incorporate estimatesof ET losses.Where irrigated agriculture is practiced, these
estimatesare especiallyimportant.
A numberof approachesto estimatingEThavebeendeveloped.They generally
fall into the following classes:theoretical,basedon the physicsofthe process;analyt-
ical, basedon energyor water budgets;and empirical, basedon observations.Equa-
tions usedin making ET calculationsare usually of the type illustrated by Eqs. 5.1,
5.8,5.10,5.19,5.22,and5.26.
1oB cHAp+R 5 EVApoRATtoN
ANDTRANsptRAloN
PROBLEMS
5.1. An 8000-mi2watershedreceived20 in. of precipitationin a 1-yearperiod. The annual
streamflowwas recorded as 5000 cfs. Roughly estimatethe combined amounts of
water evaporatedand transpired.Qualify your answer.
5.2. Find the daily evaporationfrom a lake during which the following datawere obtained:
air temperature 90oF,water temperature60oF,wind speed 20 mph, and relative
humidity 30 percent.
5.3. Find the monthly consumptiveuse of an alfalfa crop when the mean temperatureis
70"F, the averagepercentageof daytime hours for the year is 10, and the monthly
consumptiveuse coefficientis 0.87.
5.4. During a given month a lake having a surfacearea of 350 acreshas an inflow of 20
cfs, an outflow of 18 cfs, and a total seepagelossof 1 in. The total monthly precipita-
tion is 1.5 in. and the evaporationloss is 4.0 in. Estimatethe changein storage.
5.5. What are two filethodsthat might be usedto reduceevaporationfrom a small pond?
5.6. Computethe daily evaporationfrom a ClassA pan if the amountsof water required
to bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5
Rainfall (in.) 0 0.65 0.12 0 0.01
Water added(in.) 0.29 0.55 0.07 0.28 0.10
Evaporation
5.7. For Problem 5.6, the pan coefficientis 0.70. What is the lake evaporation(in inches)
for the 5-day period for a lake with a 250-aqe surfacearea?
5.8. The pan coefficientfor a ClassA evaporationpan locatednear a lake is 0.7. A total
of 0.50 in. of rain fell during a given day. Determinethe depth of evaporationfrom
the lake during the sameday if 0.3 in. of water had to be addedto the pan at the end
of the day in order to restorethe waterlevel to its original valueat the beginningof the
day.
5.9. A 2500 mi2drainagebasinreceives25 in.lyr rainfall. The dischargeof the river at the
basinoutlet is measuredat an averageof 650 cfs. Assumingthat the changein storage
for the systemis essentiallyzero, estimatethe EZlossesfor the areain inchesand cm
for the year. Stateyour assumptions.
5.10. Determine the daily evaporationfrom a lake for a day during which the following
mean values were obtained: air temperature78'F; water temperature62oF; wind
speed,8 mph; and relative humidity, 45 percent.
5.11. Usingthe Meyer and Dunne equations,find the daily evaporationrate for a lake given
that the mean value for air temperaturewas 80T, for water temperature60'F, the
ziveragewind speedwas 10 mph, and the relative humidity was 25 percent.Refer to
Appendix Table A.2 for vapor pressrirevalues.
5.12. Determinethe seasonalconsumptiveuse of truck crops grown in Pennsylvaniaif the
meanmonthly temperaturesfor May, June,July, and August are 62,71,16, and 75'F
respectivelyandthepercentdaylighthoursforthegivenmonths arc10.02,10.1,10.3,
and 9.6 as percent of the year respectively.
REFERENCES 109
5.13. Using the PenmanMethod, Eqs.5.27 to 5.29, estimateET, giventhe following data:
temperatureat water surface: 20 degreesC, temperatureof air : 32 degreesC,
relative humidity : 45 percent,wind velocity : 3 mph, the month is Juneat latitude
30 degreesnorth, r is given as 0.08, and S is found to be 0.73.
REFERENCES
1 . WaterResources Council,TheNation's WaterResources: 1975-2000,U.S. Govt. Print.

Off., Washington, D.C., 1978.
2 . U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
National WeatherService,NOAA TechnicalReport 33,EvaporationAtlas of the Contigu-
ous 48 UnitedStates,Washington, D.C., June1982.
3 . U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
National WeatherService,NOAA TechnicalReport NWS 34, "Mean, Monthly Seasonal,
and Annual Pan Evaporationfor the United States,"Washington,D.C., June 1982.
4. "Water-LossInvestigations,"Vol. 1, Lake Hefner Studies,U.S. GeologicSurveyProfes-
sionalPaperNo. 269 (1954). (Reprintof U.S. GeologicalSurveyCitc.229, 1952.)
5 . N. N. Gunaji, "EvaporationInvestigationsat ElephantButte Reservoir,New Mexico," ^lnl.
Assoc.Sci.Hydrol. Pub. 18, 308-325(1968).
6. I. S. Bowen, "The Ratio of Heat Lossesby Conduction and by Evaporationfrom Any
Water Surface,"Phys.Rev. 27, 779-7 81(1926).
7 . E. R. Anderson,L. J. Anderson,andJ. J. Marciano, "A Reviewof EvaporationTheory and
Developmentof Instrumentation,'oLake Mead WaterLoss Investigation;Interim Report,
Navy ElectronicsLab. Rept.No. 159 (Feb. 1950).
8 . O. G. Sutton, "The Application to Micrometeorologyof the Theory of Turbulent Flow
over RoughSurfaces,"R. Meteor,Soc.Q. "I. 75(No. 236),335-350(Oct. 1949).
9 . A. F. Meyer, "Evaporationfrom Lakes and Reservoirs,"MinnesotaResourcesCommis-
sion,St. Paul,June1944.
1 0 . T. Dunne and L. B. Leopold, Waterin EnvironmentalPlanning, San Francisco:Freeman
and Co., 1978.
1 1 . V. M. Ponce,EngineeringHydrology: Principles and Practices.EnglewoodCliffs. New
Jersey:PrenticeHall, 1989.
1 2 . M. A. Kohler, T. J. Nordenson,and W E. Fox. "Evaporationfrom Pansand Lakes," U.S.
Departmentof Commerce,WeatherBureau,Res.PaperNo. 38, Washington, D.C., 1955.
1 3 . H. T. Haan, H. P. Johnson,and D. L. Brakensiek(eds.),Hydrologic Modeling of Small
Watersheds,ASAE MonographNo. 5. St. Joseph,MI: American Societyof Agricuitural
Engineers,1982.
14. R. K. Linsley,M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Hydrologyfor Engineers,3rded. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
1 5 . H. L. Penman,"Natural Evaporationfrom Open Water,Bare Soil, and Grass,"Proc. R.
Soc.LondonSer.A 193(1032),120-145(Apr.1948).
16. F. G. Millar, "Evaporationfrom FreeWaterSurfaces,l'CanadaDepartmentof Transport,
Division of MeteorologicalServices,Can, Meteor. Mem. vol. l, No. 2, 1937.
1 7 . J. B. Franzini, "Evaporation SuppressionResearch,"Water and SewageWorks (May
1961).
1 8 . Victor K. La Mer, "The Casefor EvaporationSuppression," Chem.Eng.(June10, 1963).
1 9 . D. R. Maidment(ed.),Handbookof Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill,1993.
20. H. F. Blaney,"Water and Our Crops," inWater, the Yearbookof Agriculture. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture,1955.
110 CHAPTER5 EVAPORATION ANDTRANSPIRATION
"Monthly Consumptive Use Requirementsfor Irrigated Crops," Proc.
ZI. H. F. Blaney,
ASCE,J. Irrigation DrainageDiv. 85(IR1), 1-12(Mar' 1959)'
22. yen Te Chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill ' 1964.
"Methods of Computing ConsumptiveUse of Water." Proc. ASCE J.
23. W. D; Criddle,
Irrigation DrainageDiv. 84(IR1), 1-27(Jan' 1958)'
,;Estimating Evaporation," Trans. Am. Geoplrys. union 37(l), 43-
24. H. L. penman,
5o(1es6). "Reductionof Transpiration,"J. Geophy.Res.66(10), 3309-3312(Oct.
25. N. J. Roberts,
1961).
"Researchon control of Phreatophytes,"Proc. Ninth Annual water con-
26. E. H. Hughes,
ference,New Mexico StateUniversity,Las Cruces,Mat. 1964'
21. R. K. Linsley,Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Hydrologyfor Engineers.New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
"National WeatherServiceRiver ForecastSys-
28. Staff, Hydrologic ResearchLaboratory,
tem ForecastProcedures,"NWS HYDRO 14. U.S. Departmentof Commerce,Washing-
ton. D.C..Dec. 1972. "usDAHL-74 Revised
29. H. N. Holtan, G. J. Stiltner,w. H. Henson,and N. C. Lopez,
Modelof WatershedHydrology," ARS Tech.Bull. No. 1518.U.S.DepartmentofAgricul-
ture, Washington, D.C., 1975.
"Evapotranspiration-Review of Re-
N. J. Rosenberg,H. E. Hart, and K. w. Brown,
search,"MP 20, Agricultural ExperimentStation,University of Nebraska,Lincoln, 1968'
3 1 . H. McCuen, HydrologicAnalysis and Design.Englewoodcliffs, New Jersey:Prentice
R.
Hall, 1989.
"Correlation of ClimatologicalData with WaterR'equire-
3 2 . W. O. Pruitt and F. J. Lourence,
ments of Crops." University of California Water ScienceEng. Paper9001. Davis, June
1968.
"Potential Evaporation:The cornbination concept and Its Experi-
33. C. H. M. Van Bavel,
mental Verification," WaterResourcesRes.2' 455-467(1966)'
"Discussionof Paperby H. L. Penman,'Estimating Evaporation,"' Trans'
34. H. F. Blaney,
Am. Geoplrys.Union37,46-48(Feb. 1956).
"Digital Simulationin Hydrology:StanfordWater-
35. N. H. Criwford and R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Tech. Rept. 39, Departmentof Civil Engineering,Stanford University'
July 1966.
36. W. C. Huber, J. P. Heaney,S. J' Nix, R. E. Dickinson, and D"J' Polmann' Storm Water
ManagementModel (lsei's Manual, Version /11, EPA-60012-84-109a(NTIS PB84-
198423).Cincinnati, oH: EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Nov. 1981.
37. L.A. Roesner,R. P. Shubinski,and J. A. Aldrich, StormWaterManagementModel User's
Manual, versionIII: AddendumI, Extran, EPA-600/2-84-109b(NTIS PB84-198431).
Cincinnati, OH: EnvironmentalProtection Agency,Nov' 1981'
Chapter6
Streamflow
r Prologue
. Introduce the conceptof streamflow.

. Describethe characteristicsof a hydrograph.
' Presentapproachesto measuringstreamflow.
The amountof water flowing in surfacewater coursesat any instant of time is small
in termsof the earth's total waterbudget,but it is of considerableimportanceto those
concernedwith waterresourcesdevelopment,supply,and management.A knowledge
of the quantity and quality of streamflowsis a requisite for: municipal, industrial,
agriculiural, and other water supply endeavors;flood control; reservoir designand
operation; hydroelectricpower generation;water-basedrecreation;navigation;fish
und .ildlit" management;drainage; the managementof natural systemssuch as
wetlands;and water and wastewatertreatment.
Streamflowis generatedby precipitationduring stormeventsand by groundwa-
ter entering surface channels.During dry periods, streamflowsare sustainedby
groundwaterdischarges.Where groundwaterreservoirsare below streamchannels-
often the casein arid regions-streams ceaseto flow during protractedprecipitation-
free periods. Relations between precipitation and streamflow are complex, being
influJnced by the factors discussedin the foregoing chapters.As a result, many
approachesto relating theseimportant hydrologicvariableshavebeen developed.l-3
Severalof them are discussedin detail in Part Three of the text'
Field measurementsof streamflow are based on the use of flow-measuring
devicessuchas weirs and flumes and on the measurementof channelcross-sections
along with streamflowvelocities(seeChapter 8).
DRAINAGEBASINEFFECTS
The quality and quantity of streamflowgeneratedin a drainagebasin are affectedby
the bisin's physical,vegetative,and climatic features.a-eAccordingly,it is important
that the have
hydrologist a good understanding ofthe soils, rocks,plants,topography,
J12 6 STREAMFLOW
CHAPTER
land-usepatterns,and otherbasincharacteristicsthat influencethe sequenceof events
separatingprecipitation and runoff. It should be pointed out, however,that while
natural basin featuresare very important elementsin the runoff process,land-use
ieatures createdby humans (e.g., housingdevelopments,parking lots, agricultural
patterns)may,in somecases,be the dominantones.Land managementpracticescan
be beneficial,suchasin retardingerosion,and they can alsobe detrimentalwhenthey
function to acceleratenatural hydrologicprocesses.In Chapter10,the principal basin
characteristicsof concern to the hydrologistare discussed.
6.2 THE HYDROGRAPH
Streamflow,at a givenlocationon a watercourse,is representedby a hydrograph.This

continuousgraph displaysthe propertiesof streamflowwith respectto time, normally
obtained by nteansof a continuousrecorder that shows stage(depth) versustime
(stagehydrograph),and is then transformedinto a dischargehydrographby applica-
tion of a rating curve. In general, the term hydrograph as used herein means a
dischargehydrograph.
As was shownin Fig. 1.3, the hydrographproducedin a streamis the result of
various hydrologicprocessesthat occur-duringand after any precipitation event. A
more completediscussionof theseprocesses is given in Chapter11. A hydrographhas
four component elements: (1) direct surface runoff, (2) interflow, (3) groundwateror
baseflow, and (4) channel precipitation. The rising portion of a hydrographis known
as the concentration curve; the region in the vicinity of the peak is calledthe crest
, segrnent;andthe falling portion is the recession.lo The shapeof a hydrographdepends
on precipitation pattem characteristics and basin properties. Figure 6.1 illustratesthe
definitionspresented.
Stormperiod hydrograph
'{1
oa-. Endof
. I'a direct runoff
\% .
\
Y
Continuous
hydrograph
Time
Figure 6.1 Hydrograph definition.
6.4 MEASURINGAND RECORDINGSTREAMFLOW 113
FORSTREAMFLOW
6.3 UNITSOF MEASUREMENT
Two types of units are usedin measuringwater flowing in streams.They are units of
dischargeand units of volume.Discharge,or rate of flow, is the volume of water that
passesa particularreferencepoint in a unit of time. The basicunits usedin connection
with streamgaugingin the United Statesare the foot and meter for measurements of
dimensionand the secondfor measurementsof time. Commonly usedunits of dis-
chargemeasurementare cubic feet per second(cfs) and cubic meters per second
(m3/sec).Other units of dischargein useare second-footper squaremile (sec-ft/mi2),
for expressingthe averagerate of dischargefrom a drainagebasinor definedarea,and
million gallonsper day (mgd),commonly usedin water supplycalculations.Units of
volume used are the cubic foot, cubic meter, liter, gallon, and acre-foot (a volume
equivalent to 1 ft of water over an acre, 43,560 ft2, of land). The latter unit is
commonly used in irrigation practice in the westernUnited States.Irrespectiveof
whetherEnglish or metric units are usedfor dimensions,the standardunit of time for
streamflowobservationsis the second.
AND RECORDING
6.4 MEASURING STREAMFLOW
Streamflowratesmay be determinedusinggaugingdevicessuchas flumes,weirs,and

control sections,or they may be calculated from measurementsof head (depth),
velocity, and cross-sectionalarea.t-t Usually, specific devices such as flumes are
' bI) 6 6
o
bo
a )
ri
3000
Discharge (sec-ft)
Figure 6.2 Station rating curve for RaquetteRiver at Piercefield,New York. (U.S.
GeologicalSurvey.)
114 CHAPTER6 STREAMFLOW
limited to small streamsbecauseof problems of scale.For large stream systems,

dischargeis normally estimatedby measuringvelocity and using the cross-sectional
areato translatethis measurementinto discharge.Where flow-measuringdevicesare
used,it is customaryto observethe head and use a rating curve to translatethis into
discharge.When direct flow measurementscannot be made, dischargecalculations
are often facilitated by use of velocity-area relations, chemical tracers, electrical
methods,and empirical equationssuchas the Manning formula'
In the United States,the primary responsibilityfor gaugingmajor streamslies
of
with the U.S. GeologicalSurvey,with a systematicrecord of streamflowin terms
mean daily dischargebeing the norm. Usually, a stage recording is obtained at a
gauging siie and this record is convertedinto discharge by one or more of several
(seeChap-
-"tttoAr. Rating curves,tables, and formulas are used for this purpose
ter 11).Figure 6.2 rho*r a typical stage-dischargerating curve' The instruments and
methodsusedto convertstagerecordingsto dischargemustbe carefully adapted to the
natural or artiflcial conditions encounteredat the gauging site so as to ensure the
reliability of conversions.'
AREA
OF DEPTHAND CROSS.SECTIONAL
6.5 MEASUREMENTS
Unlessa direct flow-measuringdevicecanbe installedin a stream,aratity for streams

of any scale,measurementsof depth of flow and cross-sectionalareawill be needed
to permit dischargeto be calculated. Depth measurementsmay be taken using
weighted soundin! [nes, calibrated rods, and ultrasonic soundingdevices.Cross-
sectionalareasat streamsectionscan be determinedusing ordinary surveyingtech-
niquescombinedwith soundingsor other depth measurementsthat ate taken below
the water level at the time of the survey.Although the measurementof depth and
cross-sectional areaseems simple,accuratedeterminationsrequirecarefulcalibration
of instrumentsand the ability to deal with submergedconditions.
OF VELOCITY
6.6 MEASUREMENT
Velocity measurements, combinedwith thoseof cross-sectionalarea,permit calcula-
tion of dischargeat a given stream or river location. Point flow velocities can be
determinedusing velocity-measuringdevicessuch as the Pitot tube, dynamometer'
and current -"i"r. In the United States,the Price current meter has long been a
standardin streamflowgauging.This deviceoperatesby exposingcuppedvanesto the
direction of flow, *o"h lik" the anemometerused in measuringwind velocity. The
cup-vaneassemblyrotatesin nearproportion to flow velocity and the rate of rotation
is convertedto point velocity using a rating table or appropriateequation'
, Various chemical and electrical methods are also employed in determining
velocities.Commonly usedchemicalmethodsinclude salt velocity, salt dilution' and
is
the detectionof radioactivetracers. Of these methods,the salt velocity method
perhapsthe most widely used.It is basedon the principle that salt introducedinto the
streamwill increaseits electricalconductivity.Electrodesplaceddownstreamof the
FLOWVELOCIry
POINTVELOCIryTO CROSS-SECTIONAL
6.7 RELATING 115
Figure6.3 Verticalvelocityprofile
salt injection senseconductivity changesand thesecan be translatedinto velocity by

knowing the spacingof electrodesand keeping track of time. Electrical methods
includethe useof hot wire anemometers,electromagneticvoltagegeneration,oxygen
polarography,and supersonicwaves.aStreamflowconditionsvary widely and thus no
specificapproachto velocity determinationis universally suitable.The best method
for use at a given site must be determinedon the basis of the characteristicsof
streamflowat that site.
Field observationshave shown that the mean velocity in a verticai stream
sectionis closelyapproximatedby the averageof the velocitiesoccurringat depthsof
20percentand 80 percentof the total sectiondepthrespectively(seeFig.6.3).11'12
Where depthsarevery shallow,on the orderof 0.5 feet, singlemeterreadingsat about
the 50 percentpoint havebeen shownto yield good results.t' Velocity measurements
and geometricdefinitionsof streamchannelcross-sections permit estimatingchannel
flows at locationswhere velocity and depth measurements havebeen made.
POINTVELOCITY
6.7 RELATING FLOWVELOCITY
TO CROSS-SECTIONAL
While point velocity measurementsare important, what is desiredis a method to

translatethem into the averagecross-sectionalflow velocity. This averagevelocity,
when multiplied by the cross-sectionalarea,yields the dischargeat a given stream
section.One procedureis to take point velocity measurementsat numerousvertical
and horizontal positions in a crosi section,plot them, and then determinevelocity
contours.By calculatingthe areasbetweenthe contoursand assigningthe averageof
the flow velocitiesof the two confining contoursto theseareas,a determinationof
meanvelocity can be made.Once this is accomplished,dischargeis easilycalculated.
Other approachesmake use of the geometric properties of stream channel
cross-sections. One suchtechniqueis the mean-sectionmethod.To usethis approach,
it is necessary divide the streamchannelcross-sectionat a gauginglocation into a
to
Water surface
for Example6.1
Figure 6.4 Channelcross-section
seriesof geometricshapes(seeFig. 6.4). AL eachvertical location along the cross-

section,the meanvelocity is estimatedfrom measurements. The averagevelocity of
flow for the area between two verticals is considered to be equal to the averageof the
meanvelocities for eachof the bordering verticals. The discharge betweentwo verti-
cals is thus the average velocity for the section multiplied by the area of the section.
The individual discharges are then summed to provide an estimated total flow for the
channel at that location. Note that it is important to have enough measurements to
characterize the cross-section. The procedure is illustrated in Example 6.1.
EXAMPLE 6.1
Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4. Data from field observations
are shownin Tables6.1 and6.2.
TABLE 6.1 DATA FOR EXAMPLE6.1 6.1

TABLE6.2 DATAFOREXAMPLE
Depth Avg. vel.

Verticalsection# (ft.) (rps)
0 0 0
I 4 2.1
2 5 2.3
'7.2 2.7
3
4 7.4 2.8
5 2.5
6 4.'1 2.2
7 0 0
,117
METHODFORDETERMINING
6.8 THESLOPE-AREA DISCHARGE
TABLE6.3 CALCULATIONS
FOR
EXAMPLE
6.1
Area Vel. Flow
Area (sq.ft.) (fps) (cfs)
A1 8.40 1.05 8.82
A2 14.85 2.20 32.67
A3 29.28 2.50 73.20
A4 3't.96 2,75 104.39
A5 26.83 2.65 7t.09
A6 30.09 2.35 70.71
A7 13.87 1.10 15.25
t61,.27 376.t3
Total estimateddischargeis 376.13 cfs
Solution. The first step is to calculatethe individual section areas(A1, A2,

etc.). The calculatedareas(usingtriangular or trapezoidalformulas)are shown
on spreadsheet Table6.3. Next, the estimatedmeanvelocitiesat the verticalsare
multiplied by the section areasto obtain the individual area discharges(see
Table 6.3). Thesedischargesare summedto yield an estimated376.13 cfs of
flow being deliveredby the full channelwidth. r I
DISCHARGE
METHODFORDETERMINING
6.8 THE SLOPE.AREA
In somecasesit is difflcult to make velocity or other measurementsneededto deter:
mine discharge.This is often the caseduring large flood events.Under suchcircum-
stances,it is sometimespossibleto estimatethe flow by taking measurements of high
water lines (after the flood event),cross-sectionalareas,and channelslopesand then
usingthesedatain an equationsuchasManning's to estimatethe flow. The applicable
Manning equationis
Q : \I.49ln)APzrzgrrz (6.1)
where Q : discharge(cfs)
n : Manning's roughnesscoefficient
A : cross-sectionalarea(ft2)
R: the hydraulic radius
S: the headloss per unit length of channel
For streamflows,Manning's n valuesmay rangebetweenabout0.03 and 0.15. When
reasonabledeterminationscan be made of n, A, R, and S, Eq. 6.1 can be used
to estimate the streamflow that occurred during the high-water period. For a
more completediscussionof this and other streamflowdeterminationmethods,the
referencesat the end ofthe chaptershouldbe consulted.References4 and 10 give an

excellent overview of techniques and include a valuable list of references on
streamflow.
r Summary
Streamflowis the result of storm-periodprecipitation, snowmelt,and groundwater
discharge.l3It is a primary sourceof water for a host of instreamand offstreamuses.
The graphicalrepresentationof streamflowis the hydrograph,a plot of flow versus
time at a prescribedlocation alongthe water courseof interest.As illustratedby Fig.
1.3, the end product of many hydrologicmodelingprocessesis a hydrographwhich is
derived from a precipitation input, modified appropriatelyby various abstractions
suchas infiltration. Methodsfor measuringstreamflowin the field were presentedin
this chapter.In later sectionsofthe book, a variety oftechniquesfor deriving hydro-
graphs from precipitation and other hydrologic data are covered (seePart Three).
PROBLEMS
6.t. Considerthat you haveobtaineda gaugeheightreadingof4 ft at a gaugingsite on the
RaquetteRiver (Fig. 6.2). What would you estimatethe dischargeto be in cfs and in
m3/sec?If the gaugeheighthad been9 ft, what would the dischargebe?Which of the
two estimatesdo you think would be the most reliable?Why?
6.2. SolveProblem 6.1 if the gaugeheight readingswere 5 ft and 7 ft.
6.3. Consulta USGSWaterSupplypaperand plot the streamflowdatafor a drainagebasin
ofinterest.Discussthe factorsthat you believeinfluencedthe shapeofthe hydrograph.
6.4. For the major surfacewater course in your locality, discussthe value of making
streamflowforecasts.
6.5. Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4 if the depth measurementsat
Give resultsin
the verticalswere:0, 3.8, 5.4, 7.1,8.1,7.0,4.5, and 0 ft respectively.
cfs and m3/s.
Calculatethe dischargeat the sectiongiven in Fig. 6.4 if the velocitieswere: 0, 2.3,
2.6,3.1,2.9,2.7,2.5, and0 fps respective$,and the depthsof Problem6.5 applied.
Give resultsin cfs and m3/s.
REFERENCES
1 . N. C. Grover and A. W. Harrington, StreamF/ow. New York Wiley, 1943.
2. United StatesDepartmentof the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,Water Measurement
Manual. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967.
3 . I. E. Houk, "Calculation of Flow in Open Channels,"Stateof Ohio, The Miami Conser-
vancy District, Tech. Rept. Part IV, Dayton, OH, 1918.
4. Ven Te Chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
5 . American Society of Civil Engineers,"Hydrology Handbook," Manuals of Engineering
Practice.No. 28. New York: ASCE. 1957.
REFERENCES 1 19
6 . O. E. Meinzer, Hydrology.New York: Dover, 1942.
7 . A. N. Strahler, "Geology-Part II," Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill. 1964.
8 . R. E. Horton, "Drainage Basin Characteristics,"Trans.Am. Geoplrys.Union l3r 35O-
36r(1932\.
9 . W. B. Langbeinet al., "TopographicCharacteristicsof DrainageBasins,"U.S. Geological
Survey,Water Supply Paper,968-c, 1947.
1 0 . R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied Hydrology. New York:
McGrawHill, 1949.
1 1 . S. S. Butler, EngineeringHydrology.EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1951.
12. C. H. Pierce,"Investigationof Methodsand EquipmentUsedin StreamGauging,"Water
Supply Paper 868-A, U.S. GeologicalSurvey,Washington,D.C.: GovernmentPrinting
Office,1941.
1 3 . D. R. Maidment (ed.),Handbookof Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill , 1993.
PART TWO
MEASUREM
HYDROLOGIC ENTS
AND MONITORING
Chapter7
HydrologicDataSources
r Prologue
The purposeof this chaPteris to:
. Describethe principal sourcesof data for hydrologicinvestigations.
Data on hydrologicvariablesare fundamentalto analyses,forecasting,and modeling.

Such data *uy 1" found in numerouspublications of state and federal agencies,
researchinstitutes,universities,and otheroganizations.Severalofthe most significant
sourcesof hydrologicdata are describedbriefly in this chapter'1-3
DATA
7 . 1 GENERALCLIMATOLOGICAL
The most readily availablesourcesof data on temperature,solarradiation,wind, and

humidity are ilimatological Data bulletins publishedby the EnvironrnentalData
Service of the Nationai Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and
Monthly Summaryof Solar RadiationData publtshedby the National Climatic Data
Center.The EnvironmentalData Service,in cooperationwith the World Meteorolog-
ical Organization(WMO), also publishesMonthly Climatic Data for the World- A
1968 publication of the Environmental SciencesService Administration, entitled
Climalic Atlasof the UnitedStates,summarizeswind, temperature,humidity, evapo-
ration, precipitation, and solar radiation on a seriesof maps. In addition-to these
federal sourcesof data, stateenvironmental,geologic,water resources,and agricul-
tural agenciesshouldbe consulted.Most stateuniversitiesalso publish a variety of
hydrologicdata through their researchcentersand extensionprograms.
DATA
7.2 PRECIPITATION
There are probably more records of precipitation than of most otherhydrologic
variables.The priniipal federalsourceof data on precipitationis NOAA. Climatolog-
ical Data, publishedmonthly and annuallyfor eachstateor combinationof states,the
pacific area,PuertoRico, and the Virgin Islandsby the EnvironmentalData Service,
E # = ,
124 CHAPTER7 HYDROLOGICDATA SOURCES
presentsa table of monthly averages,departuresfrom normal, and extremes of

precipitation and temperatureas well as tables of daily precipitation, temperature,
snowfall,snowon ground,evaporation,wind, and soil temperatarc.Hourly Precipita-
tion Data is issuedmonthly and annuallyfor eachstateor combinationof statesand
presentsalphabeticallyby station the hourly and daily precipitation amounts for
stationsequippedwith recordingauges.A stationlocationmap is alsoincluded.This
publication is availablefrom the EnvironmentalData Service.Another publication,
World WeatherRecords,is issuedby geographicregionsfor 10-yearperiods.Data are
listed by country or areaname, station name,latitude and longitude,and elevation.
Monthly and annualmeanvaluesof stationpressure,sea-levelpressure,and temper-
aiure, and monthly and annualtotal precipitationare given in sequentialorder.Aside
from NOAA, other federal and state agenciesand universitiespublish precipitation
dataat varying intervals,often in a storm o1 site-specificcontext.In addition, many
municipalitiesand water and wastewaterutilities also collect and maintain precipita-
tion and other related data. Computeized precipitation data are availablefrom the
National Climatic Data Centerin Asheville,North Carolina.
DATA
7.3 STREAMFLOW
The principal sourcesof streamflowdatafor the United Statesare the U.S. Geological
Survey(USGS),U.S. Soil Conservation Service(SCS),U.S.ForestService,andU.S.
Agricultural ResearchService(ARS). In addition,the U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers
(COE), the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and the U.S. Bureauof Reclamation
(USBR) make somestreamflowmeasurementsand tabulatestreamflowdata relative
to their missions.Stateagencies,universities,and variousresearchorganizationsalso
compile and publish a variety of streamflowdata.
The USGS Water Supply Papers(WSf; are the benchmark for referencing
streamflowdata. Furthermore,computerizeddata are also availablefrom the USGS.
Publications of the Geological Survey, publishedevery 5 years and supplemented
. annually, arean excellentsourceof information on that agency'sreports. The SCS
historically published data on streamflow from small watershedsand plots in its
Hydrologic Bulletin series,but much of the data have been republishedby ARS.
"pilot watersheds"are publishedin cooperationwith the USGS.
Recordsfrom SCS
U.S. Forest Service streamflow data are publishedat irregular intervals in various
technicalbulletins and professionalpapers.
DATA
AND.TRANSPIRATION
7.4 EVAPORATION
Monthly and annualissuesof ClimatologicalData, publishedby NOAA, includepan
evaporationand related data. The ARS, agricultural colleges,and water utilities are
other sourcesof information. In particular, data on evapotranspirationare often
obtained by university researchersworking through their Agricultural Experiment
Stations.
REFERENCES 125
r summary
Climatic and other data are keystonesin hydrologicmodelingprocesses.Numerous
sources of data exist and may be accessedto support model developmentand
verification, statisticalanalyses,and specialstudies.
PROBLEM
7.1 Developa list ofdata sourcesin your stateorlocality by visiting the library or through
other channels.
REFERENCES
1 . Soil ConservationService,U,S. Departmentof Agriculture, SCSNational Engineering
Handbook, "Hydrology", Sec. 4. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
Au,g.1972.
J. F. Miller, "Annotated Bibliography of NOAA Publications of Hydrometeorological
Interest," NOAA Tech. Mem. NWS HYDRO-22, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Washington,D.C., May 1975. ,
D. R. Maidment (ed.), Handbookof fudrology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
ChapterB
lnstrumentation
Prologue
' Describeinstrumentsusedin measuringhydrologicvariables.

. Indicate waysin which data are recordedand transmitted.
. Presentlimitations on measurements.
The data neededto supporthydrologicanalysesmust be obtainedin sufficientquan-

tity, with adequatefrequency,and in an appropriateform if they are to be of value.
A variety of instrumentsareusedto obtain and transmitthe data.They are the subject
of this chapter.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrologicinstrumentationsupportsarealinvestigations,problemanalyses,research,
planning,and environmentalpolicymakingand analysis.A hostof measurements are
neededto support efforts in water resourcesplanning, management,design, and
constructionrelatedto suchsubjectsas aquifer systemsanalysis,solid wastemanage-
ment, flood hazardassessment, water supplyavailability,water quality management,
groundwaterrecharge,protection of fish and wildlife, and navigation.
Historically,instrumentswere often usedto obtain cumulativerather than con-
tinuousinformation abouthydrologicvariablessuchasrainfall and evaporation.Fqr-
thermore,there was often no attemptto correlatewater quality constituentloadings,
for example,with ratesof water flow. Consequently,many historic data havelimited
utility, not somuchbecauseof lack of adequateinstrumentation,but ratherfrom using
availableinstrumentsto measurethe wrong thing or in too limiting a fashion.Today
'
it is widely recognizedthat it is important not only to selectappropriateinstruments
but to selectthem in the contextof datanetworksthat meetthe needsof moderntimes.
More will be said about this in Chapter9, In Section8.2, instrumentsfor measuring
hydrologicvariablesand waysin which they can be usedjointly to createa complete
. representationof a functioning hydrologicsystemare discussed.
INSTRUMENTS 127
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
INSTRUMENTS
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
Good sourcesof information abouthydrologicinstrumentsare the National Weather
Service,U.S. GeologicalSurvey,U.S. Bureauof Reclamation,U.S. Army Corpsof
Engineers,Soil ConservationService,and instrumentmanufacturers,Theseagencies
and industrieshavelong been in the businessof measuringhydrologicvariablesand
theycanprovidedetaileddescriptionsof state-of-the-artmeasuringdevices.Someofthe
major typesof measuringinstruments are describedhere, but the coverageis far from
exhaustiveand the interestedreader should consult the appropriate references.l-3
Precipitation
Gaugesfor measuringrainfall and snowfall may be recording or nonrecording.The
mostcommonnonrecordinggaugeis the U.S. WeatherServicestandard8-in. gauge.
The gaugemay be read at any desirableinterval but often this is daily. The gaugeis
calibrated so that a measuringstick, when inserted, showsthe equivalentrainfall
depth. Such gaugesare useful when only periodic volumes are required, but they
cannotbe usedto indicate the time distribution of rainfall'
Recordinggaugescontinuouslysensethe ratb of rainfall and its time of occur-
rence.Thesegaugesare usually either ofthe weighing-recordingtype or the tipping
buckettype. Weighing-typegaugesusually run for a period of 1 week, at which time
their chartsmustbe changed.The figure associatedwith Problem2.5 is typical of the
recordedoutput. A masscurve of rainfall depth versustime is the product, and this
curve can be translatedinto an intensity-time graph by calculating the ratios of
accumulatedrainfall to time for whatevertime stepis desired.Tipping bucketgauges,
on the other hand, senseeach consecutiverainfall accumulationwhen it reachesa
prescribedamount, usually 0.01 in. or 1 mm of rain, A small calibratedbucket is
located below the rainfall entry port of the gauge. When it fills to the 0.01-in.
incrementit tips over,bringing a secondbucketinto position.Thesetwo small buckets
are placed on a swivel and the bucketstip back and forth as they fiIl. Each time a
bucketspills it producesan indication on a strip chart or other recordingform. In this
way a record of rainfall depth versustime (intensity)is the outcome.For rain gauges
" to record snow accumulations,some modifications must be made. Usually these
involveproviding a melting agentso that the snow can be convertedinto measurable
water.
Figure 8.la is the diagram of a self-reportingrain gaugingstation.The tipping
bucketmechanismgeneratesa digital input signal whenever1 mm of rainfall drains
through the funnel assembly.The signalfrom the gaugeis automaticallytransmitted
to a receiving station where it records the station ID number and an accumulated
amountof rainfall. The receiving stationrecordsthe time at which the messagewas
received and rainfall rates for desiredperiods can be calculated accordingly' Fig-
ure 8.1b showsa similar gaugeequippedto measuresnow.In this case,a glycometh
solution is usedto melt the snow.The melt water overflowsthrough a temperature-
compensatingmechanismand is measuredby the tipping bucket,which operatesthe
station's transmitter.Gaugesof the type shownin Fig. 8.1 can easilybe incorporated
into real-time monitoring systemsthat can be used in a variety of forecastingand
operatingmodes.
128 8 INSTRUMENTATION
CHAPTER
Antenna
Antenna mast
Antenna
Temperatffe
compensation
overflow
Antenna mast mechanism
Glycometh
Funnel assembly collecting
section
Tipping bucket Tipping bucket

Drain holes (4)
Signalcable
Signalcable
Lifting rope Lifting rope
Antennacable Antennacablb
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1 Self-reporting (a) rain and (b) snow stations. (Courtesy of Sierra-
, Misco, Inc., EnvironmentalProducts,Berkeley,CA.)
Evaporationand Transpiration
Evaporationpans have been widely used for estimatingthe amount of evaporation
from free water surfaces.Devicessuchasthat depictedin Fig. 8.2 areeasyto use,but
relating measurements taken from them to actual field conditionsis difficult and the
.. -data_lhey-produceare often of questionablevalue for making areal estimates.A
INSTRUMENTS
8.2 HYDROLOGIC 129
tr'igure 8.2 U.S. Weather Bureau Class

A pan.
variety of pan types havebeen developedbut the U.S. WeatherBureauClassA pan

is the standardin the United States.4Panevaporationobservationshavebeenusedto
estimateboth free water(lake) evaporationand evapotranspirationfrom well-watered
vegetation.Field experimentshave shown a high degreeof correlation of pan data
with evapotranspirationfrom surroundingvegetationwhen there is full cover and
goodwatersupply.a As in the caseof precipitationgauges,pan datacan be recorded
and transmittedcontinuouslyto a central receiving station.
Evapotranspirationmeasurementsare often made using lysimeters.Thesede-
vices are containersplaced in the field and filled with soil, on which sometype of
vegetativegrowth is maintained.The object is to study soil-water-plant relationsin
a natural surrounding.The main featureof a weighinglysimeteris a block of undis-
turbed soil, usually weighing about 50 tons, encasedin a steel shell that is 10 ft by
10 ft by 8 ft. The lysimeteris buried so that only a plasticborder marksthe top of the
containedsoil. The entire block of soil and the steelcasingare placedon an under-
ground scale sensitiveenough to record even the movement of a rabbit over its
surface.The soil is weighed at intervals, often every 30 min around the clock, to
measurechangesin soil water level. The scalesare set to counterbalancemost of the
deadweight of the soil and measureonly the active changein weight of water in the
soi1.5The scalescan weigh accuratelyabout 400 g (slightly under 1 1b), which is
equivalent to 0.002 in. of water. The weight loss from the soil in the lysimeter
representswaterusedby the vegetativecoverplus any soil evaporation.Added water
is also weighedand thus an accountingof water contentcan be kept. Crops or cover
are plantedon the areasurroundingthe lysimeterto provide uniformity of conditions
surroundingthe instrument.Continuousrecordsat the set weighingintervalsprovide
almostcontinuousmonitoring of conditions.The data obtainedcan be transmittedto
any desirablelocation for analysisand/or other use.Weighinglysimeterscan produce
accuratevaluesof evapotranspirationover short periodsof time. But they are expen-
sive.Nonweighingtypes of lysirneters,which are lesscostly,havealsobeenused,but
unless the soil moisture content can be measuredreliably by some independent
method,the data obtainedfrom them cannotbe relied on exceptfor long-term mea-
surementssuchas betweenprecipitationevents.s
and HumiditY
Wind,Temperature,
Measurementsof wind, temperature,and humidity are neededto supportmany types
of hydrologicanalyses.Wind is commonly measuredusing an anemometer,a device
that has a wind-propelledelementsuchas a cup (Fig. 8.2) or propellerwhosespeed
is calibratedto reflect wind velocity. Wind direction is obtainedusing a vane,which
orients itself with the direction of the wind.
130 CHAPTER
8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
Temperaturemeasurementsare madeusing standardthermometersof various
types,while hurnidity is measuredusing a psychrometer.A psychrometerconsistsof
two thermometers,one called a wet bulb, the other a dry bulb. Upon ventilation the
thermometersmeasuredifferently, and this differenceis called the wet-bulb depres-
sion.By usingappropriatetables,dewpoint, vaporpressure,andrelativehumidity can
, be determined.6
Figure 8.3 depictsa completeweatherstation incorporatingmeasurementsof
precipitation, wind, temperature,barometricpressure,and humidity. Sucha station
- can automatically
report weatherdata from remote siteson either an event and/or
Funnel assembly
Solar panel
Tipping bucket
Lifting rope
Antennacable
Main housing
Signal cable
Ground level
Transmitter
Figure 8.3 Self-reporting weather station. (Courtesy of

Sierra-Misco, Inc., Environmental Products, Berkeley,
CA.)
131
INSTRUMENTS
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
timed basisto a central site. A station suchas this can be used for marine weather
forecasting,quantitativedeterminationsof oncoming storms,determinationof wind
effect on tidal areas,and establishinga data basefor irrigation.
OpenChannelFlow
Measurementsof open channel(natural and created)flow are made using standard
measuringdevicessuchas flumes and weirs, and they are also madeby calibrating
special control sectionsalong rivers and streamssuchthat measurementsof depth
(Jtage)of flow can be related to discharge.Flow-measuringdevicesare designedso
that sensingsomeparametersuchas depth automaticallytranslatesthe observation
into units of flow (discharge).When a control sectionis used,observationsof cross-
sectionalareafor variousdepthsmust be obtained,and averageflow velocitiesmust
be ascertainedfor variousstagesso that a sectionrating curve can be established.In
the United States,the U.S. GeologicalSurvey,the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,the
Soil ConservationService,andthe U.S. Army Corpsof Engineershavedoneextensive
flow measuringand havebeen active in developinginstrumentsand proceduresfor
ascertainingrates of flow.2'6
Weirs Weirs are common water-measuringdevices.When they are properly in-

stalled and maintainedthey can be a very simple and accuratemeansfor gauging
discharge.The most often usedweir types are the rectangularweir and the V-notch
weir (Flg. 8.4). To be effective,weirs usually require a fall of about0.5 ft or more in
the channelin which they are placed.Basically,a weir is an overflow structureplaced
acrossan open channel.For a weir of specificsize and shapewith free-flow steady-
stateconditionsand a proper weir-to-pool relation, only one depth of watercan exist
in the upstreampool for a particular discharge.Flow rate is determinedby measuring
the vertical distancefrom the crestof the overflowpart of the weir to the watersurface
in the upstreampool. The weir's calibrationcurvethen translatesthis recordeddepth
into rate of flow at the device.
Parshall Flumes A Parshallflumeis a speciallyshapedopenchannelflow section

that can be installedin a channelsection.Figure 8.5 depictsone of thesedevices.The
flume has severalmajor advantages:(1) it can operatewith a relatively small head
loss;(2) it is fairly insensitiveto the approachvelocity; (3) it can be usedevenundet
submergedconditions;and (4) its flow velocity is usually sufficientto precludesedi-
ment depositsin the structure.2The Parshallflume was developedby the late Ralph
L. Parshill and it is a particular form of venturi flume. The constrictedthroat of the
flume producesa differential headthat canbe relatedto discharge.Thus,asin the case
.ofthe weir, an observationofdepth (head)is all that is requiredto determinethe rate
of flow at the control point. Weirs and flumes are generally best suitedto gauging
small streamsand openchannels,althoughlargebroad-crestedweirs can be installed
at dam sites as part of overflow structures.For major rivers, other measuringap-
proachessuchas developingfield ratings at a specifiedcontrol sectionmust be re-
lied on.
132 CHAPTER8 INSTRUMENTATION
Figure 8.4 Field installation of weirs: (a) rectangular and (b) V-

notch. USDA CooperativeExtensionService,Mountain StatesArea.
Golttrol Sections where the installation of a weir, flume, or some other flow-
measuringdeviceis impractical, it is sometimespossibleto developa rating curve at
somelocation alonga streamby taking measurements of depth,cross-sectionalarea,
and velocity and calculatingthe rate of flow for a particular stageat the location.By
doing this for a range of depths of flow, a station rating curve can be developed.
Instrumentsrequired to developsuch a curve are depth-sensingdevices,surveying
instruments,and velocity meters.The velocity meter is similar to an anemometer.It
is placedat variouspositionsin the channeland a velocity is recorded.By doing this
at a numberoflocations, a velocity profile for a given depth can be developed.From
this an averageflow velocity can bJcomputed, ind uy uiing that determinationand
INSTRUMENTS 133
8.2 HYDROLOGIC
Diverging
sectlon
Throat section
a
J
Altemate45"
wing wall
PLAN
t x t xf,tngle
SECTIONZ-f,
Figure 8.5 Parshallflume.(U.S.Soil Conservation
Service.)
the cross-sectionalarea,dischargecan be calculatedas the product of meanvelocity

and cross-sectionalarea.If observationscan be madefor a rangeof depths,a rating
curvecanbe developedfor the control sectionsothat only measurements of depthwill
be needed to estimaterate of flow at somelater time. Additional information on this
proceduremay be found in Refs.2 and 6.
Valve shut-offkeys
Connecting band
Valves
Figure 8.6 Recorderhouseand stilling well for a streamgaugingstation. (U.S. Bureau

of Reclamation.)
134 CHAPTER
8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
Depth (stage) Measurements Most depth measurementsare made using a float
and cable arrangementin a stilling well or a bubbler gauge.In the first insiance,a
stilling well connectedto the channel(Fig. 3.6) is used to housea float devicethat
activatesa recorder as it movesup and down. Figure 8.7 illustratesa self-reporting
stilling well liquid-level station. Data from this station can be transmitted to un!
central location for analysisand/orother use.A bubbler-typeinstallation makesusl
of dry air or nitrogenas a fluid for bubblingthrough an oriflce into a channelbed. As
the depth of flow changes,the changein head above the bubbler orifice causesa
Antenna mast
Cover with special

accessscrews
Transmitter
Hydraulic
damping device
Level
sensor
Counter
weight
Mounting
brackets
lnlet tubes
Sideclean-
out port
Bottomclean-
out port
Figure 8.7 Self-reportingstilling well liquid-levelstation.
(Courtesy of Sierra-Misco,Inc., Environmental products.
Berkeley,CA.)
8.4 REMOTE
SENSING 135
correspondingpressurechange.This resultsin a fluid-levelchangein the manometer
connectedto the gassupplyand this in turn is usedto reflect stagevariationover time.
The foregoingdescriptionsare of a few of the instrumentsused in hydrologic
work. Both the limitations associatedwith their use and their reliability must be
understoodif they are to be used correctly and their outputs are to be considered
credible.
8.3 TELEMETRY
SYSTEMS
Historically,many gaugeswere read periodically by an individual making the rounds
of installations.This servedwell whenthe purposeof the data wasto establisha base
record of somevariablesuchasrainfall. But today,undermany circumstances,it has
becomenecessaryto make continuousrecordingsof rainfalls, streamflows,and evap-
oration rates and to have thesedata availablefor the real-time operation of water
managementsystemsand for forecastinghydrologicevents.Someexamplesof activ-
ities requiring real-time hydrologicdataarc managingreservoirs,issuingflood warn-
ings, allocating water for various usessuchas irrigation, monitoring streamflowsto
ensurethat treatiesand pactsare honored,and monitoringthe quality and quantity of
waterfor regulatoryand environmentalpurposes.Accordingly,gaugingstationscapa-
ble of electronicallytransmitting their data to a central location for immediateuse
havenow becomecommon.The advantagesof suchstationsincludeproviding infor-
mation to usersin a time frame that meetsmanagementneeds,reducingthe costsof
collecting data, and providing a continuousand synchronousrecord of hydrologic
events.Figure 8.8 showsa streamgaugereporting station using radio transmission.
Figure 8.9 illustratesa satellitedata collection and transmitting operation.T-|2
8.4 REMOTE
SENSING
Sincethe 1960s,remote sensinghasbecomea commonhydrologictool. Examplesof
aircraft and satellitedatacollectionand transmission abound.13-16 Figure8.10 illus-
tratesthe useof aircraft and satellitesin a snowsurveysystem.Other typesof surveys
suchasthoserelatedto determiningimperviousareas,classifyingland usesfor assess-
ing basin'wide runoff indexes, determining lake evaporation, and groundwater
prospectingcan be depictedin similar fashion.Table 8.1, which summarizesopera-
tional uses of satellite data in hydrology circa 1981, showsthe great diversity of
remote sensingand data transmissionoptions that can be exercised.l6
The principal value of remote sensingis its ability to provide regionalcoverage
and at the sametime providepoint deflnition.Furthermore,satellitecommunications
can be digitized and are thus compatiblewith the transferof computerizedinforma-
tion. Following the evolution of linkages between computer and communications
technology,new softwaresystemsincorporatingpowerful data managementsystems
havebeen developed.Thesesystemsfacilitate the storage,compaction,and random
accessof large data banks of information. one data managementoption, geographic
information systems(GIS), allows the overlayingof many setsof data (particularly
satellite-deriveddata) for convenientanalysis.Versatilecolor pictorial and graphic
display systemsare also becomingattractiveas their costshavedecreased.ra
136 CHAPTER
8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
I Utah
L.
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Boulder City
VIIF Radio Station
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EXPLANATION
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@ Transmitter-ieceiver radio
Colorado
Cibola gauge nver VHF Very high frequency radio
lmperial Dam
Repeater Station
Dam
-'-:4 *
az*<3e
-{/co '--
Figure 8.8 Streamgaugereporting systemusing radio transmission.Water stage

information is requestedfrom the gaugingstationsby VHF radio signal.In turn, this
water stage information is obtained from the stream gaugesand automatically
encodedand transmitted to the Boulder City receiving station. All downstream
releasesfrom Hoover Dam are determinedand integrated with this streamflow
information in controlling the flow of the lower ColoradoRiver. (U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation.)
8.4 REMOTESENSING 137
Figure 8.9 Hydrologic data collection by satellite.(U.S. GeologicalSurvey.)
Low-altitude
gamma-ray light.
Water 4gency
forecastcenter
Figure 8.10. Satellite snow survey system.(AftenCalabreseand Thome'rs)

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142 8 INSTRUMENTATIoN
CHAPTER
With the advancementof satellite technology,the use of satellitesas remote
sensorplatformshasspread.Currently availablesensorscan operatein a multitude of
electromagneticradiation wavelengthsand the information content of their signals
can include Surfacetemperatures,radiation, atmosphericpollutants,and other types
of meteorologicaldata. As remote sensorsare improved to permit the attainmentof
greater radiometric and geographicresolution, and as computer image-enhancing
techniquesbecomemore sophisticated,it is certain that this powerful watermanage-
ment tool will seeeven sreaterand more diversifieduse.
r summary
Hydrologic data are important componentsof model design and testing and of a
variety of statistical analyses.The quality of data obtained relate to attributes of
measuringinstrumentsand to the featuresof gaugingsites.It is important to under-
standthe pros and consof variousinstrumentsand to know how they canbestbe used.
REFERENCES
1. "Irrigation WaterMeasurement,"Mountain StatesRegionalPubl. 1, revisionof Extension

Circ. 132,Irrigation Water Measurement,University of Wyoming, Laramie, June 1964.
2. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,Water MeasurementManual, 2nd ed. Washington,D.C.:
U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967.
3. Leupold & Stevens,Inc. StevensWater ResourcesData Book, 4th ed. Beaverton,OR:
Leupoldand Stevens,Jan. 1987.
4. W. Brutsaert,Evaporationinto the Atmosphere.London: D. Reidel Publishing, 1982.
5. "TexasLab InstallsWeighingLysimeters,"Irrigation J. 37(3),8-12(May/June 1987).
6. R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied Hydrology. NeW York:
McGraw-Hill, 1982.
7. R. J. C. Burnashand T. M. Twedt, "Event-ReportingInstrumentationfor Real:TimeFlash
Flood Warning," American Meteorological Society, Preprints, Conference on Flash
Floods:Hydro-meteorological Aspects,May 1978.
8. D. E. Colton and R. J. C. Burnash,"A Flash-FloodWarningSystem,"American Meteo-
rologicalSociety,Preprints,Conferenceon Flash Floods:Hydro-meteorologicalAspects,
May 1978.
9. R. J. C. Burnash,"AutomatedPrecipitationMeasurements," Aug. 1980.
10. R. J. C. Burnashand R. L. Ferral, "A SystemsApproach to Real Time Runoff Analysis
with a Deterministic Rainfall-Runoff Model," International Symposium on Rainfall-
Runoff Modeling,Universityof Mississippi,May 18-21, 1981.
11. Hydrologic ServicesDivision, National WeatherService,WesternRegion, "Automated
Local Evaluationin Real Time: A CooperativeFlood Warning Systemfor Your Commu-
nity," Feb. 1981.
12. R. J. C. Burnashand R. L. Ferral, "Examplesof Benefitsand the TechnologyInvolvedin
Optimizing HydrosystemOperation Through Real:Time Forecasting," Conferenceon
Real:TimeOperation of Hydrosystems,Waterloo,Ontario, June24-26, 1981.
13. M. Deutsch,D. R. Wiesnet, and A. Rango (eds.),Satellite Hydrology. Bethesda,MD:
AmericanWaterResources Association.1981.
. REFERENCES 143
"Agricultural Meteorology: SystemsApproacli to Weather and Climate
t4. J. F. Bartholic,
Thirty-Second
Needsfor,tgricuttrire, Forestry,and Natiiral iesources,o'in Proceedings,
Agiicultural R'searcih'Institute. MD:
Bethesda, Agricultural ResearchInstitute,
tuteeting,
1 9 8 3 p, p . 7 5 - 8 5 .
*NASA Water Resources/HydrologyRemote Sensing
1 5 . M. A. Calabreseand p. G. Thome,
Programinttrelg80's,"insatettiteHydrology(M'Deutsch'D'R'Wiesnet''andA'Rango'
1981' pp' 9-15'
eds). Bethesda,MD: American Water ResourcesAssociation'
16. G.K.Moore,..AnlntroductiontosatelliteHydrology,''hsate.tlite-Hydrology(M.
WaterResqurces
Deutsch,D. R. Wiesnet,and A. Rango,eds.).Bethesda,MD: American
Association,1981,PP. t7-4L.
ChapterI
MonitoringNetworks
Prologue
. Describeelementsof systemsfor monitoring hydrologicvariables.

. Indicate the importanceof real-time and continuousrecording of hydrologic
events.
Information (data)is the requisitefoundationfor designingschemesfor manipulating

(managing)hydrologicsystems,for evaluatingthe efficacyof actionstaken to correct
problem situations,and for identifying trouble spots deservingattention. But to be
useful, the data must be of the right type, in the right form, and appropriatelyrepre-
sentativeof critical spaceand time dimensions.
Modeling hydrologic systemsrequires an understandingof how these syster-ns
actually function; cleaningup a toxic wastedischargerequirestracking the effectsof
remedial actions;enforcing environmentalregulationsrequires knowledgeof what
has happenedsincethe rules were implemented;and regulatingreservoirreleasesto
meet specifiedtargetsrequiresa continuousunderstandingof the stateof the system
beingoperated.The key to meetingsuchrequirementslies in the productsof carefully
designedand managedmonitoring networks.Developingsuchnetworksis no small
task, however,as the numberof variablesthat must be observedmay be very large,
the instrumentsto measurethem costlyto install and operate,andthe datastorageand
managementrequirementsextensive.Accordingly, a monitoring network's design
must beginwith a thoroughunderstandingof its purposeso that the degreeof resolu-
tion providedby its observationsis adequate,but not excessive,for the task at hand.
A goodrule is to keepthe networkassimpleaspossible,within the constraintsof what
must be accomplished.
9.1 THEPURPOSE
OF MONITORING
The purpose of monitoring is to gather information in a continuum such that the
dynamics of the systemcan be ascertained.According to Dressing,objectives of
monitoring for nonpoint source pollution control include developmentof baseline
9.2 SPECIAL
CoNSIDERATIoNS
145
information, generatingdata for trend analysis,developingand/or verifying models,
and investigatingsingleincidentsor events.zTheseobjectivesare alsovalid for hydro-
logic monitoring in general,but they shouldbe supplementedby the following obje"-
tives:planning,real-time systemoperating,enforcingregulatoryprograms,and envi-
ronmental policymaking. In the flnal analysis,the ultimate purposeof monitoring is
to enhancedecisionmaking,whetherit be for development,management,regulation,
or researchaims.
9.2 SPECIALCONSIDERATIONS
Beforean acceptablemonitoringplan can be devised,theremustbe a full understand-

ing of the hydrologic systemto be monitored and of the objectivesto be met by
monitoring. The costs of monitoring can be very high and thus it is essentialthat
monitoring networksbe efflcient and cost effective.r-5
Timeand SpaceVariability
In general, monitoring networks are designedto have both spatial and temporal
dimensions.Although monitoringa specificpoint locationmay be all that is necessary
undersomecircumstances, it is more commonthat what is happeningin a regional
settingis of importance.The temporal aspectis similar. While a snapshotat some
point in time may suffice for some purposes,the time varianceof conditions to be
tracked is usually critical for effective analysesandlor decisionmaking.Both the
short-termand long-term variabilities of many targefsof monitoring must be ascer-
tained. For example,water quality in a streamcan changerapidly with time, while
changesin lake levels,suchas thoseexperiencedin the GreatLakes in the 1980s,are
the result of long-termhydrologicvariability.
Spatial variability must also be representedin a monitoring network: for exam-
ple, infiltration ratesmay vary considerablywithin a region, rainfall intensitiesmay
be quite different within even short distances,and water quality in a river might be
different in upstreamand downstreamlocations.Topography,soils, vegetalcovers,
and many other factors affecting the performanceof a hydrologic systemare also
distributed differently in space,and these differencesmust be recognizedin the
monitoring plan. The trick is to developa monitoring systemthat can (1) provide the
neededdata,(2) recognizeregionaland temporal variabilities,and (3) keep installa-
tion, operation,and maintenancecoststo a minimum. To do this requiresa compre-
hensiveknowledgeof the systemto be monitored,an understandingof what the data
obtainedby the systemwill be used for, and a knowledgeof the level of detail in
collecting the data that must be exercisedin spaceand time.
DataRequirements
The amountand type of datato be generatedby a monitoringsystemmustbe carefully
consideredin its design. Selectingappropriateinstruments,determining sampling
frequency,and settingdata formats are elementsthat must be considered.Questions
such as how much do we need to know and when do we need to know it must be
answered.The form and extensiveness of data must be tightly relatedto monitoring
146 CHAPTER9 MONITORINGNETWORKS
Flood
warnlng
Water
managemeff
---:
Telephone
Lift station
monitoring
control Hardwire
lnfrared
+ + , . . + +
xgnr
Water quality
monitoring
(Courtesyof Sierra-Misco,
Figure9.1 A telemetrymonitoringsystem. Inc.,Environ-
mentalProducts.
Berkeley.
CA.
objectives.Furthermore,it might be necessaryto monitor surrogatesinsteadof the

condition to be tracked.' For example,if lake eutrophicationis the issue,phosphorus
andchlorophyllconcentrationsmight be surrogateflre&sureS; If this approachis taken,
selectionof appropriatesurrogatesis very important and the foregoingcomments
aboutdata formats and so on are also applicable.Hydrologic,waterquality, land use
, and treatment, topographic,soils, vegetativecover, meteorologic,and many other
typesof datamaybe requiredin combinationor separatelyin a monitoringplan. It is
easyto seethat the amount of data required for a monitoring program can be enor-
mous.Consequently,great care must be taken to seethat the data collection effort is
not in excessof the objectivesof the monitoring program. Figure 9.1, depicting a
telemetrymonitoring system,gives an indication of the variety of data that might be
collectedin a monitoring program.
QualityControland QualityAssurance
The costsof monitoring are usually substantialand thus it is essentialthat the data
generatedbe of consistentlyhigh quality. Accordingly, most monitoring systems
include quality control and quality assurance(QA/QC) elements.Quality control is
a plannedsystemof activitiesdesignedto producea quality product(datain this case)
that meetsthe needsof the user. Quality assuranceis a plannedsystemof activities
designedto guaranteethat the quality control programis being carried out properly.
A quality managementplan should be part of the overall monitoring program
and should be preparedwhen the monitoring program is being developedto ensure
that the data collectedwill be of a satisfactorynature for the monitoring program's
objectives.3
9,4 NETWORKS
HYDROLOGICAL-METEOROLOGICAL 147
To useror
Figure 9.2 Microcomputeruse in streamgauging.
IN MONITORING
9.3 USEOF COMPUTERS
With the rapid technologicaldevelopmentof computers,especiallyinexpensivemi-
crocomputers,the oppoitunities foiautomated collection of all types of hydrologic
and water quality data have increased substantially.Microcomputers, used with
analog-to-digital converters,pressureor liquid-level sensors,and the appropriate
software can, for example, be used in hydrologic monitoring systemsas flow
metering/dataacquisitionsystems(Fig.9.2).4Furthermore,suchsystemsare highly
versatile and they are rblatively inexpensive.Computer systemscan be custom-
designedfor almost any dataacquisitionapplicationand they are often lesscostly than
other commerciallyavailablehardwaresystemsdesignedfor the samepurpose.Com-
puterscan convert raw datainto other more usefulforms, storedata for later use,and
communicatewith other computerterminalsif necessary.As such,they are a power-
ful and important componentof modern hydrologicmonitoring systems.Figure 9.3
illustratesthe use of computersin a real-time telemetry system.
NETWORKS
ETEOROLOGICAL
e.4 HYDROLOGICAL-M
Most modern hydrologic-meteorologicnetworks are designedto provide real-time
information for purposessuchas hydropowerscheduling,releasingflows for irriga-
tion, developingand testinghydrologicsystemmodels,regulatingreservoirdischarges,
allocating water from multiple sources,streamflow forecasting,tracking pollutant
transport, and enforcing environmental regulations. Hydrological-meteorological
148 CHAPTER9 MONITORINGNETWORKS
Water level
Weather station
Computer
:,/:
Modem
Data Collection
Figure9.3 Computer (Courtesy

usein a real-timetelemetrysystem. of Sierra-Misco,
Inc., Environmental
Products, Berkeley,CA.)
networks may be designedto monitor physiographic,climatic, hydrologic,biologic,

and chemicalfeatures,or combinationsof these,in a region or river basin.They must
have gaugedensitiesand distributionsthat are sufficientto permit interpolationbe-
tweengaugesitesin a mannerpermitting valid conclusionsto be drawn for the entire
areacoveredby the network. Typically, measureinentsare madeof suchvariablesas
precipitation, solar radiation, temperature,relative humidity, barometric pressure,
snow depth, soil moisture,wind speed,streamflow,and water quality. In any event,
special basin or regional climatic factors must be given due consideration.Each
hydrological-meteorologicalnetwork is different in its purposeand setting and thus
its designmust reflectboth the spatialand temporally varying featuresat the locality
to be monitored along with the objectivesof the monitoring program.s
REFERENCES 149
r Summary
Monitoring of hydrologicsystemsis essentialto better understandingof systeminter-
actions and to the designand testing of hydrologicmodels.It is also the meansby
which a determinationcan be made of the effectivenessof measurestaken to alter
watershedperformance.
REFERENCES
t . S. J. Nix and P. E. Black (eds.),Proceedingsof the Symposiury.

on Monitoring, Modeling,
and Mediating Water Quality. Bethesda,MD: American Water ResourcesAssociation,
1987.
2. S. A. Dressing, "Nonpoint Source Monitoring and Evaluation Guide," in Ref. 1, pp.
69-78.
J. J. Lawrenceand A. S. Y. Chau, "Quality Assurancefor EnvironmentalMonitoring," in
Ref. I, pp. 165-176.
4. H. E. Postand T, J. Grizzard, "The Monitoring of StreamHydrology and Quality Using
Microcomputers,"in Ref. 1, pp. 199-208.
5 . P. J. Gabrielsenand A. J. Carmeli, "Operation of a Hydrologic-MeteorologicMonitoring
Networkin a SevereWinter Environment,"in Ref, l, pp. lI3-122.
PARTTHREE .
SURFACEWATER
HYDROLOGY
C h a p t e r1 0
Runoffand the Catchment
r Prologue
. Expandon definitionsof termsfrequentlyusedin describingtherunoff process.

' Presentconceptsof surfacerunoff and drainagebasin discharge.
. Introduce elementsof drainagebasin geomorphology'
. Describequantitativemeasuresof watershedcharacteristics.
. Familiarize the readerwith elementsof frequencyanalysis'
Surfacewater hydrologydealswith the movementof water alongthe earth's surface

as a result of precipitation and snow melt. Detailed analysisof surfacewater flow is
highly important to suchfieldsasmunicipaland industrialwater supply,flood control,
stieamflowforecasting,reservoirdesign,navigation,irrigation, drainage,water qual-
ity control, water-basedrecreation,and flsh and wildlife management.
The relationbetweenprecipitationandrunoffis influencedby variousstormand
basin characteristics.Becauseof thesecomplexitiesand the frequentpaucity of ade-
quaterunoff data, many approximateformulashavebeendevelopedto relaterainfall
andrunoff. The earliesfofihese were usuallycrudeempirical statements,whereasthe
trend now is to developdescriptiveequationsbasedon physicalprocesses.
AND DRAINAGEBASINS
WATERSHEDS
10.1 CATCHMENTS,
Runoff occurswhen precipitationor snowmeltmovesacrossthe land surface-some
of which eventuailyreachesnatural or artificial streamsand lakes'The land areaover
which rain falls is called the catchmentand the land area that contributessurface
runoff to any point of interestis called a watershed.This can be a few acresin size
or thousandiof ,quut" miles.A large watershedcan contain many smaller subwater-
sheds.
Streamsand rivers conveyboth surfacewater and groundwaterawayfrom high
water areas,preventingsurfaceflooding and rising groundwaterproblems'The tract
154 CHAPTER
1O RUNOFF
ANDTHECATCHMENT
of land (both surfaceand subsurface)drainedby a river and its tributariesis called a
drainage basin. A watershedsuppliessurfacerunoff to a river or stream,whereasa
drainagebasinfor a given streamis the tract of land drainedof both surfacerunoff and
groundwaterdischarge.
Rain falling on a watershedin quantitiesexceedingthe soil or vegetationuptake
becomessurface runoff. Waterinfiltrating the soil may eventuallyreturn to a stream
and combine with surfacerunoff in forming the total drainage from the basin. The
network of overlandflow coursesand defineddrainagechannelscomprisethe water-
shed.Surfacerunoff from tracts of land beginsits journey as overlandflory, often
calledsheetflow,beforeit reachesa definedswaleor channel,usually beforeflowing
more than a few hundredfeet. The lines separatingthe land surfaceinto watersheds
are called divides.Thesenormally follow ridges and moundsand can be delineated
using contourmaps,field surveys,or stereographpairs of aerial photographsto iden-
tify gradient directions.
ContributingArea
In the majority of hydrologicanalyses,the magnitudeof total surfaceareacontributing
direct runoff to somepoint of interestis needed.Becauseof variationsin topography,
the true surfaceareacannotbe easilymeasured.The horizontalprojectionofland area
is easilyobtainedand normally adoptedin hydrologiccalculations.This resultsin an
error in actual watershedarea whereverthe projected area is less than the actual.
Somesurfaceareain watershedsmay not contributeto surfacerunoff, so the error in
using the projectedwatershedareais somewhatoffset.
PartialArea Hydrology
For light storms,or for someflat areas,portions of the catchmentdo not contribute
to runoff. Precipitationfalling on or flowing into depressedor blockedareascan exit
only by seepageor evaporation,or by transpirationif vegetated.If sufficientrainfall
occurs, such areasmay overflow and contribute to runoff. Thus the total area con-
tributing to runoff varies with the intensity and duration of the storm. Methods for
incorporating this phenomenonin hydrologic studies are calegorizedunder proce-
duresfor partial area lrydrology.
In partial areahydrology,watershedareasare dividedby one of severalmethods
into contributing (active) and noncontributing (passive)subareas.For infrequent
(severe)storms,largerpercentagesof the watershedsurfacemay contributeto the peak
flow and volume of runoff, which are the primary variables of interest to design
engineers.For more frequent storms,significantly smaller portions of some water-
shedsmay contribute.As a consequence, partial areahydrologyis seldomincorpo-
ratedin hydraulic structuredesign,and is of greaterinterestin watersupplyand water
quality studies.As will be shownlater (Chapter12) unit hydrographtheory andrunoff
curve numbermethodsare basedon linearity of rainfall and runoff, and assumethat
the full watershedcontributesto runoff in all stormsand in proportional amountsat
different times in the samestorm. Application of thesemethodsto watershedsthat
havesignificantnoncontributingzonescould, and do, introduceerror ifthe zonesare
nof first delineatedand the distributedeffectsproperly modeled.
10.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTINGRUNOFF 155
Subdivisionof contributing from noncontributingareashas traditionally been

subjectivelyaccomplishedfrom siteinspection,topographicand soilsmaps,and aerial
photos.Soils having good drainageclassifications,or dark tones or colors on aerial
photos, can often be consideredas passiveareas.Other signs of noncontributing
areaswould includepresehceof wetlands,grassedareas,rooftops (unlessconnected
to the drainage),terraces,erosioncontrol structures,stockwateringponds,and flood
control dams.
Boughtontdevelopeda quantitativemethod of determiningthe proportion of a
watershedthat contributessurfacerunoff in different storms,and at different times
duringthe samestorm.by analyzingrainfall andrunoff records.His logic is asfollows:
1. Watershedscan be idealizedas a group of "surfacestoragecapacity" cells,

eachrepresentinga fraction of the watershedarea and eachhaving some
capacityto abstractrainfall into storage,infiltration, or evapotranspiration.
2. Runoff from eachcell occurs when rain fills the surfacestoragecapacity.
3. Runoff occursfrom the cell with the smallestcapacitybeforeflowing from
the cell with the next largestcapacity(this is an assumptionby Boughton
that has not been fully verified).
4. Using theseprinciples,storm data for the watershedare evaluatedfirst to
find thosein which runoff occurs only from the area of smallestcapacity.
This is done using a graphicalmethod outlined in the article that looks at
slopechangesin the rainfall-runoff graph.Both the capacityof the cell and
its area as a percentageof the watershedare estimated.
5. After subtractingthe contributionto runoff from the smallestcapacitycell,
the capacityand contributingareafor the secondsmallestcapacitycell are
determinedby the sameprocedure.
6. The process is repeateduntil all the runoff is accountedfor, or until
100 percent of the watershedis contributing,whicheveroccurs first.
When Boughton applied the procedureto a test watershed,rit was found that
runoff occurredfrom the entire watershedon only 3 of 30 eventsin the l5-year study
period.In abouttwo-thirds of the runoff events,dischargeoccurredonly from the cell
with the smallestsurfacestoragecapacity.
AFFECTING
RUNOFF
The natureof streamflowin a regionis a function of the hydrologicinput to that region
and the physical,vegetative,and climatic characteristics.As indicatedby the hydro-
logic equation,all the waterthat occursin an areaas a result ofprecipitation doesnot
appearas streamflow.Fractionsof the grossprecipitationare divertedinto pathsthat
do not terminatein the regional surfacetransport system.Precipitation striking the
groundcango into storageon the surfaceor in the soil andinto groundwaterreservoirs
beneaththe surface.The characterof the soil and rocks determinesto a large extent
the storagesysteminto which precipitatedwaterwill enter.Opportunity for evapora-
tion and transpirationwill also be affectedby the geologicand topographicnatureof
the area.
156 CHAPTER1O RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
StreamPatterns
Wind, ice, and water act on land surfacesto createseveraltypes of drainagepatterns
seen in nature. The particular design that results is a function of several factors
including slope,underlying soil and rock properties,and the historiesof hydraulic
action, freeze-thaw activity, and sedimenttransport.
(a) Dendritic system (b) Trellis system
(c) Radial system
(e) Meandering stream (f) Braided stream
(g) Anabranching stream (h) Reticulate stream
Fi-gxre 10.1- -Streampatterns(combinedsystemsand individual streamshapes).

AFFECTINGRUNOFF 157
Typical streampatternsare shownin Fig. 10.1.The most common,dendritic,

is characterizedbynumeroussmall tributariesjoining at right anglesinto higher-order
streams,eventually forming the major rivers in the region. The smaller tributaries
often occur in sufficientquantitiesthat little land surfaceareais left uninterceptedby
a definedchannelof someform, The maximum overlanddistancebetweenchannels
in theseareasseldomexceedsa few hundredfeet.
Trellis patternsare characterizedbylong main streamsinterceptedby numerous
shorterright-angletributaries.They are commonin the Appalachians(EasternUnited
States)and are also seenin the Rocky Mountains along the foothills, Multi-basin
patterns,also called derangedsystems,occur in low gradient swampy areaswith
numeroussurfacedepressionsand normally haveonly a few tributaries.Theseoccur
in glaciated,windblown,and permafrostareas,and are common in plains and moun-
tain valley regionsof the United States.Radial patternsare typically found in foothill
areasor mountain areaswith more advancedsoil development.
Individual streamsfavor one or more of the four patternsshown on the lower
portion of Fig. 10.1.Streamsare rarely straightexcepton steepslopesin homoge-
neous materials. Braided streams are characterizedby numerous interconnected
channelsflowing aroundand overislandsandbars,inundatingmostduringhigh flows.
Braided streamsare generallytransportinglarge amountsof sediment,but often less
than the amount supplied. They have been called incipient forms of meandering
streamsdueto the fact that many revert to meanderingor other forms when sediment
suppliesor other factorschange.Meanderingin an otherwisestraightchanneloccurs
as a result of transversecurrents.Thesecurrents are consideredto be the result of
forcesactingon the streamparticles,includingbed and bank shearforcesand coriolis
effects.
In evaluatingthe effects of changesin streamflows,a relationship known as
Lane's Law is often applied.It statesthat the productof bed slopeand waterdischarge
is proportional to the product of sedimentsize and transportrate. Changingany one
of thesefour terms results in the likelihood of a shift in one or more of the others.
Constructinga reservoit,for example,reducesthe sedimenttransportedinto the reach
just downstream.By Lane's Law, either the slope or dischargemust decreaseor
sedimentparticle sizemust increaseto offsetthe changein sedimenttransport.Most
often, the slope decreaseswhen the sediment-hungryflows deepenthe bed in the
reach.Degradation(downwardcutting) of the bed of the Missouri River, for example,
has occurredbelow someof its upstreamreservoirs,isolatingboat marinasand water
intake structuresin somelocations.
Geomorphology
of DrainageBasins
The principal geologicfactorsthat affect surfacewatersare classifiedaslithologic and
structural. Lithologic effects are associatedwith the composition,texture, and se-
quenceof the rocks, whereasstructuraleffectsrelatemainly to discontinuitiessuchas
faults and folds. A fault is a fracture that resultsin the relative displacementofrock
that was previouslycontinuous.Folds are geologicstrata that are contortedor bent.
Variationsin the erodibility of the different strata can easily lead to the creation of
distinctive forms of drainagesystems.
Both large-scaleandlocal effectson the storageand movementof surfacewaters
existbecauseof geologicactivity and structure.For example,drainagepatternsare
1 58 CHAPTER10 RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
determinedto a large extentby the nature of land forms. On the other hand, flowing
surfacewatersalso affect the surfacegeometrythrough the processof erosion.Thus
significant land forms resulting from volcanic activity, folding, and faulting affect
drainage,whereasdrainagepatterns,havingbeengenerated,can alsomodify the land
forms by creatingvalleys,deltas,and other geomorphicfeatures.
Streamsare classifiedasbeingyoung,mature,or old on the basisof their ability
to erodechannelmaterials.Youngstreamsare highly active and usually flow rapidly
so that they are continually cutting their channels.The sedimentload imposed on
thesestreamsby their tributariesis transportedwithout deposition.Mature streams
are those in which the channel slope has been reduced to the point where flow
velocitiesarejust able to transportincoming sedimentand where the channeldepth
is no longerbeingmodifiedby erosion.A streamis classifiedasold whenthe channels
in its systemhavebecomeaggraded.The flow velocitiesof old streamsare low dueto
gentleslopesthat prevail.Wide meanderbelts,broad flood plains,anddeltaformation
are alsocharacteristicof old streams.The lower reachesof the Mississippi,Rhine, and
Nile are examples.Flows in young river basinsare often o'flashy,"*h"t"u, sluggish
flows are common to older streams.
The description of a drainagebasin in quantitative terms was an imponant
forward stepin hydrologyand can be tracedback in largepart to the efforts of Robert
E. Horton.2Strahler,Langbein,and othershaveexpandedHorton's original work.3-a
To quantify the geometry of a basin, the fundamental dimensionsof length,
time, and mass are used. Many drainagebasin featuresthat are important to the
hydrologistcan be quantified in terms of length, length squared,orlength cubed.
Examplesare elevation,streamlength, basin perimeter,drainagearea, and volume.
The conceptof geometricsimilarity can be appliedto drainagebasinsjust as it is to
many other systems.3 Most readerswill be awareof model-prototypestudiesof air-
craft, dams,and turbomachinery.Suchstudiesinvolveconsiderationsof geometricas
well as dynamic similarity. In the samemannerthat inferencesas to the operationof
a prototype can sometimesbe drawn from a geometricallysimilar model, inferences
canalsobe drawnaboutthe operationof one drainageareaon the basisof information
obtained from a similar one. Perfect similarity will never be realized if natural
drainagesystemsare compared,but striking similarities have been observedwhich
can often be put to practical use.
Measuresof DrainageBasin Characteristics

Important measuresof drainagebasin characteristicsinclude overlandflow lengths
and streamlengths.The conceptof streamorder is often associatedwith the dimen-
sion of streamlength.
AFFECTINGRUNOFF
1O.2 BASIN CHARACTERISTICS 159
'/, "81
{,'v '\'rr
;)
Figure 10.2 Sketch indicating definition

of streamorder.
to the streamorder, provided that a large enoughsampleis investigated.The order

number permits comparisonsof drainage systemsthat are quite different in size
becausethe numberis a dimensionless quantity.Suchcomparisonsshouldbe madeat
locations in the two systemsthat have a similar geometry; that is, second-order
streams,third-order streams,and so forth.
Streamlengthsare determinedby the measurementof theh projectionsonto a
horizontal plane. Topographicmaps are useful for obtaining suchmeasurements. If
the meanlenglh of a streamsegmentZ, of order a is definedas L,, then it is possible
to determine Z, using2
.
tr-
-2!i, L,, (10.1)
N,
whereN, is the number of streamsegmentsof streamorder u.

Another measurerelated to stream length is the distanceL"o from a point of
intereston the main streamto a point on the primary channelthat is nearestthe center
of gravity of the drainage arca (center of gravity of the plane atea of the drainage
basin).Studiesof basinlag (time betweenthe centersof massof effectivestorminput
and the resulting runoff ) havemadeuse of this dimension.
Of particular significancein the physiographicdevelopmentof a drainagebasin
is the overlandflow length Ls. This is the distancefrom the ridge line or drainage
divide, measuredalongthe path of surfaceflow which is not confinedin apy defined
channel,to the intersectionof this flow path with an establishedflow channel.If a
drainagebasin of the first order is the basicelementof a larger drainagesystem,then
a representativeoverlandflow length can be determinedfor thesefirst-orderbasins.
One apprbachis to measurea numberof possibleflow paths from a map of the area
and-toaveragethese.In somecases(for example,with the rational method,Chapter
160 CHAPTER1O RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
15), the use of the longestoverland flow length is prescribed,measuredfrom the

upstreamend of the first-order stream to the most remote point of flow that will
terminateat this point.
Areal Measurements
Just as linear measuresrelate to many factors of hydrologic interest, so do areal
measures.For example,the quantity of dischargefrom any drainagebasinis obviously
a function of the areal extentof that basin.
Correlationshavebeenobservedbetweenthe averagearea,Au, of basinsof order
u, andthe averagelength of streamsegments,2,. Thesevariablesare often relatedby
an exponentialfunction. For example,studiesof sevenstreamsin the Maryland-Vir-
ginia areaby Hack haveproducedthe relationship6
L : I.4Ao6 (10.2)
where L = the streamlength measuredin miles to the drainagedivide
A : the drainagearea(miz)
Hack's observationsindicatethat as the drainagebasinincreasesin size,it becomes
longer and narrower; thus precisegeometricsimilarity is not preserved.
Drainageareahas long beenusedas a parameterin precipitation*runoff equa-
tions or in simpleequationsindexingstreamflowto area or other parameters.Many
early empirical equationsare of the form3
Q: cA- (10.3)
where Q : a measureof flow suchas mean annual runoff
A : the size of the contributine drainaeeatea
Valuesof c and m are determinedby regressionanalysis(seeChapter26); Fig. 10.3
illustratesa relation of this form.
o r u
q 8
( ( ) 6
= a
I
3
./
10 20 30 40 5060 80 100 200

Areatmi2)
Figure 10.3 Runoff-drainage arca correla-
tion for five Maryland streams (1933 storm
AFFECTINGRUNOFF
1O.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS 161
Other arealmeasuresincludedefinitionsof the basinshapeandthe densityof the

drainagenetwork or drainage density, definedas the ratio of total channelsegment
lengthi cumulatedfor all streamorderswithin a basin to the basin area.The stream
segmentsin a drainagebasin (total
frequency is defined as the summation of all
number of segmentsof all orders)divided by the drainagearea.
Channeland BasinGradients
surface
The slopesof a drainagebasinand its channelshavea very strongeffecton the
runoff pro""r, of thairegion. Most stream channel profiles exhibit the characteristic
this
of decreasingslopeproceedingin a downstreamdirection.Figure 10.4illustrates
particular.trait. Also illustrated in
elevationdrop dividedby the channt
suchthat the areasbetweenthe ave
that is, A, : Azin the figure. The g
asparametersto describedrainaget
describe
make this clear. Some mathemalicalfunctions that are used to more fully
streamprofilesarelinear, exponenti
ical value to representthe Primal
Schwartz.TThis factor,known as th
a uniform channelthat is equivalen
sametraveltime. This factorhasber
maximum
from the centerof massof rainfall excessto the peak rate of runoff ) and
discharge.
In additionto the slopeofthe streamchannel,the overall land slopeofthe basin
slopes
is an important topographicfactor.A quantitativerelation betweenvalley wall
by Strahler.3 A commonly used method
and streamcnannetstopeshas been derived
method
of determiningthe slopesof a basin has been presentedby Horton'SThe
grid over a topographic map of the drainage area
involvessuperimposinga transparent
b"t*""n its intersections with the drainage
in question.nacfr grlJnne is measu."d
needed'
divide; the numberof intersectionsof eachgrid line with a contourline is also
A determinationof the land slopecan then be made using
nsec0- (10.4)
S:--t ,
Distance from head of stream
Figure 10.4 Typical streamprofile'

162 oHAPTER
10 RUNoFFAND
THEoATCHMENT
Drainage
boundary
Horizontal
grid line
uContour'
r
Contour interval = 50 ft
scaie
Figure 10.5 Determinationof meanland slope:numberof vertical

intersections: 72; tumber of horizontal intersections= 120; total
length of vertical grid segments: 103,900ft; total length of
horizontalgrid segments: 101,200ft.
72x50 120 x 50
,s: : 0.035ftlft " : -
Ss : 0.059ftlft
103;900 10 t , 2 0 0
.s + (.. 0.035+ 0.059
Mean slope : : 0.047ftlft
2
where n : the total number of contour intersectionsbv the horizontal and

vertical grid lines
t -
L the total length of grid line segments(horizontal and vertical)
_
h - the contour interval

0 * the anglemeasuredbetweena normal to the contoursand the grid line
Because0 is very difficult to measureit is often neglected,and separatevaluesof
averageslopein the horizontal and vertical are computedand then averagedto obtain
an estimateof the meanland slope.This procedureis illustratedin Fig. 10.5.
Area-ElevationRelation
How the areawithin a drainagebasinis distributedbetweencontours(Fig. 10.6)is of
interestfor comparingdrainagebasinsand gaining insight into the storageand flow
characteristicsof the basin.For suchstudies.an areadistribution curve suchas that
shown in Fig. 10.7 is used.The curve can be obtained by planimeteringthe areas
RUNOFF
AFFECTING
10.2 BASINCHARACTERISTICS 163
l l \ ' / t r 1
l l \ / / / /
( r r \ f t /
. ' , \: \ I . i/ z ' r '
\
,ffi_-_.w;i.i
.Figure 10.6 Topographic

map of WendyRun drainagearea
showing20-,40-,and60-ftcontourlines.
betweenadjacentcontoursor by using a grid as in Fig. 10.5 and forming the ratio of

the number of squaresbetweencontoursto the total number of squarescontained
within the drainageboundaries.The mean elevationis determinedas the weighted
averageof elevationsbetweenadjacentcontours.The medianelevationcan be deter-
rnined from the area-elevationcurvesas the elevationat 50 percent,
-
e 300
E 2so
o
2oo
Io l)u
r! '
100
Median elevation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
of area
Percentage
Figure 10.7 An area-elevation distribution curve.
1 64 CHAPTER10 RUNOFFAND THE CATCHMENT
DrainageBasin Dynamics
Geomorphology'likg hydrology,was largely qualitative in
nature in its formative
years'With the passingof time and the greatlr needfor
reliablequantitativeinforma-
tion, the sciencehasprogressedto the point whererational relations
betweenvariables
are being developed.Theserelationsire usually intendedto quantify
theinieractions
betweenthe factorsthat modify the land forrnand the land iorm
ifsef. In addition,
equationsrelatingthegeomorphicpropertiesto hydrologic,
climatologic,or vegetative
factorsare beingsought.some of the iunctional ielations of particulir
significanceto
the hydrologistwill be discussedin the following chapters.
10.3 RUDIMENTARYPRECIPITATION-RUNOFF
RELATIONSHIPS
ritation and runoff has beento plot annual
rend line, and estimatethe percentageof
rtities determinedthis way, however, are
:e ofreliability is higherfor drainageareas
rnal or other types of variation, that is, an
e procedure.The resulting equationtakes
the form
o:($)rr-Pr) (10.5)
1902.
I
1898r l .
I t28 a 903
^ 4 0
1 9l 0 r a
- J 6
.E
8 3 6 --l-- ,77
1 926
23
X Slope
s 0.57
. ) J +
--i--I a trg
29_
32 1920 1l
1924
-1 9 1 8 i q)5-oL
:
f--a
7921o 1932
1930
o1! o
. 1897
90
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 t 2 t 3 ! 4
Runoff (in.)
Figure 10.8 Annual precipitation and annual runoff in
the
NeoshoRiver basin above Iola, Kansas.(U.S. GeologicalSurvey
Data.)
165
10,3 RUDIMENTARYPRECIPITATION-RUNOFFRELATIONSHIPS
S : the slopeof the line (LPILQ)

Pa : & baseprecipitation value below which Q is zero
From Fig. 10.8 the relation for the examplewould be
-
Q: 0'57(P 24)
where Q and P are the annual runoff and precipitation, respectively,in inches'
Considerablescatterof severaldata points from the assumedrelation indicatesthat
this type of computation should be used with care. For rough approximationsin
preliminary planning studies,suchmethodsare frequently helpful, however.Equa-
tionsresembiingEq. 10.5areimprovedif otherparameterssuchasantecedentprecip-
itation, soil moisture,season,and storm characteristicsare included. Suchrelations
can be describedusing multiple regressiontechniquesor graphicalmethods'Linsley
and co-workerspresenta very completetreatmentof methodsfor developingcorrela-
tions involving severalvariables.e
Soil moisturerelationsnormally havea soil moistureindex as the independent
variable,sincedirect measurements of actualantecedentsoil moistureare not gener-
ally practical. Indexesthat havebeen insertedare groundwater,flowat the beginning
of the storm, antecedentprecipitation, and basin evaporation.loGroundwatervalues
shouldbe weightedto reflect the effectsof precipitation occurring within a few days
of the storm becausesoil moisture changesfrom previousrains may affect results.
Pan-evaporationmeasurementscan be employedto estimatesoil moistureamounts,
since eviporation is related to soil moisture depletion.tl Antecedentprecipitation
indexes(API) haveprobably receivedthe widestusebecauseprecipitationis readily
measuredand relatesdirectly to moisture deficiencyof the basin.
A typical antecedentprecipitation index is
Po: aP6'l bP, -f cP., (10.6)
where P.: precipitationindex (in.)

the antecedent
po,p,." : and
presenr
vear for
fi"HTlJ:;fJil:rr:Hifl3*ff"-e
This index links annualrainfall and runoff values.r2Coefficientsa, b, andc are found
by trial and error or other fitting techniquesto producethe best correlationbetween
the runoff and the antecedentprecipitation index. The sum of the coefficientsmust
be 1.
Kohler and Linsley13haveproposedthe following API for use with individual
storms:
P o : b r P l + b 2 P 2+ ' ' ' + btPt (10.7)
wherethe r subscripton P refersto precipitationwhich occurredthat many daysprior

to the given storm,and the constantsb (lessthan unity) are assumedto be a function
of t. Valuesfor the coefficientscan be determinedby correlationtechniques'In daily
evaluationof the index, b, is consideredto be related to / by
b,: K' (10.8)
whereK is a recessionconstantnormallyrepoftedin the range0.85-0.98.The initial

166 cHAprER1o RUNoFFANDTHE
cAToHMENT
value of the API (P"s)is coupled to the API / days later (P",) by
Por: PagK' (10.e)
To evaluatethe index for a particular day basedon that of the precedingone,
Eq. 10.9becomes
Po, : KPox (10.10)
becauset : I.
Various empirical relations for API have been proposed.Most are based on
correlating two or three variablesand at best yield only rough approximations.In
many casesthesewere developedwithout consideringphysical principlesor dimen-
sional homogeneity.An addedshortcomingis that many formulas fit only a specific
watershedand have little generalutility. Empirical equationsdemandgreat caution
and an understandingof their origin.
EXAMPLE 10.1
PrecipitationdepthsP, for a l4-day period are listed in Table 10.1. The API on April
1 is 0.00. Use K : 0.9 and determinethe,API for each successiveday.
Solution. Equation 10.9 reducesto
API,: K(API,-1)+ P,
which was applied in developingthe successivevaluesof API, in Table 10.1.
TABLE10.1
(A
Precipitation API,
April 1 0.0 0.00

2 0.0 0.00
J 0.5 0.50
4 0.7 1 .l 5
) 0.2 t,24
'6 0.1 t.22
7 0.0 1.10
8 0.1 1.09
9 0.3 1.28
10 0.0 t.l5
ll 0.0 1.04
t2 0.6 1.54
l3 0.0 1,39
t4 0.0 |.25
10.4 STREAMFLOW
FREOUENCY
ANALYSIS
Hydrologistsestimatestreamflows.Two approachesare employed.The first is a phys-
ical processesapproachin which runoff is computed on the basis of observedor
expectedprecipitation.The secondis foundedon statisticalanalysesofrunoffrecords
.- --vvi{}out resott-to precipitation data. Such investigationsusually include frequency
FREQUENCYANALYSIS
10.4 STREAMFLOW 167
C a
o a ao
12 months
-
1.0
x.
Example 1.0 in
drought with
R.I. = 17 yr
0.1
10 100
RecurrenceInteryal (Yr)
for FiveRiv-
Figure 10.9 Low-flowfrequencydataconsolidated
ers.(AfterWhipple.r5;
studies(Chapter 27) to indicatethe likelihood of certain runoff eventstaking place.

A knowledgeof the frequencyof runoff eventsis helpful in determiningrisks associ-
atedwith proposeddesignsor anticipatedoperatingschemes.Frequencyanalysesare
usuallydiiectedtowardstudiesof miximum (flood) andminimum (drought)flows.ra'1s
Figure 10.9 illustrates a typical drought frequency analysis.Unfortunately,many
existingrunoff records are short-term; as a result they limit utility for reliable fre-
quency analyses.Few adequaterecords are availableearlier than about 1900. In
some cases,sequentialgeneratingtechniques(Chapter 22) can be used to develop
syntheticrecords.
Time-series analysesare particularly pertinent to the problem of estimating
trends, cycles, and fluctuationsin hydrologic data. They also permit derivation of
generatingprocessesby which syntheticrecordsof runoff can be developed.
RecurrenceIntervaland Frequency
The recurrenceinterval (R.I.) is definedas the averageinterval over a long period of
yearsduring which a correspondingmagnitudeof somehydrologicvariableis at least
met. This parameteris also called the return period, and sometimes,though less
appropriately,thefrequency of the event.For the examplein Fig. 10'9, droughtsless
than 1 in. occurredin 8 ofthe 136yearsofrecords.The 1.0in. droughthasan average
recurrenceinterval of about 17 years.Statedanotherway,on the average,one year of
every l7-year sequenceis expectedto experiencea drought of at most 1.0 inch.
Similarly,eachyearthe probabilityof a 1.O-in.droughtis 8/136 = 0'059, or about
6 percent. This is defined as the exceedenceprobability or frequency, and is the
re-iprocal ofthe return period.It shouldbe obviousthat the 1.0-in.droughtcould
168 CHAPTER
10 RUNoFFAND
THEoAToHMENT
occur in any year,or in severalconsecutiveyears.This type ofanalysiscannottell the
investigatorwhat will happenthis year or next, and allows only an estimateof the
averagerecurrenceinterval and the probability of occurrencein any given year. This
subjectis fully developedin Chapter27.
10.5 STREAMFLOW
FORECASTING
Surfacewaterhydrologyis basicto the designof many engineeringworks and impor-

tant in waterquality managementschemes.In addition, the ability to providereliable
forecastsof flowsfor shortperiodsinto the future is of greatvaluein operatingstorage
and other works and in planning proper actions during times of flood.e'16A good
exampleis the operationof a reservoirwith an uncontrolledinflow but with a means
of regulatingthe outflow. If information on the natureof the inflow is determinablein
advance,then the reservoircan be operatedby somedecisionrule to minimize down-
streamflood damage.Suchoperationscan be computerizedto continually improve
estimatesbasedon incoming dataandthus offer direction on the natureof the releases
to be made.For river forecaststo be reliable, adequate,dependabledata on various
watershedand meteorologicconditions are neededon a continuing basis.Modern
monitoring stationscapableof telemeteringdata to computercontrol centersprovide
an important supportfunction for forecasting.The methodsusedto forecastflows are
basically the same ones empfoyedin design: precipitation-runoff equations,unit
hydrographs,watershedmldels, and flow-routing techniques.
r Summary
Runoff is probablythe most complexyet most important hydrologicprocessto under-
stand.It has attractedthe attention and focus of engineersand scientistsand com-
prisesthe greatestpercentageby far of most hydrology textbooksand publications.
The conceptsintroducedhere will be more fully developedin the next six chapters,
as well as in significantportions of Parts Five and Six.
PROBLEMS
10'1'ffi,',T'#:fl
:Jfr Hfi'#':iJf
*:l;J:ff ;J3;:1,!;";ffi
:?'fi#.n.}il:H:i*
what purposesmight you use this?
10.2. Selecta rain gaugerecord of interest.Use the annual valuesas data to calculatethc
coefficientsof an antecedentprecipitation index of the form of Eq. 10.8.
10.3. Determinethe drainagedensityof the basin shown.Area : 6400 acres.Lengths are
in miles.
REFERENCES 169
Lengths of channel segments

in mi between points
Figure for Problem 10.3
L0.4. Using any dictionary,plus indexesor glossariesfrom one or two other hydrologytexts,
find and compare definitions of the following terms: runoff, direct runoff, direct
surface runoff, surface ruryoff,surface water, overlandflow, streamflow,drainage,
watershed,catchruen&inage basin, subbasin,dr ainage divide.
"systematic Procedure for Evaluating Partial Areas of Watershed

1. Boughton, W. C.,
Runoff," Proc. ASCE J. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering116, 1 (February 1990).
"Drainage Basin Characteristics,"Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 13(1932).
2. R. E. Horton,
"Geology-Part II," in Handhok of Applied Hydrology. New York:
3. A. N. Strahler,
McGraw-Hill, 1964.
"TopographicCharacteristicsof DrainageBasins,"U.S. Geological
4. W. B. L4ngbeinet al.,
Survey,Water Supply Paper,968-c(I941 ).
"Erosional Developmentof Streamsand Their Drainage Basins:Hydro-
5. R. E. Horton,
physicalApproach to Qualitative Morphology,"Bull. Geol. Soc.Am.56(1945).
"studies of Longitudinal StreamProflles of Small Watersheds,"Tech. Rept.
6. J. T. Hack,
18, Columbia University,Departmentof Geology,New York, 1959.
7. A. B. Taylor and H. E. Schwartz,"IJnitHydrographT ag and PeakFlow Relatedto Basin
Characteristics," Trans.Am. Geopltys. Union 33(1952).
"Discussionof Paper,Flood Flow characteristicsby c. S. Jarvis," ?ans.
8. R. E. Horton,
ASCE 89(1926)'.
9. R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,AppliedHydrology,2nd Ed' New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
10. ven Te chow (ed.), Handbook of Applied Hydrology. New York: McGraw-Hill,1964.
11. R.K.Linsley,Jr.,andWC.Ackerman,"MethodofPredictingtheRunofffromRainfall,"
Trans.ASCE 107(1942).
12. S. S. Butler, EngineeringHydrology. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1957.
170 oHAPTER10 RUNoFFANDTHEoAToHMEI
13. M. A. Kohler and R. K. Linslev. ,
WeatherBureau,Res.Paper34, l95L /
T4, Leo R. Beard, "statistical Methodsin Hydrology," U.S. Army EngineerDistrict, Sacrf
mento,CA,1962.
1 5 . William W. Whipple, Jr., "RegionalDrought FiequencyAnalysis," Proc. ASCEJ. Irrigd
16.
Chapter1'1
Hydrographs
r Prologue
. Characterizea hydrographas a time plot of the dischargeof surfacerunoff arld

groundwaterfrom drainagebasins.
' Introduce the componentsof hydrographsso that the reader can rel9le them
to the quantltative assessmentsof runoff presentedin subsequdnf-chapters.
. Describethe time relationshipsmost commonly usedin hydrographanalysis.
Hydrographanalysisis the most widely usedmethod of analyzingsurfacerunoff. Its

presentationin most textbooks is normally confined to one chapter. Becauseof
numerousdevelopmentsin hydrographanalyses,three chaptersare dedicatedto the
subjectin this text. Chapter 11 defineshydrographsand expandsthe conceptsintro-
duced in Chapter 6. The conceptsreferred to as unit hydrographtechniquesare
packagedtogetherin Chapter 12. Individual streamflowhydrographshapesvary as
flow travels downstream,and the conceptsfor analyzingthese changes,called hy-
drographrouting methods,are presentedin Chapter 13. '
HYDROGRAPHS
11.1 STREAMFLOW
A streamflowhydrographprovidesthe rateof flow at all pointsin time duringand after
a storm or snowmeltevent.l Hydrologistsdependon measuredor computed(synthe-
sized) hydrographsto provide peak flow rates so that hydraulic structurescan be
designedto accommodatethe flow safely.Becausea hydrographplots volumetric flow
rates againsttime, integration of the area beneath a hydrographbetWeenany two
points in time givesthe total volume of water passingthe point of interestduring the
time interval. Thus, in addition to peak flows,hydrographsallow analysisof sizesof
reservoirs,storagetanks, detentionponds,and other facilities that deal with volumes
of runoff. A knowledge of the magnitude and time distribution of streamflow is
essentialto many of theseaspectsof watermanagementand environmentalplanning.
172 CHAPTER11 HYDROGRAPHS
Storm period hydrograph
o
u
Hydrograph in period of no direct

q
b0 runoff and where no reservoir regulation
exists rcflects discharge
from groundwatet
Storm period
Y41 hydrograph
oar. End of Beginning of
direct runoff
\? direct runoff
Inflection
point ,l
Continuous
hydrograph
Figure 11.1 HydrographO"o;;.
11.2 FACTORSAFFECTING SHAPE

HYDROGRAPH
A hydrographhas four componentelements:(1) direct surfacerunoff, (2) interflow,

(3) groundwateror baseflow, and (4) channelpregipitation.2The rising pott(rn of a
hydrographis known astheconcentrationcurye;the regionin the vicinity of the\eak
is called the crest segment;and the falling portion is the recession.3The shapeof a
hydrographdependson precipitation pattern characteristicsand basin properties.
Figure 11.1illustratesthe definitionspresented.
Processes
Precipitation-Streamflow
Duriirg a given rainfall, water is continually being abstractedto saturatethe upper
levelsof the soil surface;however,this saturationor infiltration is only one of many
continuous abstractions.4-6 Rainfall is also interceptedby trees, plants, 4nd roof
surfaces,and at the same time is evaporated.Once rain falls and fulfills initial
requirementsof infiltration, natural depressionscollect falling rain to form small
puddles,creatingdepressionstorage.In addition, numerouspools of water forming
detentionstoragebuild up on permeableand impermeablesurfaceswithin the water-
shed.This storedwater gathersin small rivulets, which carry the wateroriginatingas
overlandflow into small channels,then into larger channels,and flnally as channel
flow to the watershedoutlet. Figure 11.2aillustratesthe distribution of a prolonged
uniform rainfall. Although such an event is not the norm, the conceptis useful for
showingthe mannerin which detentionand depressionstoragewould be distributed.
In general,the channelof a watershedpossesses a certain amountof baseflow
during most of the year. This flow comesfrom groundwateror spring contributions
and may be consideredas the normal day-to-dayflow. Dischargefrom precipitation
excess-that is, after abstractions are deducted from the original rainfall-
constitutesthe direct runoff hydrograph(DRH). Arrival of direct ninoff at the outlet
accountsfor an initial rise in the DRH. As precipitationexcesscontinues,enoughtime
qlapqgsfor progressivelydistant areasto add to the outlet flow. Consequently,the
11.2 FACTORSAFFECTINGHYDROGRAPTISHNPC 179
-
Depressionstorage
fi
-
o
Time
(b)
Figure 11.2 (a) Distribution of a uniform storm rainfall for condition of

no interceptionloss.Note that all water storedin depressions is ultimately
evaporatedor infiltrated while somedetentionstorageis also subjectedto
theselosses.(b) Equilibrium dischargehydrograph.
duration of rainfall dictatesthe proportionatearea of the watershedamplifying the

peak, and the intensity of rainfall during this period of time determinesthe resulting
greatestdischarge.
HydrographShapes
If the rainfall maintainsa constantintensityfor a long enoughperiod of time, a state
of equilibrium dischargeis reached, as depicted by curve A in Fig. 11.2b. The
inflection point on curveA often indicatesthe time at which the entire drainagearea
contributes to the flow. At this time maximum storase of the watershedis only
and
partially complete.As rainfall continues,maximum storagecapacityis attained
(runoff)] is reached. The condition of
iqrliUri"t" finflow (rainfall) equals outflow
attained in nature' Extended
maximum storageand equiiibrium is seldom if ever
its duration negateany
rainfall lnuy o"Iu., but viriations in intensity throughout
possibility of u IRH of the theoretical shapefor constant rainfall intensity'
Anormalsingle.peakDRHgenerallypossessestheshapeshownbycurveBin
peak magnitudeof this
Fig. 11.2b rather tian iy the "ur',oJin Fig. 11.2a.The time to
hyirograph dependsonih" intensity and duration ofthe rainfall' and the size,slope,
shape,and storagecapacityof the watershed.once peak flow has beenreachedfor a
given isolatedra'instorm,itt" ORg beginsto descend, its source of supply coming
such as detention and channel
largely from water accumulatedwithin the watershed
storage.
processesinvolvedin forming the DRH can be better understoodby visualizing
theprecipitationexcessaspartiallydisposedofimmediate$bysurfacerunoffwhile
releasedlater from
a portion remainsheld within the watershedboundariesand is
integrated effects of the duration
storage.Thus the shapeand timing of the DRH are
factorsas well asthe effect of
and intensityofrainfall and other hydrometeorological
the physiogiaphicfactorsof the watershedupon the storagecapacity'
COMPONENTS
11.3 HYDROGRAPH
\
into its com\-
It is important to understandhow the hydrographcan be subdivided
ofprecipitation andwatershed
nenrpar15andto look at the effecton hydrographshape
features.Figures11.3and Il'4 areusedfor this purpose'
with respect
A hydiographis a continuousgraphshowingthe rate of streamflow
strip recorder that indicates stage
to time, ,rtr*ityoutained by -"anr of a continuous
to a discharge hydrograph
vefsustime (stale hydrograph),which is then transformed
generallytaken to
by applicationof a rating curve.Hereafter,the term lrydrographis
indicate a dischargehYdrograPh'
a pgriod
Figure t t.gi lttustrai"* ih" hydrographof a permanentstreamduring
lrydrograph because ground-
between precipitation events,known i" i bot" flow
cause modification of the base
water sustainsthe flow. Four general conditions
HortonT using the following sets of
flow hydrographshape.They aL describedby
inequalities:
Setl i<f set3 i>f
F(S, F(S,
Set2 i<f Set4 i>f
F)S, F)Sr.
11.3 HYDROGRAPH
COMPONENTS 175
(e) (0 fo)
t
(h)
Figure 11.3 Effectsof stormandbasincharacteristics

on hydrographshape.
or addedgroundwatercomponentsdevelops.The entire effect of the storm would be

to slightly reducethe soil moisturedeficiencysr. The field capacityis the amountof
water held in the soil after excessgravitationalwater has drained.
The conditions describedby Set 2 still do not produce direct surfacerunoff,
although the comlponentsof interflow and groundwater flow are added to channel
precipitation.The initial hydrographwould be modified,sincethe field capacityof the
soil is exceeded.Figure 11.3b illustrates this condition. Note that deviation of the
hydrographfrom the original baseflow curve is likely to be very small under these
conditions.
Figure 11.3c illustrates a casewhere surfacerunoff becomesa componentof
flow becausei > f. In this example,interflow and groundwaterflow are zero,assoil
End ofrainfall
9C
Groundwater flow
Time
of thehydrograph.
Figure 11.4 Components
moisture deficiency still exists,although at a reduced level. Channel precipitation

likewise constitutesa component.
In the final set, Fig. 11.3d, all four componentsexist with rainfall intensity
exceedinginflltration rate andthe field capacityofthe soil is reached.This casewould
be typical
- of a large storm event.
Figures 1l.je-h illustrate how hydrograph shape can be modified by areal
variations in rainfall and rainfall intensity and by watershedconfiguration.8Minor
fluctuationsshownin thesehydrographsare linked to variationsin stormintensity.In
Fig. 11.3eonly the delayingeffectspertinent to a storm over the upstreamsectionof
the areaareindicated.Figure 11.3fshowsthe reverseof this condition.Figures11'3g
and h depict the comparativeeffects of basin geometry.
In most hydrographanalyses,interflow and channelprecipitation are grouped
with surfacerunoff rather than treated independently.Channelprecipitation begins
with inceptionof rainfall and endswith the storm.Its distributionwith respectto time
is highly iorrelated with the stormpattern.The relative volume contributiontendsto
increasesomewhatas the storm proceeds,since stream levels rise and the water
surfaceareatendsto increase.The fraction of watershedareaoccupiedby streamsand
lakes is generallysmall, usually on the order of 5 percent or less,so the percentage
of rrnoff relatedto channelprecipitation is usually minor during important storms.
Distribution of interflow is commonly characterizedby a slowly increasingrate up to
the end of the storm period, followed by a gradual recessionthat terminatesat the
intersectionofthe surfaceflow hydrographand base flow hydrograph.Figure 11.4
illustrates the approximatenature of the componentsof channelprecipitation and
interflow.
The baseflow componentis composedof the water that percolatesdownward
until it reachesthe groundwaterreservoirand then flowsto surfacestreamsasground-
water discharge.The groundwaterhydrographmay or may not show an increase
11.4 BASE FLOW SEPARATION 177
during the actual storm period. Groundwateraccretion resulting from a particular

storm is normally releasedover an extendedperiod, measuredin days for small
' watershedsand often in months or yearsfor large drainageareas.
The surfacerunoff component consistsof water that flows overland until a
streamchannelis reached.During large stormsit is the most significanthydrograph
component.Figure 11.4illustratesthe surfacerunoff and groundwatercomponentsof
a hydrograph.As pointed out in Fig. 11.3,the relative magnitudeof eachcomponent
for a given storm is determinedby a combinationof many factors.Hydrographsare
analyzedto provideknowledgeof the way precipitationand watershedcharacteristics
interact to form them. The degreeof hydrographseparationrequireddependson the
objective of the study. For most practical work, surfacerunoff and groundwater
componentsonly are required.Researchprojectsor more sophisticatedanalysesmay
dictate considerationof all components.When multiple storms occur within short
periods,it is sometimesnecessaryto separatethe overlappingparts of consecutive
surfacerunoff hydrographs.
11.4 BASEFLOWSEPARATION
Severaltechniquesare usedto separatea hydrograph'ssurfaceand groundwaterflows.

Most are basedon analysesof groundwaterrecessionor depletioncurves.If there is
no addedinflow to the groundwaterreservoir,and if all groundwaterdischargefrom
the upstreamareais interceptedat the stream-gaugingpoint of interest,then ground-
water dischargecan be describedby either e'to
er: eoK' or er: eo-K' ( 11 .1 )

where eo : a specifiedinitial discharge
q, : the dischargeat any time / after flow 46
K: arecessionconstant
e: baseof natural logarithms
Time units frequently used are days for large watershedsand hours or minutes for
small basins.A plot of either yields a straight line on semilogarithmicpaper by
plotting / on the linear scale.
For most watersheds,groundwaterdepletioncharacteristicsare approximately
stable,sincethey closelyfit watershedgeology.Nevertheless, the recessionconstant
varieswith seasonaleffectssuchas evaporationand freezingcyclesand other factors.
Becauseq, dt is equivalentto -dS, where S is the quantity of water obtainedfrom
storage,integrationofEq. 11.1produces
s - Qlog"
t- 4o
K
(rr.2)
This equation determinesthe quantity of water releasedfrom groundwaterstorage
betweenthe times of occurrenceof the two dischargesof interest,or it can be usedto
calculatethe volume of water still in storageat a time some chosenvalue of flow
occurs.To get the latter, 4, is setequalto zero and qsbecomesthe referencedischarge.
Figure 11.5ais a plot of Eqs. 11.1and II.2 andprovidesadditionaldefinition.
qo
.. ,?
q
K
/ \r3 ?r
t
(a.)
I l
qo discharge at rcginningof arr interval
Qt discharge at :nd of an inten,a\
I
I I II
q Interval = unit period in
d / whicht is expreissed .
/
qo
Qt
Time
to t1
(b)
. Figure 11.5 Baseflow model'
Groundwaterdepletioncurvescan be analyzedby variousmethodsto evaluate

the recessionconstantK. One of thesewill be described.Data from a stream-gaugi.ng
stationare a prerequisiteand shouldreflectrainlessperiodswith no upstreamregula-
tion,'suchas a fesefvoir,to affect flow at the gaugingpoint. Otherwisean adjustment
with its own enors is introduced.
From the streamflow data, plot a portion of the recession hydrograph
(Fig. 11.5b) to find values of dischargeat the beginning and end of selectedtime
intervals.Flows at the beginningof eachinterval are analogousto 4e,whereasthose
at the end are analogousto q1.Next, selectseveraltime intervalsand plot correspond-
ing qe'sversusq,'s shownin Fig. 11.6.The time periodbetweenconsecutive values
of 4 shouldbe identical for eachdatum set. Figurestaken from recessioncurvesof
times that still reflect surfacerunoff will usually fall below and to the right of a 45o
line drawn on the plot. Thesevalueswill also be associatedwith larger numbersfor
4. Points taken from true groundwater recessionperiods should approximately
11,4 BASEFLOWSEPARATION 179
r.-,x. âre points plotted from
discharges for different groundwater
discharge periods ,/
o
eo nd qt are taken for equal time
,(
I I
.5r"2'
9/ .,
/(^lI
- s l o p e o 0f A= x
A fi:
inEq11.1
/#
Figure 11.6 Graphical rnethod for determiningrecessionconstant K.

(U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Soil ConservationService.)
describea straightline.Becauseh : eo : 0 when4o: 0, a straightlinecanbefitted

graphicallyto the datapoints.The slopeof this line is qrfqo : K. Usingthis value,the
depletioncurve plots as a straight line on semilogarithmicpaper (r is the linear scale
variable)or as a curveon arithmeticpaper,Fig. 11.5a.
SeparationTechniques
Severalmethodsfor baseflow separationare used when the actual amount of base
r flow is unknown. During large storms,the maximum rate of dischargeis only slightly
affectedby baseflow, and inaccuraciesin separationmay not be important.
The simplestbaseflow separationtechniqueis to draw a horizontalline from the
point at which surfacerunoff begins,PointA in Fig. 11.7, to an intersectionwith the
hydrographrecessionwherethe baseflow rate is the sameasat the beginningof direct
runoff as indicatedby Point B. A secondmethodprojects the initial recessioncurve
downwardfromA to C, which lies directly below the peak rate of flow. Then point D
on the hydrograph,representingN daysafter the peak, is connectedto point C by a
straightline definingthe groundwatercomponent.One estimateof N is basedon the
formula3
N - Ao'2 (11.3)
where N : the time in days
A = the drainageareain squaremiles
A third procedureis to developa baseflow recessioncurve using Eq. 11.1 for data
from the segmentFG, and then back-calculateall base flow to the left of Point fl
180 cHAPTER11 HYDRocRApHS
o
9p
F
Time
Flgure 11.7 Illustrationof somehydrograph

separation
techniques.
wherethe computedcurve beginsto deviatefrom the actualhydrograph,marking the

end of direct runoff. The curve is projected backward arbitrarily to some Point E
below the inflection point and its shapefrom C to E is arbitrarily assigned.A fourth
widely usedmethod is to draw a line betweenA and F, and a fifth common method
is to project the line AC alongthe slopeto the left of A , and then connectPointsC and
o
d
d
12N 6P t21|'{{ 6A 12N 6P tz]0|{ 6,{ I2N 6P IzM

Figure 11.8 Illustration of base flow separation:hydrograph for the Uharie
River near Trinity, North Carolina, February 25, 1939. (U.S. Departmentof
Agriculture, Soil ConservationService).
TIME RELATIONSHIPS 181
11.5 HYDROGRAPH
B. All thesemethodsare approximatesincethe separationof hydrographsis partly a

subjectiveprocedure.
Figure 11.8illustratestwo graphicalseparationtechniquesto determinesurface
runoff and groundwaterflow components. Line AD representsthe simpleprocedure
of connectingthe point of the beginningof direct runoff with the flrst point on the
groundwaterrecessioncurve (an advantageoverthe horizontal line techniquebecause
the time baseof direct runoff is much shorter).Ctrve ABCD is constructedfrom the
extensionof the baseflow recessioncurve.
TIMERELATIONSHIPS
11.5 HYDROGRAPH
Wavetravel time is definedas the time required for direct runoff originating at the
most remotepoint in the channelto reachthe outlet. The last drop of direct runoff to
passthe outlet conceptuallytravelsoverthe watersurfaceand reachesthe outlet at the
speedof a small surfacewave,rather than at a speedequal to the averagevelocity of
flow. The wavetravel time is fasterthan the averagevelocity and varieswith channel
shapeand other factors.For a rectangularchannel,the ratio is approximately5/3 (see
Section 13.1 for other wavevelocities).The time base(Fig. 11.4) of a hydrographis
consideredto be the time from which the concentrationcurve beginsuntil the direct-
runoff componentreacheszero. An equationfor time basemay take the form
T6:t"*t, (rr.4)
where To : the time baseof the direct runoff hydrograph
/" : the duration of runoff-producingrain
t- : the excessrainfall releasetime
Watershedlag time, illustrated in Fig. 11.4, is definedas the time from the penterof
tt
massof effectiverainfall to the centerof massof direct runoff. Other definitionsand
severalequationsrelating lag time to watershedcharacteristicsare providedin S_ec-
tion 11.7 and subsequent chapters.
Becauseofits importancein unit hydrographtheory, the excess-rainfallrelease
time is introduced.This is definedasthe time requiredfor the last, most remotedrop
ofexcessrain that fell on the watershedto passthe outlet, signallingthe cessationof
direct runoff. It is easilydeterminedas the time interval betweenthe end of rain and
the end of direct runoff. Only that part of the outflow which classiflesas direct runoff
(excessrain) is consideredin dqterminingthe releasetime. Watershedoutflow nor-
mally continuesafter cessationof direct runoff, in the form of interflow andbaseflow.
Releasetime is very similar by definitionto wavetraveltime and time of concentration
(Section11.6).
A foundational assumptionof unit hydrographtheoryl2 is that the watershed
excessreleasetime is a constant,regardlessof the storm duration, and is related to
basinfactorsratherthan meteorologicalcharacteristics. The excessreleasetime is also
conceptuallyidenticalwith the time baseof an instantaneousunit hydrograph(IUH).
This is the runoff hydrographfrom 1.0 in. of excessrain applieduniformly over the
watershedin an instant of time (seeChapter 12). Both wavetravel time and excess-
rainfall releasetime are often used synonymouslywith time of concentration.
11.6TIMEOF CONCENTRATION
The most common definition of time of concentrationoriginatesfrom consideration

of overlandflow. If a uniform rain is appliedto atract, the portions nearestthe outlet
contribute runoff at the outlet almost immediately.As rain continues,the depth of
excesson the surfacegrowsand dischargeratesincreasethroughout.Runoff contribu-
tions from variouspoints upstreamarrive at later times, addingthemselvesto contin-
uing runoff from nearerpoints, until flow eventually arrives from all points on the
watershed,"concentrating" at the outlet. Thus, concentrationtime is the time re-
quired,with uniform rain, for 100percentof a tract of land to contributeto the direct
runoff at the outlet.e
As a secondpopular definition, the concentrationtime is often equatedwith
either the excess-rainfallreleasetime or the wave travel time becausethe time for
runoff to arrive at the outlet from the most remotepoint after rain ceasesis assumed
to be indicative of the time required for 100 percent contribution from all points
during any uniform storm having sufficient duration. The latter definition is often
preferred becausefew storm durations exceedthe time of concentration,making
determinationof /. possibleonly by examiningexcessrain recession.
Becausetime of concentrationis conceptuallythe time requiredfor 100percent
of the watershedto contribute, it is also often defined as the time from the end of
excessrainfall to the inflection point on the hydrographrecessionlimb (e.g., see
Fig. 12.2).The reasoningusedin this definitionis that direct runoff ceasesat the point
of inflection.
For a small tract of land experiencinguniform rain, the entire areacontributes
at approximatelythe sametime that the runoff reachesan equilibrium.This givesrise
to yet anotherdefinition of time of concentration.If rain abruptly ceased,the direct
runoff would continueonly as long as the excess-rainfallreleasetime t,. On the basis
of the seconddeflnition.excessreleasetime and time of concentrationcan be consid-
ered equivalent.
Numerous equationsrelating time of concentrationto watershedparameters
havebeen developed.Table 11.1 summarizesseveralpopular versions.Other varia-
tions are presentedin Chapters12, 15,16, and25.
11.7 BASIN LAG TIME
The relative timing of rainfall and runoff must be known if drainageareashaving

subbasinsare to be modeledor if continuoussimulation is desired.A basic measure
of timing is basi'nlag, which locatesthe hydrograph'spositionrelativeto the causative
stormpattern.It is most often definedas the differencein time betweenthe centerof
massof effectiverainfall and the centerof massof runoff produced.Other definitions
are also used.Two of theseare ( 1) the time interval from the maximum rainfall rate
to the peakrate of runoff and(2) the time from the centerof massof effectiverainfall
to the peak rate of flow. Time lag is characterizedby the ratio of a flow length to a
mean velocity of flow and is thus a property that is influencedby the shapeof the
drainagearea,the slopeof the main channel,channelroughnessand geometry,and
thg'storm pattern.
11.7 BASINLAGTIME 183
TABLE11.1 SUMMARY
OF TIMEOF CONCENTRATION
FORMULAS
Method and date for t" (min)
Formula Remarks
Kirpich (1940) tc : 0.00782077S-o38s Developedfrom SCS data for sevenrural basins
L : length of channel/ditch in Tennesseewith well-definedchanneland
from headwater to outlet, ft steepslopes(37o to 1O7o);for overlandflow on
S : average watershed slope, ftlft concreteor asphaltsurfacesmultiply t;by 0.4;
for concretechannelsmultiply by 0.2; no ad-
justments for overland flow on bare soil or flow
in roadsideditches.
USBR Design of t" : 60(lI.9L31H)o38s Essentiallythe Kirpich formula; developedfrom
Small Dams L : length of longest water- small mountainousbasinsin California (U.S.
(r973) course, ml Bureauof Reclamation,1973,pp. 67-7I).t4
Il : elevation difference between
divide and outlet, ft
lzzatd (7946)ts 41.025(0.0007, t c)Lozz Developedin laboratory experimentsby Bureau of
-c
S0.333i0.66? Public Roadsfor overland flow on roadwayand
I : rainfall intensity,in/h turf surfaces;valuesof the retardance
c: retardancecoefficient coefficientrange from 0.0070 for very smooth
Z : length of flow path, ft pavementto 0.012 for concretepavementto
,S: slopeof flow path, ftlft 0.06 for denseturf; solution requiresiteration;
product i times Z shouldbe = 500.
FederalAviation r" = 1.8(1.1- C)Losofso333 Developedfrom air field drainagedata assembled
Administration C : rational method runoff by the Corps of Engineers;method is intended
( 1970)r6 coefficient for use on airfield drainageproblems,but has
l, : length of overland flow, ft been used frequently for overlandflow in urban
S : surface slope, Va basins.
Kinematic WaveFor- O.94Lo6no6 Overland flow equation developedfrom kinematic
mulas Morgali and (io 45o 3) wave analysis of surface runoff from developed
Linsley (1965)'? l, : length of overland flow, ft surfaces;method requiresiteration sinceboth i
Aron and Erborge n : Manning roughnesscoefficient (rainfall intensity) arrdt, are unknown; superpo-
(1973)18 I : rainfall intensity in/h sition of intensity-duration-frequency curve
S : averageoverland slope ftlft gives direct graphical solution for t".
SCS Lag Equation t.67 Lo8[(tooo/cN)- 9]oi Equation developedby SCS from agricultural wa-
(1972)te ,. ._- @ tersheddata; it has been adaptedto small urban
L : hydraulic length of watershed basinsunder 2000 acres;found generally good
(Iongestflow path), ft where areais completelypaved;for mixod areas
CN : SCS runoffcurve number it tendsto overestimate;adjustmentfactorsare
S : averagewatershedslope,Vo applied to correct for channelimprovementand
imperviousarea; the equationassumesthat
t" : 1.67 X basinlag.
SCS AverageVeloc- Overland flow charts in Ref. 20 provide average
ity Charts(1975, ',' : l v L
60- v velocity as function of watercourseslope and
1986),0 Z : length of flow path, ft surfacecover.
V : ureragevelocity in feet per
secondfrom Fig. 3- 1 of TR 55
for various surfaces
Sarrce.' After Ref. 13.

Various studieshave been conductedfor the purpose of developingrelations

descriptiveof time lag. Most prominent of thesewas the work by Snyderon large
natural watersheds.2lHis original equation has been widely used and modified in
variouswaysby other investigators.Eaglesonhas proposedan equationfor lag time
on sewereddrainageareashavinga minimum sizeof 147 acres.2z An early investiga-
tion (1936) on small drainageareas(2-4 acres)was conductedby Horner in his
classicalwork on urbandrainagein St. Louis,Missouri.23 Horner'swork wasincon-
clusive in that it did not yield a deflned procedure,but he did conclude that the
comparativelywide rangein the lag time at eachlocation led to the inferencethat the
lag was a variable,its valuebeingdeterminedmore by rainfall characteristicsthan by
characteristicsof the drainagearea.
Snyder'sstudybasedon data from the AppalachianMountain regionproduced
the following equationfor lag time:z1
t,1: c,(L""L)o3 ( 11 . s )
where /1 : the lag time (hr) betweenthe centerof massof the rainfall excessfor
a specifiedtype of storm and the peak rate of flow
I'"o : the distancealongthe main streamfrom the baseto a point nearestthe
centerof gravity of the basin (mi)
I : length of the main stream channel (mi) from the base outlet to the
upstreamend of the streamand including the additional distanceto
the watersheddivide
C, : & coefficientrepresentingvariationsof types and locationsof str'eams
For the areastudied,the constantC, was found to vary from I.8 to 2.2, with
somewhatlower valuesfor basinswith steeperslopes.The constantis consideredto
includethe effectsof slopeand storage.The value of 4 is assumedto be constantfor
a given drainagearea,but allowanceis madefor the useof different valuesof lag for
different types of storms. The relation is consideredapplicable to drainage areas
rangingin sizefrom 10 to 10,000mi'.
In a studyof seweredareasrangingin size from 0.22 to 7.51 mi2,Eagleson22
developedthe equation
L
"t ', : - (11.6)
( l . 5 / n ) R 2 / 3s t / 2
where tr : lag time, the center of mass of rainfall excess to the peak discharge
(sec)
L : the mean travel distance (ft), which is equal to the length of that portion
of the sewerwhich flows full
n : the weightedManning's coefficientfor the main sewer
: the weightedhydraulic radius of the main sewerflowing full
{
S : the weightedphysicalslopeof the main sewer
Eagleson'sequationdirectly includesthe effects of channelgeometry and slope,as
well as basin shape,and thus representsa refinementof the Snyderapproach.It also
indirectly includesthe important effect of the storm pattern.
PROBLEMS185
Linsley and Ackerman give examplesof applicationof the following modified
form of Snyder'sequation.24
t,:C,+! (rr.1)
where s is a weighted slope of the channel and the other variablesare as defined
previously.
Other investigatorshaverepresentedtime lag by equationsof the form
t t =K + ( 11 . 8 )
Vs
Numerous other derivations of relations for watershedlag times can be found in
standardhydrologictexts and periodical literature. Others are includedwith someof
the syntheticunit hydrographdiscussionsin Chapter 12.
r Summary
Understandingthe structureof hydrographSis important to many designand water
supply applications.The hydrographrepresentsthe portion of the hydrologiccycle
that engineersmostoften needin orderto determineratesof flow in streamsfor setting
bridge lengthsand elevations,designingflood protection measures,and establishing
areal extent of flooding. Similarly, the volume of drainageinto a reservoiror past a
water supply diversionis determinedfrom the areaunder the hydrograph.Accurate
estimatesof thesevolumesare important to designof dams,reservoirs,pipelines,and
'
numerousother structures.
After graspingthe fundamentalsof hydrographcomponents,including the time
relationshipspresentedin this chapter,the reader should be well preparedfor the
quantitativedevelopmentsof hydrographtheory and applicationspresentedthrough-
out Chapters12 through 16 and in Part Five.
PROBLEMS
11.1. Referto Fig. 11.1.Replotthis hydrographand usetwo different techniquesto separate
the baseflow.
11.2. Obtain streamflowdata for a water courseof interest.Plot the hydrographfor a major
runoff event and separatethe baseflow.
11.3. For the event of Problem I1.2, tabtlate the precipitation causingthe surfacerunoff
and determinethe duration of runoff-producing.rain. Estimatethe time of concentra-
tion and useEq. I 1.4 to estimatethe time baseof the hydrograph.Comparethis with
the time basecomputedfrom the hydrograph.
11.4. Tabulatedbelow are total hourly dischargerates at a cross sectionof a stream.The
drainagearea abovethe sectionis 1.0 acre.
a. Plot the hydrographon rectangular coordinate paper and label the rising limb
(concentrationcurve), the crest segment,and the recessionlimb.
186 CHAPTERll HYDROGRAPHS
b. Determinethe hour of cessationof the direct runoff usinga semilogplot of Q versus
time.
c. Use the base flow portion of your semilog plot to determine the groundwater
recessionconstantK,
d. Carefully constructand label baseflow separationcurveson the graph of Part a,
using two different methods.
Time(hr) Q (cfs) Time (hr) @ (cfs)
0 102 8 2lo
1 100 9 150
2 98 l0 105
3 220 11 75
I
512 t2 60
5 630 IJ 54
6 460 t4 48.5
7 330 15 43.5
11.5. On a neatsketchof a typical total runoff hydrograph,showor dimensionthe (a) storm

hyetograph,(b) beginningofdirectrunoff, (c) cessationtimeofdirectrunoff' (d) base
fllw separationassumingthat additional contributions to base flow are negligible
during ihe period of rise, and (e) crest segmentof the hydrograph'
11.6. For an urban watershedassignedby your instructor,obtain measuresof the watershed
area,length, and slope,and compareestimatesof the time of concentrationusing the
Kirpich, USBR, FAA, and SCSLag equationsin Table 11.1'
REFERENCES
1. American Society of Civil Engineers,Hydrology Handbook, Manuals of Engineering
Practice,No. 28. New York: ASCE, 1957.
"A
2. Donn G. DeCoursey, Runoff HydrographEquation," U.S. Departmentof Agricul.ture,
AgriculturalResearchService,Feb. 1966,pp.4I-116'
3. R. K' Linsley, M. A. Kohler, and J' L. H' Paulhus,Applied Hydrology' New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
"Erosional Developmentof Streamsand Their DrainageBasins:Hydro-
A
R. E. Horton,
physicalApproach to QuantitativeMorphology,"Bull. Geol' Soc'Am' 56(1945)'
"An Approach Toward a PhysicalInterpretationof Infiltration Capacity,"
5 . if.-n. gorton,
Proc. Soil Sci.Soc.Am. 5,399-417(1940).
"An Inflltration Equation with Physical Significance,"Soil Sci.77(1954).
6 . J. R. Philip,
7 . R. E: Horion";Surface Runffi Phenomena.Ann Arbor, MI: EdwardsBros., 1935.
8 . R. J. M. DeWiest,Geohydrology.New York: Wiley' 1965'
9 . ,.Hydrology,,'in EngineeringHandbook, Sec. 4, U.s. Department of Agriculture, Soil
ConservationService,1972.
"Discussionof Analysis of Runoff characteristicsby o. H. Meyet," Trans.
1 0 . B. S. Barnes,
ASCEl0s(1940).
"Unit HydrographLag and PeakFlow Relatedto Basin
1 1 . A. B. Taylorand H. E. Schwartz,
Characteristics," Trans,Am. Geophys. Union 33(1952).
REFERENCES 187
12. L, K. Sherman, "Streamflow
from Rainfall by the Unit-GraphMethod," Eng.News-Rec.
108(1932).
1 3 . D. F. Kilber, "Desk-top methods for urban stormwatercalculation," Ch. 4 in Urban
Stormwater Hydrology, Water ResourcesMonograph No. 7, American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D. C., 1982.
14. U.S. Bureauof Reclamation,Designof SmallDams,2nd ed., Washington,D.C.,1973.
1 5 . C.F.Izzafi,, "Hydraulicsof RunofffromDevelopedSurfaces,"Proceedings,26th Annual
Meetingof the HighwayResearchBoad,26, pp. 129-146, December1946.
16. FederalAviation Administration,"Circular on Airport Drainage,"ReportA/C 050-5320-
58, Washington, D.C., 1970.
n. J. R. Morgali, andR. K. Linsley,"ComputerAnalysisof OverlandFlow,"./. Hyd.Div., Am.
Soc.Civ.Eng.,9l, no. HY3, May 1965.
1 8 . G. Aron, and C. E. Egborge,"A PracticalFeasibility Study of Flood PeakAbatementin
Urban Areas,"U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers,Sacramento, Calif., March 1973.
1 9 . Soil ConservationService,"National EngineeringHandbook, Sec. 4, Hydrology," U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture,U.S. GPO, Washington, D.C., 1972.
20. Soil ConservationService,"Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds,"TechnicalRelease
55, Washington, D.C., 1975(updated,1986).
2 t . F. F. Snyder,"Synthetic Unit Graphs," Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 19, 447-454(1938).
22. Peter S. Eagleson,"CharacteristicsofUnit Hydrographsfor SeweredAreas," paperpre-
sentedbeforethe ASCE, Los Angeles,-CA,1959,unpublished.
23. W. W. Horner, and F. L. Flynt, "RelationBetweenRainfall and Runoff from Small Urban
Areas," Trans.ASCE 62(101), 140-205(Oct 1956).
aA R. K. Linsley,Jr.,andW. C. Ackerman,"Methodof PredictingtheRunofffromRainfall,"
Trans.ASCE 107(1942\.
C h a p t e r1 2
Unit Hydrographs
r Prologue
. Define unit hydrographsand show their utility in hydrologicstudiesand de-

sign.
. Developfully the current methodsof obtaining, analyzing,and synthesizing
unit hydrographs.
. Presentmethodsfor converting unit hydrographsfor one storm duration to
other storm durations.
Waysto predict flood peak dischargesand dischargehydrographsfrom rainfall events

havebeenstudiedintensivelysincethe early 1930s.One approachreceivingconsider-
able use is called the unit lrydrographmethod.
12.1 UNIT HYDROGRAPH DEFINITION
The concept of a unit hydrographwas first introduced by Shermant'zin 1932. He

defineda unit graph as follows:2
Ifa givenone-day rainfallproduces givendrainage

a 1-in.depthofrunoffoverthe area,
thehydrograph showingtheratesat whichtherunoffoccurredcanbe considered
a unit
graphfor that watershed.
Thus, a unit hydrographis the hydrographof direct runoff (excludesbaseflow)

for any stormthat producesexactly 1.0inch of net rain (the total runoff after abstrac-
tions).Sucha stormwould not be expectedto occur,but Sherman'sassumptionis that
the ordinatesof a unit hydrographare t.O/P times the ordinatesof the direct runoff
hydrographfor an equal-duration storm with P inchesof net rain.
The term "unit" hasto do with the net rain amountof 1.0inch and doesnot mean
to imply that the duration of rain that producedthe hydrographis one unit, whether
an hour, day,or any other measureof time. The storm duration,X, that producedthe
unithydrographmustbe specifiedbecausea watershedhasa differentunit hydrograph
12.1 UNIT HYDROGRAPHDEFINITION 189
for eachpossiblestorm duration. An X-hour unit lrydrograp,his defined as a direct
runoff hydrographhavinga 1.0-in. volumeand resultingfrom anX-hour stormhaving
a net rain rate of 1,/Xin.lhr. Az-hr unit hydrographwould havea 1.0-in. volume
producedby a 2-hqstorm,and a 1-dayunit hydrographwould be producedby a storm
having 1.0 in. of eicessrain uniformly producedduring a 24-hr period. The valueX
is often a fraction. Figure 12.1illustratesa2-ltr,l2-hr, and24-hrwthydrograph for
a given watershed.
t
(b)
24hr )z nl
(c)
Figure 12.1 Illustration of 2-br, I2-hr, and 24-ht unit

hydrographsfor the same watershed(Note: a : b : c :
1' X A).
190 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
By Sherman'sassumption,applicationof an X-hourunit graphto designrainfall
excessamountsother than 1 in. is accomplishedsimply by multiplying the rainfall
excessamount by the unit graph ordinates,since the runoff ordinatesfor a given
duration are assumedto be directly proportional to rainfall excess.A 3-hr storm
producing2.0 in, of net rain would haverunoff rates2 times the valuesof the 3-hr unit
hydrograph.One-half inch in 3 hr would produceflowshalf the magnitudeof the 3-hr
unit hydrograph.This principle of proportional flows is expandedin Section 12.3 and
appliesonly to equal duration storms.
Implicit in deriving the unit hydrographis the assumptionthat rainfall is dis-
tributed in the sametemporal and spatialpattern for all storms.This is generallynot
true; consequently,variationsin ordinatesfor different stormsof equal duration can
be expected.
This chapteris organizedto defineunit hydrographsfirst, then presentmethods
of deriving unit hydrographsfrom actual rainfall and runoff records (Section 12.2).
After familiarizing the readerwith the origin of unit hydrographs,Section I2.3 pre-
sentsmethodsof applyingunit hydrographsto generatedirect runoff hydrographsfor
any storm with durationsthat are multiple integersof the U.H. duration.
The constructionof unit hydrographsfor stormswith other than integermulti-
ples of the derived duration is facilitated by a method known as the S-lrydrograph
developedby Morgan and Hulinghorst.3The procedure,as explainedin Section 12.4,
employs a unit hydrographto form an S-hydrographresulting from a continuous
appliedrainfall. The need to alter duration of a unit hydrographled to studiesof the
shortestpossiblestorm duration-the instantaneousunit rainfall. The concept of
instantaneousunit hydrograph(IIJH) is tracedto Clark6and can also be used(Sec-
tion 12.5) is constructingunit hydrographsfor other than the derived duration.
The previousdiscussionassumesthat the analysthasrunoff and rainfall datafor
deriving a unit hydrographfor the subject watershed.The application of unit hy-
drographtheory to ungaugedwatershedsreceivedearly attentionby Snyderaand also
by Taylor and Schwartz,5who tried to relate aspectsof the unit hydrographto water-
shed characteristics.As a result, a full set of synthetic unit-hydrographmethods
emerged.A numberof theseare presentedin Section12.6.
12.2 DERIVATION
OF UNITHYDROGRAPHS
FROM
STREAMFLOW DATA
Data collection preparatoryto deriving a unit hydrographfor a gaugedwatershedcan

be extremelytime consuming.Fortunately,many watershedshaveavailablerecordsof
streamflowand rainfall, and thesecan be supplementedwith office records of the
Water ResourcesDivision of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey.TRainfall records pay be
securedfrom ClimatologicalDatas publishedfor eachstatein the United Statesby the
National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA). Hourly rainfall records
for recordingrainfall stationsare publishedas a Summaryof Hourly Observationsfor
the location. Summariesare listed for approximately300 first-order situationsin the
United States.
To developa unit hydrograph,it is desirableto acquireas rnanyrainfall records
aspossiblewithin the study areato ensurethat the amountand distributionof rainfall
12.2 DERIVATION,OFUNIT HYDROGRAPHSFROM STREAMFLOWDATA 191
over the watershedis accurate$ known. Preliminary selectionof storms to use in

deriving a unit hydrographfor a watershedshouldbe restrictedto the following:
1. Stormsoccurring individually, that is, simple storm structure.

2. Storms having uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the period of
rainfall excess.
3. Stormshavinguniform spatial distribution over the entire watershed.
Theserestrictionsplace both upper and lower limits on size of the watershedto be

employed.An upper limit of watershedsize of appro5imately1000 mi2 is overcau-
tious, althoughgeneralstormsover suchareasare not unrealisticand somestudiesof
areasup to 2000 mi2 have used the unit-hydrographtechnique.The lower limit of
watershedextentdependson numerousother factorsand cannotbe preciselydefined.
A generalrule of thumb is to assumeabout 1000acres.Fortunately,other hydrologic
techniqueshelp resolveunit hydrographsfor watershedsoutsidethis range.
The preliminary screeningof suitable storms for unit-hydrographformation
shouldmeet more restrictive criteria before further analysis:
1. Duration of rainfall event should be approximately10-30 percent of the

drainagearea lag time.
2. Direct runoff for the selectedstorm shouldrangefrom 0.5 to 1.75 in.
3. A suitablenumberof stormswith the sameduration shouldbe analyzedto
obtain an average of the ordinates (approximately five events).
Modificationsmay be madeto adjustdifferent unit hydrographsto a single
duration by meansof S-hydrographsor IUH procedures.
4. Direct runoff ordinatesfor eachhydrographshouldbe reducedso that each
eventrepresents1 in. of direct runoff.
5. The final unit hydrographof a specificdurationfor the watershedis obtained
by averagingordinatesof selectedeventsand adjustingthe result to obtain
1 in. of direct runoff.
Constructingthe unit hydrographin this way producesthe integratedeffect of

runoff resultingfrom a representativeset of equal duration storms.Extremerainfall
intensityis not reflectedin the determination.If intensestormsare needed,a study of
recordsshouldbe madeto ascertaintheir influenceupon the dischargehydrographby
comparingpeaks obtainedutilizing the derived unit hydrographand actual hydro-
graphsfrom intensestorms.
Essentialstepsin developinga unit hydrographfor an isolatedstorm are:
l. Analyzethe streamflowhydrographto permit separationof surfacerunoff

from groundwaterflow, accomplishedby the methodsdevelopedin Sec-
tion l 1.4.
2. Measurethe total volume of surfacerunoff (direct runoff ) from the storm
producingthe original hydrograph.This is the area under the hydrograph
after groundwaterbaseflow has been removed.
3. Divide the ordinatesof the direct runoff hydrographby total direct runoff
volume in inches,and plot theseresultsversustime as a unit graph for the
basin.
\-
192 12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
GHAPTER
4. Finally, the effective duration of the runoff-producing rain for this unit
graphmustbe found from the hyetograph(time history of rainfall intensity)
of the storm eventused.
Proceduresother than thoselisted are requiredfor complex stormsor in devel-

oping synthetic unit graphs when data are limited. Unit hydrographscan also be
transposedfrom one basinto anotherundercertain circumstances.An exampleillus-
tratesthe derivationof a unit hydrograph.
EXAMPLE I2.1
Using the total direct runoff hydrographgiven in Fig. I2.2, derive a unit hydrograph
for the l7I5 ac drainagearea.
Solution
1. Separatethe base or groundwaterflow to get the total direct runoff hy-

drograph.A commonmethodis to draw a straightline AC that beginswhen
2-hr rainfall duration
I
I
*zTotal precipitaion = 4.2 in.
) o l 1l t2
Time (hr)
Directrunoff. /T\ *zTotal directrunotf of

ordinate Yl \ l.4l5in.on1715ac
500
2-hr unit hydrograph of
o 400 l.u rn. on I / I) ac
FA
300
Basef-tow Baseflow
200 / / \,
separatlon
.100
/^ t'-# -j
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Time(hr)
Dfuectrunoffduration
Figure 12.2 Illustration of the derivation of a unit hydrograph

from an isolatedstorm.
12,2 DERIVATIONOF UNIT HYDROGRAPHSFROM STREAMFLOWDATA 193
the hydrographstartsan appreciablerise and endswherethe recessioncurve

intersectsthe baseflow curve.The importantpoint hereis to be consistentin
methodologyfrom storm to storm.
2. The depth of direct runoff over the watershedis calculatedusing
> (DR x Ar) _ 2447 cfs-hr -: 1 4"
''* (r2.r)
area l7l5 ac
whereDR is the averageheightof the dfuectrunoff ordinateduring a chosen
time period Ar (in this caseA/ : 1.0 hr) . The valuesof DR determinedfrom
Fig. I2.2 are listedin Table 12.1.
3. Computeordinatesof the unit hydrographby using
8 "_ Q , (r2.2)
v, 1
where Q, : the magnitudeof a hydrographordinate of direct runoff
having a volume equal to % (in.) at someinstant of time
after start of runoff
Q, : the ordinateof the unit hydrographhavinga volume of 1 in.
at someinstant of time
In this examplethe valuesare obtainedby dividing the direct runoff ordi-
natesby 1.415.Table12.1outlinesthe computationof the unit-hydrograph
ordinates.
4. Determinethe duration of effectiverainfall (rainfall that actuallyproduces
surfacerunoff). As statedpreviously,the unit hydrographstorm duration
TABLE
12,1 DETERMINATION
OFA 2.HRUNITHYDROGRAPH
FROM AN ISOLATEDSTORM
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Direct 2-hr unit hydrograph
Time Runoff Base flow runoff, (2)-(3) ordinate,(4) + 1.415
(hr) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs)
I 110 t10 0 0
2 t22 t10 t2 8.5
3 230 t10 120 84.8
4 578 110 468 i-l I
4.7 666 110 556 393

5 645 110 535 379
6 434 110 324 229
7 293 110 183 129
8 202 110 92 65.0
9 160 110 50 35.3
10 1t7 1r0 7 4.9
10.5 105 105 0 0
lt 90 90 0 0
t2 80 80 0 0
194 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
should not exceedabout 25 percent of the drainage atea lag time' but
violatesthis rule for the example.From Fig. 12.2, the rain duration is 2 hr.
5. Using the values from Table I2.1, plot the unit hydrograph shown in
Fig. 12.2. r I
BY LAGGINGMETHODS
APPLICATIONS
12.3 UNITHYDROGRAPH
Once an X-hr unit hydrographhasbeenderivedfrom streamflowdata (or synthesized
from basin parameters,Section 12.6) it can be used to estimatethe direct runoff
hydrographshapeand duration for virtually any rain event.Applications of the X-hr
UH to other stormsbeginswithlagging procedures,usedfor stormshavingdurations
that are integermultiples of the derived duration. Applications to stormswith frac-
tional multiples of X, known as S-hydrographandIUH procedures,are discussedin
Sections12.4 and 12.5.
Becauseunit hydrographsare applicableto effective (net) rain, the processof
applyrngUH theory to a storm beginsby first abstractingthe watershedlossesfrom
the precipitation hyetograph,resulting in an effective rain hyetograph'Any of the
proceduresdetailedin Chapter 4 can be applied. The remainder of this discussion
assumesthat the analysthas already abstractedwatershedlossesfrom the storm.
If the duration of anotherstorm is an integermultiple of X, the storm is'treated
as a seriesof end-to-endX-hourstorms.First, the hydrographsfrom eachX increment
ofrain are determinedfrom the X-hourunit hydrograph.The ordinatesare then added
at correspondingtimes to determinethe total hydrograph.
EXAMPLE 12.2
Dischargerates for the 2-hr unit hydrographshownin Fig' I2.3 are'.
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
O (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0
Develophourly ordinatesof the total hydrographresultingfrom a 4-hr designstorm

havingthe following excessamounts:
Hour 1 L J 4
Excess(in.) Q.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
Solution. The 4-hr duration of the designstorm is an integermultiple of the

unit hydrographduration.Thus,the total hydrographcanbe foundby addingthe
contributionsof two 2-hr incrementsof end-to-endrain, asshowninFig. l2'3c.
The first 2-hr stormsegmenthas 1.0 in. of net rain and thus reproducesa unit
hydrograph. The second2-hr stormsegmenthas 2.0in. of netrain (in 2 hr);thus
its ordinatesare twice those of a 2-hr unit hydrograph.The total hydrograph,
12.3 UNIT HYDROGRAPHAPPLICATIONSBY LAGGINGMETHODS 195
-
F 1.0
r>
h u.)
c 0
2 3 4 . 5 6
(a) 2-hourunit storn excess
^ 300
200
i90 zoo
1oo
'6
0
-
1.0
ir 0.5
0
2 3 4 5 6
(c)Designstom excess
600
500
'6 400
:i
H 300
i5 200
100
0
r 2 3 4 5 6 7
(d) Contributionof each2-hourstorm
600
500
a
t +oo
;
ff:oo
'$ zoo
-100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8
(e) Total design hydrograph
Figure 12.3 Example 12.2 deivation of total runoff

hydrographusing a 2-hr unit hydrograph.
196 cHAPTERi2 uNtr HyDRocRApHS
Fig.12.3e, is found by summingthe fwo contributionsat correspondingtimes.
Note in Fig, 12.3d that runoff from the secondstorm beginswhen the second
rain begins,not at the beginningof the first storm. r I
This methodof "lagging" is basedon the assumptionthat linear responseof the
watershedis not influencedby previousstorms-that is, one can superimposehydro-
graphs offset in time and the flows will be directly additive. The simplestway to
developcompositedirect runoff hydrographsfor multiple-hourstormsis in a spread-
sheet.Care must be taken, however,in visually confirming, as in ExampleI2.2, that
the start and end points of runoff from eachcontributingX-hr incrementof rain are
properly selected.A commonerror is to lag eachadditional contributinghydrograph
by Ar, the time interval betweenreadings,rather than X, the associatedduration with
the given unit hydrograph.Also, the multiplier for the UH ordinatesmust be the net
rain occurring in X hours, not the rain occurring in the time increment A/. Exam-
ple I2.3 illustratesthesepoints.
EXAMPLE 12.3
Using the derived 2-hr lunit hydrographin Table 12.1, determinethe direct runoff
hydrographfor a 4-hr. storm havingthe following excessrain amounts:
Hour I 2
Excessrain. in. o.7 0.7 t.2 1.2
Solution
1. Tabulatethe unit hydrographat intervalsof the selectedtime interval, A/, as

shown inTable 12.2.
TABLE 12.2 UNIT HYDROGRAPHAPPLICATIONOF EXAMPLE12.3
Contrib. Contrib. Total

Effective Unit of first of second outflow
Time rainfall hydrograph 2-hrrain 2-hr rain hydrograph
(h0 (in.) (cfs) U HX 1 . 4 ' uH x 2.4' (cfs)
0 0 0 0
I 0.7 8.5 I1.9 11.9
2 0.7 84.8 l19 0 119
J 1 . 2" JJI 463 20.4 483
4 1.2 379 531 203 734
5 229 321 794 11 1 5
6 129 181 910 1091
7 65 91 550 641
8 35.3 49.4 310 359
9 4.9 6.9 156 163
10 0 0 84.7 84.7
1l 11.8 I 1.8
t2 0 0
12.gUN|THYDRoGRAPHAPPL|CAT|oNSBYLAGG|NGMETHoDS197
2. Determine the correct UH multiplier for eachX-hr interval. BecauseX is

2 hrs for this example,the first two hours of the storm producea total net
rain of 1.4 inches. Similar$, the last two hours of the storm produce
2.4 inchesof net rain.
3. Determinethe correct start and end times for eachof the two hydrographs
and tabulatethe contributionof the l.4-inch and 2.8-inch rains at the
: 3 hrs,
appropriatelag times. Becausethe secondX-hr storm startedat /
runoff for this-stormcannotbegin until / : 3 hrs as shown inTable I2'2.
4. Add the contributionsat eachtime to determine the total runoff hydrographs
for the 4-hr storm.
5. Checkthe tabular solutionby plotting eachof the two hydrographsand sum
the ordinatesat each/, as showninFig.I2'4' rr
In addition to using a given X-hr UH for determiningthe runoff hydrographfor

a given storm, tagging of ttt" X-hr UH can be used to developother duration unit
hyirographs.The pioCedureis the sameas applyingthe X-hr UH to 1.0 in. of net rain
in f nouri. As earlier, Y must be an integermultiple of X. For example,if a 1-hr unit
hydrographis availablefor a given watershed,a unit hydrographresultingfrom a 2-hr
siorm-is tbtained by plotting two L-hr unit hydrographs,with the secondunit hy-
drographlagged t hr, adding ordinates,and dividing by 2' This is demonstratedin
nigl ti.S, riliere the dashedline rept"sentsthe resulting2-ht unit hydrograph'Thus
the t in. of rainfall containedin the original 1-hr duration has been distributedover
a Z-hr period.
t 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Time units
Figure 12.4 Synthesizedhydrographfor'Example 12'3

derivedby the unit hydrographmethod'
\_
198 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDRoGRAPHS
l-hr unit hydrogaph

2-hIunithy&ogaph
Time
Figure12.5 Unithydrographlaggingprocedurero
developanotherunit hydrograph.
Modificationsof the original unit-hydrographduration can be madeso that two

1-hr unit hydrographsare usedto form a 2-hr unit hydrograph;two 2-hr unit hydro-
graphsresult in a 4-fu diagram,and so on. Care must be taken not to mix durations
in the lagging procedure, since errors are introduced; a l-hr and a}-hr unit hy-
drograph do not representa 3-hr unit hydrograph.Lagging procedureis therefoie
restrictedto multiples of the original duration accordingto the expression
D1 : nD (I2.3\
where Dl : the possibledurationsof the unit hydrographby lagging methods
D : the original duration of any given unit hydrograph
fl: I,2,3,..
12.4 S.HYDROGRAPHMETHOD
The S-hydrographmethodovercomesrestrictionsimposedby the laggingmethodand

allowsconstructionof any durationunit hydrograph.By observingthe lagging system
just described,it is apparentthat for a l-hr unit hydrograph,the l-in. rainfall excess
hasan intensityof 1 in./hr, whereasthe 2-hr unit hydrographis producedby a rainfall
intensity of 0.5 in./hr. Continuouslagging of either one of theseunit hydrographsis
comparableto a continuouslyappliedrainfall at either 0.5 in./hr or 1 in./hr intensity,
dependingon wfuch unit hydrographis chosen.
As an example,usingthe 1-hr unit hydrograph,continouslaggingrepresentsthe
direct runoff from a constantrainfall of 1 in./hr as shownin Fig. r2.6a. The cumula-
tive addition of the initial unit hydrographordinatesat time intervalsequalto the unit
storm duration resultsin an S-hydrograph(seeFig. r2.7). &aphically, construction
of an s-hydrographis readily accomplishedwith a pair of dividers. The maximum
12.4 S-HYDROGRAPHMETHOD 199
*l Dhr
D-hr S-hydrographlaggedt hr
Time *l l-
(a)
Figure 12.6 S-hydrographmethod.
dischargeof the S-hydrographoccursat a time equalto D hourslessthan the time base

of the initial unit hydrographas shown inFig. 12.6a.
To constructa pictorial 2-hr unit hydrograph,simply lag the first S-hydrograph
by a secondS-hydrographa time interval equalto the desiredduration.The difference
in S-hydrographordinatesmust then be dividedby 2. Any duration r unit hydrograph
may be obtained in the samemanner once another duration D unit hydrqgraphis
known. Simply form a D-hr S-hydrograph;lag this S-hydrographf hr, andmultiply the
difference in S-hydrographordinatesby D/t. Accuracy of the graphical procbdure
dependson the scaleschosento plot the hydrographs.Tabular solution of the S-
hydrographmethodis also employed,but hydrographtabulationsmustbe at intervals
of the original unit.hydrographduration.
EXAMPLE 12.4
Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph,use S-hydrographproceduresto construct
a 3-hr unit hydrograph.
Time (hr) o - | 2 3 4 5 6
0 (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0
Solution. The 2-hr unit hydrographis the runoff from a 2-hr stormof 0.5
in./hr. The S-hydrograph is formedfrom a net rain rate of 0.5 in./hr lasting
indefinitelyas shownin Fig. 12.6a.Its ordinatesarefoundby addingthe 2-hr
unit-hydrograph (UH) runoff ratesfrom eachcontributing2-hr block of rain:
/,/
/
i
I
i
I
a
90
-'{.3
u0 Time (min.)
Figure 12.7 S-hydrograph.
Time
(h0 1st2-hr 2nd Z-hr 3rd2-hr S-hydrograph
0 0 0
I 100 100
'
z 250 0 250
3 200 100 300
4 100 250 0 350
5 5n 200 100 350
6 0 100 250 0 350
7 50 200 100 350
8 0 100 250 350
To find a 3.-hrhydrograph,the S-curveis laggedby 3 hr and subtractedasshown

in Fig. 12.6b.This results in a hydrographfrom a 3-hr storm of 0.5 in./hr, or
1.5 in. total. Thus the ordinatesneed to be divided by 1.5 to producethe 3-hr
unit hydrograph:
12.5 THE INSTANTANEOUSUNIT HYDROGRAPH 201
Time Lagged 3-hrUnit

(hr) S-hydrograph S-hydrograph Difference hydrograph
0 0 0 0
1 100 100 67
2 250 250 167
3 300 0 300 200
4 350 100 250 167
5 350 250 r00 . 6 7
6 350 300 '50 33
7 350 350 0 0
12.5 THE INSTANTANEOUS

UNITHYDROGRAPH
The unit-hydrographmethodof estimatinga runoff hydrographcanbe usedfor storms
of extremelyshortduration.For example,if the durationof a stormis 1 min and a unit
volume of surfacerunoff occurs, the resulting hydrograph is the 1-min unit hy-
drograph.The hydrographofrunofffor any 1-min storm ofconstant intensitycan be
computedfrom the l-min unit hydrographby multiplying the ordinatesof the 1-min
unit hydrographby the appropriaterain depth.A storm lasting for many minutescan
be describedas a sequenceof 1-min storrns(Fig. 12.8).The runoffhydrographfrom
each l-min storm in this sequencecan be obtainedas in the precedingexample.By
superimposingthe runoff hydrograph from each of the l-r.nin storms, the runoff
hydrographfor the completestorm can be obtained.
From the unit hydrographfor any duration ofuniform rain, the unit hydrograph
for any other durationcanbe obtained.As the durationbecomesshorter,the resulting
unit hydrographapproachesan instantaneousunit hydrograph.The instant4neousunit
hydrograph(IUH) is the hydrographof runoff thaf would result if 1 in. of waterwere
spreaduniformly over an areain an instant and then allowed to run off.e
To develop an IUH, any I in.lhr S-hydrographmust first be obtained. The
resulting S-curve is laggedby the interval Ar to developa Ar-hour unit hydrograph.
The resulting At-hour unit graph becomesan IUH when Ar is set to 0.0 in the limit.
If a continuing 1 in./hr excessstorm produces the original and lagged S-
hydrographsof Fig. 12.6b,the Ar-hour unit hydrographis the differencebetweenthe
two curves,divided by the amount of excessrain depth in A/ hours,or
Qo- Q" (r2.4)
Q,(Lt-hr UH) :
ILt
The Qo - Q" dtfferencesare dividedby I Lt to convertfrom a stormwith 1Al inches
in Al hours to one with 1.0 in. in At hours,which is the definition of a Ar-hour unit
graph.
As Ar approacheszpro, Eq. 12.4 becomes
: !as
0,(ruH) (12.s)
Idt
Figure 12.8 Unit-hy&ographdescriptionof the runoff

process.(a) Unit hydrograph;(b) a sequenceof l-min
storms;(c) superpositionof runoffhydrographs
for eachof
the l-min storms.(After Schaake.e)
which showsthat the flow at time I is proportional to the slopeof the S-hydrograph
at time r. In applications,the slopeis approximatedbyLQ/A,I, and the IUH ordinates
can be estimatedfrom pairs of closelyspacedpoints of the S-hydrograph.
Ifan IUH is supplied,the aboveprocesscan be reversed,and any X-hour unit
graph can be found by averagingIUH florvsat X-hr intervals, or
Q,(X-tuUH) : 1(IUH,+ IUH,_X) {r2.6)

Use of this approximate equation is allowed for small X values and permits
direct calculationof a unit graph from an IUH, bypassingthe normal S-hydrograph
procedure.
UNITHYDROGRAPH
12.5 THEINSTANTANEOUS 203
EXAMPLE 12.5
Given the following 1.0 in./hr S-hydrograph,determinethe IUH, and then use it to
estimatea 1-hr UH.
Time (hr) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2,0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
S-curve (cfs) 0 5 0 200 450 500 650 700 750 800
Solution. The IUH is foundfrom Eq. l2.5.The slopeat time r is approximated

bY (Q,*o.,- Q,-o)lLt
IUH = AQlAf
0 0 0
0.5 JU 200
1 200 400
1.5 450 300
2 500 200
2.5 650 200
3 700 100
3.5 750 100
+ 800 50
800 0
5 800 0
The 1-hr uH is obtainedfrom F,q.12.6,usingreadingsat 1-hr intervals:
luHf luHr_1 1-hr UH
0 0 0 0
1 400 0 200
2 200 400 300
3 100 200 150
A 50 100 75
5 0 50 25
6 0 0 n
" l l
The readershouldverify that the 1-hr UH obtainedthrough use of the IUH is

approximatelyt[e sameas that obtainedby lagging the S-hydrographt hr, subtract-
ing, and convertingthe differenceto a 1-hr UH.
The ordinatesof the IUH representthe relative effect of antecedentrainfall
intensitieson the runoff rate at any instant of time. By plotting the IUH with time
increasingto the left rather than to the right (seeFig. I2.9), andthen superimposing
this plot over the rainfall hyetograph(plotted with time increasingto the right as in
pig.iZ.g),the'relative weight given to antecedentrainfall intensities(asa function of
time into the past) is easily observed.In other words, the runoff rate at any time is
/
CHAPTER
Time-reversed image
of the instantaneous
unit hydrograph
Time into the past
Antecedent iainfall intensities
oo=[;f@xi(t-r)dr
Figure 12.9 Calculationof runoff rates with the instantaneous unit hy-
drograph.The runoff rateat arrytime is a weighted of
average the antecedent
rainfall intensities.The time-reversed imageof the instantaneous unit hy-
drographrepresents the weightingfurtction.(After Schaake'v)
computedas a weighted averageof the previousrainfall intensities.Therefore,the

computedrunoff hydrographis the weighted,moving averageof.the rainfall pattern
and itre weighting irtt"iiott is the time-reversedimage of the unit hydrograph'e
Statedmathematically,the runoff rate at any time is given by the convolution
integral
l,',<,tu,r)dr
Q(A: - (r2.7)
ll:
12.6 SYNTHETICUNIT HYDROGRAPHS 205
where Q(t) : the surfacerunoff rate at time t
f(r) : the ordinate of the IUH at time r
i(t - r): the rainfall inten'sity (after abstraction of the appropriate
infiltration losses)at time t - r
The variable 7 representstime into the past so that time r - r occursbefore time r.
The limits on the integral allow r to vary betweena pastand presenttime (i.e., r : 0,
t - r : 0)' The integral givesa continuousweightingof prbviousrainfall intensities
by the ordinatesof the IUH.
12.6 SYNTHETIC
UNITHYDROGRAPHS
As previously noted, the linear characteristicsexhibited by unit hydrographsrf6i a
watershedare a distinct advantagein constructingmore complex rto.- Oir.fruig.
hydrographs.Generally,however,basicstreamflowand rainfall data arcnot available
to allow construction of a unit hydrographexcept for relatively few watersheds;
therefore, techniqueshave evolved that allow generationof syithetic unit lrydro-
graphs.
GammaDistribution
The shapesof hydrographsoften closely match a two-parametergamma function,
given by
xoe-*/B
f(x) : (12.8)
B"+lf(d + 1)
where0 ( r ( m. The parametera is a dimensionlessshapefactor (mustbe greater
tltul - 1), and B is a positive scalefactor havingthe sameunits as x and contiolling
the baselength. The product of a and B givesthe value-r correspondingto the apexl
or maximum value ofl(x). For a ) 1, the distribution has a single upe* und'plot,
similar to hydrograph shapes,as shown in Fig. 12.10. The dislribution mein is
F@ + 1), and varianceis p2(a + I).
. Many of the syntheticunit hydrographproceduresresult in only three to five
points on the hydrograph,through which a smooth curve must be fitted. In addition
to the requirementthat the curve passesthrough all the points, the area under the
hydrographmust equal the runoff volume from one unit of rainfall excessover the
watershed.This latter requirementis often left uncheckedand can result in consider-
ablg errors in performing calculationsthrough the use of ordinatesof a hydrograph
that do not representa "unit" of runoff.
The mostusefulfeatureof the gammadistributionfunction (explainedin greater
detail later) is thit it guaranteesa unit areaunder the curve. It can convenientlybe
used to synthesizean entire hydrographif the calculatedpeak flow rate
eo and its
associatedtime to are known. This usesa proceduredevelopedby Aron und'White.ro
If time r is substitutedfor x in Eq. 12.g, the time to peak tois aB. At this point,
the function/(r) equalsthe peak flow rate e,, or
o,:ffi=ffrr*1 (r2.e)
1.0
B--1
0
x
Figure 12.10 Gamma function shapesfor various shape and scale parameter
values.
whereC, A is the unit volumeof runoff from a basinwith arcaA. The conversionfactor
C, = 1.008 is selectedto make @(a)dimensionless.
The function f(a) is shownby Aron and white to be relatedto a by1l
a : 0.045+ 0.5d + 5.6Q2+ 0303 (12.10)
( a ( 8
Collins showsthat this can be approximatedreasonablywell in the range 1
byt'
q.:05Q+5.902 (r2.Lr)
Combiningthis with F,q. 12.9 *tu"t
o : o s, tf f i . t n ( H ) ' (r2.r2)
To fit a unit graph usingEqs. I2.9 and 12.12,the peak flow rate and time must
be estimated.Severalof the methodsdescribedsubsequ-ntlyallow this. Next. @(a)is
foundfrom Eq.12.9, and a from Eq.12.10 ot l2.Il. The unit hydrographcan now
be constructedby calculatingQ at any convenientmultiple, a, of to. Substitutingalo
for x in Eq. 12.8 gives the flow at t : atp as
- Qoto: QraoeQ-o)"
(r2.r3)
which can be solvedfor all the flow rates of the hydrograph.
EXAMPLE 12.6
The peak flow rate for the unit hydrographof a 36,000-acrewatershedis 1720cfs and
o".oi, 12 hr following the initiation of runoff. Use Eq. 12.8 to synthesizethe rest of
the hydrograph.
Solution. From Fq. 12.9,
r720(12) :
6@) : 1.008(36,000)0.57
From Eq. 12.10(and t2.It),
q.:2.2
The hydrographis then found from Eq. L2.I3:
Q*, : 1720a2'2 a)
e2'2(r-
Solving for a few points, we obtain the followine values:
10.0 t = afo(hr) O(ctu)

0 0 0
0.5 6 tt25
1.0 l2 1720
2.0 )4 876
5.0 60 9
10.0 120 0
sufficient intermediatepoints shouldbe generatedto define the entire shapeof

the hydrograph. tl
Snyder's Method
one- techniqueemployedby the corps of Engineersl3and many othersis
basedon
methods developedby Snyderaand expandedby Taylor and 3chwartz.sIt allows
computation of lag time, time base,unit_hydrographduration, peak discharge,,
and
hydrographtime widths at 50 and75 perceniof peukflor. ny uring tttesesevenpoints,
a sketchof the unit hydrographis obtained,rig.lz.rt,and cleckel to seeif it contains
1 in. of direct runoff.
Alternate recessions I
to produce 1.0 in. ofrunoff
Time,r
F'igure 12.11 Snyder'ssyntheticunit hydrograph.
Time to Peak Snyder'smethodof synthesizinga unit hydrographassumesthat the

peak flow rate occursat the watershedlag, estimatedfrom Eq. 11.5.Its locationis
established as shownon Fig. 12.11.The lag time and peak dischargerate are both
correlatedwith variousphysiographicwatershedcharacteristics.For the lag time, the
variablesL and L"o for Eq. 11.5 are estimatedfrom map measurements,and C, is
developedfor the locale,usingSnyder'sestimatesor other sources.TableL2.3summa-
rizes a variety of C, valuesfor variousregions.
It is assumedthat lag time is a constantfor a particular watershed-that'is,
uninfluencedby variations in rainfall intensitiesor similar factors. The use of L"o
accountsfor the watershedshape,andC, takescare of wide variationsin topography,
from plains to mountainousregions.
Steeperslopestend to generatelower valuesof C,, with extremesof 0.4 nqtec
in SouthernCalifornia and 8.0 alongthe Gulf of Mexico and Rocky Mountains.W{ren
snowpackaccumulationsinfluencepeak discharge,valuesof C' will be betweenone
sixth to one third of Snyder'svalues.
Time Base The time base of a syntheticunit hydrograph(seeFig. 12.11) by

Snyder'smethod is
t , : ? , t l
T ; (r2.r4)
6
where t6 : the basetime of the syntheticunit hydrograph(days)

t1: the lag time (hr)
TABLE 12.3 TYPICALSNYDER'SCOEFF|CIENTSFOR U.S. LOCALITIES
Location Range of C, Average Cr Range of Co Average Co
Appalachian Highlands t.8-2.2 2.0 0.4-0.8 0.6

West Iowa 0.2-0.6 o.4 0.7-1.0 0.8
Southern California 0.4 0.9
Ohio 0.6-0.8 0.7 0.6-0.7 0.6
Eastern Gulf of Mexico 8.0 0.6
Central Texas 0.4-2.3 1.1 0.3-1.2 0.8
North and Mid-Atlantic states 0.6/\4"
Sewered urban areas 0.2-0.5 0.3 0.1-0.6 0.3
Mountainous watersheds 1.2
Foothills areas o;7
Valley areas 0.4
Easlern Nebraska 0.4-1.0 0.8 0.5-1.0 0.8
Corps of Engineers training course 0.4-8.0 0.3-0.9
Great Plains 0.8-2.0 1.3
Rocky Mountains 1.5-8.8
SW desert 0;t -1.9 1,4
NW coast and Cascades 2.0-4.4 3.1
21 urban basins 0.3-0.9 0.6
Storm sewered areas 0.2-0.3 0.2
"Channel slope S
12.6 SYNTHETIC
UNITHYDROGRAPHS
209
Equation L2.14 gives reasonableeslimatesfor large watershedsbut will produce
excessivelylarge valuesfor smaller areas.A generalrule of thumb for small areasis
to use three to five times the time to peak as a base value when sketchinga unit
hydrograph.In any event, the time base shouldbe adjustedas shown in rig. tz.lt
until the areaunder the unit hydrographis 1.0".
Duration The duration of rainfall excessfor Snyder's synthetic unit-hydrograph

developmentis a function of lag time
tt
l -' - -
5.5
(r2.1s)
where /, : duration of the unit rainfall excess(hr)
t1 : the lag time from the certtroidof unit rainfall excessto the peak of thb
unit hydrograph
This synthetictechniquealwaysresultsin an initial unit-hydrographduration equalto
fi/5.5.However, sincechangesin lag time occur with changesin duration of tlie unit
hydrograph,the following equation was developedto allow lag time and peak dis-
chargeadjustmentsfor other unit-hydrographdurations.
tm:h+0.25(t*-t) (r2.16)
where t1p: the adjustedlag time (hr)
tt : the original lag time (hr)
to: the desiredunit-hydrographduration (hr)
t, - the original unirhydrograph duration : t,/5.5 (hr)
Peak Discharge If one assumesthat a given duration rainfall produces1 in. of

direct runoff, the outflow volume is some relatively constantpercentageof inflow
volume.A simplified approximationof outflow volume is r, X er, andthe equation
for peak dischargecan be written
-640CPA
- (12.r7)
Vr: -
Ltn
where Qp : peak discharge(cfs)

C" : the coefficientaccountingfor flood waveand storageconditions;it is
a function of lag time, durationof runoff ptoducingrain, effectivearea
contributing to peak flow, and drainagearea
A : watershedsize (mi2)
tp : the lag time (hr)
Thuspeakdischargetanbe calculatedgivenlag time andcoefficientofpeak discharge
C.. Valuesfor Cp range from 0.4 to 0.8 and gengrally indicate retention or storage
capacityof the watershed.Larger valuesof C" aregenerallyassociatedwith smaller
valuesof C,. Typical valuesare tabulated inTable 12.3.
Hydrograph Construction From Eqs: 1I.5, lZ,I4, I2.I5, and,12.1,7plot three

points for the unit hydrographand sketcha syntheticunit hydrograph,remembering
210 CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPI.IS
that total direct runoff amountsto 1 in. An analysisby the Corps of Engineers(see
Fig. 12.12) gives additional assistancein plotting time widths for points on the hy-
drographlocatedat 50 and 75 percentofpeak discharge.l3 As a generalrule ofthumb,
ttr" ti-l width at l/so and IV^ ordinatesshouldbe proportioned eachsideof the pegk
in a ratio of I:2 with the short time sideon the left of the synthetic unit-hydrograph
peak. As noted earlier,for smallerwatersheds, Eq. I2.I4 gives unrealistic valuesfor
ihe bur" time. If this occurs,a value can be estimated by multiplying total time to the
peak by a value of from 3 to 5. This ratio can be modified based on the amount and
ii." tut" of depletionof storagewater within the watershed boundaries.
The envelopecurvesin Fig. I2.I2 ate definedby
Wso: 8301(Qo/A)" (12.18)
W15: 470f(Qo/A)" (t2"]a)
The sevenpoints formed through the use of theseequationscan be plotted and a
smooth curve drawn. To assurea unit hydrograph,the curve shape and ordinates
shouldbe adjusteduntil the areabeneaththe curve is equivalentto one unit of direct
runoff depth over the watershedarea.This can be doneby hand-fittingand planime-
tering or by curve-fitting.
Hudlow and Clarkla used least-squaresregressiontechniquesto fit a Pearson
/ type (gamma)probability densityfunction (referto Chapter26) throughthe seven
III
Snyaeruoit-nyAtographpoints. This function has an areaof 1.0 and a shapesimilar
1000
800
400
N
,2
9 200
oo
\
4-l
s
'.,
1oo ) \
-? 8 0
E 6 0
9" 40
*
- n n F\ \,
t *tS
d
o \
08, $
\ \
10
8
6
0.2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8I 2 4 6 810 40 60 80100
Width of unit hYdrograPh (hr)
Figure L2.12 Unit hydrographwidth at 50 and 75 percent of peak flow'

a, observedvalue of Wso.o, observedvalue of lfi5.
c uNrrHYDR.GRAPHS
211"
to thator naturalhydrographs.
rh" ,h;:l ,lll::i
Q,: nr(; e-G-tp')/b (r2.20)

where a and b are shapeand scaleparameters.Hudlow and Clark presenta trial-and-
error solution to the least-squaresnormal equations,using Newton's method, to
developestirnatesof a and b.
The application of Snyder's syntheticunit-hydrographmethod to areasother
than the original study area should be precededby a reevaluationof coefficientsC,
and C, in Eqs; 11.5 and I2.I7 . TIns analysiscan be accomplishedby the use of unit
hydrographsin the region under study which havethe proper lag time-rainfall dura-
tion ratio; that is, t, : ttf 5.5. If anotherrainfall durationis selected,
variationsof C
and C, can be expected.
SCS Method
A methoddevelopedby the Soil ConservationServicefor constructingsyntheticunit
hydrographsis basedon a dimensionlesshydrograph(Fig. 12.13). This dimension-
less graph is the result of an analysis of a large number of natural unit hydrographs
from a wide range in size and geographii locations.The method requires only the
0.6
cSlo
b 0.5
als
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
t
Figure 12.13 Dimensionless unit hy-
tp
drographand masscurve. (After Mockus.1s)
212 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDRoGRAPHS
determination of the time to peak and the peak discharge as follovi,s:
D
tp: tt (r2.2r)
t+
where to : the time from the beginningof rainfall to peak discharge(hr)
D : the duration ofrainfall (hr)
t1 : the lag time from the centroid of rainfall to peak discharge(hr)
The ratios correspondingto Fig. 12.13 are listed in Table 12.4. The peak flow
for the hydrographis developedby approximatingthe unit hydrographas a triangular
shapewith basetime of ! t, and unit area.The readershouldverify that this produces
^ 4844
U r : - (r2.22)
t
where Qp: peak discharge(cfs)

A : drainagearea (mi2)
tp : the time to peak (hr)
The time base of ! ro is based on empirical values for averagerural experimental
watershedsand shouldbe reduced(causingincreasedpeak flow) for steepconditions
or increased (causing decreasedpeak flow) for flat conditions. The resulting
coefficientinBq.12.22 rangesfrom nearly 600 for steepmountainousconditionsto
300 for flat swampyconditions.
A relation of /, to size of watershedcan be used to estimatelag time. Typical
relations from two geographicregionsare
tt : l.44A0'6 Texas (r2.23a)
t,: 0.54A0'6 Ohio (r2.23b)
TABLE 12.4 COORDINATESOF SCS

DIMENSIONLESS UNIT
HYDROGRAPHOF
F I G U R E1 2 . 1 3
Q/Q, Q/Qp
0 0 1.4 0.75
0.1 0.015 1.5 0.66
0.2 0.075 1.6 0.56
0.3 0.16 1.8 0.42
0.4 0.28 2.0 0.32
0.5 0.43 2.2 0.24
0.6 0.60 2.4 0.18
0.7 0.77 2.6 0.13
0.8 0.89 2.8 0.098
0.9 o.9'7 3.0 0.075
1.0 1.00 3.5 0.036
1.1 0.98 4.0 0.018
t.2 0.92 0.009
1.3 0.84 5.0 0.004
UNITHYDROGRAPHS
12.6 SYNTHETIC 213.
The averagelag is 0.6/",where/" is the time of concentration,definedby SCS aseither
the time for runoff to travel from the furthermostpoint in the watershed(calledthe
upland method) or the time from the end of excessrain to the inflection of the unit
hydrograph.For the first case,
t":L1tp-D (r2.24)
The dimensionlessunit hydrograph,Fig. 1.2.1.3,has a point of inflection at approxi-
mately 1..7t,.If the lag time of 0.6t" is assumed,Eqs. 12.2I and 12.24 give
D - 0.2t0 0).zs)
D = 0.I33t" {r2,26)
A small variation in D is permissible,but it shouldnot exceed0.25t, or 0.I7t". pnce
the 0.133r"-hourunit hydrographis developed,unit hydrographsfor other durdtions
can be developedusing S-hydrographor IUH procedures.
By finding a value of t,, a syntheticunit hydrographof chosenduration D is
obtainedfrom Fig. 12.13.
Atother equationusedby the SCS is
. /0.'(s * 1;o.z
"'
t - : - (r2.27)
lgooyo's
where fi : the lag time (hr)
I : length to divide in feet
Y : averagewatershedslopein percent
S: the potentialmaximumretention(in.) : (1000/CN) - 10, where.CN
is a curve number describedin Chapter4
The lag from Eq. 12.27is adjustedfor imperviousnessor improved watercourses,or
both, if the watershedis in an urban area.The multiple to be applied to thq lag is
M : 1.- P(-6.8 X 10-3 + 3.4 x 10-4CN- 4.3 x 10-?CN,
-2.2 x 10-8CN3) (12.28)
where CN is the curve number for urbanized conditions, and P can be either the
percentageimperviousor the percentageof the main watercoursethat is hydraulically
improved from natural conditions.If part of the area is imperviousand portions of
the channelare improved,two valuesof M are determined,and both are multiplied
by the lag.
EXAMPLE 12.7
.\
For a drainagearea of 70 r4i2 having a lag time of 8 | hr, derive a unit hydrograph of
duration 2 hr. Use the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrograph.
Solution
1. Using Eq.l2.21we obtain

t,:?*8*=9*t'tr
2. From Eq.12.22
n _484x70
YP
9.5
Qo:3J60 cfsoccurringatt :9|hr

3. Using Fig.12.13, we find the following:
a: The peak flow occursar tfto: 1 or at t : 9+hr.
b. The time baseof the hydrograph: 5toor 47.5 hr.
c. The hydrographordinatesare:
l . A t t / t o : 0 . 5 ,Q / Q r : 0 . 4 3 ; t h u sa t t : 4 . 7 5 h r ,Q : 1 5 3 1c f s .
2. At tlto : 2, Q/Q" - 0.32; thus at t : 19 ht, Q : 1139cfs.
3. At tft, : 3, Q/Q, : 0.07; thus at t : 28.5 hr, Q : 249 cfs.
4. CheckD/to:0.21; OK. rl
Gray'sMethod
Another method of generatingsynthetic unit hydrographshas been developedby
Gray.16An approximateupper limit of watershedsize for applicationof this method
to the geographicareasof central Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Wisconsinis 94 mi2.
The method is basedon dimensionalizingthe incomplete gamma distribution and
resultsin a dimensionlessgraph of the form
25.0(y')n t
O,t" : 1o_7,t/pR\( \s-1 (r2.2e)
r(q) \Pol
where Q,lPo: percentflow in 0.25 PRat any given r/P^ value
q and y : shapeand scaleparameters,respectively
f : the gammafunction of q, equalto (4 - 1)!*
e: the baseof natural logarithms
Pp : the period of rise (min)
I : time (min)
The relationfor 7' is definedzs yt : yPpandq : l.+ y'.
This form of the dimensionless unit hydrograph(Fig. 12.14)allowscomputation
ofthe dischargeordinatesfor the unit hydrographat times equal to I intervals of the
period of rise P*, that is, the time from the beginningof rainfall to the time of peak
dischargeof the unit hydrograph.
Correlationswith physiographiccharacteristicsof the watershedcan be devel-
opedto get the valuesofboth Poand y'.
As 4qexample,the storagefactorP^fy' hasbeenlinked with watershedparame-
ters Lf\/S", where L is the length of the main channel of the watershedin miles
measuredfrom the outlet to the uppermostpart of the watershed(Fig. 12.15); S. is
definedas an averageslopein percentobtainedby plotting the main channelprofile
: f(N + Z) : (N - I + z)(N- 2 + z)... (t + Z)/f(r + Z),

rrf4isnotaninreserf(q)
where N equalsthe integer.""-rl q, the function is approximatedby
: qe.-al';l.
r(q) - #fu.
h. ;uF-& )
Muckey Creek near Mapleton, lowa
F<
a-
K 1 6
F re
o ' -
E
o -
p x
6 -
1.0 1.5 2.0

time (min.) t
l(Atloi -=:,
penoo or nse (mrn.) PR
Figure 12.14 Dimensionlessgraph and fitted two-parameter gamma

distribution for Watershed5. (After Gray.r6)
='(ft)'
957o confidence belts
tlr
a-l> for Ppll' Ttta
b
": lH l0 IL, IA,MO,WI 9.27 0.562

e ttr
x t9! OH 11.4 0.531
o l H
al NE andW. IA A A
0.498
(After Gray.16)
(r = 0.92)
Rudo,tgilrgljggtq. -L r.ir
'
lchannel slope(Vo) VS"
Figure 12.15 Relationof storagefactor,Ppfy', and watershedparameter,

LV 5",for
- watersheds
in Nebraska, (After
Iowa,Missouri,Illinois,andWisconsin.
Gray.r6)
and drawing a straight line through the outlet elevationsuch that the positive and
negativeareasbetweenthe streamprofile and the straightline are equal.The storage
factorPofy' can also be correlatedwith the period of rise P^ as shownin Fig. 12.16.
These two cerrelations allow solution of Eq. 12.29 and produce a synthetic unit
hydrographof duration P^f4 for an ungaugedarea.
CHAPTER
ql-
\t-
o "!'
. F h 0.0139
2.6761Po+
x t!9
.Fl6
o t *
A
'l
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
Period of rise, Pp (min.)
Figure12.16 Relationof storagefactorP*fy' andperiodof risePn.(After

Gray.r6;
The solutionproceedsas follows:
1. DetermineL, 5", and A for the ungaugedwatershed'

2. DetermineparametersP*, T', and q.
a. With Lf\/5", useFig. I2.I5 to selectPpfy'.
b. With P*/y', use Fig. 12.16 to obtain Pa. Compute y' as the ratio
Pol@*ly').
:
c. Substitute 7' obtained in Step 2b into the equation Q | + y', and
solvefor 4.
3. Computethe ordinatesfor the dimensionlessgraph using Eq. 12'29' Com-
pute the percent flow in 0.25PRfor values of tf P*: 0.125, 0.375,
0.625,. . . , and every succeedingincrementof tf P* : 0'250 until the sum
of the percent flows approximates100 percent. Also compute the peak
percentageby substitutingtfPR: 1.
4. Computethe unit hydrograph.
a. Computethe necessaryfactorto convertthe volume of the direct runoff
under the dimensionlessgraph to 1 in. of precipitation excessover the
entire watershed.
1. The volume of the unit hydrograph: V
* V : 1 i n . x A n i z x 6 4 0nu-
Tf
I .- --^ ft2
' x 43'560
n'rnln ;
graph: Vo
2. Thevolumeof the dimensionless
V o : 2 q , x 0 . 2 5 x P 'Rx 6 0 -
fiun
3. Solve fot 2 q, by equatingV and Vo, sincethey must be equal'
Rdinfall duration = 6 mln = Pnl 4
s 400
300
Figure 12.17 Derived hydrographof Ex-

ample12.8usingGray'smethod.Notethat
60 Gray's method results in a unit hydrograph
Time(min)
for a P^/4-hr storm.
b. Convert the dimensionlessgraph ordinatesto the unit-hydrograph

ordinates
n _ percntflow in 0.25PR\
u,-T.aqi
c. Translate time base of dimensionlessgraph to absolutetime units by

multiplying t/PR x P^ for each computedpoint. Rememberthat runoff
doesnot commenceuntil the centroid of rainfall, or at a time P^/8.
An exampleproblemdemonstrates the solutionof Gray'smethodfor a Missouri

watershed.A plot representing the derivedhydrographis shownin Fig. l2.r7.Dkect
runoff commeircesat the centroid of rainfall. Thus it is necessaryto add D/2 or Po/B
to column 2,Table r2,.5,to obtain the proper times of the unit trydrographordinates,
showsin Column 6.
EXAMPLE 12.8
For the given data, use Gray's method to constructa unit hydrographfor the Green
Acrewatershed, wheredrainagearea: 0.62mi2,length: 0.98mi, andS" : l.45%a.
Procedure
1. a. Figure12.15;L/t/S: 0.813 ni: Pnfy' : 8.25min.

b. P^/^y' : 8.25 min; P*: 24.9 min.
Figure 12.161,
c. q : I I Y' : 4.02; Y' : 3.02.
2. a. Tabulatepercentflow in 0,25PRfortfP*: 0.250:
TABLE 12.5 TABULATIONFOR EXAMPLE12.8
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Time, Percent Cumulated UH Actualtime
r/P (min) flowin 0.25Pn flow (cfs) (min)
0.000 0 0 0 0 0
0.125 3.1 0.45 0.45 lt.J 6.1
0.375 9.3 5.80 6.2 12.3
0.625 15.6 t2.70 18.9 490 18.6
0.875 2r.8 16.35 35.3 631 24.8
1.000 24.9 16.85 651 27.9
r.t25 28.0 16.25 5r . 5 628 31.0
t.375 34.2 14.20 65.7 548 37.2
t.625 40.4 11 . 1 0 76.8 428 43.4
1.875 46.7 7.97 84.8 308 49.7 "
2.125 52.9 5.55 90.4 214 55.9
2.375 59.3 3.56 93.9 138 62.3
2.625 65.5 2.28 96.2 88.0 68.5
'74.7
2.875 71.7 l.4l 97.6 54.4
3.125 78.0 0.86 98.5 JJ.J 81.0
3.375 84.2 0.50 99.0 19.3 87.2
3. a. 1. V : I x 0.62 x 640 x 43,5601t2: 14.4X 10sft3'

2 . V o : 0 . 2 5 x 2 4 . 9x 6 0 X > q , : 3 7 3 . 5 2 q '
3.2 q,: 3860.
b. Column 5 is tabulated by multiplying 3860 times values in Col-
umn 3 divided by 100.
c. Column 2 is obtainedby multiplying24.9 times valuesin Column 1.
d. Column 3 comesfrom solutionof Eq. l2'2J' rr
Espey10-MinuteSyntheticUnit Hydrograph
A regionalanalysisof 19 urbanwatershedswasconductedby EspeyandAltmanlTand
resulted in a set of regressionequations.thatprovide sevenpoints of a 10-min hy-
drograph.The entire hydrographis developedby fitting a smooth curve through the
points using eye-fitting or curve-fitting procedures.In either case, a unit area is
necessary.
The equationsfor time to peak (minutes),peak discharge(cfs),time base(min-
utes),and width at 50 and 75 percentof the peak flow rate are
fo'1801 57
To : 3.ILo'23S-o'2s (r2.30)
* Qp : 3L62 X I03Ao'e6T-t'o7 (r2.3r)
Ta: 125.89 x I}3AQ;o'es (r2.32)
W5o: 16.22x I03Ao'e3Q-oe2 (12.33)
7eQ-o78
w 1 5: 3 . 2 4 x 1 0 3 4 0 (r2.34)
where L : total distance (ft) along the main channel from the point being
consideredto the upstreamwatershedboundary
12.6 SYNTHET|C UNITHYDROGRAPHS219
:
S main channel slope (ftlft) defined by H/0.8L, where 11 is the
differencein elevationbetweenthe point on the channelbottom at a
distanceof 0.2L downstreamfrom the upstreamwatershedboundary
and a point on the channelbottom at the downstreampoint being
considered
1 : imperviousarea within the watershed(7o)
Q : a dimensionlesswatershedconveyancefactor
A : watersheddrainagearea (mi2)
T, : time of rise of the unit hydrograph (min)
Q, = peak flow of the unit hydrograph (cfs)
I, :,time baseof the unit hydrograph(min)
ITso: width of the hydrograph at 507o of Q, @in)
I4zrr= width of the unit hydrographat75%oof p. (min)
The coefficients of determination (explained in Chapter 26) for the five equationg
ranged from 80 to 94 percent. The watershedconveyancefactor is found from
Fig. 12.18.The WsoandWrt widths are normally drawnwith one-thirdof the calcu-
lated width placedto the left of the peak and two-thirds to the right.
Clark's IUH Time-AreaMethod

A syntheticunit hydrographthat utilizes an instantaneousunit hydrograph(IUH) was
developedin 1945 by clark.6It has been widely used,is often called the time-area
method,and hasappearedin severalcomputerprogramsfor hydrographanalysis(see
Chapters24 and25).
80
s
b 7 0
. 6 0
F s o
;o 4 0
?
6 3 0
d
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0..130.14 0.15 0.16 0.17
Main channel Manning z value
Figure 12.18 Watershedconveyancefactor Q as a function of percent watershed

impervious cover l and weighted main channel Manning n value, for Espey method.
The techniquerecognizesthat the dischargeat any point in time is a function of

the translation and storagecharacteristicsof the watershed.The translation is ob-
tained by estimatingthe overland and channeltravel time of runoff, which is then
combinedwith an estimateof the delaycausedby the storageeffectsof a watershed.
The translationof excessrainfall from its point of falling to the watershedmouth
is accomplishedusing the time-area curve for the watershed.This is a histogramof
incrementalrunoff versustime, constructedas shownin Fig. 12.19. The dashedlines
in Fig. I2.I9a subdividethe basin into severalareas.Each line identifiesthe locus of
"times"
pointshavingequaltraveltimesto the outlpt. The isochronesare drawnequal
apart, and sufficient zonesare selectedto fully definethe time-area relation.
The time-area graph of Fig. l2.I9b is a form of unit hydrograph.The area
beneaththe curve integratesto 1.0 unit of rain depth over the total areaA, and it has
a translationhydrographshapeif sufflcient subareasare delineated. \
If one unit of net rain is placedon the watershedat t : 0, the runoff from At
would passthe outlet during the first At period at an averagerate of At units of runoff
pei unit of time. The volume dischargedwould be At units of areatimes one unit of
rain. After all areascontribute,one unit of rainfall over the entire area would have
passedthe outlet.
Lt
J
I
I .l Lt
J A2
^3 A
As
^1
Time interval
ft)
Figure L2.19 Developmentof time-area histogramfor use
with Clark's method: (a) isochronesspacedLt apart (shown
as dashedlines) and (b) time-area histogram.
The impact of watershedstorageon the translationhydrographis incorporated

by routing the time-area histogramthrough a hypotheticallinear reservoirlocatedat
the watershedoutlet, having a retardance coefficient K equivalentto that of the
watershed.For the simplestform of reservoir,the storageS,at time f is linearly related
to the outflow Q, at time /, or
S,': KQ, (r2.3s)
whereKis a constantof proportionality calledthe storagecoefficient.It hastime units
and is often approximatedby the lag time of the watershed.
From continuity,the inflow, storage,and.oq,{flow
for the reservoirare relatedby
I,-Q,:#:U# (r2.36)
If the differentialis discretizedto LQ/LI, andif Q, andQ, are the flowsat t andt - l,
thenEq. 12.36becomes
Q'
Io,- Ao,: YQ'- (12.37)
Lt
BecauseQ : (Q, + Qr)/2, the flow at the end of any Al is
Qz: CoI * CtQ, (12.38)

where cr: #+T; (r2.39)
- Lt
and -" ,t -- z2 K
K+Lt (r2.40)
The IUH is found from Eq. 12.38by solvingfor Q, at the end of eachsuccessive
time
interval.
EXAMPLE 12.9
Given the following 15-min time-area curve, find the IUH for the 1000-acrewater-
shed.Then determinethe 15-min syntheticunit hydrograph.The storagecoefficient
K is 30 min.
Areabetween
Timeinterval isochrones
(min) (acres)
0 - 1 5" 100
15-30 300
30-45 500
45-60 100
Solution. From Eqs. 12.39and 12.40,Cs : 0.4 and Ct : 0.6.Routingis most

easily accomplishedin a tableauas follows:
Time I I IUH
(hr) (acre-in./Af
) (cfs) col + c1Q1 (cfs)
0
100 400 160+0 0
0.25
300 1200 480 + 96 80
0.50
500 2000 800 + 346 368
0.75
100 400 160+ 688 861
1.00
0 0 0+509 99'7 l
1.25
0 0 0+305 6't9
1.50
0 0
The IUH has a characteristicallylong recessiondue to the magnitudeof K for

this example.Note that after 1.25 hr, the flow becomes0.6 times the previous
flow andcontinuesto decayat this rateindefinite$.As discussedin Section11.5,
the time baseof the IUH shouldequal the excess-runoffreleasetime, which is
one definition of time of concentration.Clark's method often producespro-
longedrunoff becauseof this shortcoming.
The 15-min unit hydrographis found using Eq. 12.6, ot
O,(l5-minUH) : lGUH, + IUH,-15)
This resultsin:
Time IUH 1S-minUH

(h0 (efs) (cfs)
0 0 0
0.25 160 80
0.50 576 368
0.75 1146 861
1.00 848 997
t.25 509 679
1.50 : :
: tl
If the waterri"O ,uU time is not available,the K value can also be estimatedby
recognizingthat Q, = KdQldt when the inflow is zero in Eq. 12.36.This occurs at
approximatelythe inflection point on the recessionof Fig. t2.2, when inflow to the
channelceases.If hydrographdataare available,the estimateof the Kvalue is the ratio
of the flow rate to the slope of the hydrographat this particular point on the hy-
drograph.
12.6 SYNTHETIC
UNITHYDROGRAPHS 223
Nash'sSyntheticIUH
One of the earliest formulations of the IUH was developedby Nash.l8Instead of
characteizingrunoff as translationfollowedby storagein a singlelinear reservoiras
Clark did, Nash viewed the watershedas a seriesof n identical linear storagereser-
voirS,eachhavingthe samestoragecoefficientK. The first instantly (r : 0) receives
a volume equal to a full inch of net rain from the entire watershed.This water then
passesthrough reservoirsI,2,3, . . . , fl, with eachproviding an additional diffusion
effecton the original I -in. rain.
The number of reservoirs, n, is uniquely related to the reservoir storage
coefficientK andthe watershedlag time. Once the IUH is developed;it can be used
to synthesizeany other hydrograph by application of the convolution integral,
Eq. I2.7, or from the approximatemethodsdiscussed in Section12.3.
The derivation of Nash's equationfor IUH beginsfrom continuity at the first
reservoir:
I,- Qu:#1, (r2.4r)

wherc Qt, is the outflow from reservoir 1 at time t. SubstitutingS,: KQr, at time
r ) 0 (for an IUH, I, is zero after t : 0), we obtain
_Qr,: u#1,,,
#1,,,: (r2.42)
which can be written

dQ" - kI o' ' (r2.43)
eu:
Integrationfrom / : 0* to time t gives
l n Q r , - l n Q r , l , - o :- - (r2.44)
*
which reducesby taking antilogarithmsto
Qt,
e ''-
-ttK
(r2.4s)
o,l;:
BecauseQr, : S,/K and S,=o: 1 in., then
Qu:f,"-'r* (r2.46)
wherc Qy has units of depthper unit of tirne. Equation 12.46is an exponentialdecay

function having an initial value of I/K at t : 0. This monotonically decreasing
outflow from reservoir 1 becomesinflow to the secondreservoir.
The secondreservoiris initially empty. The continuity relation
Qu
*
Qz,: K+ dt
(r2.47)
is solved,giving
| ,..
9r, : V;te-"^ (r2.48)
This equationhas a full hydrographshape,beginningwith zero flow at time zero,
peaking at the maximum of the function, and eventuallyrecedingto zeto.
Similarly derived,the hydrographflowing from ruthreservoirhas the form
Qn,
: |n-r n-t/K , (12.49)
which is the two-parametergammafunction,
e,,: (12.50)
#1n-1r-t/K
Becausethe outflow from the nth reservoirwas causedby 1 in. of excessrain falling
Eq. 12.50describesan IUH.
instantaneously,
EStimatiOn of K and n Valuesof K and n arc neededfor applicationof Nash's

IUH. By integration,the centroid of the distribution (Eq. 12.50) occurs at t : nK.
- 1). The
From classicalcalculusmaximization,the peak flow occurs at t : K"(n
secondmoment of the IUH about / : 0 is n(n + l)Kz. Trial combinationsof n and
K can be usedto developthe IUH from Eq. 12.50, and the momentsof the plotted
distribution can be estimatedto verify the productsnK and n(n * I)Kz ' If the IUH
is discretizedinto m At increments,the momentsare approximatedby
First moment = > ttQi Lt (r2.sr)

m
and Secondmoment- 2 t?Q, Lt (r2.s2)

Another less tediousapproachis to use the definition of lag time as the time from
centroid of rain to the centroid of the hydrograph.For an IUH, this is the sameas the
centroidal distance.Thus, if the lag time can be determinedfrom equationssuchas
those in Section 11.6, the product nK can be established,reducing the number of
trials.
Someinvestigatorshaveattemptedto relateNash'sK andn parametersto basin
and storm characteristicsusingregressiontechniques.Rao et al.1edevelopedrelations
for urban areasgreaterthan 5 mi2:
po.zzz
g.57 54o.zto
K : (r2.s3)
(l + 1)o'azzPo:oa
0.83140.458D0.37r
and Lt - (r2.s4)
(I + 1yt'ezzPozat
wherenK : tlandA is areain squaremiles,D is net rain duration in hours,Pn",is the

net (effective)rain depth in inches,and / is the ratio of imperviousto total area.
ColoradoUrbanHydrographProcedure(CUHP)
Synthetic unit hydrographscan be tailored for regional use. As an example,the
Coloradourban hydrographprocedure20 provides 5-min syntheticunit hydrographs
for use in the Denver metropolitan area. lt is based on Snyder's method and is
consideredapplicableto watershedsin the size rangefrom 90 acresto 10 mi2, with
"regular" shapes(length -
4 times width). It was developedin the early 1980sand
modifiedin 1984to reflectrefinementsfrom earlyapplications. In its pre-1984'form,
the Snyder/CUHPC, and C, valuesfor use in Eqs. 11.5 and 12.17 are
C, : 7.8I1P2378 (r2.ss)
and Co: 0.89C?'46 (r2.s6)
where P" is the percent impervious.Theseregressionequationswere developedfor
P" > 30 percent, using data for 96 storms over 19 urban watersheds.The given
equationsapply to normal watershedconditionsandneedto be adjustedfor steep,flat,
or seweredbasins.If an urbanareais fully sewered,the calculatedC, from Eq. 12.55
is decreased10 percent. If sparselysewered,a 10 percent increaseis made. If the
averageslope S of the lower 80 percent of the main water courseis flat (less than
0.01 ftlf| the C, value becomes
C,:3.12/Po78so2 ( r 2.57)
and for steepareas(,S> 0.025 ftlf$,
C, : 3.75/Po78s'02 ( 12.s 8)
The C, coefficient is determinedfrom Eq. 12.56 and adjustedto 10 percentup or
down for fully or sparselyseweredconditions,respectively.
For the CUHP applications,Eqs. 12.18 and 12.19become
ryro: SO}A/Qo (r2.se)
w75:260A/Qo (12.60)
whereA andQohaveunits of squaremiles and cubic feet per second.For plotting ft.,
the smallerof 35 percentor 0.670is placedleft of the peak.For W15,45percentis
placedto the left, or O.424To if 0.67pwas usedfor W'r6.I is the time from beginning
of runoff of the unit rainfall to the peak time.
Severalinvestigatorshave suggestedthat Snyder's C, and slope S are corre-
lated.a'S
The original CUHP procedurewas alteredto recognizethis relation, making
the adjustmentsin C, unnecessary. For the modifiedversion,Eqs. 12.57and 12.58are
bypassed, andthetime to peakratherthanlag time is usedin Snyder'sEq. 11.5,where
tp: c,(LL,o/\8100' (12.6r)
The revisedtime coefficientC, is obtainedfrom Fig. 12.20a,and the peak coefficient
is found from
Co : PC,Ao'1s (r2.62)
where S : weightedaverageslopeof basinalongthe streamto the upstreambasin
boundary (ftlft)
CHAPTER12 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
0.18
Basic equations
Equationsof curve:
Ct= aI?+ blo+ c I LL--\0.48
'r: "\fi)
0.16 tro. b c
I 00 -0.00371 0.163 640c,
--7-
0.000023 -0M224 0.146 4p :
] 3 x 1 o r -8.01 x l0- 0 12(
0.14 \r tp = time to peak (br)
L = watershed length
r i (mi)
Ic, = distance to
E
q centroid (mi)
So = waterway slope
o (ff/ft)
U
0.10
0.08
3q. Ec,.2l Eq.3

0.10
20 40 60 80 100
Percentimpervious,l,
(a)
12
Equations of curve:
P = aI?+ blo+ c
10 Eq. a b
-0 012 +216
: -T-l --T-|
2 | -o.t)0091 +0.228 06
\t<
z-r
,ql.:
v t Y
\ 6
o
6
d
o
Eq. 1 84.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fercent impervious, l,
(b)
Figure 12.20 Snyder's C, and C, coefficientsfor urban

areas,for use with CUHP: (a) relation between C, and
imperviousnessand (b) relationbetweenpeakingparame-
ter and imperviousness.
PROBLEMS 227
P : coefflcient,dependingon imperviousness,from Fig. I2.20b
A : drainagearea (mi2)
L : length of the main stream channel (mi) from the outlet to the divide
L"o : length along the main channel (mi) from the outlet to a channelpoint
nearestthe watershedcentroid
The peakrate andtime of the unit hydrographcanbe developedusingEqs. 12.17
and 12.6t. After four additional points definedby Eqs. 12.59 and t2.60 areplotted,
the rest of the 5-min hydrographcan be fitted to provide a total area representing
1.0 in. of direct runoff. A hand fit is applied, or the mathematical curve-fitting
techniques described early in Section 12.5 can be used if a gamma (or any other)
distribution is considered appropriate.
For small watersheds (lessthan 90 acres),the time to peak is
: o.zg(P=l- * 0 . 0 7()1, ^. -
Lp ?3,6=P:
Pz - 0.49P"+ 0 .1 4
:- '^" 6P,) 02.63)
where I is the time of concentrationin minutes, and P^ is the percentimpervious.
r summary
Unit hydrographmethodsallow the hydrologistto estimaterunoff volumesand rates
for virtually any storm. By far, the greatestnumber of problems in practice are
evaluatedusingunit hydrographprocedures.Most of the current computermodelsuse
unit hydrographproceduresasdescribedin Chapters 23,24, and25. Thesemodelsare
simply computerprogramsthat perform the unit hydrographsynthesesand convolu-
tion stepsdescribedin this chapter.Any softwareuser shouldunderstandthe origin,
applicability,and parameterestimationproceduresfor eachunit hydrographmethod
seiected.The most successfulusesof the computermodelswill resultfrom a thorough
familiarity with the processesdescribedin this chapter.
PROBLEMS
12.1. Given the following storm pattern and assuminga triangular unit hydrographfor one
time unit, determinethe compositehydrograph.
Stormpattern
Time unit 1 2 3 4
Rainfall 1 1 4 2
Unit hydrographbaselength : 6 time units; time of rise : 2 time units; and maxi-
mum ordinate : I rainfall unit height.
12.2. Given a rainfall duration of 1 time unit, an effectiveprecipitation of 1.5 in., and the
following hydrograph,determine(a) the unit hydrographand (b) the compositehy-
drographfor the given storm sequence.
228 CHAPTERl2 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
Hydrographfor 1.S in. net rain in .t time unit
Time units 1 2 3 4 4.5 5 6 7 8 9 r 0 l 1 l2 13

Flow (cfs) r00 98 220 srz 620 585 460 330 2to 150 105 75 60 54
Stormsequence
Time units I z J
Precipitation (in.) 0.4 l.l 2.0 1.5
12.3. Solve Problem lZ.2 if the storm sequenceis as follows:
Stormsequence
Time units r 2 J
Precipitation (in.) 0.3 r.4 0.9
l2'4' Using U.S. GeologicalSurveyrecords,or other data, selecta streamflow

hydrograph
for a large, preferably single-peakedrunoffevent. Separatethe base
flow and deter-
mine a unit hydrograph for the area.
12.5. For the unit hydrographof problem 12.1, constructan S_hydrograph.
12.6. For the unit hydrqgraphcomputedin problem 12.2, construct
an S_hydrograph.
12.7. use the S-hydrographof problem 12.6to find a 3 time-unit
unit hydrograph.
12.8. Given a watershedof 100 mi2, assumethat C, = 1.g, the
length of main stream
channelis I 8 mi, and the length to a point nearestthe centroid is I O
mi. Use Snyder,s
methodto find (a) the time rag, (b) the duration of the syntheticunit
hydrograpl, and
(c) the peak dischargeof the unit hydrograph.
l2'9' Apply Snyder's method to the determinationof a synthetic
unit hydrographfor a
drainage area of your choice.
12'10' Use Fig. 12.13to determine a2-hr pnrthydrographif the
drainageareais 60 mi2 and
Eq. 12.23ais applicable.
12.11. SolveProblem12.10using Eq.12.23b.
12.12. Assuminga Nebraskalocation, use Gray's method determine
te a unit hydrograph:
drainagearea = 1.0 mi2, length : 0.6 mi, S" : 1.3 percent.
12'13' A drainageareain Nebraskacontains30 mi2.The tenjtn ortne
main channelis 10 mi
andthe'representative watershedslopeis 2.5 percent.iJseGray's methodto determine
a unit hydrograph.
12'14' Dischargerates for a flood hydrographpassingthe point of concentration
for a 600-
acredrainagebasinare given in the tabl; belo;. The flood wasprotluced
by a uniform
rainfall rate of 2.15 in.rru, which started,at9 A.M., abruptry ended
at il A.M: and
resulted in 5.00 in. of direct surfacerunoff. The base flow (derived
tiom influent
seepage)prior to, during, and after the storm was 100 cfs.
PROBLEMS 229
11 12 I P.M 2 3 4 5 6
Time 8 a.u. 9 10
Measured
100 300 500 700 800 600 400 300 200 100 100
discharge 100
cease?
a. At what times did direct runoff begin and
Determine the index (in'/hr) for the basin'
b. @
(cfs)for eachtime.listed'
c. Derive the 2-hr'unit-nydrograpirordinates
concJnffation (excessreleasetime) for the basin.
d. Estimatethe tirne of
e.Atwhattimewoulddirectsurfacerunoffceaseiftherainfallof2.T5in./hrhad
and had lastedfor 8 hr rather than 2?
begunat 9 .q.'l\a. (in.) for a uniform
f. Determined;;;i;t urg" .ur" (cfs) and the direct runoff
rainfall of 2j5 it'lhr and a duration of 8 hr'
Lz.lS. Measuredtotal hourly dischargerates
in the accompanyingtable' The hydrr
uniform intensity of 2'60 in'/hr startir
baseflow from 8 A.M' to 3 P'v' was a
' determined as the area under the dir
10 11 12 I P.M 2
Time 8 a.v
Measured 100 100
100 100 300 600 400 200
discharge
a. At what time did the direct runoff begin?

to the volume of the direct surface
b. betermine the net rain (in') corresponding
runoff of 1000 cfs-hr'
c. Determinethe { indexfor the basin'
basin by tabulating time in hours and
d. Derive " , nt ltii ttyJrog'api' for the
dischargein cfs.
basin?
e. What is the excessreleasetime of the the direct
tt" the derived 2-hr unit hydrograptr-to-determine
f. For the ,"*"'t"'it, began at 1 p.u. and
;;; ;.*, on a day when excess-(netjralnfall
runoff rate (.fr)'t"i
ceasingabruptly at 5 P'M'
continued"t " iti"tt ity of 2 in'/hr for 4 hr'
|2.|6.A5-hrunithydrographfora425}-acre.basinisshownintheaccompanyingsketch.
Thegivenhyd.og.-uphactuallyappearedasadirectrunoffhydrographfromthebasin'
of 5 hr,beginning
by rainf;ffi;;;;ii"'"iriv
caused "i 0.30in./hrfor a duration
att = 0.
the basin'
a. Determinethe excessreleasetime of
b. Determinethe @ index for the basin'
contributingto direct runoff 4 hr after
c. what n".""*"J" "'i,ti" JJr"g" t"r* was
rain began(r = 4)?
as shownin the sketch'Do not scale
d. Use your responseto part c to determineQp'
Qp from the drawing'
t = 3 andr : 5' Why did the hydrograph
e. Note that rain continuedto fall between
: 3 and t = 5, rathet than continue to rise during those
form a ptateaut"i*""n t
2 hours?
QO
,i: 700
= ouu
I 500
e 40o
! :oo
$ zoo
100
Time, t
f. Usethe given 5-hr unit hydrographto determinethe direct runoff rate (cfs)at 7 p.r'r.
on a day when rain fell at an intensity of 0.60 in./hr from I p.rrr.to 11 p.vr.
12.17. The 2-hr unit hydrographfor a basin is given by the following tabie:
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
O@fs) 0 60 200 300 200 120 6 0 3 0 1 0 0
a. Determinethe hourly dischargevalues(cfs)from the basinfor a net rain of 5 in./hr

and a rainfall durationof 2hr.
b. Determinethe direct runoff (in.) for the storm of part a. What is the direct runoff
for a net rain of 0.5 in./hr and a duration of Z Iv?
c. Rain falls on the basinat arateof 4.5 in.lhr for a2-hr period and abruptly increases
to a rate of 6.5 in./hr for a second2-hr period. convert theseactual intensitiesto
netrain intensitiesusinga {index of 0.5 in./hr. Constructa tablethatproper$ lags
and amplifiesthe 2-hr unit hydrograph,and determinethe hourly ordinates(cfs)of
direct runoff for the storm.The deriveddirect runoff hydrographshouldbegin and
end with zero dischargevalues.
12.18. Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph for a drainage basin, determine hourly
ordinatesof the 4-hr unit hydrograph:
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0@f9 0 50 300 400 200 s0 0
12.19. Usethe following 4-hr unit hydrographfor a basinto determinethe peak dischargerate
(cfs)resulting from a net rain of 3.0 in./hr for a 4-hr duration foliowed immediately
by 2.0 in.lhr for a 4-hr duration.
Time (hr) 0 2 4 6 8 10
0(cfO 0 200 300 100 50 0
PROBLEMS 231
12.20. Compare the time from the peak to the end of runoff for the SCS triangular unit
hydrographwith the time of concentration,/". Discuss.
12.21. Prove that the areaunderthe rising limb of the SCSbasic dimensionlesshydrograph
equalsthat of the triangular unit hydrograph,that is, 37.5 percefi of the total.
12.22. Bycalculus,showthatthemaximumvalueof/(x)inEq. 12.15occurswhenx:aB,
for a > 1. Also solvefor the centroidaldistanceby taking the flrst moment aboutthe
y axis.
12.23. Accordingto the rational method(seeChapter15) of estimatingpeakflow from small
areasnthe peak rate for a storm with uniform continuingintensity is equal to the net
' rain rate and occurs at the time of concentration.For what conditions,if any, would
Eqs. 12.63 and 12.17result in agreementof the peak magnitudeand time, estimated
by CUHP, with those of the rational method?Discuss.
L2.24. Describetwo methodsthat could be usedto constructa 2-hr unit hydrographusing a
l-hr unit hydrographfor a basin.
12,25. Measuredtotal hourly dischargerates (cfs)from a 2.48-n12drainagebasin are tabu-
lated below.The hydrographwas producedby a rainstormhavinga uniform intensity
of 2.60 in./hr starting at 9 A.M.and abruptly ending at 11 l.rvl. The baseflow from
8 ,q,.lt.to 3 p.lrl.was a constant 100 cfs.
Time 8 e.u. 9 10 11 12 1 p.vr. 2 J
Discharge(cfs) 100 100 300 450 300 150 100 100
a. At what time did direct runoff begin?

b. Determinethe grossand net rain depths(inches).
c. Derive a 2-hr unit hydrograph for the basin by tabulating time in hours and
dischargein cubic feet per second.
d. Derive a 4-hr unit hydrographfor the basin.
e. Derive a l-hr unit hydrographfor the basin.
12,26. Given below is a 3-hr unit hydrographfor a watershed.The {-index is 1.5 in./hr.
Desiredis the DRH for an 18-hr stormhavingsix successive3-hr rainfall ratesof 2.5,
3 . 5 , 1 . 5 ,4 . 0 , 6 . 5 , 2 . 5i n . l h r .
Time (hr) 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
o(ruH) 0 10 40 60 80 100 90 70 60 50 40 30 2 0 1 0 0
12.27. Use the following 2-hr unit hydrographto determinethe peak direct-runoffdischarge
rate (cfs)resulting from a net rain of 2.0 in./hr for 5 hr'
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0(cf9 0 50 200 300 200 1s0 100 0
12.28, The ordinatefor a 5-hr unit hydrographis 300 cfs at a time 4 hr after the beginning
of net rainfall. A storm with a uniform intensity of 3 in,/hr and a duration of 5 hr
occursover the basin.What is the runoff rate after 4 hr if the @index is 0.5 in./hr?
232 CHAPTER
12 UNITHYDROGRAPHS
12.29. Given below is an IUH for a watershed.Use the IUH to find hourly DRH rates for a
net rain of 4 in. in a 2-hr oeriod.
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
o(ruH) 0 10 40 50 60 80 100 80 20 r0 0
12.30. A 2-fu unit hydrographfor a basin is shownin the sketch.

a. Determinethe peak discharge(cfs)for a net rain of 5.00 in./hr and a duration of
2 hr.
b. What is the total direct surfacerunoff (in inches)for the storm describedin part a?
c. A different storm with a net rain of 0.50 in./hr lastsfor 4 hr. What is the discharse
at 8 p.vr.if the rainfall startedat 4 p.tvt.?
I
I
{, +oo --t I
po I I I
I
I I I
.A 2oo T
--i -T
I I I
I I I
I I I
Time (hr)
12.31,. Recordedflow rates for a net rain of 1.92 inchesin 12 hours are shownin the table.
'
If the baseflow is 375 cfs throughoutthe storm,determinethe 12-hrunit hydrograph,
and convert it to a 6-hr unit hydrograph.Then apply the 6-hr unit hydrographto
determinethe total hydrograph(including 400 cfs baseflow) for a24-hr storm having
four 6-hr blocksof net rain at ratesof 0.7, 3.8, 10.8,and 1.8 in. per hour.
Time in hours Observedflow (cfs)
0 375
6 825
12 2200
18 36s0
aA 3900
JU 3200
36 2375
A' 1,725
48 1250
54 900
60 650
66 490
72 410
78 375
12.32. Starting with a triangular-shapedunit hydrographwith a baselength of 2.67toand a

height of qo,deriveEq. 12.22,qo : 484A/tp. Statethe units of eachterm usedin the
.- --- derivatign"
REFERENCES 233
12.33. The SCS syntheticunit hydrographis derivedby computingthe peak dischargerate

(cubicfeet per second)from qo : 484A/tp.In the derivation,it was actually assumed
thatqrin.lhr:0.7sv/tp,whereVisthevolumeofdirectrunoff(inches),roisthetime
to peak flow (hours),and A is the basin area(squaremiles).Derive the first equation
from the second.
12.34. Which of the techniquesfor synthesizinga unit hydrographrequiresthe leastcompu-
tationai effort in developingthe entire unit hydrograph?Which probably requiresthe
most?
REFERENCES
1. W. D. Mitchell, "Unit Hydrographsin Illinois," illinois WaterwaysDivision, 1948.

2. L.K. Sherman,"Stream-Flowfrom Rainfall by the Unit-GraphMethod," Eng.News-Rec.
108,501-505(Apr. 1932).
"Unit Hydrographsfor Gaugedand Ungauged
3. Rand Morgan and D. W. Hulinghorst,
Watersheds,"U.S. EngineersOffice, Binghamton,NY, July 1939.
4. F. F. Snyder,"synthetic Unit Graphs," Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 19,447 -454(1938).
5. A. B. Taylorand H. E. Schwartz,"lJnit HydrographLag and PeakFlow Relatedto Basin
Characteristics," Trans. Am. Geoplrys. Union 33' 235-246(19 52).
6. C. O. Clark, "storageand the Unit Hydrograph,"ASCE Trans.ll0,1419-1446(1945).
7. Water SupplyPapers, U.S. GeologicalSurvey,Water ResourcesDivision. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice, 1966-1970.
8. Hourly PrecipitationData, National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration.Washing-
ton, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, L971.
"Synthesisof the Inlet Hydrograph,"Tech.Rept.No. 3, Department
9. JohnC. Schaake,Jr.,
of Sanitary Engineeringand WaterResources,The JohnsHopkins University,Baltimore,
MD, 1965.
10. G. Aron andE. White, "Fitting a GammaDistribution overa SyntheticUnit Hydrograph,"
WaterResources Bull.18(l) (Feb.1982).
11. G. Aron and E. White, "Replyto Discussion,"WaterResources Bull. l9(2) (Apr. 1983).
12. M. Collins, "Discussion-Fitting a Gamma Distribution over a Synthetic Unit Hy-
drograph,"WaterResources Bull. 19(2) (Apr. 1983).
13. "Flood-HydrographAnalysisand Computations,"U.S. Army Corpsof Engtneets,Engin'
neering and Design Manuals,Emlll0-2-1405. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government
PrintingOffice,Aug. 1959.
"Hydrograph Synthesisby Digital Computer," Proc.
14. M. D. Hudlow and R. A. Clark,
ASCEJ. Hyd. Div. (May 1969).
15. V. Mockus, "Use of Storm and WatershedCharacteristicsin SyntheticHydrographAnal-
ysisandApplication,"U.S.Departmentof Agriculture,Soil Conservation Service,1957.
16. D. M. Gray,"synthetic Unit Hydrographsfor Small DrainageAreas," Proc' ASCEJ. Hyd.
Div. 87(HY4) (July 1961).
17. W. H. EspeyandD. G. Altman, "Nomographsfor Ten-minuteUnit Hydrographsfor Small
Urban Witersheds,"EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Rept.EPA-600/9-78-035,Wash-
ington,D.C., 1978.
18. J. E. Nash, "The Form of the InstantaneousUnit Hydrograph," IASH Publ. No. 45' Vol.
'
3. 1951.
"ConceptualHydrologicModels for Urbanizing
19. R. A. Rao, J. W. Delleur, and B. Sarma,
Basins,"Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div. (HY7) (July 1972).
"First Short Courseon Urban Storm WaterModeling
20. University of Coloradoat Denver,
Using ColoradoUrban HydrographProcedures,"Departmentof Civil Engineering,June
1985.
C h a p t e r1 3
HydrographRouting
r Prologue
. Presenttechniquesfor determiningthe effect of streamsand reservoirson

hydrographshapesasthe hydrographsmovedownstreamthrough the systems.
. Distinguishbetweenthe two major classificationsof hydrographrouting tech-
niques.
. Familiarizethe readerwith proceduresfor determiningwhen to apply eachof
the variousrouting methods.
Flood forecasting,reservoirdesign,watershedsimulation,and comprehensivewater

resourcesplanning generallyutilize someform of routing technique.Routingis used
to predict the temporal and spatial variationsof a flood wave as it traversesa river
reach or reservoir. Routing techniquesmay be classified into two categories-
hydrologicrouting and hydraulic routing.
Hydrologic routing employsthe equationof continuity with either a linear or
curvilinear relation betweenstorageand dischargewithin a river or reservoir. Hy-
draulic routing, on the other hand, usesboth the equation of continuity and the
equationof motion, customarilythe momentumequation.This particular form uti-
lizes the partial differential equationsfor unsteadyflow in open channels.It more
adequatelydescribesthe dynamicsofflow than doesthe hydrologicrouting technique.
Applications of hydrologicrouting techniquesto problemsof flood prediction.
evaluationsof flood control measures,and assessments of the effectsof urbanization
are numerous.Most flood warning systemsinstituted by NOAA and the Corps of
Engineersincorporatethis techniqueto predict flood stagesin advanceof a severe
storm.It is the methodmost frequentlyusedto sizespillwaysfor small, intermediate.
and large dams. Hydrologic river and reservoirrouting and hydraulic river routing
techniquesare presentedin separatesectionsof this chapter.
13.1 HYDROLOGICRIVER ROUTING 235
13.1 HYDROLOGIC
RIVERROUTING
The first referenceto routing a flood hydrographfrom one river station to another was
by Graeff in 1883.1The techniquewasbasedon the useof wavevelocity and a rating
curve of stageversus discharge.Hydrologic river routing techniquesare all founded
upon the equationof continuity
dS
I - O : (1 3 . 1 )
dt
where 1 : the inflow rate to the reach

O : the outflow rate from the reach
dS/dt : the rate of changeof storagewithin the reach
Three of the most popular hydrologicriver routing techniquesare describedin subse-
quent paragraphs,
MuskingumMethod
Storagein a stableriver reachcan be expectedto dependprimarily on the discharge
into and out of a reach and on hydraulic characteristicsof the channelsection.The
storagewithin the reach at a given time can be expressedas2
s:2;y7^n+(1 - X)O-n1 (r3.2)

a
Constantsa andn reflectthe stagedischargecharacteristicsof control sectionsat each
end of the reach,and b and m mirror the sta$e-volumecharacteristicsof the section.
The factor X defines the relative weights given to inflow and outflow for the reach.
The Muskingum method assumesthat mfn - L and lets b/a : K, resulting in
S: KIXI + (1 - X)o] (13.3)
where K : the storagetime constantfor the reach
x : a weighting factor that variesbetween0 and 0.5.
Application of this equationhas shownthat K is usually reasonablycloseto the wave
trarel time through the reach andX averagesabout 0.2.
Behavior of the flood wave due to changesin the value of the weighting factor X
is readily apparentfrom examinationof Fig. 13.1. The resulting downstreamflood
waveis commonlydescribedby the amountof translation-that is, the time lag-and
by the amount of attenuationor reduction in peak discharge.As can be noted from
Fig. 13.1,'thevalueX : 0.5 resultsin a pure translationof the flood wave.
Application of Eqs. 13.1 and 13.3 to a river reachis a straightforwardprocedure
if Kand X are known. The routing procedurebeginsby dividing time into a number
of equal increments,A/, and expressingEq. 13.1 in finite difference form, using
subscriptsI and2 to denotethe beginningand ending times for Ar. This gives
I t + 1 2_ O 1 + 0 2 _ S ' - S '
(13.4)
2 2 A t
236 CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPHROUTING
o
99
E
Time
Figure 13.1 Effect of weighting factor.
The routing time interval A/ is normally assigned any convenient value between the
limits of K/3 and K.
The storagechangein the river reachduringthe routing interval from Eq. 1 3 . 3i s
s, - s' : Klx(I' - 1')+ (r - x)(o2- o')l (13.s)
and substitutingthis into Eq. 13.4 resultsin the Muskingum routing equation
O2: CsI2+ CII. + CzOl ( 13.6)
in which
-KX + 0.5Ar
co (r3.7)
K-KX+0.54/
KX + 0,5 Lt (13.8)
ct:
K-KX+0.54t
K - K X- 0 . 5 A r (13.e)
cz:
K-KX+0.54t
Note that K and Ar must havethe sametime units and aiso that the three coefficients
sum to 1.0.
Theoretical stability of the nunrericalmethod is accomplishedif Al falls be-
tweenthe limits 2KX and2K(I - X). The theoreticalvalue of K is the time required
for an elemental(kinematic) waveto traversethe reach.It is approximatelythe titne
interval betweeninflow and outflow peaks, if data are available.If not, the wave
velocity can be estimatedfor variouschannelshapesas a function of averagevolocity
Vfor any representativeflow rate Q. Velocityfor steadyuniform flow canbe estiinated
by either thi Manning or Chzyequation: The approximatewavevelocities for differ-
ent channel'shapesare given in Table 13.1.
TABLE 13.1 KINEMATIC FORVARIOUS

WAVEVELOCITIES
'
CHANNELSHAPES
Channelshape Manningequation Ch6zyequation

t-V 3-tl
Wide rectangular 2 l
!v tv
Triangular
Wide parabolic lJrl Zrl
9 ' 6 '
ROUTING 237
RIVER
13.1 HYDROLOGIC
Since1, and Irareknown for every time increment,routing is accomplishedby
solvingEq. 13.6for successive time incrementsusing each02as Ol for the next time
incremeni. Example 13.1 illustratesthis row-by-row computation'
EXAMPLE 13.1
: 2 days.The
Perform the flood routing for a reach of river given X : 0.2 and K
inflow hydrographwith Ar : 1 day is shownin Table 13.2,column 1. Assumeequal
inflow and outflow rates on the 16th.
Solution. If Ar : l dayandX = 0.2 andK :2days, thenEqs.13.7toI3.9
give Co : 0.0477,C1 : 0.428, andC2 : 0'524' Row-by-rowcomputationis
given in TabIe13.2. ll
Determination of Muskingum K andX Valuesof K andX for Muskingumrouting

are commonly estimatedusingK equal to the travel time in the reachand an average
value of X : 0.2.If inflow and outflow hydrographrecords are availablefor one or
more floods,the routing processis easilyreversedto provide better valuesof K and
X for the reach. To illustrate the latter method, instantaneousvalues of S versus
TABLE13.2
(1) (2\ (3) (4) (5)
Computed
Date lnflow voI2 Crl't C,Q, outflow
3-t6 4,260 4,260

17 7,646 364 t,823 ) )7) 4,419
18 11,167 532 3,2'72 2,315 6,rr9
19 16,730 798 4 114 3,206 8,783
20 21,590 1,029 7,160 4,602 12,791
21, 20,950 999 9,240 6,702 16,941
22 26,570 L,267 8,966 8,877 1 9 ,1 0
z3 46,000 2,194 tl,37l 10,013 23,578
24 59960 2,860 19,688 12,355 34903
25 57,'t40 )'754 25,662 18,289 46,705
26 47,890 ) )24 )a1l) )4 417 51,469
27 34,460 1,643 20,496 26,9'70 49,109
28 21,660 1,033 14,748 )\ 117 41,514
29 34,680 1,654 9,270 )'t 171 32,67' |
30 45,180 t r55 14,843 t7 1)) 34,120
J I 49,r40 1q??7 l7,879 39,559
4-l 41,290 r,969 2t,031, 20,729 43,729
2 33,830 t,613 17,672 22,914 42,199
20,5t0 9'78 14,479 )t 11) 37,569
4 t4,720 702 8,778 19,686 29,166
5 11,436 6,300 t5,283 22,128
6 o )04 443 4,894 11,595 t6,932
7 7,831 3 t J 3,977 8,872 13,222
8 6,228 29'| ? ?{1 6,928 10,576
9 6,083 290 ) 66\ 8,497
XI + (l -- X)O are flrst graphedfor severalselectedvaluesof Xas shownin Example

13.2.BecauseS andXI + (1 - X)O are assumed to be linearlyrelatedvia Eq. 13.3,
the acceptedvalue of X is that which gives the best linear plot (the narrowestloop).
After plotting, the valuefor K is determinedas the reciprocalof the slopethrough the
narrowestloop, sincefrom Eq. 13.3
K : ( 13 . 1 0 )
n+0-x)o
Instantaneousvaluesof S for the graphsin Example I3.2 were determinedby
solvingfor S, in Eq. 13.4for successivetime increinents.A valueof S, : 0 was [sed
for the initial increment,but the value is arbitrary since only the slope and not the
intercept of E_q.13.3 is desired.The 52 valuesare plotted against.average weighted
discharges,XI + (l - X)O in Table 13.3. A preferablemethod would be to plot S,
valuesagainstcorrespondingvaluesof instantaneous(rather than average)valuesof
XIz + (l - X)Or, using recordedvaluesof inflow and outflow (not provided).
TABLE13,3
Weighted discharge (cfs)
- l.ll"
2
u =
Oj+02
2
sz X+(1 -X)O
Date (cfs) (cfs) (1O3cfs-days) X: 0.1 X : 0.2 X: 0.3

3- 16 5,870 4,180 1.7 4,350b 4,520 4,690
t7 9,310 4.0 't,440
6,970 7,200 7,670
18 12,900 7,560 9.4 8,090 8,630 9,160
t9 20,500 14,200 15.7 14,800 15,500 16,100
20 21,000 18,300 18.4 18,600 18,800 19,100
21 23,400 18,500 z5-J 19,000 19,500 20,000
22 32,500 21,300 34.5 22,400 23,500 24,700
23 s5,400 29,300 60.6 31,900 34,500 37,100
z+ 62,700 39,700 83.6 42,000 44,300 46,600
25 52,600 48,700 97.5 49,100 49,500 50,000
3-26 43,200 53,300 87.4 52,300 51,300 50,300
27 25,200 48,700 73.9 46,400 44,000 41,700
28 22,800 37,r00 Jv.o 35,700 34,200 32,800
29 41,200 35,800 65.0 36,300 36,900 37,400
30 s0,400 35,800 79.6 37,300 38,700 40,200
3l 45,300 35,800 89.r 36.800 37,700 38,600
4-r 38,800 42,700 85.2 42,300 41,900 41,500
2 2?,000 44,lOO 68.0 42,400 40,800 39,000
J 16,200 35,400 48.9 33,500 31,600 29,600
4 12,400 25,200 36.1 23,900 22,600 2r,400
5 10,200 t6,400 29.9 15,800 15,200 14,500
6 8,080 11,500 26.5 1r,200| 10,800 10,500
7 6,010 9,380 23.1 9;040 8,710 8,370
8 5,050 7,860 20.3 7,300 7,300 7,020
"Note: ,S2= ,Sr* f Ar - d Al
fseeEq. 13.4].
' E x a m p l e :4 3 5 0 : 0 . 1 ( 5 8 7 0 )+ ( 1 - 0 . 1 X 4 1 8 0 ) .
13.1 HYDROLOGIC
RIVERROUTING 239.,
EXAMPLE 13.2
Given inflow and outflow hydrographson the Muckwamp River, determine K and X
for the river reach.(SeeTable 13.3.)
o
po
ro
X ,a
E I o
g x
e 5
.E A
b0 t\
o X
80.000 cfs-davs
Storage,S
Solution. Selecting the narrowest loop gives X : 0.3; K : 80,000 cfs-

days/40,000cfs : 2.0 days. These values could now be used to route other
floods through the reachas in Example 13.1.
Inherent in this procedureis the postulatethat the water surfacein the
reachis a uniform unbrokensurfaceprofile betweenupstreamand downstream
ends of the section.Additionally, it is presupposedthat K andX are constant
throughoutthe range of flows. If significantdeparturesfrom theserestrictions
are present,it may be necessaryto work with shorterreachesof the river or to
employ a more sophisticatedapproach. I I
Muskingum Crest Segment Routing Sometirnesit is desirableto solve for a

single outflow rate or route only a portion of an inflow hydrographby the Muskingum
method(e.g.,the crest segmentwhen only the peak outflow is desired).This is easily
accomplishedby successivelynumbering the inflow rates as 11, 12, 13,. . . , In,
In+t,. .. , and rewritingEq. 13.6as
O,: CsI, + Ctln-t + C2O^-l ( 1 3 .11)
where Onis the outflow rate at any time n. The outflow O,-1 is next eliminated from
Eq. 13.11by makingthe substitution
On-t : Coln-t + ClIn-2 * C2O,-2 (r3.r2)
By repeatedsubstitutionsfor the right-sideoutflow tetm On-2,On-2,. . . can eachbe
eliminated and On can be expressedas a function only of the flrst n inflow rates or,
finally,
On : K l I n + K 2 I n - 1 + K 3 I n - 2+ ' .' + K,I, (13.13)
where Kr: Co
Kz= CoC2+ C1
K3: K2C2
K,: K,-rC.rfori>.2
Using data from Example 13.1 to find the outflow rate on 3-26, we obtain
Kr : C6: 0.0477
Kz: CoC2+ Cr : 0.0477(0.524)+ 0.428:0.4530
Kz : KzCz: 0.4530(0.524)
: 0.2374
Krt: KrcG : 0.0013

Thus the outflow on 3-26 is calculatedas O11: 0.0477 X (47,g90)+ 0.4530 X
(57,740)+ . . . + 0.0013(4260): 51,469cfs.
SCS ConvexMethod
The U.S. Soil ConservationService (SCS) developeda coefficient channelrouting
technique,similar to the Muskingum method, in their National EngineeringHani-
book.3It has had widespreadapplication in planning and,designand can be used
successfullyevenwhenlimited storagedatafor the reachare available.Until 1983,the
procedurewas usedfor all streamflowhydrographrouting in TR-20, the SCS storm
event simulation computer program describedin Chapter 24. Newer versions of
TR-20 usethe att-kin methoddescribedin Section13.3.
Analysis of Fig. 13.2 producesthe working equation for the convex routing
method.Becausethe areasunderboth curvesare equal,and becausethe peak outflow
Figure 13.2 Geometricrelationsusedin the scs convexrouting method.(After

U.S. Soil ConservationService.3)
RIVERROUTING
13.1 HYDROLOGIC 241
is lessthan (and occurslater than) the peak inflow, the curvescrossat somepoint A,
resultingin the fact that the value Orwill alwaysfall betweenIl andOt. At any time,
the vertical distanceof 02 aboveOr (or below 01 on the right of A) is a fraction C, of
the differenceIt - 01 as shown in the inset of Fig. 13.2. By proportionatevertical
distances
Oz: O t + C , ( 1 1- O ) (r3.r4)
This could be usedto route the entire inflow hydrographif C, could be established.
FromEq. 13.14,
or- o, (13.1s)
-'-
1,.-o,
BecauseAl is one limb of the triangle in the inset to Fig. 13.2,
Lt _O"- O, (13.16)
K Ir-O,
where the constantK is the horizontal time from O, to the interseptionof the line
passingthrough Ol and 02. Thus C, is a function of both A/ and K, or
n r_- Lv t
w (r3.r7)
routing method.
Determination of K and C, Proof that K from Fig. 13.2is a constantis left to the
reader.It is a storageparameterwith time units and can be approximatedby the K
from the Muskingummethod.Similarly, C, is approximatelytwice the MuskingumX.
The reach length divided by wavevelocity (estimatedfrom Table 13.1) will provide
another estimateof K, or actual measurementsof reach travel time can be used.
Equation 13.l'l canthenbe solvedfor C,. The valuerecommendedby the SCS,in the
absenceof other estimates,is
C,: (13.18)
where Vis the velocity for a representativesteadydischarge,andV * 1.7 approxi-

matesthe celerity (speed)of a kinematic wavetravelingthrough the reach.The units
of V in Eq. 13.18are feet per second(fps).
Routingby Eq. 13.14is easilyaccomplishedafter the C, valueis estimated.The
interval Ar shouldbe one-fifth or lessof the time to peak of the inflow hydrographto
assurea sufficient number of calculatedoutflow rates to deflne the hydrograph.As
with all routing methods,the time interval shouldbe selectedso that one point falls
at or near the peak and other locationsof rapid change.
242 CHAPTER13 ROUTING
HYDROGRAPH
Unlike otherrouting methods,the convexmethodequationfor O, is independent

of 1r. Thus the proceduie can be used to forecast outflow from a reach without
tnowing the concurrent inflow. This provides a method for early calculation and
warninf for floods.Flow recorderscanbe linked through microprocessorsto warning
systemsthat calculate downstreamflood potentials at least one full routing-time
interval aheadof the flood.
The procedurecan be reversedto find the inflow hydrographfor a given outflow
hydrograph,or it can route a cumulativemasscurve of inflow to the reachinsteadof
the hydrograPhitself.
Method
Muskingum-Cunge
been
Severalattemptsto overcomethe limitations of the Muskingummethodhavelot
totally ,u"""riful becauseof computational complexity or difficulties in physically
interpretingthe routing parameteri.a'sThe Muskingum parametersare best derived
fiom streamflowmeasurementsand are not easilyrelatedto channelcharacteristics.
Cunge6blendedthe accuracyof the diffusion wave method (seeSection 13.3)
with the simplicity of the Muskingum method, resulting in one of the most recom-
gives
mendedtechniquesfor generaluse.It is classifiedas a hydrologicmethod,yet it
resultscomparablewith hydraulic methods'
Cungeshowedthat ihe finite-differenceform of the Muskingum equationbe-
comesthe diffusion waveequationif the parametersfor both methodsare appropri-
atelyrelated'From Eqs. 13.1 and I3'3, the Muskingumequationis
s -
K+ln+(l-x)ol:t-o ( 13. 1e)
dt-
obtain
SubstitutingQ,for I andQi*rfot O, andrewritingin finite-differenceform' we
+ (1 - x)Q"+l- xQI- (1 - x)Qi*,]

fir"a':' : - Oi+i+ Qi- Q',*') (13'20)
t(Q',*'
If K is set equalto Lxfc,Eq. 13.20is alsothe finite-differenceform of
u #* ' H : o (t3.2r)
which is calledthe kinematicwave equation(seeEq. 13.59)and can be derivedby

Ax
combining the continuity and -oln"ntu- (or friction) equations.TThe variable
denotesunincrerrr"ntofdistancealongthestreamaxisandcisthewavespeed'
The equationto be usedfor routing is obtainedfrom Eq . 13.20by solvingfor the
unknown flow rate,
(r3.22)
O i I i : c o Q ' , * ' c+ t Q i * c r Q i * ,
where
Lt/K - 2X (r3.23)
co
2(r-x)+Lt/K
RIVERROUTING
13.1 HYDROLOGIC 243
LtlK + 2x (r3.24)
cr:
2(r-x)+Lt/K
4 -
2(I-x)-cLt/Lx
" ' (r3.2s)
v2
2(I-x)+Lt/K
./r .-\ L Aal?
BecauseK : A,xfc,it representsthe time for a waveto travelthe routing reachlength

Ax, moving at velocity t. Congeshowsthat the velocity c is the celerity of a kinematic
wavepreviouslydescribed(Table 13'1).
When X : 0.5 and c Lt/A,x: 1.0, the routing equationproducestranslation
without attenuation.When Ax : 0 (zeroreachlength),no translationor attenuation
occurs.
If previousflood data are available,the routing parameterc canbe extractedby
reversingthe routing calculations.Estimatesof the parameterscan also be obtained
from flow and channelmeasurements.
The value of X for use in Cunge'sformulation is
x:t('-#t) (r3.26)
where So : channelbottom slope (dimensionless)

for the peak rate
4o : dischargeper unit width (cfs/fO,normally determined
The value of celerity c can be estimatedas a function of the averagevelocity V by
c: mV Q3.27)
where v is the averagevelocity QfA, andm is aboutI for wide natural channels.The
coefficientm comesfrom the uniform flow equation
Q: bA- (13.28)
which reduces,by taking partial derivatives,to

o Q: (r3.2e)
*g: *y
A A A
Substitutingthis into the continuity equation
Q*4:o (13.30)
6x At
givesEq. I3.2t if c : mv.If dischargedata ate available,m canbe estimatedfrom
nq. tZig. Valuesfor commonshapechannelsare given in Table 13'1'
The rout{rg can now be done using either constantm and c parameters(i.e.,
using a single ai'eragevelocity) or variableparameters(usingeachnew velocity v).
equition I-3.2i rs solvedfor c, the valueX is derivedfrom Eq. 13.26,andE6' 13.23
to 13.25are solvedusing K : Lx/c.
When using this rnethod,the valuesof Ax and Ar shouldbe selectedto assure
that the flood wa-vedetailsare proper$ routed.Nominally' the time to peak of inflow
is broken into 5 or 10 time incrementsAt. To give both temporal and spatialresolu-
tion, the total reachlength l, can be dividedinto severalincrementsof Ax length, and
outflow from eachis treated as inflow to the next.
EXAMPLE 13.3
Usethe Muskingum-Cungemethodto route the hydrographfrom Example13.2.Use
So: 0.0001,Lx : 545 mi, flow cross-sectionalareaat Q : 59,960is 5996 ft2,
width at Q : 59,960is 60 ft, and Ar : 1.0 day (asin Example13.2).
Solution. From the inflow, the peak rate of 59,960cfs gives
o^ 59.960
So:T
59,960:-
V r-: TQo -
,, l0fps
c : Z V o : 1 6 . 7f p s
From Eq. 13.26
-
":;1, 1000
(16.7)s4s
0.0001 L
(s280)
:0.4
't
I
I
L* -545(5280)
ff:
K : 1 7 2 , 8s 0e 0c
7:
and C": -0.1765
Ct: 0'7647
Cz: 0'294I
The routing for a portion of the hydrographis as follows:
Date, t CoQ'*L* Ct Qti*ro* Cz Qlutno* Qli*.*

3-16 - 1350 3260 0 r9r0 (3-r7)
17 -r970 5850 560 4440
18 -2950 8540 1310 6900
t9 -3810 12,790 2030 11,010
20 -3700 16,510 3240 16,050
2l -4690 16,020 4720 16,050
22 -8120 20,320 4720 16p20
L3 - 10,580 35,180 4980 29,580
24 10,190 45,850 8700 44,360
25 -8450 44,150 13,050 48,750
26 -6080 36,620, 14,340 44,880
27 -3820 26,3sO 13,200 35,730
3-28 -6120 16,560 10,510 20,9s0(3-29)
Note that the peak outflow of 48,750 cfs on March 26 occurson the samedate
as in Example I3.2 but has experiencedslightly greaterattenuationfrom the
Muskingum-Cunge example.
The value C, is alwayspositive,and negativevaluesof C, arenot particu-
larly troublesome.Although C0is negativein this example,this condition should
be avoidedin practice.As seenfrom Eq. 13.23, negativevaluesof Coare avoided
ROUTING 245
RESERVOIR
13.2 HYDROLOGIC
when
^|,
,* rr (13.31)
Other Methods
Other hydrolSgicriver routing procedureshavebeendeveloped,includingthe working
R&D method,straddle-stagger method,Tatummethod,and multiple storagemethod.
They all appear as options in HEC-I, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer's event
simulation and routing model describedin Chapter24.
ROUTING
RESERVOIR
13.2 HYDROLOGIC
The storageindication method of routing a hydrographthrough a reservoiris also
calledthe modified Pulsmethod.8A flood wavepassingthrough a storagereservoiris
both delayedand attenuatedas it enters and spreadsover the pool surface.Water
storedin the reservoiris gradually releasedas pipe flow through turbines or outlet
works, calledprincipal sprllways,or in extremefloods, over an emergencyspillway.
Flow over an ungatedemergencyspillway weir sectioncan be describedfrom
energy,momentum,and continuity considerationsby the form
O: CYH' (r3.32)
where O : the outflow rate (cfs)
Y : the length of the spillway crest (ft)
H : deepestreservoirdepth abovethe spillway crest (ft)
C : the dischargecoefficientfor the weir or section,theoretically 3'0
x : exponent,theoreticallyJ
Flow through a free outlet dischargepipe is similarly describedby Eq. 13.32
where' I : the cross-sectionalareaof the dischargepipe (ft')
H : head above the free outlet elevation (ft)
C : the pipe dischargecoefficient, theoretically\/29
.r : exponent,theoreticallyj
Flow equations for other outlet conditions are availablein hydraulics textbooks.
Storagevaluesfor variouspool elevationsin a reservoirare readily determinedfrom
computationsof volumesconfinedbetweenvariouspool areasmeasuredfrom topo-
graphic maps. Since storageand outflow both dependonly on pool elevation,the
resulting storage-elivationcurve and the outflow-elevationrelation (Eq. 13.32) can
easily be combinedto form a storage-outflowgraph. Storagein a reservoirdepends
only on the outflow, contrastedto the dependenceon the inflow and outflow in river
routing(Eq. 13.3).
"surchargestorage"or the storage
For convenience,,Sis often defined as the
abovethe emergencyspillwaycrest.Normally the overflowrate is zero when,Sis zero.
Ifthe graphedstorage-outflowrelation is found to be linear, and ifthe slopeofthe line
is definedas K, then
S : KO (13.33)
is a
and the reservoiris called a linear reservoir. Routing through a linear reservoir
showninFig. 13.l-usingr : 0'0inEq. 13.3'
specialcaseof Muskingumriverrouting
exceeds
Note alsothat the,outfl-owrate in Fig. tg.t is increasingonly while the inflow
assumptions that the inflow imme-
the outflow.This observationis conJistentwith the
and that the outflow depends only
diatelygoesinto storageoverthe entirepool surface
on this storage.
time
Routing through a linear reservoiris easily accomplishedby first dividing
s2 : Ko2into Eq. I3'4 and
into a numberof equal incrementsand then substituting
for each time increment'
solving for oz, wtrictris the only remainingunknown
To route an emergencyRo'oathrough anonlinear reservoir,the storage-outflow
the outflow
relation and the continiity equation,Eq. L3'4,are combinedto determine
I3'4 can be rewritten as
and storageat the end of'eachtime inciement A/. Equation
r , + r n +.1( * - o , ) :'+ t on+t (r3.34)
side'Pairs
in which the only unknown for any time incrementis the tgt_*:n the right
b" generated that satisfy Eq. 13 .34 and checked
of trial valuesof S"*, andO,*1"ould
fot confirmation. Rather than resort to this trial proce-
in the storage-outflow"uru"
replottedas
dure, a valrieof At is selectedand points on the storageoutflow curve are
direct determi-
the ';storageindication" curve shownin Fig. 13.3' This graph allowsa
nation of the outflow O,11 o11ce a value of the ordinate Zl,*rfLt I On+rhas been
from the S-O
calculatedfrom Eq. f :.:4' ftre secondunknown' S,*t, can be read
curve(whichcouldilsobeplottedonthegraphinFig. 13.3)orfoundfromEq'13'34'
t200
I
/
/
{,
600
:
.il<
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
Outflow (cfs)
Figure 13.3 Curveof zsl\t + O versusO'

19.2 HYDROLOGICRESERVOIRROUTING 247
This row-by-rownumericalintegrationof Eq. 13.34with Fig. 13.3is illustratedusing

Ar : t hr in ExampleI3.4.
EXAMPLE 13.4
Giventhe tria4gular-shapedinflow hydrographand the 2S/Lt + O curve ofFig. 13.3
find the outflow hydrograph for the reservoir assumingit to be completely full at the
beginningof the storm.(SeeTable 13.4.)
o
90
Time (hr)
In selectinga routing period Ar, generallyat leastfive points on the rising limb
of the inflow hydrographare employedin the calculations.An increasednumber of
points on the rising limb, that is, a small A/, improvesthe accuracy,sinceas A/ - 0
the numerical integrationapproachesthe true limit of the function being integrated,
in this casedSfdt.
Column 3 in Table 13.4 comesfrom the given inflow hydrograph,column 4 is
simply the addition of I, + In*r, andColumns5 andT are initially zero, sincein this
problem the reservoir is assumedfull at the commencementof inflow. Therefore,
there is no availablestorage.
TABLE 13.4 ROUTINGTABLE
(1)
Time
(2) (3)
ln
(4)
I, + In+l
'n-o.
(5) (6)
2Sn+1 , a
-;f- T vn+1
(7)
an+t
(8)
Sn+t
(hr) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs) (cfs-hr)
0 1 0 -tt, 0 JU 5 12.5
I 2 3 0 90 20 110 18 46
z 3 6 0 150 74 224 3Z 96
3 4 9 0 2lo 160 370 AA 164
+ 5 120, 270 284 ))4 52 250
5 6 150 330 450 780 )6 361
6 7 180 315 664 979 63 458
'7 225 853 r078 65 506
8 135
8 9 9 0 135 948 1085 65 510
9 10 45 953 998 64 467
t0 ll 0 0 870 870 62 404
ll 1 2 0 0 746 746 58 344
t2 t 3 0 0 630 630 54 288
248 13 HYDROGRAPH
CHAPTER ROUTING
the sum of columns4
The starting value for n : 1 in column 6 is computedas
and 5 from F,q.13.34
: 25"
(L + 12)- ( * - o ' ) - + o2
Lt
25.
3 0 * 0 : - - + o2
Lt
column 6 gives a valuefor
Enteringthe ordinateof Fig. 13.3 with the value 30 from
end-of-time-interval
o, of 5 cfs, which is recordedin column 7 , The corresponding
columns 6 and7 and recorded in column 8. Moving to
storage,s,, is calculatedfrom
be found fof : 2 usings'
n
the secondfow, a value of the term in column 5 can now
and O, from columns7 and 8'
ThestepwiseprocedureusedtogetoutflowfiguresforallncanbeSumma.
rized as
l.Entriesincolumnsland3areknownfromthegiveninflow.hydrograph.
column 3' - -
2. Entries in column 4 arc the additionsof I' t I'*' in
3.Theinitialvalueofthetermincolumn5iszero,thoughitcouldalsobe
4 and 5 are
based on any arbitrary starting storagevalue' and columns
addedto producethe value in column 6'
4.The2SlA,t+oversusoplotisenteredwithknownvaluesotzSlLt+o
to find valuesof O for column 7'
5.Columns6andlaresolvedforS,+r,whichisrecordedincolumn8.
for column 5 usingthe
6. Advanceto the next row and calculatethe next value
7 and 8'
valuesin the precedingrow for O and S {om columns
4 and enterthe
7. Add the value in cotuin 5 to the advancedsum in column
result in column 6 for the new period under consideration'
8.ThenewoutflowforcolumnTisagainfoundfromtherelationof
ZSlLt + O as in Fig. 13.3.
g.Thecorrespondingnewstorageincolumn8isfoundbysolvingfrom
columns6 andT'
l.0.Steps6throughgarerepeateduntiltheentireoutflowhydrographisgener-
ated. rl
RIVERROUTING
13.3 HYDRAULIC
ploys both the equationof continuity and
utions to the complete hydrarllic routing
ffffii.;fiffi:::
ili"'nTil::ll;lffi
tions.
Hydraulicfoutingtechniquesarehelpfulinsolvingriverroutingproblems,over-
the simultaneoussolution
land flow, or sheetnow. uyaraulic routing proceedsfrom
1'negeneralforms of the combinationfor
of expression,of continoiti una-o*"ntuir,
rivers are called the spatically varied unsteadyfl'ow equations'
13.3 HYDRAULIC
RIVER
ROUTING 249
Theseequationsalso apply to sheetflow or overland flow and include terms for
laterally incoming rainfall. They can be simplified and used to resolveriver routing
problems.eFor completeneisof presentation,a generalform of the spatially varied
unsteadyflow equationswill be presentedfirst.
Equationof Continuity
The equation of continuity statesthat inflow minus outflow equals the changein
storage.To relatethis conceptto a river sectionundera condition ofrainfall or lateral
inflow, consideran elementof length Ax and unit width into the page as shown in
Fig. 13.4.
The total inflow is
,(, - X+)(, - * *) * * , [.' l,'*o'

,,*.r)dtdx (1335)
The total outflow is
+t*+)(,.#?) o'
o(v (13.36)
The changein storageis
*
ofrl," (r3.37)
l(x, t)
,(,-#+)(,- o ( v * o?t) ( r . * + )
l A x L x
f 2--*l-- 2-
(a)
i(x, t)
ft)
Figure 13.4 Continuity and momentum elements(where p : the density of
water, V : the averagevelocity. 1l : the depth. i : the lateral inflow per ele-
mental Ax, and S = the slopeof the river bottom).
Consequently,continuity gives
-o(r{*tx + vfia') a, + pl A,xL, - oX L,xL,t: o (13.38)
where i is the averagelateral inflow resulting from rainfall over Ax and Ar.
The continuity equation of unsteadyflow with lateral inflow is obtained by
simplifyingEq. 13.38
6V .,0y , 0y :
"v6- x- | v - - 6r x ( 13 .3e)
At
For otherthan a unit width, Eq. 13.39takesthe form
e d{x + v dYx * *d t- l : 0 (13.40)
whereA is the width times the depth,y.
MomentumEquation
In accordancewith Newton's secondlaw of motion, the changeof momentumper unit
of time on a body is equal to the resultantof all externalforces acting on the body.
The following derivationof the momentumequationof spatiallyvariedunsteadyflow
is presentedsubjectto the following assumptions:(1) the flow is unidirectional and
velocity uniform acrossthe flow section;(2) the pressureis hydrostatic;(3) the slope
of the river bottom is relatively small; (4) the Manning formula may be used to
evaluatethe friction lossdueto shearat the channelwall; (5) lateral inflow entersthe
stream with no velocity componentin the direction of flow; and (6) the value of I
representsthe spatial and time variationsof lateral inflow.
Forcesactingon an elementof lengthAx andunit width are shownin Fig. i 3.4b.
The forcesF1andF, representhydrostaticforceson the elementand are expressedas
- ylyA atvA)axl
f-, - -;zl
F,: (13.41)
rz: .f-^ - a(la)Axl

- - lL,!^ (r3.42)
A- Z l
wherey is the distancefrom the watersurfaceto the centroidofthe area.The resultant
hydrostaticforce is F, - Fr, or
r ,6: -ra(!A) * (13.43)

\ 1 x
By assuminga small slope for the river bottom, the gravitational force is given by
Fr : yASA.x (13.44)
The frictional force alongthe bottom is equalto the friction slope$multiplied by the
weisht of water in an elementAx.
\: vASyLx ( 13 .4s )
13.3 HYDRAULICRIVER ROUTING 251
The rate of changeof momentumin the length Ax may be expressedas

d(mv) dV ,.dm
: iii____ T V____ (r3.46)
dt dt dt
in which m is the massof fluid.

If it is assumedthat the incoming lateral inflow entersthe moving fluid with no
velocity componentin the direction of flow and I representsthe spatial and time
variationsof the lateral inflow, the rate of changeof momentumfor the elementcan
be expressedas
dtuv) dv (r3.47)
Lx
T:pALxi+pvi
wherc dV/dt represents
dv av ,,av T v - (13.48)
dt at Ex
The rate of changeof momentumis therefore
oe*(Ya,. "#) + pviL,x (r3.4e)
Equating the rate of changeof momentumto all externalforces acting on the

elementresults in
{*r{+gaFA) +L:s(s-s) (13.50)

A t O x A O x A
Now for a unit width element,the relation simplifiesto
{u,* r{u** tX+Yri : s{s- s) : o ( 1 3 .1s)
Equations13.50and 13.51form a set of simultaneouS that can be

expressions
solvedfor V and y subjectto the appropriateboundary conditions.
and DynamicWaves
Kinematic,Diffusionn
For the casewith zerclaterclinflow, l, Eq. 13.51can be solvedfor the friction slope
Ev VAV IAV
c _ c _ : (r3.s2)
Friction Bed Water Convective Temporai

slope slope surface acceleration accelelation
slope
Kinematic wave
Diffusion wave
Fu11dynamic wave
252 ROUTING
CHAPTER13 HYDROGRAPH
The three typesof analysisof unsteadyflow routing in open channelsare classifiedas

kinematic,diffusion (also called noninertia), anddynamicwaveanalyses,depending
on which terms in F;q. 13.52 are retained. The three techniquesdiffer not only by
including different terms of Eq. 13.52 but also in the assumptionsregarding flow
conditions for satisfyingthe momentum equation.Table 13.5 showstheseassump-
tions.
HYDRAULIC
USEDIN VARIOUS
TABLE13.5 ASSUMPTIONS
METHODS
ROUTING
Method Commonflow condition Watersurfaceprofile
Kinematic Steady Uniform

Diffusion Steady Nonuniform
Full dynamic Unsteady Nonuniform
Steadyflow is definedas flow that doesnot changewith time, and uniform flow
is flow with a water surfaceparalleling the bed slope.For steadyuniform flow, the
rating curve (stage-discharge curve)is a singlecurve without hysteresisloops. Steady
nonuniform flow has constantdischargebut varying water surfaceslopesuchas that
found at the entranceto a reservoiror at the approachof a waterfall.
One way of selectingthe applicablemethod is to examinethe rating curve and
assesswhether it is the same for rising and falling stages.The choice of routing
equation dependson whether the difference is small (kinematic), relatively large
(dynamic),or somewherein-between(diffusion).
The kinematic wave method assumesthat the inertia terms of Eq. 13.52 ate
negligibleand that the friction slopeequalsthe bed slopeS. Momentumconservation
is approxi(natedby assumingsteadyuniform flow, and routing is accomplishedby
combiningthe continuity equationwith any form of friction lossequation.Typically,
either the Manning equationor Ch6zyequationis used.The Chdzyequationis
V : C\/RS ( 13.s 3)
and the Manning equationis
l'486
V : O2/3St/2 ( 13.s 4)
n
where C andn arefriction coefficients,S is the friction slope,and R is the hydraulic

radius (areadividedby wettedperimeter).Both give velocity in feet per secondif area
and wetted qerimeter
*of are input using squarefeet and feet units.
Either these equations can be substitutedinto the kinematic portion of
Eq. 13.52,equatingslopeof energygradeline with bed slopeto accountfor momen-
tum. The continuity equation,Eq. 13.39,for this casereducesto
dQ ( 13.5s )
*64:o
Ex At
The Manning or Ch6zyequationhas the form
Q: b'4^ (13.56)
RIVERROUTING 253
13.3 HYDRAULIC
which, after taking derivatives,is

6Q =
6*4*-t : o
m--a : M V (r3.57)
AA A
Multiplying Eq. 13.55by dQ/dA gives

, ,a Q
mv -- + 9a t : o ( 13.s 8)
dx
or. if c - mV,the kinematic routing equationis
.- dQx * 9 : o (13.se)
At
"- : d Q : l d Q (13.60)
dA BdY
to the slope of the
where B is the top width of the channel.Thus celerity is related
rating curve,which varieswith stage.Most applications assume that c is constantand
9 * , 9 : dd{x9- (13.61)
At dx
accounts for the
The left-hand side is the kinematic wave equation and the right
diffusion d is
diffusion effect of nonuniform water surfaceproflles. The hydraulic
given by
.
" 2 5
d : -
q (r3.62)
This term reveals

where4 is the flow per unit width of channel,and s is the bed slope.
(resulting in small d)
why kinematiowaveanalysisis valid whenbed slopesare steep
flat bed slopes,the
or when the channells extremelywide (resultingin small 4)' For
hydraulic diffusion coefflcientis particularly important'
Numerical solutionsof Eq. 13.6I ate presentedby severalinvestigators'12-ra
Thesenormally involve substitutionof the relation
ao - B 3+v (13.63)
A-- dt
into Eq. 13.61,whereB is the channeltop width. The Manning or Ch6zyequationis

usedfor the friction slope,where
tr:# (r3.64)
in which the conveyanceK is Q/\/Srfromeither equation.Diffusion wavesapply to

a wider range of problems than kinematic formulations, but their use may not be
warrantedbecauseit requiresabout the sameeffort as dynamic routing.
The third type of waveanalysisaccountsfor all terms inBq.13.52, includingthe
"dynamic" or
nonuniform,unsteady,and inertia components.It is referredto as the
"full dynamic" formulation. Dynamic wave solutionsare far more complicatedbut
are often necessaryfor analysisof flow along very flat slopes,flow into large reser-
voirs, highly unsteadydam-breakflood waves,or reversing(e.g.,tidal) flows. These
conditions are often encounteredon coastalplains. As a generalrule, full dynamic
wave analysisbecomesnecessarywhen
1 5 F ( 13 .6s )
s>
4\;
where S - bed slope
T o : time to peak (sec) of the inflow hydrograph
D : averageflow depth (ft)
o :
d eravitationalacceleration
SCSAtt-Kin TR-20Method
In 1983,the SCSreplacedtheconvexmethod(Section13.1)with themodifiedatt-kin
(attematron-kinematic)methodas the agency'spreferredchannelrouting method.ls
The 1.964SCS TR-20 (Chapter 24) single-eventsimulation model used the convex
method but was subsequentlymodified to route by the att-kin method.
The procedureis a blend of the storageindication and kinematicwavemethods.
Figure 13.5 showsthe two-step processof simulating attenuationfirst by meansof
e
E
o
PP
Flgure 13.5 Routing principlesusedin the SCS att-kin method,

ROUTING 255
RIVER
r3.3 HYDRAULIC
storagerouting and then translatingthe wavein time by the kinematic wavemethod
to accountfor the fact that routed flow ratesnot only decreasein magnitudebut also
require time to traversethe length of the routing reach.The storagerouting portion
providesattenuationwith instantaneoustranslation,and the kinematic waverouting
providestranslationand distortionbut doesnot attenuatethe peak. Both are needed
to produce the desired effect. The previously rhentioned full dynamic equations
simultaneouslyaccountfor both effectsbut are difficult to solve.
Figure 13.5helpsto visualizethe process.The samevolume V1of waterflowing
into the reachduring time /, would flow out of a hypotheticalstoragereservoirduring
interval 12.This samevolume would translateand distort downstreamby kinematic
actibn, flowing out of the reachduring interval /r.
Through its theoretical developmentand selectionof routing coefficients,the
att-kin methodequationssatisfythe physicalpropagationand timing of the peak flow
rate first. Conservationof massis also assured(areasunder the three hydrographsof
Fig. 13.5are equal).
The actualprocessroutesthe inflow hydrographthrough storage,thentranslates
the peak flow rate, without attenuation,to its final time location in the outflow
hydrograph.The location in time of the peak outflow is assumedequal to that corre-
spondingto the maximum storagein the reachduring passageof the flood.
Becausecelerity changeswith storage,the other flows of the storage-routed
hydrographare translated,pachby a different celerity,to their respectivefinal times
and values.
The storageindication routing is accomplishedby substitutionof the relation
Q: KS^ (13.66)
into the continuity equation, Eq. 13.30, where S is the storageand K and m are
coefficients.Kinematic routing solvesthe unsteadyflow equation(13.59) with
Q: bA* (r3.61)
whereb andm are input coefficients,and A is cross-sectionalarea.If Z is the length
ofrouiing reach,andifthe cross-sectionalareathroughoutL is relativelyconstant,the
storageis given by
S: LA (13.68)
Theseequatiohsare combined in an iterative fashion to assurethat the peak flow

resultingfrom the kinematic routing equalsthe peak resulting from storagerouting,
and simultaneouslyensuringthat the time of the peak outflow occurs at the time of
maximum storagein the reach,or
Qo: KS; (13.69)
Input to the methodrequiresselectionof a reachlength and estimatesof b andm for
usein Eq. 13.59.As discussed for Table 13.1and Eq. 13.27,m canbe shownto be
a factor relating averagevelocity (under bankfull conditions)with wave celerity, or
c
(13.70)
v
The larger ru becomes,the shorterthe travel time, A value of m I 1.0 would incor-
rectly makethe celerity slowerthan the averageflow velocity.Studiesby SCSresulted
in a recommendationof ! for general use. Signif,canterrors resultedfor m values
greater than2.0. Equation 13.67 is appropriatefor cross sectionshaving a single
ihannel with regulaishape.Complexcrosssectionsare more diffcult to evaluate,but
la valuescan be developid from a rating table for the stream'rs
As the coefficient b decreases,attenuationof the peak flow increasesdue to
reducedvelocity and increasedstoragein the reach.The value b canbe estimatedby
plotting Q andA on log-logpaper and fitting the linear form of Eq. 13.67 (referlo
faatei6.+1. The slope*oUa be m andtheinterceptut 4_: 1 would be b. The SCS
has also developednomographsfor estimatingb and m'"
As a generalguideline,the reach length L shouldbe increasedto a value that
resultsin a kinematic wavetravel time c greaterthan the selectedtime increment,or
Lo> cA,t
Z*io LR
ft ft
9,000 18,000
7,500 15,000
mV = wave celerity
l*ln = minimum acceptablereach length 6,000 12,000
LR = minimum recommended reach length 5,000 10,000
mV
ft/sec MainTime
3,500 7,000
0.5 Increment
Hours
2 r <nn 5,000
0.7
? nnn 4,000
I
1,500 3,000
0.5
1,000 2,000
0.3
n?5
0.2' 750 1,500
3 0.1
1.000
/
0.05
350 700
5
250 500
7 Example:
mV = 4ftlsec
10 Main time increment = 0.2 hr
T2 L*n= 1,450ft
La = 2,900 ft
15
t00
Figure 13.6 SCS nomographfor determining reach length for
atl-kin method of routing. (After U.S. Soil Conservation Service,
"ComputerProgramfor Project Formulation," TechnicalRelease
20, Revised,AppendixG, 1983.)
PROBLEMS 257
: mV' and Ar is the time increment' The
where Lo is the recommendedlength' c
minimumrecommendedLoisthatgivingawavetraveltimeequaltoabouthalfthe lengthy
rime incremenr. This 1j[$;"1* iray iesult in analytical difficulty when
inflowhydrographsorsteepStreams.areencountered.Italsoresultsinthepeak
time incrementAr. If severalreacheswere
outflow time being ,ourJ"J"rp io the full
accumulate'Thus a reachlength between
routed, this incrementattimeêrrorwould
greater thal c. A/ is recommended'
c Lt andc Lt/2 is acceptable'but a length
Figure13.6providesth"rangeofminimumacc"eptableandminimumrecommended
routing reachlengths.
ff ffi ff;;iicationsofhvdraulicroutingtec|1ioue11p.p"11'i^'"Tt*::?:Yi::
"u.n ff ;'il;;'n"'uu"'i11,,
ffi ff Ji,ffiffi ;t'1":".1-':^:"::::T,it?ii:
:3:[";ffi;i;;;ffi;"'"-*:i"o1j.u""]'mJ1't^:-:T:1T':1"::i"%i"$1
, i. wru,iilpresented
iir"T-l"ii,'.i,"n"
;;lrt':? 1"*Tl student
ll :^11ti::
thataninteresred caniil::1,::
understand
HX"J"H;il;il#il;;;;;,;;i;#
modeling'
the structuringprocessesof hydrologic
Summary
ComputersoftwareforhydrographsynthesiSândroutingisavailablefromnumerous
federal agelcy routines are detailed in
public and private vendors. wid;ry used
amflow processesincludesone or
Chapter24. Virtually every (
m o r e h y d r o g r a p h r o a s H E C - I ( C h a hydroloeig
p t e r 2 4a1d
) , hydraulic
p r o v i d e
lplied
severalchoices.In I
the models can be found in the
routing procedures' g]]:i,:Ytditg
At sel suggestions .T"
1iterarure.,6,17 will engage ln rlver or
The readerwho
when eachof the methodsshouldbe applied'
reservoirroutingisencouragedtodwelopthecomparisonrequestedinProblem13.25
before leavingthis chaPter'
PROBLEMS
hydrologic and hydraulic routing techniques'
13.1. Discussthe main diff-erencesbetween
t+}i
13.2. TheMuskingum
1iT
.'SX,ffff:il# ffi?#t;; q-
riverroutingequation'
:..ii+l ?:,:,':'?,*
r" 191 ;q":: Iit:t?;;i,Y
:,-Yllli"'*ifi:'i I
ilY?iBi'"".U'1-'"d;i"?';:fli!11iy":;T"':'.."t"jfl i:;#"J
I"a'^#i'.h;r::;;'i;A--)-r",t'i'i""1'"'lT1,1l.o:'^"iui:.'*
i:il3iil;
Siif#ffi"#ru:=#;"i"e-i*ine
outflow, and storage at the beginning
orthe
of time
the tlme p:.'i"l'
oerro.; *u,'::9,":1i:
i'||w 12' v2' .xg 9z v\v 4-_
lT"jll
corresponding u,,t'l
uutu", ;;:E;:
G n"t*#:J:'::3*4":::i3";ffi';
ffi:Tt"'ff:fd;#?;##ir*"p"'i"a'lndAsistl"*"1c-",'istorage'Perrorm
"and
for Cs' C1' and C2'
the describedA",inution verify ttre equations
l"3.3.IftheMuslongumKvalueis12hrforareachofariver,andiftheXvalueis0.2'what
purposes?
would be a reasonablevalue of Ar for routing
258 ROUTING,
13 HYDROGRAPH
CHAPTER
13.4. A river reachhas a storagerelation given by S; : ali + boi. Derive a routing equa-
tion for O2 analogousto the Muskingum equation (13.6). Give equationsfor the
coefficientsof 11,01, and 12.
13.5. List the steps(starting with a measuredinflow and outflow hydrographfor a river
'
reach)necessaryto determinethe Muskingum K and X values. If the inflow and
outflow are recordedin cubic feet per second,statethe units that would result for K
and X if your list of stepsis followed.
13.6. Given the following inflow hydrograph:
lnflow Outflow
(cfs) (cfs)
6 e.v. 100 100

Noon 300
6 p.tu. 680
Midnight 500
6 A.M. 400
Noon 310
6 p.Iu. 230
Midnight 100
Assumethat the outflow hydrographat a section 3-mi downstreamis desired.

:
a. compute the outflow hydrographby the Muskingum methodusing valuesof K
11 hr andX : 0.13.
b. Plot the inflow and outflow hydrographs on a single graph'
c. Repeatsteps(a) and (b) usingX : 0.00.
I3,7. Giventhe following valuesof measureddischargesat both endsof.a30-mi river reach:
a. Determinethe Muskingum K and X valuesfor this reach.
b. Holding K constant (at your determined value), use the given inflow hydrograph to
determineand plot three outflow hydrographsfor valuesofX equal to the computed
value.0.5. and 0.0. Plot the actualoutflow and nurnericallycomparethe root mean
squareof residualswhen each of the three calculatedhydrographsis compared
with the measuredoutflow.
lnflow Outflow
Time (cfs) (cfs)
6 e.Ira. l0 10
Noon 30 12.9
6 p.v, 68 26.5
Midftight 50 43.1
6 l.rra. 40 44.9
Noon 3l 41.3
6 p.tvt. ZJ 35.3
Midnight 10 27.7
6 n.n. 10 t9.4
Noon 10 1 5I.
6 p.v. 10 12.7
Midnight t0 11 . 5
6 A.M. 10 10.8
PROBLEMS 259
Usethe Muskingum
13.8. Selecta streamin your geographicregionthat hasrunoffrecords'
method of routing to find K and X'
l3.g.PrecipitationbeganatnoononJune14andcausedafloodhydrographinastredrn.As
thehydrographpassed,thefollowingmeasuredstreamflowdataatcrosssectionsA
and B were obtained:
Inflow, Outflow,
Time SectionA SectionB
June14-17 (cfs) (cfs)
6 e.v. 10 10
Noon 10 10
6 p.tvt. 30 t3
Midnight 10 26
6 e.u. 50 43
Noon 40
6 p.u. 30 4l
Midnight 20 35
6 n.u. 10 28
Noon l0 19
6 p.tvt. l0 IJ
Midnight 10 I J
6 e.u. 10 1l
Noon 10 10
for the river reach'

a. Determine the Muskingum K and X values
b. DeterminethehydrographatSectionBifadifferentstormproducedthefollowing
hydrographat SectionA:
lnflow lnflow
Time (cfs) Time (cfs)
6 e.u. 100 Noon 400

Noon 100 6 p.tvt. 300
6 p.tt. 200 Midnlght 200
Midnight 500 6 e.u. 100
6 l.rra. 600 Noon 100
emergencyspillway of a certain
13.10. The outflow rate (cts) and storage(cfs-hr) for an units of hours'Use
: Sl3,wherethe number3 has
reservoirare linearly t"fui"a Uy d - or Ltl2to determine
this and the continuity equations s2 + 02 Ltlz = I tt + sr
the following inflow event:
itr" p""f. outflow rad fr;m the reservoir for
Time I D o
(h0 (cfs) (cfs-hr) (cfs)
0 0
L 400
4 600
6 200
8 0
7

'
13.11. A simple reservoir has a linear storage-indication curve defined by the equation
" : 2*.
whereAr is equalto 10 hr. If s at 8 e.u. is 0 cfs-hr,usethe continuity equationto route
the following hydrograph through the reservoir:
Time 8 a.lra. 9 a.u. 10 e.Ira. 1l A.M. Noon I P.M.

I (cf9 0 200 400 200 0 0
13.12. For a vertical-walled reservoir with a surface area A show how the two routing
equations(73.32 and 13.34) could be written to contain only o2, sz, and known,
values(computedfrom or, s,, and so on). Eliminate .FIfrom all the equations.How
could thesetwo equationsbe solvedfor the two unknowns?
13.13. Given: Vertical-walled reservoir, surface area: 1000 acres; emergency.spillway
width : 97.l ft (ideal spillway);H : watersurfaceelevation(ft) abovethe spillway
crest; and initial inflow and outflow are both 100 cfs.
a. In acre-ft and cfs-days,determinethe valuesfor reservoirstorageS corresponding
to the followingvaluesof I1..0, 0.5, l, 1.5,2,3, 4 ft.
b. Determine the values of the emergencyspillway Q correspondingto the depths
namedin part a.
c. Carefully plot and label the discharge-stcirage curve (cfs versuscfs-days)and the
storage-indicationcurve (cfsversuscfs,Fig. 13.3) on rectangularcoordinategraph
paper.
d. Determinethe outflow ratesoverthe spillwayat the endsof successive dayscorre-
spondingto the following inflow rates(instantaneousratesat the endsof successive
days):100, 400, 1200,1500, 1100, 700, 400, 300, 200, 100, 100, 100. Use a
routing table similar to the one used in Example 13.4 and continue the rotating
procedureuntil the outflow drops below 10 cfs.
e. Plot the inflow and outflow hydrographson a single graph. Where should these
curvescross?
13.14. Routethe given inflow hydrograph through the reservoir by assumingfhe initial water
level is at the emergencyspillway level (1160 ft) and that the principal spillway is
plugged with debris. The reservoir has a 500-ft-wide ideal emergency spillway
(C = 3.0) locatedat the 1160-ft elevation.Storage-area-elevation data are
Elevation Area of pool Storage

(ft) (ft2x 106) (ft3x 106)
1l{0 0 0
1120 0.85 4.25
1140 3.75 50.25
I 158 9.8 172.15
I 160 10.8 r92.75
1162 I 1.8 2r5.35
1164 12.8 239.95
I 166 13.8 266.5s
I 168 14.85 295.20
1180 25,0 528.55
PROBLEMS 261
The inflow hYdrograPhdataare
Time(h0 I (cfs)
0.0 0
0.5 3,630
1.0 10,920
1.5 to,'720
2.0 5 010
2.5 1,600
3.0 460
J.) 100
4.0 10
A < 0
table.
a.Findthel5-minunithydrographbySnyder'smethod.
063
30minand
forthenrst
l i"li:l! ff;ru#iHfllSiii.?om18in.ofrain
of 15minandthe
period
o.cuweusinga routing
.. il"i:i.,i[T;iitf;,ersus
outflow and storagecurvesprovloeo' to the bottom
the reservoirassumingit is full
e. Route,n" uJ#f,iu.;;;n";;"dh
of the sPillwaYelevation980'
waterînthe reservor'
f. Indicate maxi-mumheight of plu'"d to obtain 5 ft of freeboard?
g. At what "tJ;;;;iJ'n"'op "f th;;;;;;
lncremental Total
storage storage
Elevation
1oo(ft") 104(ft3)
(ft)
0
960
40
40
970
zto
250
980
590
840
990
1240
2080
1000
the reservoirinitially empty'

13.16. RepeatProblem 13'15 with
ro-ml fvl,r;ach be divided in
l3,IT.AfloodhydrographistoberoutedtytheMuskingummethodthroughalO-mireach
with K = Zhr.tnto how *uny ,ubr"u"h"*-**rirt" Kl3 < Lt < Kl
order to or" lr ]'6.i; ;;J stitt satisry ttre ,tuuitity criterid
262 CHAPTER
13 HYDROGRAPH
ROUTING
13.18. RepeatProblem 13.6aby dividing the 3-mi reach into two subreaches with equal K
valuesof 5.5 hr. Comparethe results.
13.19. Discussthe problemsassociatedwith the useof a reservoirrouting techniquesuchas
the storage-indicationmethod in routing a flood through a river reach.
13.20. VerifyEq. 13.51.
t3.21. Precipitationbeganat noon on June14 and causeda flood hydrographin a stream.As
the storm passed,the following streamflow data at cross sectionsA and B were
obtained:
lnflow Outflow
Time SectionA SectionB
June14-17 (cfs) (cfs)
6 .q,.N{. l0 10
Noon 10 l0
6 p.u. 30 13
Midnight 70 26
6 .r.lr. 50 43
Noon 40
6 p.lr. 30 +l
Midnight 20 35
6 a.Ira. 10 28
Noon 10 t9
6 p.rra. l0 l5
Midnight t0 l3
6 e.u. l0 ll
Noon 10 10
a. Determinethe Muskingum K and X valuesfor the river reach.

b. Determine the hydrograph at Section B if a different storm produced the following
hydrographat SectionA (continuecomputationsuntil outflow falls below 101 cfs):
Inflow Time lnflow

Time (cfs) (cont.) (cfs)
6 a.u. 100 Noon 400

Noon 100 6 p.u. 300
6 p.Ira. 200 Midnight 200
Midnight 500 6 a.Ira. 100
6 a.Ira. 600 Noon 100
13.22. If the MuskingumK valueis 12 hr for a reachof a river, and if the X valueis 0.2, what
would be a reasonablevalue of Ar for routing purposes?
PROBLEMS 263
30-mi river reach:
13.23. Giventhe following valuesof measureddischargesat both endsof a
lnflow Outflow
Time (cfs) (cfs)
6 n.u. 10 10
Noon 30 12.9
6 p.rra. 68 26.5
Midnight 50 43.r
61.v. 40 44.9
Noon 3l 4t.3
6 p.Ira. 23 35.3
Midnight 10 27.7
6 n.rra. 10 t9.4
Noon 10 15.1
6 p.tu. 10 12.7
Midnight 10 I 1.5
6 e.lr. 10 10.8
a. Determinethe Muskingum K and X valuesfor this reach'

b.HoldingKconstant(atyourdeterminedvalue),usethegiveninflowhydrographto
computed
determineandptot tt ree outflow hydrographsfor valuesofX equalto the
value,0.5, and 0.0.
13.24. Given the following inflow hydrograph:
lnflow Outflow
(cfs) (cfs)
6 e.v. 10 10
Noon 30
6 p.v. 68
Midnight 50
6 e.l"l. 40
Noon 3l
6 p.v. ZJ
Midnight 10
Assumethat the outflow hydrographat a section3-mi downstreamis desired'

using values of
a. Compute the outflow hydrograptrby the Muskingum method
K - 1 1 h r a n dX : 0 . 1 3 '
b. Plot the inflow and outflow hydrographson a singlegraph'
: 0'00'
c. RepeatSteps(a) and (b) usingX
textbookfor all refer-
t3,25. Carefully review the chapterand consult one other hydrology
encestoipplicability ofeach ofthe routing procedures presented' Compile the results
into a list or table, ihis taUleshouldbe retained and consulted frequently'
264 CHAPTER ROUTING
13 HYDROGRAPH
REFERENCES
1. Graeff, "Trait6 d'hydraulique."Paris,1883,pp. 438-443.
2. Y. T. Chow, Open ChannelHydraulics. New York: McGraw-Hill , 1959.
3. U. S. Soil ConservationServiie, National EngineeringHandbook, Notice NEH 4-102.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice,August 1972.
4. S. Hayami, On the Propagationof FloodWaves,Bulletin 1. Kyoto,Japan:DisasterPreven-
t i o n I n s t i t u t e1, 9 5 1 .
"Multiple Linearization Flow Routing Model," Proc.
5. T. N. Keefer and R. S. McQuivey,
ASCEL Hyd. Div.100(HY7) (Iuly 1974).
"On the Subjectof a Flood PropagationMethod," J. Hyd. Res'IAHRT(2),
6. J. A. Cunge,
20s-230(1967).
7 . D. L. Brakensiek,"KinematicFlood Routing,"Trans.ASCE L0(3) (1967).
"Water Studies,"Bureauof ReclamationManual, Yol.
8. U. S. Departmentof the Interior,
IV Sec. 6.10. Washington, D.C.: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Offrce, 1941.
"Numerical Techniquesfor Spatially VariedUnsteadyFlow," University
9. T. E. Harbaugh,
of Missouri Water ResourcesCenter,Rept. No. 3, 1967.
10. R. K. Price, "Comparisonof Four Numerical Methods for Flood Routing," Proc. ASCE
J. Hyd. Div. 100(HY7) (July 1974).
"NonlinearKinematicWaveApproximation
11. R. M. Li, D. B. Simons,and M. A. Stevens,
for WaterRouting,"WaterResourcesRes.AGU II(2) (Apr. 1975).
"WavePropagationin Rivers," HEL Ser. 8' No. 1.
12. J. A. Harder and L. V. Armacost,
Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, College of Engineering,University of California,
Berkeley,June 1966.
"Numerical Solution of UnsteadyFlows in Open
13. D. J. Gunaratnamand F. E. Perkins,
Channels"HydrodynamicsRept. 127,MIT, Cambridge,MA, July 1970.
14. G. DiSilvio, "Flood Wave Modiflcation Along Channels," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
9s(HY7) (1e69).
"Simplifled Dam-Breach
15. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil ConservationService,
RoutingProcedure,"Tech.Release66,Mar. 1979.
"ComparativeAnalysis of Flood Routing Methods," ResearchDoc.
16. Streldoff, T., et al.,
24,Hydrologic EngineeringCenter,U. S. Army Corps of Engineers'Davis, CA, 1980.
"Guidelinesfor Calculatingand Routinga Dam-Break
l7 . D . L. Gunlachand W. A. Thomas,
Flood," ResearchNote 5, HydrologicEngineeringCenter,U. S. Army Corpsof Engineers,
Davis.CA. 1977.
C h a p t e r1 4
Snow Hydrology
Prologue
. Indicatethe importanceof snowmeltto water supplyand managementin cold
regions.
. Describemethodsfor measuringsnowfall and describingits water-producing
caPabilities.
' Describethe physicsof snowmelt.
. presentmodeisfor estimatingsnowmeltunder variousconditionsof tempera-
ture, relativehumidity, wind speed,topography,ground cover,and snowpack.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In many regions,snowis the dominantsourceof water supply.Mountainousareasin
the Weit areprime examples.Goodellhasindicatedthat about90 percentof the year$
water suppliin the high Llevationsof the ColoradoRockiesis derivedfrom snowfall.'
Equally high proportions are also likely in the Sierrasof California and numerous
t"giotrr m tne Nortfrwest.A significantbut lessershareof the annualwateryield in the
Northeastand Lake statesalso originatesas snow.It is important that the hydrologist
understandthe natureand distributionof snowfallandthe mechanismsinvolvedin the
snowmeltprocess.
Snowmelt usually beginsin the spring. The runoff derived is normally out of
phasewith the periodsof gieatestwaterneed;therefore,variouscontrol schemessuch
as storagereseivoirshavJ been developedto minimize this problem. An additional
point of significanc.e is that $omeof the greatestfloods result from combinedlarge-
icale rainstorms and snowmelt.Streamflowforecastingis highly dependenton ade-
quate knowledge of the extentand characteristicsof snowfleldswithin the watershed.
fhe water yield from snowfall can be increasedby minimizing the vaporization of
snow and melt water. Timing the yield can be managedwithin limits by controlling
the rate of snowmelt. Early resultscan be be obtainedby speedingthe melt process'
whereasthe snowmeltperiod can be extendedor delayedby retarding it. The annual
snowfall distribution in the United Statesis shownin Fig. 14'1'
& f
-v
/
S:.-
) \
I O
,4
00
co
, I
()
!1
a
!?
E
q
{)^
> j
o
. t
5E
p P
.=.Y
tu5
14,2 SNOW ACCUMULATIONAND RUNOFF 267
An adequateunderstandingof meteorologicalfactorsis as much a prerequisite

in consideringthe snowmeltpro""rs as it is in dealingwith evapotranspiration.The
atmospheresuppliesmoisturefor both snowfall and condensationof water vapor on
the snowpack,regulatesthe exchangeof energy within a watershed,and is a con-
trolling factor in snowmeltrates.
As in the rainfall-runoffprocess, geographic,geologic,topographic,and vegeta-
tive factors also are operativein the snow accumulation-snowmeltrunoff process.
For rainfall-runoff relations, point rainfall measuresare used in estimating
areal and time distributions over the basin. A similar approachis taken in snow
hydrologyalthoughthe point-arealrelationsare usuallymore cornplex.Mathematical
equationscan be usedto determinethe various componentsof snowmeltat a given
location. Adequatemeasuresof depth and other snowpackproperties can also be
amount
, obtainedat specificlocations.The use of thesemeasurementsin estimating
and distribution in area and time of snow over large watershed areas is a much less
rigorous procedure.Usually, averageconditions related to particular areal subdivi-
sionsover time are usedas the foundationfor basin-widehydrologicestimates'Such
proceduresare often in the categoryof index methods(Section 14.6).
Snowmelt routines have been incorporated in numeroushydrologic models,
some of which also include water quality dimensions.A good accountingof the
fundamentalsof the snowmelt process and of contemporary snowmelt modeling
approachesmay be found in Refs.2-15 listed at the end of this chapter.
AND RUNOFF
14.2 SNOWACCUMULATION
Under the usual conditions encounteredin regionswith heavy snowfall, the runoff
from the snowpackis the last occurrencein a seriesof eventsbeginningwhen the
snowfallreachesthe ground.The time interval from the start to the end of the process
might vary from aslittle asa day or lessto severalmonthsor more. Newly fallen snow
hasa densityof about 10 percent(the percentageof snowvolumeits waterequivalent
would occupy),but as the snow depth enlarges,settling and compactionincreasethe
density.ls
The temperaturein a deep layer of accumulatedsnow is often well below
fueezingafter prolongedcold periods.When milder weather setsin, melting occurs
flrst atlhe rno*pu"k surface.This initial meltwater moves only slightly below the
surfaceand again freezesthrough contact with colder underlying snow.During the
rcfreezingpro""rr, the heat of fusion releasedfrom meltwaterraisesthe snowpack
t"*p"rutur". Heat is also transferredto the snowpackfrom overlying air and the
ground. During persistent warm periods, the temperatureof th9 entire snowpack
Iontinually rises'and finally reaches32'F. With continued melting, water begins
flowing down through the pack. The initial melt component is retained on snow
crystals in capillary films. Once the liquid water-holdingcapacity of the snow is
reached,the snow is said tobe ripe. Throughoutthe foregoingprocess'pack density
increasesdue to the refreezingof meltwaterand buildup of capillary films. After the
water-holdingcapacityis reached,the densityremainsrelatively constantwith contin-
ued rnelt. Meltwater that exceedsthe water-holdingcapacity will continueto move
268 14 SNOWHYDRoLoGY
CHAPTER
down through the snowpackuntil the ground is finally reached.At this point runoff
can occu.r.Three situationsthat may exist at the ground interfacewhen meltwater
reachesit are describedby Horton.t6
First, considerthe casewherethe melt rate is lessthan the infiltration capacity
of the soil. In addition, downward capillary pull of the soil coupled with gravity
exceedsthe samepull of the snow lessgravity. The meltwaterdirectly entersthe soil
and a slushlayer is not formed.
The secondcaseoccurs when a soil's infiltration capacity is greaterthan the
melt rate, but the net capillary pull of the snowpackexceedsthat of the soil aidedby
gravity. Capillary water builds up in the overlying snow until equilibrium is reached
at which upward and downwardforces balance.A slushlayer forms and providesa
supply of water that infiltrates the soil as rapidly as it entersthe slushlayer.
The final situationis one in which the melt rate exceedsthe infiltration capacity.
A slush layer forms and water infiltrates the soil at the infiltration capacity rate.
Excesswater acts in a manner analogousto surfacerunoff but at a much decreased
overlandflow rate.
As warm weathercontinues,the melt processis maintainedand accelerateduntil
the snowcoveris dissipated.
14.3 SNOWMEASUREMENTS
AND SURVEYS
Snow measurementsare obtained through the use of standardand recording rain
gauges,seasonalstorageprecipitation gauges,snow boards,and snow stakes.Rain
gaugesare usually equippedwith shieldsto reducethe effect of wind.3Snow boards
are about 16 in. square,laid on the snow so that new snowfall which accumulates
betweenobservationperiodswill be found abovethem. Care must be taken to assure
that adversewind effectsor other conditionsdo not producean erroneoussampleat
the gauginglocation.Snow stakesare calibratedwoodenpostsdriven into the ground
for periodic observationof the snowdepthor insertedinto the snowpackto determine
its depth.
Direct measurementsof snow depth at a single station are generally not very
useful in making estimatesof the distributon over large areas,since the measured
depth may be highly unrepresentativebecauseof drifting or blowing. To circumvent
this problem, snow-surveyingprocedureshavebeendeveloped.Suchsurveysprovide
information on the snowdepth,waterequivalent,density,and quality at variouspoints
along a snow course.All thesemeasuresare of direct use to a hydrologist.
The water equivalentis the depth of water that would weigh the sameamount
as that of the sample.In this way snow can be describedin terms of inchesof water.
Density is the percentageof snow volume that would be occupied by its water
equivalent.The quality ofthe snow relatesto the ice contentofthe snowpackand is
expressedas a decimal fraction. It is the ratio of the weight of the ice contentto the
total weight. Snow quality is usually about0.95 exceptduring periodsof rapid melt,
when it may drop to 0.70-0.80 or less.The thermal quality of snow,Q,, is the ratio
of heatrequiredto producea particular amountof waterfrom the snow,to the quantity
ANDAREAL
14.4 POINT SNOW 269
CHABACTERISTICS
of heatneededto producethe sameamountof melt from pure ice at 32"F.Valuesof
Q,may exceed100 percent at subfreezingtemperatures.The densityof dry snow is
approximately10 percentbut thereis considerablevariability betweensamples.With
grPater.
- - the densityof snow increasesto valueson the order of 50 percentor
aging,
A snowcourseincludesa seriesof samplinglocations,normally not fewer than
10 in number.ttThe variousstationsare spacedabout50- 100ft apartin a geometric
pattern designedin advance.Points are permanentlymarked so that the sameloca-
tions will be surveyedeachyear-very important if snow coursememorandaare to
be correlatedwith areal snowcoverand depth, expectedrunoff potential, or other
significantfactors.Survey dataareobtaineddirectly by forestersand others,by aerial
photographsand observations,and by automatic recording stations that telemeter
information to a central processinglocation.
In the westernUnited Statesthe Soil ConservationServicecoordinatesmany
snow surveys.Various states,federal agencies,and private enterprisesare also en-
gagedin this type of activity. Sourcesof snowsurvey dataaresummarizedin Ref. 14.
14.4 POINTANDAREALSNOWCHARACTERISTICS
The estimationof areal snow depth and water equivalentfrom point measurement
data is highly important in hydrologicforecasting.
Estimatesof Areal Distributionof Snowfall

Normally, taking arithmetic averagesor using Thiessenpolygonsdoesnot provide
reliable results for estimating areal snow distribution from point gaugings'This is
becauseorographicand topographiceffectsare often pronounced,and gaugingnet-
works frequently are not denseenoughto permit the straightforwarduse of normal
averagingtechniques.However, regional orographiceffects are relatively constant
from yearto yearand stormto stormfor tractsthat are small whencomparedwith the
areal extent of general storms occurring in the region.2This circumstancepermits
many useful approachesin estimating the areal snow distribution once the basic
patternhas beenfound for a region'
One method used to estimatebasin precipitation from point observationsas-
sumesthat the ratio of station precipitation to basin-precipitationis approximately
constantfor a storm or storms.This can be statedas'
P o _ Nb (14.1)
Po No
PoNu
or Pu: (r4.2)
No
where D
t b
--
the basin precipitation
P o : the observedprecipitation at a point or group of stations
N t : the annual precipitation for the basin
N o : the normal annualprecipitation for the control station or stations
27O CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
The normal annualprecipitationis determinedfrom a map (carefullypreparedif it is

to be representative)displayingthe meanannualisohyetsfor the region.The precipi-
tation is determinedby planimeteringareasbetweenthe isohyets.If the number of
stationsusedand their distribution adequatelydepict the basin,Eq. I4.2 canprovide
a good approximation.For stationsnot uniformly distributed,weighting coefficients
basedon the percentageof the basin areaportrayedby a gaugeare sometimesused
in determiningN, for the group.
Another systemusedin estimatingareal snowfallis the isopercentalmethod.In
this approach,the storm or annual station precipitation is expressedas a percentage
of the normal annualtotal. Isopercentallines are drawn and can be superimposedon
a normal annualprecipitation map (NAP) to producenew isohyetsrepresentingthe
storm of interest.A NAP map indicatesthe generalnature of the basin'stopographic
effects,while the isopercentalmap showsthe deviationsfrom this pattern.The advan-
tageof this methodover preparingan isohyetalmap directly is that relatively consis-
tent storm pattern featuresof the NAP can be taken into considerationas well as
observedindividual storm variations.
Estimatesof Basin-WideWater Equivalent

A hydrologistmust be concernednot only with the amount and areal distribution of
snowfall, but also with estimatingthe water equivalentof this snowpackover the
basin, sincein the final analysisit is this factor that determinesrunoff. Basin water
equivalentmay be given as an index or reported in a quantitative manner such as
inchesdepth for the watershed.
The customaryprocedurefor determiningthe basin water equivalentis to take
observeddata from snowcoursestationsand to provide an index ofbasin conditions.
Various proceduresemploy averages,weighted averages,and other approachesto
accomplishthis.2The important point to rememberis that the usefulnessof any index
is basedon how well it representsthe overall basinconditions,not on how favorably
it describesa particular point value. Indexesdo not actually provide a quantitative
evaluationofthe property they cover.Instead,they give relativechangesin the factor.
By introducingadditional data, however,an index can be usedin a prediction equa-
tion. For example,if the basin water equivalentcan be estimatedby subtractingthe
runoff and losscomponentsfrom the precipitationinput, the index can be correlated
with actual basin water equivalentin a quantitativemanner.
Areal Snowcover
Estimatesof the areal distribution of snowfall are very helpful in making hydrologic
forecasts.A knowledgeof actualarealextentof snowcoveron the groundat any given
time is also*applied in hydrograph synthesisand in making seasonalvolumetric
forecastsofthe runoff. Observationsof snowcoverare generallyobtainedby ground
and air reconnaissanceand photography.Between snowcoversurveys,approxima-
tions of the extentof the snowcoverare basedon availablehydrometeorologicaldata.
Snowcoverdepletionpatternswithin a given basin are normally relatively uniform
from yearto year; thus snowcoverindexescan often be developedfrom data gathered
at a few representativestations.
14.5 THE SNOWMELTPROCESS 27'I
PROCESS
14.5 THE SNOWMELT
The snowmeltprocessconvertsice content into water within the snowpack.Rates
differ widely due to variationsin causativefactorsto be discussedlater. Thesediver-
genciesare not as strikingly apparentwhen consideringdrainagefrom the snowpack,
however,since the pack itself tends to filter out thesenon-uniformities so that the
drainageexhibits a more consistentrate.
EnergySourcesfor Snowmelt
The heatnecessaryto inducesnowmeltis derivedfrom short-andlong-waveradiation,
condensationofvapor, convection,air and groundconduction,and rainfall. The most
important ofthese sourcesare convection,vapor condensation,and radiation. Rain-
fall ranks aboutfourth in importancewhile conductionis usually a negligiblesource.
EnergyBudgetConsiderations
If snowmeltis consideredas a heat transferprocess,an energybudgetequationcan
be written to determinethe heatequivalentof the snowmelt.Suchan equationis of the
form2
H^: H,r + H," + H" + H" + Hs + He + Hq (14.3)
where H*: the heat equivalentof snowmelt

H4 : rrlt long-wave radiation exchange between the snowpack and
surroundings
H,, : the absorbedsolar radiation
H" : the heat transferredfrom the air by convection
H": the latent heat of vaporizationderived from condensation
Hr : the heat conductionfrom the ground
Ho : the rainfall heat content
Hn: the internal energychangein the snowpack
In this equationH,", Hs, andHo are all positive;I1,1is usually negativein the open;
H" and Hnmay take on positive or negativevalues;andH" is normally positive.The
actual amountof melt from a snowpackfor a given total heatenergyis a function of
the snowpack'sthermal quality. The heatenergyrequiredto producea centimeterof
waterfrom pure ice at32"F is 80 langleys(g-cal/cm2).Therefore,203.2langleysarc
neededto get 1 in. of runoff from a snowpackof 100 percentthermal quality. If the
term H. representsthe combinedtotal heat input in langleys,an equationfor snow-
melt M in inches.is2
H-
M- (r4.4)
203.2Q,
where Q, is the thermal quality of the snowpack.For sirbfreezingsnowpacks,Q,,
exceeds1; for ripe snowpackshavingsomewatercontent,Q,is lessthan one.A typical
value for these conditions is reported to be 0.97.6Figure 14.2 gives a graphical
solution to this equationfor severalvaluesof Q,.
272 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROLOGY
w
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Net heat flux to snow pack, f(langleys)
Figure 14.2 Snowmelt resulting from thermal energy' (After U.S.

Army CoJpsof Engineers.2)
EXAMPLE 14.1
Given a snowpackwith thermal quality of 0.90, determinethe snowmeltin inchesif
the total input is 137 langleys.
Solution. UseEq. 14.4
M: H^/203.2Q,
M : r37/203.2 x 0.90
M : 0.75in. rl
Turbulent Exchange
The quantity of heat transferredto a snowpackby convectionand condensationis
commonlydeterminedfrom turbulentexchangeequations.Suchan approachhasbeen
widely used,sincemeasurements of temperatureand vapor pressuremustbe madein
the turbulent zonewherevertical watervapor, temperature,and wind velocity gradi-
ents are controlled by the action of eddies.In the following two subsectionsseveral
practical equationsfor estimatingcondensationand convectionmelt are given. Here
a combinedtheoreticalequationis presentedto acquaintthe readerwith the theory of
turbulent exchange.
The basic turbulent exchangeequationcan be written'
o : Adz4 ( 14.s )
where Q : thetime rate of flow of a specifiedproperty of the air suchaswater

vapor through a unit horizontal area
=
dqldT the vertical gradient of the property
PROCESS 273
14.5 THESNOWMELT
e : the property
z : lhe elevation
A: an exchangecoefficient
Property 4 must be unaffectedby the vertical transport.Propertiespertinent to this

discussionare the air temperature,water vapor, and wind velocity.Theoretically,the
potential temperatureshouldbe used,but air temperaturesmeasuredat normal dis-
tancesabovethe snowpackdo not causeseriouserrors.The potential temperatureof
dry air is that which the air would take if broughtadiabaticallyfrom its actualpressure
to a standardpressure.
Gradients of the various properties of importance here follow a power law
distribution where conditions of atmosphericstability exist.rTThis qualification is
characteristicof the atmosphere'sstate over snowfields.2Logarithmic profiles are
more nearly representativeof neutral or unstableatmosphericconditions.The power
law providesthat the ratio of valuesof a property determinedat two levelsabovethe
snow is equivalentto the ratio of the levelsraised to somepower. Thus,
/ . \r/n
Qz_ (:31 (r4.6)
Qt \Zr,/
where q the value of the property

z the elevation(with subscriptsdenotingthe level)
the power law exponent
If 3, is made equal to I, q, assumedto be the property value at this height, and the
subscriptdroppedfor the secondlevel,Eq. 14.6becomes
q : qtz\/" (r4.7)
The magnitude of q is takenasthe differencein valuesof 4 measuredat the level
z and the snow surface.For example,if T : 38'F at height z, and temperatureis the
property of interest,then q: (38 - 32) : 6"p. The gradient of the property dqldz
can be obtainedby differentiatingEq. 14.7:
ff: (et),,,_",," (14.8)
If this expressionis substitutedin the basicturbulentexchangeequation(14.5),the

followins relation is obtained:
o : AIL)zo-d/" (r4.e)
Thus,eddyexchangeofthe property at a specifiedelevatione is determinedfrom

observationsofthe ptoperty at unity level.The exchangecoefficientis alsorelatedto
elevationz. For equilibrium conditions up to the usual levels of measurementof
moistureand temperature,gradientsof thesevariablesare suchthat the eddy transfer
of moistureand heatis constantwith heisht. Then the exchangecoefficientA mustbe
274 14 SNOWHYDROLOGY
CHAPTER
inverselyrelatedto the prope"t r.:O*r,i
- )n,Orr, (i4.10)
h dqld,
in Eq. 14.8for dq/dz givesthe followingresult:
Substitution
A - Ar4"-ttr" (14.11)
since(dq/dz)t : et/nfor I : 1. Now, if the valueof A from Eq. 14.11is insertedin

Eq.14.9,
n: o,(T) (r4.r2)
The exchangecoefficientat an observationlevel has been shownto be directly

proportional to the wind velocity measuredat that elevation.lsTherefore,it may be
written that
A': ko1 (14.13)
where o1 : the wind velocity at Level one
k : a constantof proportionality
Substitutingfor 41 in Eq. I4.I2 gives
/k\
a: \;)a'"' (r4'r4)
Using the power law equation(14.7), we find that
q, : q;1/" (14.15)
and D, : 117-1/n (14.16)
After making thesesubstitutionsinBq.14.14 and denotingthe observationlevel of o

as Tu,andthat of q as za(sincethesemay be different),Eq. 14.14becomes
n: (!")rr,zu)-'/nq.ou (r4.r7)
This is a generalizedturbulent exchangeequation. Considerationis now given to

developingspecifictheoreticalequationsfor condensationand convectionmelt.
First, considerthe caseof the condensationmelt. The property to be tlansported
in this caseis water vapor, and sincethe exchangecoefficientexpressesthe transfer
of an air maqs,it is necessaryto determinethe moisturecontentof the air mass.This
can be accomplishedby using the specifichumidity, which gives the weight of the
water vapor containedin a unit weight of moist air. Equation 14.18 can be usedto
calculatespecifichumidity:
0.622e (14.18)
q :
where e : the vapor pressure

. Po: the total pressureof the moist air
PROCESS 275
14.5 THESNOWMELT
Inserting this expression in Eq. 14.17 for q"yields2
)-'/^(9J4:),
n" : (I)u"z "u, (r4.re)
," : t s(l)u.,,)-'^(99),"u, (r4.20)
The proportionality constantk is a complexfunction relatedto the air density

and other iactors.Sinceihe densityof air is a function of elevation,k also varieswith
height. The constantmay be madeindependentof density,and thereforeof elevation,
"introducing
by a factor to compensatedirectly for the density-elevationrelation'
Atmosphericpressureservesto accomplishthis, and the equationcan be adjustedby
muttipiying Uy tne ratio pf po, wherepis the pressureat the snowfieldelevationand
po is the se-atevetpr"rrur". Introducingthis ^ratioinBq. 14.20and a new constantk1,
which is related to sealevel pressure,gives'
m" : a.s(\){r"r,r','(99),,u, {r4.2r)
Forconvectionmelt,thepropertyofimportanceinEq. 14.17is airtemperature.

b-e
To convert air temperatureinto ttreimat units, the specific heat of air crmust
H"
introduced. Putting these values in Eq. I4.l7,heat transfer by eddy exchange
convertsto2
I/nc
o, : (I) uoz6)- (14.22)
oror),
cgs
Sincethe latent heatof fusion is 80 callg, convectivesnowmeltM" in gramsin the
systemis givenby H"l8O, or
/ t \/lc\. (r4.23)
,. : (*J ())(,"20)-'h, or"uu
Introducing the elevationdensitycorrectionp/po,we obtain
* : (#)(l)r,",,r',(o1),,r", (14.24)
Equations I4.2I and 14.24 can be^ combined into a single convection-
condensationmelt M"" equationof the form'
M"" = Lk"ru)-,,"(#fir,r" (r4.2s)

This is a generalizedtheoreticalequationfor snowmeltthat resultsfrom the turbuleni

tfansfer of water vapor and heat to the snowpack.It is assumedthat the exchange
coefficientsfor heat and water vapor are equal. Their evaluationis accomplishedby
experimentation.r
A combined physical equation of the general nature of Eq. 14.25 has been
developedby Light.le Widely used,its individual convectionand condensationmelt
componentsare discussedin following sections.The combined form of the Light
equationis
pk',
D :
80 rn(alz) ln(b/zo)
ulc,r+ ( e - 6.IDryf
P J
(r4.26)
where D - the effective snowmelt(cm/sec)

air density
L _
^ 0 - von K6rm6n's coefficient= 0.38
the roughnessparameter: 0,25
a r b : the levelsat which the wind velocity,temperature,and vaporpressure
are measured,resPectivelY
U : the wind velocity
:
co the sPecific heat of air
7 :;the air temperature
e : the vapor pressureof the air
p : the atmosPhericPressure
Convection
Heat for snowmeltis transferredfrom the atmosphereto the snowpackby convection.
The amountof snowmeltby this processis relatedto temperatureand wind velocity.
The following equationcan be usedto estimatethe 6-hr depth of snowmeltin inches
by convection:2O
D: KV(T - 32) (r4.27)
where V : the mean wind velocity (mph)
Z - the air temperature('F)
On the basisof the theory of air turbulenceand heat transfer (turbulent exchange),a
, theoreticalvaluefor the exchangecoefficientK of 0.00184 X 10-0'0000156'has been
given by Light.le In this relation h, the elevationin feet, is usedto reflect the change
in barometric pressuredue to the difference in altitude. The expressionis said to
representconditions for an open, level snowfieldwhere measurementsof wind and
temperatureare madeat heightsof 50 and 10 ft, respectively,abovethe snow.Values
of the exprtssion10-00000156' vary from 1.0 at sea level to 0.70 at 10,000ft of
elevation.The actual valuesof K are normally lessthan the theoreticalflgure due to
such factors as forest cover. Empirical 6-hr K values have been reported in the
literature.20
due to
Anderson and Crawfordls give an expressionfor the houily sno.wmelt
convectionas
cv(T"_ 32)
M _ 04.28)
Q,
14,5 THESNOWMELT
PROCESS 277
where M : the hourly melt (in.)
V : the wind velocity (mi/hr)
To : the surfaceair temperature('F)
Q, : the snowquality
c: a turbulent exchangecoefficientdeterminedempirically
Temperaturemeasurements are at 4 ft, with wind gaugedat 15 ft. The corresponding
valueof c is reportedas 0.0002.
Condensation
snow.A total yield of around 8.5 in. of snowmeltincluding the condensateis thus
derived.
A water vapor supply at the snow surfaceis formed by the turbulent exchange
process;consquently,a masstransferequationsimilar to thosepresentedfor evapo-
ration studiesfits the melt process.An equationfor hourly snowmeltfrom condensa-
tion takesthe formrs
u : W n { r " 6- . 1 1 ) (14.2e)
where b : an empirical constant

eo : the vapor pressureof the air (mb), the numerical value
6.11 : the saturationvapor pressure(mb) over ice at 32'F (e, must exceed
6 . 1l )
Also, M, Q,, and v are as previouslydefined.The constantb hasa valueof 0.001 for
temperatureand wind measurementsat 4 and 15 ft, respectively.ls
A similar expressionbut for 6-hr snowmelt(D) is given as
D:KrV(eo-6.11) (14.30)
where the theoretical value of K, is said by Light to equal 0.00579 if wind and
- kV(e"
' "
- e,)
p -
(14.3r)
Q,
where E : the hourly evaporationin inches
es : the saturationvapor pressureover the snow
k : an empirical constant
CHAPTER
Also, V, eo,andQ,areasdefinedbefore.lsIntheexpressionk : 0.0001,temperature
and wind measurements are taken as for Eq. 14.30, and the temperature of the air is
assumed equal to that of the snow surface for temperatures below 32oF.
RadiationMelt
The net amount of short- and long-waveradiation receivedby a snowpackcan be a
very important source of heat energy for snowmelt. Under clear skies, the most
significantvariablesin radiationmelt are insolation,reflectivity or albedoof the snow,
and air temperature.Humidity effects, while existent, are usually not important.
When cloud cover exists,striking changesin the amount of radiation from an open
snowfield are in evidence.The general nature of these effects is illustrated in
Fig. 14.3.2Combinedshort- and long-waveradiation exchangeas a function of cloud
height and coveris represented.Radiationmelt is shownto be more significantin the
spring than in the winter. It should also be noted that winter radiation melt tendsto
increasewith cloudcoveranddecreasingcloudheightasa resultof the more dominant
role playedby long-waveradiation during that period.
Forest canopiesalso exhibit important characteristicsin regulating radiative
heatexchange.Theseeffectsdiffer somewhatfrom thoseexhibitedby the cloudcover,
especiallywhereshort-waveradiation is concerned.Cloudsand treesboth limit inso-
lation, but cloudsarevery reflective,while a largeamountof the interceptedinsolation
is absorbedby the forest.Consequently,the forestis warmedand part of the incident
energydirectly transferredto snow irl the form of long-waveradiation; an additional
fraction is transferredindirectly by air also heatedby the forest.
Figure 14.4illustratessomeeffectsof forestcanopyon radiation snowmelt.The
figure typifies averageconditions for a coniferouscover in the middle latitudes.2In
winter, the maximum radiation melt is associatedwith completeforest cover, and in
spring the greatestradiation melt occursin the open. Generalizationsshouldnot be
drawn from thesecurves,which indicaterelative seasonaleffects of forest cover on
radiation melt for the conditionsdescribed.Another factor affectingradiation melt is
the land slopeand its aspect(orientation).Radiationreceivedby north-facingslopes
is lessthan that for south-exposureinclinesin the northern hemisphere,for example.
Solar energy provides an important sourceof heat for snowmelt. Above the
earth's atmosphere,the thermal equivalentof solarradiation normal to the radiation
path is 1.97 lingleys/min (1 langleyis approximately3.97 x 10-3 Btu/cm2).The
actual amount of radiation reachingthe snowpackis modified by many factorssuch
asthe degreeofcloudiness,topography,and vegetalcover.The importanceofvegetal
cover in influencingsnowmelt,long recognized,has promptedmany forest manage-
ment schemesto regulatesnowmelt.t'to'"''o
Two basic'lawsare applicableto radiation.Planck'slaw statesthat the temper-
ature of a blackbodyis relatedto the spectraldistribution of energythat it radiates.
Integrationof Planck's law for all wavelengthsproducesStefan'slaw,
Ro: cT' (r4.32)
where R, : the total radiation
o : Stefan'sconstant[0.813 x 10-10langley/(min-K-')]
T : the temperature(K)
14.5 THE SNOWMELTPROCESS
crurar,.ier,iiTth
M,, = 2.0o[1_ (0.82- 0.0244N]

Mt=4.4r[r-(1 -}.\UAM
Amount ofclouds, N
(a)
M,, = 0.50U- (0.S2- O.O'U4I\tl

Mt=4.84[1 * (1 _ 0.0242)t{l
J"*qv;
o u.u 4.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.t
Amount ofclouds, N
(b)
{igure.fa3 Daily radiation melr in the open with cloudy

skies: (a) during spring, May 20; and (bf during wintei,
February 15. (After U.S. Army Corps of Engineeis.r;
t
t
I
I
r.)
^ r _ -t "n"n t : t
lr I
> 10
\
.= rt \
M,= M^ Mrt
. -4
\M, (r 'F))- 3.30
=3.821F+ .7s7
-o.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 .' 0.6 1.0
Forestcanopycover,F
(a)
(l)
0.5
,*^=l,r*
H o.o
Mf Mr, + Mr1 I
'--1 4
-0.5 4
-1.0
1- Mrt ? 'qTF r -n - 3.30
7s7Q.
0.0 0.4 0.6 0.8

Forestcanopycover,F
(b)
- Figure 14.4 Daily radiationmelt in the forestwith clear

skies:(a) duringspring,May 20; and (b) duringwinter,
February15.(AfterU.S.Army Corpsof Engineers.2)
Becausesnow radiates as a blackbody, the amount of radiation is related to its

temperature(Planck's law), and total energyradiated is accordingto Stefan'slaw.
Long-waveradiation by a snowpackis determinedin a complexfashionthrough the
interactionsof temperature,forest cover, and cloud conditions'
14.5 THESNOWMELT
PROCESS 281'
Direct solar short-waveradiation receivedat the snow surfaceis not all trans-
ferredto sensibleheat.Part of the radiationis reflectedand thus lost for melt purposes.
Short-wavereflection is known as albedo and ranges from about 40 percent for
melting snow late in the seasonto approximately80 percent for newly fallen snow.
Valuesas high as 90 percenthavealsobeenrepofted in severalcases.22 This property
of the snowpackto reflect large fractions of the insolation explainswhy the covers
persistand air temperaturesremain low during clear, sunny,winter periods.
That portion of short-waveradiation not reflectedand availablefor snowmelt
may becomelong-waveradiation or be conductedwithin the snowpack.Some heat
may also be absorbedby the ground with no resultantmelt if the ground is frozen.
An expressionfor hourly short-waveradiation snowmeltis given as2
H^
M- (r4.33)
203.2Q,
where H^ : the net absorbedradiation (langleys)
' 203.2 : a conversionfactor for changinglangleysto inchesof water
When the snowquality is 1, long-waveradiation is exchangedbetweenthe snowcover
and its surroundings.Snowmelt from net positive long-wave radiation follows
Eq. 14.33.If the net long-waveradiation is negative (back radiation), there is art
equivalentheat loss from the snowpack.
An approximatemethodof estimating12-hr snowmeltDn (periodsmidnight to
noon, noon to midnight) from direct solarradiation has been given by Wilson.2oThe
relation is ofthe form
Dp = Do(l - 0.75m) (14.34)
where Do : the snowmeltoccurring in a half-day in clear weather
m : thedegreeof cloudiness(0 for clearweather,1.0 for completeovercast)
Suggested valuesfor Do are 0.35 in. (March), 0.42 in. (April), 0.48 in. (May), and
0.53 in. (June)within latitudes 40-48".2o
Rainfall
Heat derivedfrom rainfall is generallysmall, sinceduring thoseperiodswhenrainfall
occurson a snowpack,the temperatureof the rain is probablyquite low. Nevertheless,
at highertemperatures,rainfall may constitutea significantheat source;it affectsthe
aging processof the snow and ffequently is very important in this respect. An
equationfor hourly snowmeltfrom rainfall isrs
(14.3s)
where P : the rainfall (in.)

T- : the web-bulb temperatureassumedto be that of the rain
This equationis basedon the relation betweenheatrequiredto melt ice (I44 Btu per
pound of ice) and the amountof heatgiven up by a pound of water when its temper-
ature is decreasedby one degree.
CHAPTER
Daily snowmeltby rainfall estimatesare given by
Ma: 0.007Pd(T"- 32) (r4.36)
where Md : the daily snowmelt(in.)
, P d : the daily rainfall (in.)
To : the meandaily air temperature('F) of saturatedair taken at the 10-ft
level23
Conduction
Major sourcesof heatenergyto the snowpackare radiation, convection,and conden-
sation. Under usual conditions, the reliable determinationof hourly or daily melt
quantitiescanbe foundedon theseheatsourcesplus rainfall ifit occurs.An additional
sourceof heat,negligiblein daily melt computationsbut perhapssignificantover an
entire melt season,is ground conduction.
Ground conductionmelt is the result of upward transferof heatfrom ground to
snowpackdue to thermal energythat was storedin the ground during the preceding
summerand earlyfall. This heatsourcecanproducemeltwaterduringwinter and eady
springperiods when snowmeltat the surfacedoesnot normally occur. Heat transfer
by ground conductioncan be expressedby the relation2
dT
Hn: K-- (14.37)
where K : the thermal conductivity "r'J"n

dTlda : the temperaturegradient perpendicularto soil surface
The snowmeltfrom ground conductionis generallyexceedinglysmall. Wilson
notes that after about 30 days of continuoussnowcover,heat transferredfrom the
ground to the snow is insignificant.20The amountof snowmeltfrom ground conduc-
tlon during a snowmelt seasonhas been estimatedat approxirnately0.02 in.lday'23
Groundconductiondoesact to providemoistureto the soil; thus,whenotherfavorable
conditionsfor snowmeltoccur, a more rapid developmentof runoff can be expected.
This sectionhasemphasizedthephysicsof snowmelt.The mannerin which heat
canbe providedto initiatethemelt processwasdiscussed. Equations14.27-I4.3I and
L4.33-I4.37 inclusivecan be usedto estimatethe melt at a given point. The task of
computingrunoff from snowmeltin a basin cannot be approachedin sucha simple
fashion,sincethere are many complexfactorsoperative.The remainderof this chap-
ter is devotedto the general subject of runoff from snowmelt investigations.Fig-
ure 14.5 illustrateshourly variation in the principal heat fluxes to a snowpackfor a
cloudy day.
EXAMPLE 14.2
During a completelycloudy April period of l2hr, the following averagesexistedfor
a ripe snowpacklocated at 10,000 ft above sea lel'el at a latitude of 44" N: air
temperature50' F; mean wind velocity, 10 mph; relative humidity, 65Vo;avenge
rainfall intensity,0.03 in./hr for I2hr; wet bulb psychrometerreading,48oF. Estimate
the snowmeltin in. of water for convection,condensation,radiation, and warm rain
for the 12 hr period.
April 23 Apnl24 Aprii 25
1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200
100 --- Short-waveradiation
- Long-wave radiation lt
80
ffi Incident short-wave radiation Incident short-wave radiation (t)
ii l,-
nm Reflected shon-wave
9 6 0 raoanon
Eo Downwad long-wave radiation (R2)
F G Absorbedshort-wave
<2 * radiation
40
H . n
E z v
o i l
t s -
-20
_40 naiatipntn)
=
o J.bwaa]one-wa1e
Reflected shofr wave radiation (1,)
E
E o.o4
- On?
.,
6
E 0.02
(Each bs reDresents mem value
E o.ot
0
1700-1800hr 2400*0100hr' 0900-1000Itr
no condensation - no convgctiotr or - no condensation
0.01
meltllcondensationmeltmelt
t t t t l
E Radiation melt (Mr)
0.25 Convrction condensation
6
mett (Mce) Total Snow Melt (M)
--- Radiationmelt total ud Runoff (O)
0.20 (Hourlyconvection-cotrde$ationmeltis
addedto of subtacbdftom totalhouly
radiationmeltto arnveattotalhouly
computed melt)
0.15
I Totalcomputedmelt
Computedmelt (net for
period0900- 1800hr =
E 0.10 l22ir-022in = I 00 in.)
o
n
_o*
0
Net nighttime loss = 0.22 in

-0.05
1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200
Apil23-----l-- Apfl24 April 25
Figure L4.5 Hourly variation in principal heat fluxesto a snowpackfor a

cloudyday.(After U.S.Army Corpsof Enginers.2l
Solution
a. Convectionmelt, 6 hr
D:KV(r-32)
D : 2 x 0 . 7x 0 . 0 0 1 8x4 1 0x ( 5 0 - 3 2 ) : 0 . 5 0 i n . (14.27)
melt,6 hr
b. Condensation
D:KrV(e"-6.11)
D : 2 x 0 . 0 0 5 7 8x 1 0 x ( 1 2 . 1 9x 0 . 6 5- 6 . 1 1 )
: 0.21in. (14.30)
. Radiation melt, 12 hr
Dn: D o ( 1- 0 ' 7 5m )
D r 2: 0 ' 4 2 x ( 1 - 0 . 7 5x 1 ) : 0 ' 1 1 (r4.34)
d. Rainfall melt. hourly
M : P(r-'- 32)lt44Q,
14 : 10.03x 12 x (48 - 32)l/(144 x 0.97) : s.64 ( 14.3s )
Thus,total melt is 0.86 in. rr
RUNOFFDETERMINATIONS
14.6 SNOWMELT
Variousapproachesto runoff determinationfrom snowmelthavebeenfollowed.They
rangefrom relatively simplecorrelation analysesthat completelyignore the physical
snowmeltprocessto relatively sophisticatedmethodsusing physicalequations.Most
techniquescan be consideredas basedon degree-daycorrelations,analysesofreces-
sion curves, correlation analyses,physical equations,or various indexes.Each is
discussedin turn.
Purposesof SnowmeltRunoff Estimates

Snowmeltrunoff estimatesare extremelyimportant for many regionsof the United
Statesand other countriesin (1) forecastingseasonalwater yields for a diversity of
water supply purposes,(2) regulating rivers and storageworks, (3) implementing
flood control programs, and (4) selectingdesign floods for particular watersheds.
Maximum floods in many areas are often due to a combination of rainfall and
snowmeltrunoTf.In effect, the determinationof snowmeltrunoff hasthe sameutility
as the calculationof runoff from rainfall. In someareasit will, in fact, be the more
important of the two.
SnowpackCondition
The mannerin which runoff from eitherrainfall or snowmeltis affectedby conditions
prevalentwithin the snowpackis of primary interestto a hydrologist.Variousviewson
storagecharacteristicsof a snowpackhave been advanced.These range from the
14.6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 285
conceptthat a snowpackcan retain large amountsof liquid water to the hypothesis

that snowpackstoragi is negligible.Thereis no universallyapplicablerelation, and it
becomesimportant to baseany runoff considerationson a knowledgeof the character
of a snowpackat the time of study.Winter runoff is relatedto a snowpack'scondition,
whereasin the spring,onceactivemelt begins,little or no delayin the transportof melt
or rainfall through the snowpackoccurs.
For drainagebasins in mountainousareas,snowpackstorageeffects may be
approximatedby subdividingthe watershedinto relatively uniform areas.Normally,
this will be accomplishedby usingelevationzones.Snowpackat the lowestlevelsmay
be conditionedto transmit readily rain or meltwater,whereasin higher elevationsa
liquid water deficit may prevail. At uppermostelevations,the snowpackmay be very
dry and cold and thus in a condition for the optimxm storageof water. The storage
potentialof the watershedzonesmustbe basedon representativemeasurements of the
snow depth,density,temperature,water equivalent,moisturecontent,and snowpack
character.The snowpackiharacterrelatesto the physicalstructureofthe pack' Unfor-
tunately, adequate1;r"usrrr"rof all thesefactors are not always availableor easily
obtained. Estimatesof changesbetween sampling periods are usually indexed to
readily observedmeteorologicvariables.
The formulation of snowpackstorageand time delay characteristicscan be
fashionedby assuminga homogeneous pack.In this case,storageis relateddirectly to
the liquid water defici1and cold content of the pack. Time delay is a function of the
inflow rate. It is consideredthat the snowpackstoragepotential must be entfuely
satisfiedbeforerunoff begins.In reality this is not the case,but the assumptionpermits
an analysisto be made. As melt proceeds,the storagepotential of any snowpack
diminishes.
Storageof a snowpackbeforerunoff commencesis consideredto be the sum of
the equivalentwaterrequilementto raisethe temperatureof the snowpackto 0'C (cold
contentlV")and the HqJidwater-holdingcapacityof the snowpack.If the cold content
is given in inchesof water neededto bring a snowpacktemperatureto 0oC,it may be
representedby2
* r = fw"T"
fi (14.38)
where 7] : the mean snowpacktemperaturebelow OoC

lyo : the initial watei equivalentof the snowpackin inchesfor an assumed
specificheatof ice of 0'5
The time L in hoursneededto raisethe snowpacktemperatureto OoCis thus given by
WoT,
", -- r 6 o 1 i + * 7 (14.3e)
whereI is the rainfall intensity(in./hr) andm is the rate of melt (in'/hr)' Storage
requiredto meet the liquid water deficit of the snowpackis given by
tr:#(%+w.) (14.40)
( - : the amount of water stored(in.)

where ".1
T _
JP the percent deficiencyin liquid water of the snowpack
The time in hours r, neededto fill the storageSyis given by

+
t': fi\wg+ W") (r4.4r)
100(i m)
It has been specifiedthat the total storagepotential Soto be met prior to the
runoff is given as
Sr:W'"*Sy (r4.42)
This is also known as "permanent" storage,sinceit is not availableto the runoff until
the snowpackhasfinally melted.An additional storagecomponenttransitory storage
S,is that waterstoredin the snowpackwhile movingthroughit to becomerunoff. Until
initiation of runoff, the transitory storagein inchescan be expressedas
^ D
",: (i+m)
__T__ (r4.43)
where D : the depth of the snowpack (ft)

V : the rate of transmissionthrough the snowpack(ftlhr)
The delay time of water in passingthrough the snowpackt' is thus
D (r4.44)
a t v
for /, in hours.Assumingthat I4z"is very small comparedwith Wo,the depth of the

snowpackis given by
O:% (r4.4s)
P'
Then
with p" the densityof the snowpack.
wo (r4.46)
t'-
nv
the total waterS storedin the snowpack,in
Beforethe runoff commences,
inches,is givenby
S:W"+++S, (r4.47)
which can also be written
/ r t
t = * ( 1 f t + f i d i. +" mr ,\ r ) (14.48)
The total time in hours that passesbefore runoff is producedis thus2

t:t"+tr+tt (r4,49)
z : -, f ! , - r -+ { 1 (14.50)
t = w'1160(i
f + r, Too1,-, p,v)
After establishingtheactiverunofffromthesnowpack, term
theonlysignificant
in Eq. 14.49is /,, andthis is usuallysmallcomparedwith the overallbasinlag and
33
End rain
31
-: 30
'*2
= ) Q
6 - '
E
.Z te
d
o
- 2 6
24
23 66 72 78
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time(br)
duringrainfall'
Figure 14.6 Waterbalancein a snowpack
can be neglected.With increasedsnowmelt and runoff, additional increments of

water prevlouslywithheld by snowblockageto drainageoutlets and other factorsare
released.Adequatequantifi;ation of this cannotbe accomplishedat present'24 A deep
a mean temperature of -5oC, could storeabout 4 in. of
snowpack,say 15 ft, having
fiquid waterbeforethe onsetof runoff. Figure 14.6illustratesthe nature of the water
balancein a snowpackduring a rainstorm.
EXAMPLE 14.3
A core sampleof a snowpackproducesthe following information: air temperature,
10 ft;
68"F; relative humidity, 2b percent; snowpackdensity,0'2; snowpackdepth'
snowpacktemperature,22"F.
a. What is the vapor pressureof the air?

b. Will condensationon the snowpackoccur, basedon the vapor pressure?
c. what is the cold content of one sq ft of surfacearea of the snowpack?
d. Is the snowpackripe?
-
Solution
a. From AppendixTableA.2, eo: 233 mb

for a relative humidity of 20 percenr,o = 4'66 mb
b. Condensationwill not occur sincethe air is unsaturated"
c. Cold content
160
W": WsT"f
: 22oF: -5.6oC
Temperature
W": 0.20x l2Ox 5.6/160: 0.84in.
is belowfreezing. I I
is not ripe sinceits temperature
d. The snowpack
Indexes
Hydrologic indexesare made up of hydrologicor meteorologicvariablesto describe
their functioning. The index variable is more easily measuredor handier than the
elementit represents.When mean fixed relations are known to exist betweenpoint
measurementsand watershedvalues,indexescan be used to record both areal and
temporal aspectsof basin values. Indexes serve to permit (1) readily obtainable
observationsto depict hydrologicvariablesor processeswhich themselvescannotbe
easily measured,and (2) simplificationof computationalmethodsby allowing indi-
vidual observationsor groupsof observationsto replacewatershedvaluesin time and
space.The adequacyof an index is basedon (1) the ability ofthe index to describe
adequatelythe physicalprocessit represents , (2) the randomvariability of the obser-
vation, (3) the degree to which the point observation is typical of actual conditions,
and (4) the nature of variability beiween the point measurement and basin means.2
Indexesmay be equationsor simplecoefficients,and variable or constant.
The types of data requiredto make comprehensivethermal budgetstudiesare
normally unavailablein whôle or part for wut"tJh"dt otherthan experimentalones.As
a result, a hydrologistmust make the best use of information at hand. The most
commonly availabledata aredaily maximum and minimum temperatures,humidity,
and wind velocity.Lessprevalentare continuousmeasurements of thesedata, andfew
stationsrecord solarradiation or the durationof sunshine.Hourly cloudinessdatacan
sometimesbe obtainedfrom local airport weatherstations.
A completelygeneralindex for reliably describingsnowmelt-runoff relations
for all basinshasnot beenestablished.Most indexesincludecoefficientsvalid only for
specifictopographic,meteorologic,hydrologic,and seasonalconditionsand arethere-
fore limitedlnipplicability to other watersheds.Table 14.1 shows some types of
indexesthat havebeen used successfullyin snowmeltinvestigations.
THERMAL
USEDTODESCRIBE
TABLE14,1 SOMEINDEXES VARIABLES
BUDGET
Thermalbudgetcomponent Index
Absorbed short-waveradiatron Duration of sunshinedata

Diurnal temperaturerange
Long-waveradiation' Air temperaturefor heavy forestedareas
For open areaslong-waveradiation shouldbe estimated
Convectiveheat exchange (7" - T)V, where f is air temperature, T6 the snow surface
temperatureor basetemperature,and Vthe wind speed
Heat of condensation (e" - e")V,whereeoand e, are vapor pressuresof air and snow
surfaceot a basevalue, and V is wind speed
" Figure 14.7 iilustrates an approximatelinear relation betweenmelt and long-waveradiation usedby the U.S, Army
Corps of Engineers for index purposes.
14,6 SNOWMELTRUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 289
The snowmeltrunoff equationstatedin terms of thermal budgetindexesis
Y:a+>b$t ( 14.s1)
where I : the snowmeltrunoff

a : aregressionconstant
b, : the regressioncoefficients
4 : individual indexes
Variousindexesusableto representthe termsof Eq. 14.51are selectedand a standard
regressionanalysisperformedto determinea andb,.It shouldbe notedthat everyterm
in the heatbudgetequationis not alwayssignificantfor a particular analysis,and thus
the numberof Xr will vary for different basinsand conditions.A final melt equation
1.6
Long-wave radiation melt in forest or with
low overcast sky in open
1Z-L
Ma= toTf,- oT!) {referto
n:{-r'1 ,,
Kelvin scale)
= 604x lA-1274-3.355
Long-wave radiation
'cE n /
-v.+
melt in open
o 1L O
Ma= zoittlpl rcrf,-orlt
= 604x IO-12 Tx- 3.355
= o.o29(Ta_ 32)
(refer to Fahrenheit
scale)
r l t l
M, = long-waveradiationmelt, in./day
P = ftee water content of snow
-r.o (taken as 0.03 in this case)
rA = absolute air temperature, K
?s = absolute snow surface temp = 273K
-2.0 o = stefm's constant
= 0.813 x 10. lolmgley/min-K-a
Io = mean daily air temperatue, F
1 A
10 20 30 40 50 60
Meanair temperature,
Zo("F)
260 265 270 2'75 280 285 290 300

Absolutetemperature,Z1(K)
Figure 14.7 Long-wave radiation melt, with linear approxima-
tion. (After U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.2)
t.6
Equationderivedfrom combineddataof
1954and1955
t.4 RO = 0.00238 G + 0.0245(T ^ -'77)
r=0.95 D=0.90
= 0.36in. S"- . = 0.1| in'
r t ' l l
1 n
/
Z
z}
ts "r_"n
.C .l
E U.6 ri
a
,/
\C
"y-x
Mean ru noff 0.59
5 0.6
,/,
0.4
aa,
'24. / a o
0.2 a .
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
runoff(in.)
Estimated
Figure 14.8 Observedversusestimatedrunoff for (X)
1954 and (O) 1955. RO = the daily generatedsnowmelt
runoff (in.) depth over a snow-coveredarea; G : the
daily net all-waveradiation absorbedby snow in the open
(langleys); 7-u* : the daily maximum temperature for
Boise ("F); r = the coefficient of correlation; D : the
coefficient of determination;S, = the standarddeviation
of observedrunoff (in.); Sr-, : the standarderror of the
stimated runoff (in.). (After U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.2)
devekipedby the Corps of Engineers2for the partly forestedBoiseRiver basin above
Twin Springs,Idaho, was
* - 77)
Q : 0.00238G+ 0.0245(T^ (r4.s2)
where Q = the daily snowmeltrunoff (in.) over the snow-coveredarea
G = an estimatedvalue of the daily all-waveradiation exchangein the
open (langleys)
ZLu, : the daily maximum temperatureat Boise (T)
The equationis said to predict the daily snowmeltrunoff valueswithin 0.11 in. of
observedvalues about 67 percent of the time. Figure 14.8 illustrates this relation.
In attemptingto developsuitableindexesfor snowmelt,a hydrologistshouldseek
the approachmost closely resemblingthe thermal budget of the area, within the
limitations of availabledata.
14.6 SNOWMELT
RUNOFFDETERMINATIONS 291
TemperatureIndexes
The atmospherictemperatureis an extremelyusefulparameterin snowmeltdetermi-
nation. It reflectsthe extentof radiation and the vapor pressureof the air; it is also
sensitiveto air motion. Frequently,it is the only adequatemeteorologicvariable
regulady on hand, so widespreaduse has been made of degree-dayrelations in
snowmeltcomputations. I
A degreeday is defrnedas a deviation of 1ofrom a given datum temperature
consistentlyover a 24-hr period. In snowmeltcomputations,the referencetempera-
ture is usually 32"F. rf the mean daily temperatureis 43oF, for example,this is
equivalentto 11 degreedays above 32'F.If the temperaturedoes not drop below
freezingduring the24-hr period, there will be24 degreehr for eachdegreedeparture
above32'F. In this examplethere would be 264 degreehr for the day of observation.
Variouswaysof estimatingthe meantemperaturehaveenabledinvestigatorsto
take severalapproaches. one methodis simplyto averagethe maximumandminimum
daily temperatures.Basesother than 32"F are also used.Regardlessof the particular
attackemployed,a degreehour or degreeday is an index to the amountof heatpresent
for snowmeltor other purposesand has proved useful in point-snowmeltand runoff
from snowmeltdeterminations.
The standardpracticein developingsnowmeltrelationson the basisof temper-
ature is to correlatedegreedaysor degreehours with the snowmeltor basin runoff.
In somecases,other factorsare introducedto defineforest covereffectsand/or other
influences.Another approachoften usedis to calculatea degree-dayfactor-the ratio
of runoff or snowmeltto accumulateddegreedaysthat producedthe runoff or melt.
2.8
1 A
; 1 A
o
B
6 r-z
34 38 42 46 50 s4 58 62 66
Mean daily temperature,Z('F)
Figure 14.9 Mean temperature index. The equations are applica-
ble only for the range of temperatures shown in the diagram. (After
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.2)
Unfortunately,the degree-dayfactor has been found to vary seasonallyand between

basins;therefore, single representativevalues should be used with caution. Point-
degree-dayfactorsfor snow-covered basinsrangefrom 0.015to 0.20 in. per degree
per day when melting occurs.Gartskastatesthat an averagepoint value of 0.05 can
be used to representspring snowmelt, provided that caution is used. Linsley and
othersstatethat basinmean degree-dayfactorsare usuallybetween0.06 and 0.15
in./degreedayunderconditionsof continuoussnowcoverand at meltingtemperatures.
Figure 14.9illustratestemperatureindex equationsfor springtimesnowmeltfor clear
and forestedareas.'
GeneralizedBasinSnowmeltEquations
Extensivestudiesby the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersat variouslaboratoriesin the
West have produced several general equationsfor snowmelt during (1) rain-free
periods and(2) periodsof rain.2aWhen rain is falling, heattransferby convectionand
condensationis of prime importance.Solarradiationis slight, andlong-waveradiation
can readily be determinedfrom theoretical considerations.When rain-free periods
prevail,both solarand terrestrialradiationbecomesignificantand may require direct
evaluation. Convection and condensationare usually less critical during rainless
intervals.The equationsare summarizedas follows:2
1. Equationsfor periodswith rainfall.
a. For open (coverbelow 10 percent)or partly forested(coverfrom 10 to
60 percent)watersheds,
M : (0.029+ 0.0084fto+ 0.007P)(7"- 32) + 0.09 (14.s3)
b. For heavilyforestedareas(over80 percentcover),
M : (0.074 + 0.007P,)(7.- 32) + 0.0s (14.54)
where M : the daily snowmelt(in./daY)
P , : the rainfall intensity (in./day)
T o : the temperatureof saturatedair at 10-ft level ("F)
the averagewind velocity at 50-ft level (mph)
^t . -- the basin constant,which includesforest and topographic
effects,and representsaverageexposureof the areato
wind. Valuesof k decreasefrom about 1.0 for clear
plains areasto about 0.2 for denseforests
,,
Equationsfor rain-free periods.
a. For heavyforestedareas,
, M:0'074(0.537'"+ O.47fi) (14.ss)
b. For forestedareas(coverof 60-80 percent),
M : k(0.0084u)(0'22r'"
+ 0.7870+ 0.0297" (14'56)
c. For partly forestedareas,
M : k'(I - rx0.00401,)(l- a)
+ 0.78r) + F(0'029r)
+ k(0.0084o)(0.227'" Q4.57)
)
14.6 SNOWMELT
RUNOFF
DETERMINATIONS
293
d. For open areas,
M : k'(0.00s084)(1- a) + (1 -'N)(0.0zIzT: - 0.84)
+ N(0.02gr') + k(0.00Sao)Q.227'"+ 0.78Ti) (14.58)
where M, a, k : as previouslydescribed
T'" : the difference betweenthe t0-ft air and the snow
surface("F) temperatures
T'o: the difference between the 10-ft dew-point and
snow-surfacetemperatures('F)
I, : the observedor estimatedinsolation (langleys)
a : the observedor estimatedmeansnowsurfacealbedo
k' : the basin short-waveradiation melt factor (varies
, from 0.9 to 1.1),which is relatedto mean
exposureof open areascomparedto an unshielded
horizontal surface
F : the mean basin forest-canopy cover (decimal
fraction)
Ti = the difference between the cloud-base and
snow-surf,aceternperatures(oF)
N : the estimatedcloud cover (decimalfraction)
Note that the use of equationsof the type given must be related to the areal
extent of the snowcoverif realistic values are to be obtained. Presentmethods of
determiningthis are not totally adequate.
EXAMPLE 14.4
Use Eq. 14.53to estimatethe snowmeltat an elevationof 3000 ft in a

partly forested arcaif the rainfall intensity is 0.3 in./day, the wind
velocity is 20 mph, and the temperatureof the saturatedair is 42'F.
b. Rework your solution for a denseforest cover and a saturatedair
temperatureof 53"F.
Solution
+ A.007P)(7,- 32) + 0.09

A , M : (0.029+ 0.0084ftr-r
M _ (0.029+ 0.0084x 0.5 x 20 + 0.007x 0.3)(42- 32) + 0.09
I'tl - I.24 in.lday
b . M = (0<074+ 0.007P)(7"- 32) + 0.05
M * (0.074+ 0.007x 0.3x53- 32) + 0.05
M _ 1.65in./day r:
The Water Budget

The waterbudgetcanbe usedto estimatethe snowmeltrunoff from a watershed.2 Such
an approachhasparticularmerit for areaswherehydrometeorologicrecordsare short.
Difflculty with the methodis the usuallack of satisfactorydatato quantify the various
294 CHAPTER14 SNOW HYDROI-OGY
componentsproperly. A hydrologicbudgetequationfor the earth's surface(Eq. 1.1)

can be written
R : P - Z - A S (14.se)
where P : the grossPreciPitation
R: the runoff
L : the losses
AS : the changein storage
For snowmeltcomputationsthis equationis modified somewhat'
Grossprecipiiation for a given period P is now definedasthe sum of precipita-
tions in the form of snow P" and rain P,, ot
P:P,1-P" (14.60)
This may also be written as

P:P,*P":P^+Li (14.61)
where P,: net precipitation

L; : intercePtionloss
A further refinementyields
P: P-+ L,i+ P"nt L,; (r4'.62)
where P,n,P",: net rainfall and snowfall, respectively
L,i, L"i: the rain and snowinterception,respectively
Figure 14.10indicatesthe nature of snow interceptionby forestedareas'Additional

information on interceptioncan be found in Chapter 3'
The total lossI is
L : L,i + L,i + L" * Q"- $4.63)
where L" : the evapotranspirationloss

Q,^: the changein availablesoil moisture
The storageterm AS is then given as
AS : (l7z - Wr) t Q, 04.64)
whereWr,Wr:thefinalandinitialwaterequivalentsofthesnowpack'
resPectivelY
Qr : the ground and channelstorage
Inserting uilo"r for p, L, and AS from Eqs. 14.62-14.64 in Eq. 14.59 gives
- L" - Q"^ - (W, - Wt) - Q,
R : P,n + L,i + P", + L"i - L"i - L,i
(14.65)
and cancelingpositive and negativevaluesof L,i and lr; produces I
- Q, - L"
R = P,n+ P", - (W, - Wt) - Q,- (14.66)
1
)
4-')
Curv e A
.MC / -<
1\MC
o (2)
6 J U ,SP&
(4)
o
625
PPR 6,
F PPM RF
B ^ ^
o z v
o tr
,%?r
o ,/, -Curv B (1)
FQ 1<
c /rt WFM
tr
RF
ro l 0 :l
WFM
a
h 5
./
-10
0 l0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Canopydensity(%)
Figure 14.10 Snowfall interception loss. (After U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.2)
The expressionP", - (W, - Wr1representsthe snowmeltM; thercforc,

R:P,,+M-Q"^-Qr-L" (14.67)
If reliable estimatesof the terms in Eq. 14.67 canbe secured,the basin dischargeR
is computable.
Elevation-BandProcedure
Runoff from snowmelton a watershedcan be estimatedfrom calculationsof excess
watermadeavailtble on a seriesof contributingareas(bands)at variouselevationsin
the watershed.The practiceis as follows: divide the watershedinto severalsubareas
or bands;estimatethe quantity of snowmelt,rainfall, and lossesgeneratedon each
band during a prescribedinterval of time; and usethe weightedsum of thesecontri-
butionsto provide an estimateof the excesswateravailablefor runoff. For eachband,
it is assumedthat snowmelt, rainfall, and lossesare uniform over the band. The
subareasare consideredto be either snow-coveredor snow-freeand melting or not
melting. For eachband, snowmeltis computedusing equationsof the type preSented

earlier,rainfall is estimatedbasedon expectationsor historic information, and losses
are estimatedas describedin Chapterb3 through 5. Ohce theseestimateshavebeen
made for each band, the following equation servesto provide a weighted value of
excesswater availablefor runoff from the basin.
) tte + Mt - Lt)jAt
M _ (14.68)
)a,
whereM : snowmelt water availablefor runoff (cmlday), Pr is the rainfall on the
'band,
M, is the snowmeltfrom the band, I, is the subarealoss,A, is the size of the
subarea,and n is the total number of bands.
EXAMPLE 14.5
Given the data in columns 1-5 of Table I4.2, estimatethe amount of excesswater
availablefor runoff from the watershedusingthe elevation-bandmethod(Eq. 14.68).
14,5
TABLE14.2 DATAFOREXAMPLE
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Elevation Subarea Snowmelt Rainfall Losses ( 3 )+ ( 4 ) + ( 5 ) (6) x (2)

band slze
no. sq km cmid cm/d cm/d
I
230 0.02 0.90 0.40 1,.32 303.60
z ))a 0.40 1 .l 0 0.50 2.00 448.00
J 289 0.60 1.80 0.70 3.10 895.90
A
213 0.70 1.90 0.60 3.20 681.60
5 193 0.3s 2.20 0.30 2.85 5s0.05
6 167 0.00 "2.40 0.10 2.50 411.50
Totals 1316 3296.65
Solution. The solution for the numeratoris the sum bf the productsgiven in
column 7 of spreadsheet Table 14.2;the solutionfor the denominatoris the sum
of the subareassiven in column 2 of the table.
The excess-water availabiefor runoff : 3269.6511316: 2.5I cmlday'
II
HydrographRecessions
Recessioncurveshavebeen discussedin Chapter 11 and take the generalform
Q: Qoe-o' (r4.6e)
'
where Q : the dischargeat time t
Qo : the initial rate of flow
, : - k:__afecessionconstant
o
u

Time
of a snowmelthydrograph'
Figure 14.11 Separation
runoff
Studiesof daily streamflowby hydrographspermit evaluationof the amountof
one of separation of the
derived from snowmelt.The t""hniqutnred is essentially
illustrates the proce-
daily hydrographs.Figure 14.11(not to scaleandoversimplified)
dure. Assumeihat the first, second,and succeedingpeaks,respectively,fit snowmdlt
point A the
days.If the ultimate recessioncurve is extendedbackwardin time, at a
area between recessions from
recessioncurveft'om Hydrograph2 will intersectit. The
is the melt attributed to Day
Hydrograph1 and HydiogtipiZ (showncross-hatched)
be studied to determine their
1. In like -unn"r, a seriesofsnowmelt hydrographscan
to
individual melt components.By observingsuchhydrographfeaturesas th height
peak X, the height io trough i, andthe form of the recession, volumetric and rate
of this
forecastsof snowmeltrunoff can be made.A more comprehensivetreatment
subjectcan be found in Ref. 25.
HydrographSYnthesis
The
synthesesofrunoffhydrographsassociatedwith snowhydrologyareoftwo-types'
first is a short-termforecist. The second kind is the development of flow distribution
for a comPletemelt seasonor a '
forecastingis very helpful in prel
controls,while the synthesisof part
lating designfloods. To forecasta
snowfieldand streamflowneedbe k
parameters
ing, it is necessaryto havethe reliablepredictionof variousmeteorological
initial conditions.Known historic parameters canbe
in additionto a knowledgeof the
flows whereas assumed or generated parameters sat-
usedfor reconstructinghistoric
isfy designflood syntlieses. Figure 14.12 displays some common hydrometeorologic
data.
In snowmelthydrographsyntheses,severalfactors(not of great conceln where
snow-
only rainfall exists)mustbe "utlfully considered.First, a drainagebasin with
as a homogeneous system, since the areal extent of the
cover cannot be accepted
6
5 ^
! 9 >
> v
B 5
(h
Short-waveradiationngtesj.^,-- .- AbsorbedShort-wavefadiation
i hsolation obsened by USWB. of Boise Cily' lD U
2. Basin albedo of snow surface ^ - - = ,
| o
L Absorbed shon-wa\e ralialion compukd b) lomula 1ab. ll(
9.1 '
H 9
a t 6
o
-8
Air Temperature Notes: 90 t--

1. Veni;al bus show daily range of surface air
temperature (max and min) at Idaho City' ID 80
2. aonnected points indicate daily (0700 hr)
700 mb temperature at Boise CitY, ID 70
60
s
50 o
40 B
30 a
0.5 120
lrn
u 4 0.4
9 b 0.3
gB
q d 0.2
g >
7 E
0 1 0 2 0 31 10 20
MaY1955 June1955
Figurel4.l2Hydrometeorologicdataandcomputationofwatergenerated.
(AfterU.S.Army Corpsof Engineers.')
the contribut-
blanket is highly important. where only snowmeltflows are developed,
If rainfall
ing areaneel not U"itr" entiredrainage-only that portion with-snowcover'
from bare areas while
o"-"o., during the snowcoverperiod, contributionscan come
losses in such cases may
other expansesmay producecombinedrunoff' The natureof
differ greatly for nonsnowoverlayedand coveredlocations'
sub-
The altitude is an exceedinglypertinent factor in the hydrology of tracts
jected to snowfall.Ratesof .no*tnitid"crease with elevation due to a general reduc-
tion in temperaturewith height. orographic effects and the temperature-elevation
snowcover
relations tend to raise the amount of precipitation with altitude' Greater
melt rates' As a result'
depth occursbecauseof increasedprecipitation and reduced
as the snowline is ap-
the basin-wide melt and cover-area increase with height
proached,then diminish with elevationover the higher placesnormally completely
snowcovereduntil late in the season.A snowpackexhibitsanotherimportant trait in
relation to rainstorms.In the spring, relatively little runoff occurs from snow-free
regionscomparedwith that from a snowfieldfor moderaterainfalls. During very cold
weather,the situationduring heavyrains is often reversed,sincea dry snowpackcan
retain significantamountsof water.
Two basic approachesintroduce elevation effects into procedures for hy-
drographsynthesis.2 The first dividesthe basin into a seriesof elevationzoneswheie
the snowdepth,precipitationlosses,and melt are assumeduniform. A secondmethod
considersthe watershedas a unit, so adjustmentsare made to accountfor the areal
extentof the snowcover,varying melt rates,precipitation, and other factors.
To synthesizea snowmelthydrograph,information on the precipitation losses,
snowmelt, and time distribution of the runoff are needed.Snowmelt is generally
estimatedby index methodsfor forecasting,but in design flood synthesisthe heat
budget approach,is the most used. Precipitation is determinedfrom gaugingsand
historicor generateddata.Lossesare definid in two wayswheresnowmeltis involved.
For rain-on-snowhydrographsall the water is considereda lossif delayedvery long
in reaching a stream. This is basically the concept of direct runoff employed in
rainstormhydrographanalysis.For hydrographsderivedprincipally from snowmelt,
only that part of the waterwhich becomesevapotranspiration,or deeppercolation,or
permanentlyretained in the snowpackis consideredto be lost. Assessingthe time
distribution of runoff from snow-coveredareasis commonly done with unit hydro-
graphsor storagerouting techniques.For rain-on-snow events,normal rainfall-type
unit hydrographsare applied;for the distribution of strictly snowmeltexcess,special
long-tailedunit graphsare employed.Storagerouting techniquesare widely exeicised
to synthesizespring snowmelthydrographs,perhapsdividing them into severalcom-
ponentsand different representativestoragetimes.
The time distribution of snowmehrunoff differs from that of rainstormsdue
mainly to large contrastsin the ratesof runoff generation.For flood flows associated
with rainfall only, direct runoff is the prime concern,and time distribution of base
flow is only approximated.Big errorsin estimatesof baseflow arenot generallyof any
practical significance where major rainstorm floods occur. In rainstorm flows,
infiltrated water is treated as part of the base flow component and little effort is
directedtoward determiningits time distribution when it appearsas runoff. In using
the unirhydrograph approachto estimatesnowmelthydrographs,it is customaryto
separatethe surfaceand subsurfacecomponentsand route them independently.
Storagerouting has beenusedextensivelyfor routing floodsthrough reservoirs
or river reaches.It is also applicablein preparingrunoff hydrographs.In snowmelt
runoff estimates,the rainfall and meltwaterare treatedasinputs to be routedthrough
the basin, using storagetimes selectedfrom the hydrologic characteristicsof the
watershed.Two basichydrologicrouting approachesare relatedto the assumptionof
( 1) reservoir-typestorageor (2) storagethat is a function of inflow and outflow.These
methodswere treatedin depthin Chapter13.
Storagerouting techniquesthat separaterunoff into surfaceand groundwater
components,assigndifferent empirically derivedstoragetimesto each,and thenroute
them separatelyhavebeen employed.26 An additional systemusesa multiple storage,
120
,: Rn
o 6 U
il
Three 6-hr stages
One 18-hr stage
Time (hr)
storagerouting'
Figure 14.13 Example of multiple-stagereservoir-type
reservoir-type storagerout-
iti. ngur" illustratesih" ut" of multiple-storage
runoff in u ttrunn". analogousto unit
ing for"evaluatingtime distribution of
tiOrog.uptr. (Af1erU.S. Army Corps of Engineers'2)
is routed throrrgh two or

reservoir-type storagescheduling.2In this method inflow
suchan approach'Any
more stagesof storageru"""rtiu!fy. Figure 14.13 illustrates
the storagetime and.the
desiredtravel time can be obtainedby properly selecting
varied to reflectvarious
tf st4ges'Retentiontimes betweenstepsmay alsobe
the. use of single-stage
drologic characteristics.clark has suggestedthat
to be^^simplified.27
rfter translatirrgirp", in time permits Jo=mputations
runoff hydrographshas
e most practicJd method for synthesizingsnowmelt
,,nir hrrrrrnoranhThe characterof snowmeltunit graphs differs primarily in
plots' As disclssed in chapter 12'
time base length fiom that of rainstorm unit events' In
single isolated storm
rainstorm unit hydrograph, ort"n are derived from
snowmeltrunoff,ratesofwaterexcessaresmallandapproximate$continuous'Asa
result, the use of S-hydrographsis indicated'2
since it allows (1) adiust-
The S-hydrogrupfrri"titoA has considerableutility,
generationrates,(2) adjusting
ments to the derivedoni, hydrographfor nonuniform
of the areaunder
il;;;t; iirn" p"rtoo to; d;ired interval, (3) ready adjustments
veragingseveralhydrographsto get a unit
;?ilt1,"1*T,::t1il1""t"1':*"ff
rydiographmethodin adjustingfor nonuni-
form generationrates of water excess'
Onceap"r""nrug"S-hyatogtupftisderived'aunithydrographofanydesired are
of the S-hydrograph
periodcanbe obtaineias indlcatedm nig. 14.15.ordinates
312 15 URBAN
CHAPTER HYDROLOGY
ANDSMALLWATERSHED
Both categoriesof peakflow determinationhavehad wide application;however,
two relatively major difficulties are normally encounteredin applyingthe techniques.
First, the rainfall-runoff formulas,suchas the rational formula, aie difficult to apply
unless the return periods for rainfall and runoff are assumedto be equal. Also,
estimatesof coefficientsrequiredby theseformulas are subjectiveand havereceived
considerablecriticism. The empiric and correlativemethodsare limited in application
becausethey are derivedfrom localizeddata and are not valid when extrapolatedto
otherregions.
The most fundamentalpeak flow formulas and empiric-correlativQmethods,
ilue to their simplicity,persistin dominatingthe urban designscene,and severalof the
most popular forms are briefly describedto acquaintthe reader with methodsand
assu-ption*. Urban runoff simulationtechniquesare describedin Chapter25.
RationalFormula
The rational formula for estimatingpeak runoff rates was introducedin the United
Statesby Emil Kuichlingin 1889.18 Sincethen it has becomethe most widely used
method for designingdrainagefacilities for small urban and rural watersheds.Peak
flow is found from
QO: CIA (1s.1)
where Qo: the peak runoff rate (cfs)
C _ the runoff coefficient(assumedto be dimensionless)
I _ theaveragerainfall intensity(in./hr), for a stormwith a durationequal
to a critical period of time /"
t" : the time of concentration(seeChapter Ii)
A : the size of the drainagearea (acres)
cI : the averagenet rain intensity (in./hr) for a storm with duratiofl: t,
The runoff coefficientcan be assumedto be dimensionlessbecause1.0 acre-in./hr is
equivalentto 1.008 ft3lsec.Typical C valuesfor stormsof 5-10-year return periods
are providedin Table 15.1.
The rationale for the method lies in the conceptthat application of a steady,
uniform rainfall intensity will causerunoff to reachits maximum rate when all parts
of the watershedare contributingto the outflow at the point of design.That condition
is met after the elapsedtime t", the time of concentration,which usually is taken as
the time for a waveto flow from the most remotepart of the watershed.At this time,
the runoff rate matchesthe net rain rate.
Figure 15.1 graphically illustrates the relation. The IDF curve is the rainfall
intensity-duration-frequencyrelation for the areaandthe peakintensityofthe runoff
is Q/A: 4, which is proportional to the value of 1 defined at t". The constantof
profottionatity is thus the runoff coefficient,C : (QIA)lL Note that QIA is a point
value and that the relation, as it stands,yields nothing of the nature of the rest of the
hydrograph.
The definition chosenfor /" can adverselyaffect a designusing the rational
formula. If the averagechannelvelocity is usedto estimatethe travel time from the
most remote part of the watershed(a common assumption),the resulting design
FORURBANWATERSHEDS 313
15.2 PEAKFLOWFOHMULAS
TABLE15,1 ryPICALC COEFFICIENTS
FOR5-
TO 1O-YEARFREQUENCYDESIGN
Descriptionof area Flunoffcoefficients
Business
Downtown areas 0.70-0.95
'
Neighborhoodareas 0.50-0.70
Residential
Single-family areas 0.30-0.50
Multiunits, detached 0.40-0.60
Multiunits, attached 0.60-0.75
Residential(suburban) 0.25-0.40
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50-0.70
Industrial
Light areas 0.50-0.80
Heavy areas 0.60-0.90
Parks,cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Playgrounds 0.20-0.35
Railroad yard areas 0.20-0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10-0.30
Streets
Asphaltic 0.70-0.95
Concrete 0.80-0.95
Brick 0.70-0.85
Drives and walks 0.75-0.85
Roofs 0.75-0.9s
Lawns; sandy soil:
Flat,2Vo 0.05-0.10
Avenge,2-7Vo 0.10-0.15
Steep,TVo 0.15-0.20
Lawns; heavy soil:
Flat,2Vo 0.13-0.17
Average,2-7Vo o.r8-0.22
Steep,TVo 0.25-0.35
Q H
o
Figure L5.1 Rainfall-runoff relation for
Time (min) the rational method.
314 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
dischargecould be less than that which might actually occur during the life of the
project. The reason is that wave travel time through the watershedis faster than
averagedischargevelocity (seeSection 13.1).As a result of using the slowervelocity
I{ the peak time (/.) is overestimated,the resultingintensityl from IDF curvesis too
small, and the rational flow rate p is underestimated.
Rational Method Applications Most applications of the rationalformulain deter-

mining peak flow rates utilize the following steps:,
1. Estimatethe time of concentrationof the drainagearea.

2. Estimatethe runoff coefficient,Table 15.1.
3. Selecta return period T, and find the intensity of rain that will be equaled
or exceeded,on the average,once every I years.To produceequilibrium
flows, this design storm must have a locally derived IDF curve such as
Fig. 27.I3 or Fig. 15.2usinga rainfall durationequalto thetime of concen-
tration.
. 4. Determinethe desiredpeak flow Q,from Eq. 15.1.
5. Somedesignsituationsproducelargerpeak flowsif designstormintensities
for durationslessthan /" are used.Substitutingintensitiesfor durationsless
than t" is justified only if the contributingarea term in Eq. 15.1 is also
reducedto accommodatethe shortenedstorm duration.
One of the principal assumptionsof the rational method is that the predicted
peak dischargehas the same'returnperiod as the rainfall IDF relation used in the
IDF curves for storms in vicinitv of example site
a 4
E "
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 r20 130

Time (min)
Figure 15.2 Intensity-duration-frequency curvesusedin Example 15.1.

15.2 PEAKFLOWFORMULASFORURBANWATERSHEDS 315
prediction.Another assumption,and onethat hasreceivedclosescrutinyby investiga-

is the constancyof the runoff coefficient during the progressof individual
tors,re'2o
stormsand also from storm to storm. The"coefficientis usually selectedfrom a list
basedon the degreeof imperviousnessand infiltration capacityof the drainagesur-
face. BecauseC : I,.rf I,the coefficientmust vary if it is to accountfor antecedent
moisture,nonuniform rainfall, and the numerousconditions that causeabstractions
and attenuationof flood-producingrainfalls. In practice,a composite,weightedaver-
agerunoff coefficientis computedfor the various surfaceconditions.Times of con-
centration are determinedfrom the hydraulic characteristicsof the principal flow
path, which typically is divided into two parts, overland flow and flow in defined
channels;the times of flow in eachsegmentare addedto obtain /".
Another assumptionwith the rational method is that the equation is most
applicableto antecedentmoisture conditions that exist for frequent storms,in the
rangeof the 2- to 10-yrrecurrenceinterval,representativeof stormstraditionally used
for design of residential storm drain systems.Becausemore severe,less frequent
stormsoften have wetter antecedentmoisture conditions,the rational coefficient is
increasedby multiplying it by a frequencyfactor.The commonly usedmultipliers for
lessfrequent stormsare:
Returnperiod(yrs) Multiplier
2-to 1.0
25 1.1
)U t.2
100 1.25
EXAMPLE 15.I
Usethe rational.methodto find the 10-yearand 5O-yeardesignrunoff ratesfor the area
shownin Fig. 15.3.The IDF rainfall curvesshownin Fig. 15.2arc applicable.
Solution
1. Time of concentration:
t,:tt*tz:15+5:20min
At = 3 acres
cr = o'3
tr = 15min
Az= 4acres
Cz = o'7
tz = 5min
Figure 15.3 Hypotheticaldrainagesystem

for Example15.1.
316 HYDROLOGY
CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHED
2. Runoff coefflcient:
c : [(3 x 0.3) + (4 x 0.7)]lQ + 4) :0.53 for 10-yrevent
C : 1.2(0.53): 0.64 for 50-yr event
3. Rainfall intensity-from Fig. 15.2:
Irc : 4'2 in'/ht
1so: 5'3 in'/hr
4. Designpeak runoff:
Q r c : C I A : 0 ' 5 3x 4 ' 2 x 7 16 cfs
Q s o : C I A : 0 ' 6 4x 5 ' 3 x 7 24 cfs rl
Rational Method Discussion The runoff coefficientin the rational formula is

dependenton the soil type, antecedentmoisturecondition, recurrenceinterval, land
use, slope, amount of urban development,rainfall intensity, surface and channel
roughness,and durationof storm.Tablesand graphsgenerallyallow determinationof
C from only two or three of thesefactors.Nomographsand regressionequationscan
providerelationsamongmore factors.One suchrelation, applicableonly in the region
for which it was derived,is2r
e1-s02(0.001CN148)0ts-o't{(P+ I)/zfo j
C : j .Z(t1-i)CN3To05[(0.01CN)o
n5.2)
where CN : SCScurvenumber(Chapter4)
T : recurrenceinterval ( years)
s: averageland slope (7o)
I : rain intensity(in./hr)
P : percentimperviousness
The rational formula is a simplemodelto expressa complexhydrologicsystem.Yet the
methodcontinuesto be usedin practicewith resultsimplying acceptanceby design-
ers, officials, and the public. The methodis easyto apply and givesconsistentresults.
From the standpointof planning,for example,the methoddemonstratesin clearterms
the effectsof development:runoff from developedsurfacesincreasesbecausetimes of
concentrationdecreaseand runoff coefficientsincrease.
For storm drainagesystems,the designeris normally askedto estimatethe peak
flow rate that might be equalledor exceededat leastonce in a given numberof years
(describedas the frequency- see Section 10.4). For designsusing the rational
formula, the frequencyof the peak runoff eventis assumedequal to the frequencyof
the rain event(an eventbeing deflnedas somerain depthin a given duration).Studies
haveexploredthis assumption.z2 Figure 15.4 showscumulativelog-normal probabil-
ity functions (Chapter 26) fitted to observationsof rainfall and runoff on a 47-acre
area in Baltimore, Maryland, with an averageSurfaceimperviousnessof 0.44. The
data are partial seriesfitted independentlyto the observedrainfall sequenceand the
observedrunoff sequence.Thus the largestrunoff doesnot necessarilycorrespondto
the largestranked rainfall, and a similar lack of correspondencebetweenany runoff
FORURBANWATERSHEDS 317
15,2 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS
Percentage of sample values equal to or greater than indicated value
99. 5 9 9 9 8 95 90 80 7060504030 20 10 5 2 10.s
Rainfall frequency curve

o (rr = 7.5 min)
./
l"
!2 o
't'2'
k tt " i/
..t
o-'
y"
o oo
2
o
- a
a
a
1 o
0.9
q
0.8
0.7 \
0.6 Peak runoff ftequency curve
0.5
cd
0.4
0.3
5 1020
Recurrenceinterval (Years)
Figure 15.4 Distributions of recorded rainfall and runoff' (After

Schaake.22)
and the rainfall that producedit holds for the ranked position of the observationsin
the arraysof the two i"putut" sequences. In Fig. 15.4, the 5-yearrainfall frequencyof
6.5in./hr corresponds io a runofffrequencyof4'0 cfs/acre;theratio indicatesa runoff
coefficientof approximately0.6. Although the two sequencesare eachcloselylog-
normal, they tend to converge,which suggeststhat the runoff coefficient increases
slightly with more intense,iess frequent storms.In the designrange,however,the
t"*ttr tend to support the assumptionof the rational method that the recurrence
interval of the runoff equalsthe reiurrence interval of the rainfall. It shouldbe noted
that the rainfall distributionsin Figs. 15.1and 15.4havesimilarproperties.All IDF
curvesare drawnthrough the averagerainfall intensitiesderivedfrom many different
stormsof record; any single IDF curve dses not representthe progressof a single
storm.For lack of historicalrunoff data, the designerturns to the rational methodto
construct from the rainfall history what amounts to a runoff intensity-duration-
frequency
- relation.
The most critical (highestpeak) runoff eventis often assumedto be causedby
a storm havinga duration -qual to the time of concentrationof the watershed'If the
rainfall IDF curve is steepin the designrange,severaldurationsshouldbe testedfor
the given frequency to assurethat no other storm of equal probability producesa
higlier peak runoff iate. Most applicationsof the rational method do not includethis
testbecausethe assumptionthai ihe peak occursat /" is commensuratewith the other
inherent assumptions.
31 8 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
The rational method is used in the designof urban storm drainagesystems

servingareasup to six hundredacresin size.For areaslarger than I mir, liydrograph
or other techniquesare generally warranted.Considerabl"
3udg-"nt is riquir-eAin
selectingboth the runoff coefficientsand times of concentratloi. a common proce-
dure is to selectcoefficientsand assumethat they remain constantthroughout the
storm.As the designproceedsfrom point to point downstream,a compositeweighted
C factoris computedfor the drainageareaaboveeachpoint. The time of concentration
is composedof an inlet time (the overlandand any channelflow timesto the first inlet)
plus the accumulatedtime of flow in the systemto the point of design.
Figure 15.5 is an exampleof a designaid for prJdicting overland flow times.
calculation of flow time in stormdrainscan readily be estimatid knowing the type
of
pipe, slope,size,and discharge.23 Generally,the pipe is assumedto flow full foi this
calculation.(see Fig. 15.6.) Nomographsalso are availableto solvethe Manning
equationfor flow in ditchesand gutters.The estimationof inlet time is frequentl|
basedsolelyon judgment; reportedvaluesvary from 5 to 30 min. Denselyaevitopei
areaswith impervioustractsimmediatelyadjacentto the inlet might be assignedinlet
periods of 5 min, but a minimum value of 10-20 min is more uiual.
d
o
10n
"-"
4U F-
o
Figure 15.5 Surfaceflow time curves.(After FederalAviation Agency.23)

15.2 PEAKFLOWFORMUI.AS
FORURBANWATERSHEDS 3.I9
1,500 2,400 0.004 0.4

2,000 0.3
0.005
1,000 1,500
0.006 o.2
800 0.007
600 1,000 0.7
500 800 0.1
0.8 0.08
400 600
s00 0.9 0.06
300 0.05
400 1.0 0.04
200 300 0.03
200 0.02
100
80 0.01
100 0.008
60
50 80 0.10 0.006
0.08 0.005
40 60 0.06 0.004
30 50 0.05 0.003
6 0.04 0.
40 0.03
cd 0.1 0.002
bo I ,
o,o2 V)
0.015 3 g tl
)n o 0.001
r, s-o.oto o 0.0008
q
10 -- 0.008 h
po
8 0.006 0.0006
10 + a 0.0005
6 a
0.0004
5 8 oo 0.0003
i
6 2 c 5
5 0.0002
3
A boo
a 3 0.000r
: 8 0.00008
2 o 0.00006
1.0 0.00005
0.00004
0.8 0.00003
0.6 1.0
0.5 0.8 0.00002
o
0.4 0.6
h
0.3 0.5 0.00001
0.4 o 0.000008
0.2 0.3 0.000006
0.000005
0.000004
0 . 1 3 0.2
Figure 15.6 Flow in pipes (Manning's formula); (After Ref. 24.)
Most designersapplyingthis methoddo not usethe time of concentrationin its

strictestsense;rather, the largestsum of inlet time plus travel time in the storm drain
systemis taken as the time of concentration.Caution is required in app$ing the
method' Peak dischargeis not the summationof the individual dischapges, b"Jarr*
peaks from subareasoccur at different times. The runoff from subareasshould be
recheckedfor eacharea under consideration.The averageintensity / is that for the
time of concentration of the total area drained. While I decreaiesas the design
ploceeds downstream,the size of the contributing area increasesand normally
e
increasescontinuously.It shouldbe noted that the designat eachpoint downstream

is a new solutionof the rational method.The only direct relation from point to point
derivesfrom the meansfor determiningan incrementof time to be addedfor a new
time of concentration.The effect is to provide an equal level of protection (i.e., an
equal frequencyof surcharging)at all points in the system.Example 15.2 is repro-
duced from standarddesignreferencesto illustrate the application of the rational
method to an urban sYstem.2a
EXAMPLE 15.2
Basedon the storm sewerarrangementof Fig. 15.7a,determinethe outfall discharge.
Assume that C : 0.3 for residentialareasand C = 0.6 for businesstracts. Use a
5-yearfrequencyrainfall from Fig. 15.7b andassumea minimum 20-min inlet time.
Solution. The principal factors in the designare listed in Table 15.2' Addi-
tional columns can be provided to list elevationsof manhole inverts, sewer
inverts, and ground elevations.This information is helpful in checkingdesigns
and for subsequent use in drawingfinal designplans.(see Table 15.3.) lI
'orational"in that thepeak
Modified Rational Method Therationalmethodis truly
flow rate is simply set equal to the net rain rate after sufflcient time occurs for the
entire watershedto contributerunoff. This resultsfor any storm equallingor exceed-
design,requiring volume of runoff as well as peak flow rates.
OF COLUMNHEADINGSIN TABLE15.3
TABLE 15.2 DEFINITION
Column Comment
1 Line being investigated

Inlet or manholebeing investigated
4 Length of the line
5 Subareaof the inlet
6 Accumulatedsubareas
7 Value of the concentrationtime for the area draining into the inlet
8 Travel time in the pipe line
9 WeightedC for the areabeing drained
10 Rainfall intensitybasedon time of concentrationand a 5-yearfrequencyculve
t1 Uqitrunoff q: CI
T2 Accumulatedrunoff that must be carried by line
t3 Slopeof line
14 Size of pipe
15 Pipe capacity
t6 Velocity in full pipe
t7 Actual velocity in pipe
15.2 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR URBANWATERSHEDS
o)
I
u\-q
j e
_ 90-
lt
t l
Legend
Sewerlinewith manholenumbers
MH1-1 r Storminlets
,\e Gutterflowline
/ contourline
-- - - areaoutline
Drainage
a 5
N 2:i-yr averagefrequencY
l l l l
10-yr averagefrequencY
v 4
\ \ r r ! l
{ Ij-'ff:::i::::?
\
K:---t.-
o J
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Duration(min)
Figure 15.7 Sample storm drainage problem: (a) typical storm

seier design plan anO (U) intensity-duration-frequency rainfall
curves for Davenport, Iowa. (After Ref' 24.)
6 r o r n h n
pue lMo'l !y +.i6 6ioi oioi dt
6 A 6 @ @
= E
o ; 1 q o 9 . l n \ \ ! v ?
puoroddnE
6
+ i
O 6
9
6
N
O
6

N
6
O
@ @
E ? - : < : < x = x , x :
o V ( ] Y Y Y Y - ] : :
puo JeMo'l di d + F t c l o O O
C O @ @
o
=
o puoreddnS
E X EE < i i i o r
E q * o
6 6 h
6 O i @ @ @
(g)]erresut tPl I ? E qE q E q E f r
6 o i < l N : o o o
(g)dorppenul"toqu"N $ . n n . q q R -
(4) sassolqoqu"yl $
(u)^6reuaplol I
= 6 = = s : F - R 3
( u0lrop;o qrdeOI
c
a
o (U)peeq,qcotenI
\ O @ O \ r 6 r A \ O
(sdD',{lPoPnS +r;ri rid d+ ris;
o - 6 * n * : N r
',qcoPn
11n1 $ $ n $ n n
o c J c . ln n qcl qq
'r$cedeg d ; 6 h =
11n1 ! S - B H
T N ! f , N + N N N
( uDrelauelc I * - N i N O i S s
E
h h h o O O O ' + O
r + o o 6 N 6
J
(%)remesto adols U d o o - i o o d o o
z
sN n E sq q Eq 3
kt (sle)llounl lElol 3
N
+q g - s 3
ul i o - a i i -
T
F ' (arceTsp) - q n ' 1 q . ' l - r a
t
#orng $
u- \ 9 n \ 9 q \ c j c ' l
a (rq/'uI)ttBluleuI 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
z
lualcllloocgounra6ere,rY@
3 3 $ 3 3 A 3 A+ A+
F
-
: : : : : . i J
o n q c ' i ' 1 - ' 1 n - "

E ^
uolpesu1 @
} E C Sq - : 09
pualeddnoI F O + N O + 6 O i . ;
d N C ] N N N N N N
t!
3
uJ
+ h O h O N
*
o
6
9 c . . t. . 1 ' l q qrl
E
o
teloJ. 0 N Q N *
i N
d N T
6
6 + - n O N N \o$
o qqo9 nn qv-) oqn
6 luer.uetcul@ N O O n \ o o c l
J
O h d
: Y : X X X X
(D q$uer I + + < J ' * t s s
N
a
o
E h { o * o N N
f oro i
r
i *
t
o
t l l l l
d
e
lf,' o 0)
lrl
g
E
urorl O Y T i 1 J T l I T
: i : o o 3 N i *
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o
F
eun e * * * o o * N : i W)
15,2 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS FORURBAN WATERSHEDS323
In the modified rational method.,a full hydrographis developqdrather than

simply estimating the peak flow rate, using the following reasoning.If the storm
duration exceedslhetime of concentration,the runoff rate would dse to the rational
formula peakvalue,then stayconstantuntil net rain ceases.At that point, runoffrates
would decreaseto zero as excessrain is releasedfrom the basin.Ifthe rainfall-excess
releasetime (seeChapter 11) is equal to the time of concentration,the hydrograph
: t",femaining flat
, would havean approximatetrapezoldshaperising to the peak al t
until/: therainduration,D,andthenfallingalongastraightlineuntilt: D I t".
Many software packages for urban hydrology incorporate the modified rational
method for hydrographanalysis.the method is approximateand shouldnot be ap-
plied to watershedsover 50 acresin size.
SCSTR-55Method
The U.S. Soil ConservationServicedevelopedproceduresfor estimatingrunoff vol-
ume and peak ratei of dischargefrom urban areas.zs They are known collectively as
TR-55und indiuidually as thegraphical method,chart method, andtabular method.
The threemethodsadjustrural proceduresin NEH-426to urbanconditionsby increas-
ing the curve number CN foi impervious areas and reducing the lag time /1 for
imlperviousness and channel improvements.Allowances are also made for various
watershedshapes,slopes,and times of concentration.The SCS designedthe first two
methodsto be usedfor estimatingpeak flows,and the third for synthesizingcomplete
hydrographs.The tabular method and chart method (usedfor small watershedsup to
2000 acres)wererevisedin 1986,21but aredescribedhereto help explainthe evolution
of the methods.All three were developedfor use with 24-hr storms'Use with other
storm durationsis not advised.
The graphicalmethodwasdevelopedfor homogeneous watersheds,up to 20 mr2
in size, on which the land use and soil type may be represented by the runoff curve
number. As shownin Chapter4, the runoff curve number is simply a third variable
in a graph of rainfall versusrunoff.
Tie SCS peak dischargegraph shown in Fig. 15,8 is limited to applications
(see
where only the peak flow rate ii Oisired for 24 hr, Type-II storm distributions
Chapter f 6l. A Type-II storm distributionis typical of the 24-hr thunderstorm expe-
rienced in all staiei exceptthe Pacific Coaststates.Figure 15.8 was developedfrom
numerousapplicationsofine SCSTR-20 eventsimulationmodeldescribedin Chapter
24. To apply Fig. 15.8, the watershedtime of concentrationin hours is enteredinto
net
ttre grapir'to prJdu." the peak dischargerate in cfs/mi2of watershedper inch of
from the 24-hr gross
rain during tk Z+-nr period. The 24-hr net rain is estimated
amountusingthe scS curve number approachdescribedin chapter 4.
the effectof urbanizationcanbe estimatedusingFig. 15.9.Oncethe composite
curvenumber(CN) hasbeenestimatedfor the previousarea,a modifiedcurvenumber
is determinedby enteringFig. 15.9 with the value of the percentimperviousareaon
the modified watershed,r"ading vertically to the curve correspondingto the CN for
the pervious watershed,and then reading horizontally to determinethe modified
compositerunoff curve numberthat would be usedin determiningthe net rain depth
for the urbanizedwatershed'
Useof the 1975graphicalmethodis restrictedby the assumptionsof the tabular
This
method.The methodii a -ompositeof resultsfor one caseof the tabularmethod.
324 CHAPTER15 URBANNNO SUNU-WATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
'e 70n
Ei 500
qF
400
E 300
o
P,O
R
200
E
o
100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
Time of concentration(hr)
Figure 15.8 Peakdischarge (cfs/mi2lin.)
of runoff versustime of con-
centration (AfterU.S.SoilConser-
/. for 24-hr,Type-IIstormdistribution.
vationService.25)
restricts its applicationsto runoff volumes greaterthan about 1.5 in. (if the curve
numberis lessthan 60). Time of concentrationshouldrangebetween0.1 and 2.0hr,
and the initial abstractionshould not exceedabout 25 percent of the precipitation.
The chart method allows determinationof peak flows for 24-hr Type-II storms
over watershedshaving a fixed length/width relation and no ponding areas.Three
chartsareusedfor flat, moderate,or steepslopesof approximatelyI,4, or 16percent.
Tablesof adjustmentsfor intermediateslopesare provided in the technicalrelease.
Severalmicrocomputersoftwarepackagesfor urbanhydrologyhavebeendevel-
oped.28 Over two-thirdsarebasedon SCSprocedures, but cautionshouldbe applied
80
z
L)
e
.E 7n
u 6 0
0 l0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
imperviousarea(7o)
Connected
Figure 15.9 Percentage of impervious areas versus composite CNs for given
pervious area CNs. (After U.S. Soil Conservation Service.2s)
WATERSHEDS325
FORURBAN
in assumingthat the commercialprogramsfully imitate TR-55 or other SCS hand-
book methods.An ideal TR-55 packagewould includeall three methods,would carry
SCS endorsement,would stateall assumptionsand limitations, and would incorpo-
rate all SiS adjustmentsfor peak coefflcient,percentimperviousness, percentageof
channelimproved,pondingor swampyareas,length/widthratio variations,and slope.
Its use shoutAako be cautionedfor other than 24-hr stormshaving a Type-II SCS
distribution. Packagesnot adheringto these limitations would not be qualified as
TR-55 procedures.
A significantproblem in someof the commercial softwarepackagesis the use
of a trianlular-shaped unit hydrographfor convolutionto producehydrographsfor
stormsof-various durations.The SCS used a triangular shapeto conceptualizethe
peak flow rate of a curvilinear unit hydrograph,but has never endorseduse of other
than either the curvilinear shapediscussedin Section I2.5 ot the tabulatedhydrg;
graphsgiven in the TR-55 manual.For further reading,the SCS publisheda guide2e
for the useof the 1975TR-55 intendedto clarify proceduresin the original technical
release.
PrevailingSCSTR-55Method
The 1986editionof TR-55,27 ratherthan the 1975version,is recommended for use.
. It incorporatesseveralyearsof resultsof researchand experienceswith the original
edition. The revisionsinclude the following:
1. Three additional rain distributions(seeFig. 16'17).

,, Expansionof the chapteron urban runoff curve numbers'
3. A procedurefor calculatingtravel times of sheetflow'
4. Deletion of the chart method.
Modifications to the graphical peak dischargemethod and tabular hy-
drographmethod.
6. TR-55 computerProgram.
Ratherthanrelyingtotally on Fig 15.9,the newTR-55usesTablet5.4 andFig.15'10

to provide urban runoff curve numbersfor certain instancesindicated in the table'
For the new graphicalmethod,an urban curvenumberand the 24-hr designrain
depth are estimated,ih"n un initial abstraction1, is determinedfrom the SCSrunoff
equation(Chapter4) or from Table 15.5.The peak flow is found from linear interpo-
lation of the curvesin Figs. 15.ll,15.I2, !5.13, or 15.I4, dependingon the rainfall
distributiontype (Fig. rcn).If the computedI"f P ratio falls outsidethe curves,the
nearestcurvi should be used. If the watershedcontains a pefcentageof ponds or
swampyareas,the peak flow is multiplied by a reductioncoefficientfrom Table 15'6'
EXAMPLE 15.3
A 1280-acreurbanTennesseewatershedhasa6.0-hrtimeof concentration,CN: 75
from Table15.4,and5 percentof the areais ponded.The25-year,24-httainis 6'0 in'
Find the 25-yearpeak discharge.
TABLE 15.4 RUNOFFCURVE NUMBERSFOR URBANAREAS (see Sec. 4.9 foT
other values)
Curvenumbers for
Cover descriotion soilgroup'
hydrologic
Average percent
Cover type and hydrologiccondition imperviousareaD A B c
Fully developed urban areas (vegetationestablished)
Open space(lawns, parks, golf courses,cemeteries,etc.)"
Poor condition (grasscover <50%) 68 79 86 89
Fair condition (grasscover 50-757o) 49 69 79 84
Good condition (grasscover > 757o) 39 6l 74 80
Impervious areas
Pavedparking lots, roofs, driveways,etc.
(excluding right- of-way) 98 98 98
Streetsand roads
Paved;curbs and storm sewers(excluding
right-of-way) 98 98 98 98
Paved;open ditches(including right of-way) 83 89 92 93
Gravel (including righrof-way) 76 85 89 9r
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
Westerndeserturban areas
Natural desertlandscaping(pervious areas
only)' 63 77 85
Artificial desertlandscaping(impervious
weed barrier, desertshrub with 1-2-in.
sandor gravel mulch and basin borders) 96 96 96 96
Urban districts
Commercial and business 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial 72 81 88 91 93
Residentialdistricts by averagelot size
f acre or less(town houses) 65 77 85 90 92
j acre 38 61 75 83 87
I acre 30 57 72 81 86
I acre 25 70 80 85
I acre 20 5l 68 79 84
2 aqes l2 46 65 77 82
Developingurban areas
Newly gradedareas(pervious areasonly, no
vegetation)" 77 86 91
Idle lands (CNs are determinedusing cover
types similar to thosein Table 4.7).
'Average runoff condition, and 1" : 9.25.
'The averagepercent impervious area shown was used to developthe composite CNs. Other assumptionsare as
follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system,impervious areas have a CN of 98, and
pervious areas are consideredequivalent to open spacein good hydrologic condition. CNs for other combinations
of conditionsmay-becomputedusingFig. 15.9 or 15.10
" CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of open
spacecovol type.
dComposite CNs for natural desertlandscapingshould be comppted using Fig. 15.9 or 15.10 basedon the impervi-
ous areapercentage(CN : 98) and the pervious area CN. The pervious area CNs are assumedequivalent to desert
shrub in poor hydrologic condition.
eComposite CNs to use for the designof temporary measuresduring grading and construction should be computed
using Fig, 15.9 or 15.10basedon the degreeofdevelopment (impervious areapercentage)and the CNs for the newly
graded pervious areas.
Source: U.S. Soil ConservationService,2T
0.0
n5 >
o
e
r.o I
I
70 60 50
CompositeCN Total impervious
arca (Vo)
Figure 15.10 Graph of 1986 TR-55 composite CN with unconnected

imperviousarea,or total imperviousarea,lessthan 30 percent.(After U.S. Soil .
ConservationService.2T)
TABLEls.s /aVALUESFORRUNOFFCURVENUMBERS
Curvenumber L fin.) Curvenumber L (in.)

40 3.000 70 0.857
4l 2.878 71 0.817
42 2.762 72 0.'778
43 2.65r t5 0.740
44 2.545 74 0.703
45 2.444 IJ 4.667
46 2.348 76 0.632
47 2.255 77 0.597
48 2.167 78 0.564
49 2.082 79 0.532
50 2.000 80 0.500
)l 1.922 8l 0.469
52 r.846 82 0.439
53 1.774 83 0.410
54 1.704 84 0.381
55 1.636 85 0.353
56 1.571 86 0.326
57 r.509 87 0.299
58 1.448 88 0.273
59 1.390 89 0.247
60 1.333 90 0.222
6l 1.279 9l 0.198
62 1.226 92 0.174
63 I.t75 93 0.151
o+ t.t25 94 0.128
65 1.077 95 0.105
66 1.030 96 0.083
67 0.985 o1 0.062
68 0.941 98 0.041
69 0,899
Source:U.S. Soil ConservationService.
328 HYDROLOGY
CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALLWATERSHED
300
u tnn
o
P0
R
I
3 100
S R o
60
40
01 0.6 0.8 l
Time of concentration, Z; (hr)
Figure 15.11 Unit peak discharge(q*) for SCS Type-I rainfall distribution. (After
U.S. Soil ConservationService.)
9 100
Po Ro
ci 60
30
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
Time of concentration,Zr (hr)
Figure 15.12 Unit peakdischarge(q,) for SCSType-IA rainfall distribution.(After
15.2 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR URBAN WATERSHEDS 329
1000
800
600
^ 500
E 400
{,
s 300
o
90
d
2oo

6
o
=
P 1oo
80
60
50
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
Time of concentration,Z" (hr)
Figure 15.13 Unit peak discharge(q,) for SCSType-II rainfall distribution. (After
700
600
500
400
< 300
-*
d ,nn
E
E
=
5 roo
80
60
40
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 810
Time of concentration, Z, (tn)
Figure 15.14 Unit peak discharge(q,) for SCSType-III rainfall distribution.(After

L
TABLE 15.6 ADJUSTMENTFACTOR(Fp)FOR

POND AND SWAMP AREAS THAT
ARE SPREADTHROUGHOUTTHE
WATERSHED
Percentageof pond and swamp areas
0 1.00
0.2 0.97
1.0 0.87
3.0 0.75
5.0 0.72
Source:U.S. Soil ConservationService.
Solution. From Fig. 16.17, the Type-II storm appliesto Tennessee. From
Table15.5,I":0.667.Thus I,fP: 0.11.FromFig. 15.13, q,: 96 csm/in.
From Chapter4, tberunoff from 6.0 in. is 3.28 in. Since5 percentof the area
is ponded,the peak flow is adjustedusingTable 15.6,giving 4 : 0.72. Thus
g : (96 csm/in.)(3.28in.)(2.0 mr')(0.72): 453 cfs rr
The graphicalmethodprovidespeak dischargesonly. If a hydrographis needed

or watershedsubdivisionis required, the tabular method2Tshouldbe used.The event
simulationmodel TR-20 shouldbe usedif the watershedis very'complexor a higher
degreeof accuracyis required (seeChapter24).
Assumptionsof the graphicalmethod include:
The method shouldbe used only if the weighted CN is greaterthan 40.

The ?i valueswith the method may range from 0.1 to 10 hr.
The watershedmust be hydrologicallyhomogeneous,that is, describable
by one CN. Land use, soils, and cover must be distributed uniformly
throughoutthe watershed.
The watershedmay haveonly one main streamor, if more than one, the
branchesmust havenearly equal times of concentration'
The method cannotperform channelor reservoirrouting.
The Fofactorcan be appliedonly for pondsor swampsthat are not on the
flow path.
Accuracy of peak dischargeestimatedby this method will be reducedif
I"fP va\uesare usedthat are outsidethe range given.
When -this method is used to develop estimatesof peak dischargefor
presentand developedconditionsof a watershed,usethe sameprogedure
for estimating[.
Both the graphicalandtabular methodsare derivedfrom TR-20 output.The use

of I permits them to be usedfor any size watershedwithin the scopeof the curves
or tables. The tabular method can be used for a heterogeneouswatershedthat is
dividedinto a numberof homogeneous subwatersheds.Hydrographsfor the subwater-
shedscan be routed and added.
15,3 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR SMALL RURAL WATERSHEDS 331
The tabularmethodis describedin the technicalreleaseand is not detailedhere.

In using the method, the following stepsare employed:
1. Subdividedthe watershedinto areasthat are relatively homogeneousand

haveconvenientrouting reaches'
2. Determinedrainageareaof eachsubareain squaremiles'
3. Estimate T"for eachsubareain hours. The procedurefor estimatingI is
outlinedinTR-55.
4. Find the travel time for eachrouting reachin hours'
'
5. Developa weightedCN for eachsubarea.
6. Selectan appropriaterainfall distribution accordingto Fig. 16.17.
7. Determine the 24-hr rainfall for the selectedfrequency(Chapter 16).
8. Calculatetotal runoff in inchescomputedfrom CN andrainfall (Chapter4)'
9. Find I,fot eachsubareafrom Table 15.5.
10. Usingthe ratio of I,f P andT,for eachsubarea,selectone of the hydrographs
tabulatedin TR55.
11. Multiply the hydrographordinates(csm/in.) by the area (mi2) and runoff
(in.) of eachrespectivesubarea.
12. Route and combinethe hydrographs.
The SCS recommendsthat TR-20, rather than the tabular method,be used if
any of the following conditions apply:
Travel time is greaterthan 3 hr.

f is greaterthan2hr.
Drainageareasof individual subareasdiffer by a factor of 5 or more.
The TR-55procedureshavebeenincorporatedby SCSin a computerprogram.Copies

are availablefrom the U.S. National TechnicalInformation Service.
FORSMALLRURALWATERSHEDS
15.3 PEAKFLOWFORMULAS
SCSTP-149Method
TR-55 is the SCS procedure for urban watersheds,TR-20 is the unit-hydrograph
procedurefor larger agriculturalwatersheds(seeChapter24), andTP-149wasdevel-
bped to allow esiimation of peak flow rates from small (5-2000 acres)agricultural
watersheds.3o It consistsof a seriesof 42 charts from which the peak dischargeof a
24-hr ruinfall can be determined.
Input to the procedure is the drainage area, averagewatershedslope, storm
distributiontype (I or II), watershedcompositecurve number, and depth of rainfall.
Figures15.15ind 15.16illustratethe numerouschartsin the TP. Shownare type-I
and type-Il curvesfor moderatelyslopedwatersheds, with CN : 70 for both. Similar
chartsare availablefor the combinations given in Table 15.7.Applicationsof TP 149
to watershedshavingcurve numbers other than the 5-unit incrementsof Table 15.7,
or for slopesother ihan I, 4, or 16 percent, can be accomplished by arithmetic or
logarithmic interpolationbetween adjacent chart values'
^^^ e
h\or@e R g ?3eR3= F H =HEF==
'/,
1000 1000
800 800
7N 700
600 600
500 7 500
400
,4 z 400
300
200 ,<\ 7
r!
l
z 300
200
o
P!
.E
8 0
& 7 0
rno
'z
..\"\
2\
4 W 100
80
70
3 a o 60
50 l L
50
'//.2
40 L'// 40
30 & t/,,
.M 7 30
a 20
ffi
7
l$
v'
t0 10
8
,7
H 8
7
6 /ttl l/,v ,/: o
5 )
h 9 r @ o o o o o o o o o O O O O O O O O O
- N - + n r @ o
R g?fiFAt 8
N
Drainage area (acres)

-tP-I49 peak
Figure 15.15 ratesof dischargefor small watersheds,Type-I storms:24-hr
rainfall, moderate slopes, and CN : 70. (After U.S. Soil ConservationService, "A
Method of EstimatingVolumeandRateof Runoff in Small Watersheds,"U.S. Depaftment
of Agriculture,Jan. 1968.)
TABLE 15.7 CHARTSAVAILABLEIN TP-149FOR PEAK FLOW RATESOF SMALL

WATERSHEDS
Stormdistribution Slope
rype Slopetype range (%) Curvenumber,CN
I,il Flat, TVo 0-3 60,65,70,75,80,85,90
LU Moderate,4To 3-8 60,65,70,75,80,85,90
I,il Steep,167a 8-30 60,65,10,75,80,85,90
FORSMALLRURALWATERSHEDS333
nre R se8sRsc R ==FeF=- F
1000
800
700
600
s00
400
300
200
;90
IUV
100
E
8 0 80
r.1 70 70
60
fi o o 50
50
40 40
30 30
20
10 10
8 8
7 7
o 6
5 5
nF-= R 3?38RAE = = x = = x x
X ; + E 6 F d 6
Drainage area(acres)
Figure 15.16 TP-149 peak rates of dischargefor small watersheds,Type-II storms:

"A
24-hr rainfalT.moderate slopes,CN : 70. (After U.S. Soil ConservationService,
Method of EstimatingVolumeand Rateof Runoff in Small Watersheds,"U.S.Department
of Agriculture'Jan.1968.)
EXAMPLE 15.4
Comparethe peakflow ratesfrom Type-I and Type-II stormsusingFigs. 15.15and
15.16.Assumethat only stormtype changesand all other conditionsare equal.
Solution. A 4-in. rain over200 acreson a watershedwith CN : T0lesultsin
: II
Qo : 52 cfs for a Type-I storm (Fig. 15.15) and Qp 9l cfs for Type
(Fig. 15.16).Thus the storm distributiontype makesa significantdifferencein
results of peak flow estimationusing SCS techniques. I r
334 CHAPTER15 URBANAND SMALL WATERSHEDHYDROLOGY
FederalHighwayAdministrationscs PeakFlow DesignMethod

The FederalHighway Administration (FHWA) lists in their HydrologicEngineering
Circular No. tq, F{ydrology( 1995Ed.) a procedurefor estimatingpeak flow ratesfor
homogeneour,,-ul1-to--"dium sizedwatershedshavingtimes of concentrationbe-
tween 0.1 and 10 hours.It employsan SCSregressionequationthat has coefficients
determinedfrom data on different rainfall distributiontypes and ratios of the initial
abstraction1, (seeChapter4) and total precipitation,P. The peak dischargein metric
units is calculatedfrom
Qp: 4,AQ,
( 1s .3)
where qois the peak dischargein m3/sec,A is the drainageareain sq. km., Q is the
net rain depth in cm, andq, is the unit peak dischargefrom
log qu: Co + Cl log /" f Crlogz t" (1s.4)
in which /" is the time of concentrationin hours,and the regressioncoefficientsare

obtainedfrom Table 15.8.
TABLE 15.8 COEFFICIENTSFOR FHWA HEC-19SCS

PEAK DISCHARGEMETHOD
Rainfall
rype t,/P co c1 c2
2.30550 -0.51429 -0.11750

0.10
2.23537 -0.50387 -0.08929
0.20
2.18219 -0.48488 -0.06589
0.25
2.10624 -0.45695 -0.02835
0.30
0.35 2.00303 -0.40769 0.01983
0.40 1.87733 -032274 0.05754
0.45 t.76312 -0.15644 0.00453
0.50 1.67889 -0.06930 0.0
2.03250 -0.31583 -0.13748
IA 0.10
r.91978 -0.282t5 -0.07020
0.20
1.83842 -0.25543 -0.02597
0.25
0.30 1.72657 -0.t9826 0.02633
0.50 1.63417 -0.09100 0.0
2.55323 -0.61512 -0.16403
0.10
2.46532 -0.62257 -0.1t657
0.30
2.41896 -0.61594 -0.08820
0.35
2.36409 -0.59857 -0.05621
0.40
2.29238 -0.57005 -0.0228r
*0.45 -0.01259
0.50 2.20282 -0.51599
2.473t7 -0.51848 -0.17083
ilI 0.10
2.39628 -0.51202 -0.13245
0.30
2.35477 -0.49735 -0. l 1985
0.3s
2.30726 -0.4654r -0.1 1094
0.40
2.24876 -0.41314 -0.11508
0.45
2.17772 -0.36803 -0.0952s
0.50
Source: Afrer U.S. Federal Highway Administration' Hec-19, Hydrology' FHWA-
IP-95, 1995.
15.3 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR SMALL RURALWATERSHEDS 335
The procedurehas the following limitations:
' use with homogeneouswatersheds(CNsfrom zone to zone shouldnot differ
bYs)
. CN shouldbe greaterthan 50
. /. shouldbe between0. 1 and 10 hours
. I^/P shouldbe between0.1 and 0.5
' /" shouldbe about samefor any of the main channels,if watershedhas more
than one main channel
. no channelor reservoirrouting is allowed
. no storagefacility on main channel
' watershedareain storageponds and lakes shouldbe lessthan 5 percent
SyntheticUnit-Hydrograph
PeakRateFormulas
Peak flow rates from small watershedscan also be determinedusing the synthetic
unit-hydrographtechniquesdescribedin Chapter 12. A storm having a duration
definedby Eq. 12.22wirl produce,accordingto Snyder'smethodof synthesizingunit
hydrographs, a peak dischargefor 1.0 in. of net rain given by Eq. 12.17,or
64oct'A
o^' - t m ( 15.s )
Similarly, the peak flow rate resulting from a storm with duration D given by
Eq. 12.22or 12.23is, accordingto the SCS methodfor constructingsyntheticunit
hydrographs,equal to
^ 484A
U^: - (15.6)
where /o is the time from the beginningof the effectiverain to the time of the peak
runoff rate, which by definitionis the watershedlag time plus half the stormduration.
Both of Eqs. 15.5and 15.6 apply to 1.0 in. of netrain occurringin the durationD.
Either can be multiplied by P"", for other storm depthswith equal durations.Peak
flows for stormswith durationsother than D would need to be determinedby unit-
hydrographmethods.
Discharge-Area
and RegressionFormulas
A multitude of peak flow formulas relating the dischargerate to drainageareahave
beenproposedand applied.Gray3rlists 35 suchformulas,and Maidment32compares
many others.Most of theseempiric equationsare derivedusingpairsof measurements
of drainagearea and peak flow rates in a regressionequationhavingthe form
Q: CA* (15.7)
where Q : the peak dischargeassociatedwith a given return period
A : the drainagearea
C, ffi : regressionconstants
Popular discharge-areaformulas in the form of Eq. 15.7 include the Meyers
equation33
O : 10,000405 ( 1s.8 )
where A : the drainagearea,which must be 4 mi2 or more

Q : the ultimate maximum flood flow (cfs)
This examplegives only one flow rate of unknown frequencyand is chosenonly to
illustrate the form of flood flow equations.A program of determiningflood magni-
tudesfor atange of frequencieson a state-by-statebasishas been completedby the
USGSusing the multipl- regressiontechniquesdiscussedin Chapters26 and 27 and
illustrated for Virginii in Problem 27.25. Similar formulas are availablefrom the
USGSfor other states.Softwarecontainingall the USGSregressionequationsfor the
United Statesis availablefrom the U.S. GeologicalSurvey and Federal Highway
Administratioh as part of the HYDRAIN softwarepackage'
U.S.GeologicalSurveyIndex-FloodMethod
The U.S. GeologicalSurveyindex-floodmethoddescribedin Section27.4 is a graph-
ical regional c&relation of the recurrenceinterval with peak dischargerates. The
stepsinvolvedin the derivationof a regionalflood index curve are outlined in Section
27.4.The first stepin applyingthe techniqueto a watershedis to determinethe mean
annual flood, defineOas ttre flood magnitudehaving a return period of 2.33 years.
Mean annual floods for ungaugedwatershedsare found from regressionequations
similar in form to Eq. 15.7.For example,the USGSreport3aon flood magnitudesand
frequenciesin Nebraskagives,in cfs,
Qz'zt
= CA0T (1s.e)
where A : the contributing drainage arcain mi2
C : aresionalcoefficientobtainedfrom Fig. 15'17
Once the mean annualflood magnitudeis obtained,other annual flood magni-
tudes can easily be determinedfrom the appropriate index-flood curve (see Fig.
26.4c).The usqof suchcurvesin urban hydrologyis limited becausethe USGS data
network for the index-floodmethod seldomincludeswatershedssmallerthan 10 mi2.
The USGSregressionequations,describedlater, areapplicablefor watershedsin the
'
1-10 mi2rangeand larger.
CyprusCreekFormula
Extreme$ flat areasposeparticular difficulties to the hydrologist,includingestimates
of infiltration, runoff volgme,and,peakrunoff rates.Flooding in theseareastends!o
be shallow and widespread.Flow velocitiesare low, and water standson the surface
for relative)ylong periodsof time. Theseareasare often distinguishedby networksof
straight drainageihannels that have been constructedto store and eventually dis-
chargethe excessrain.
The Scs developeda procedure3s to calculatethe'instantaneous peak flow
flatland areas based on first calculatingthe capacity of canals that would be
to limit flat-xeaflooding for the designstorm to a duration that would prevent
crop damage,and then to apply a multiplier to this rate to obtain the instant
peakfor the designof drainagestructures.The procedureis illustrateil in Fig. 15. 18.
OOIfr
N .oe jtoo
' -. 4- 6> I'

1
*'-1 |
6 . 1
'o? ' r l
.t\ t
lo.S
t "
:.9
9;
a =
E d
x(.)
s !
. Y v
ra)
P>,
-
92,
F\9
I'o
i : t6 r
9
a F
= Y
x
;T{ 20
U ',;
E O
(J.n
x E O
;r o ti=
u d:;<
r i t r -
o d c
: E.e
.$e b"
.--Duratio4 of Overbank Flow-->l
InstantaneousPeak
o
o
Drainage Ditch CaPacitY
"Removal" Rate
Based on
Iime
"removal" rate and peak in-
Figure 15.18 Illustration of relation befweenCyplys Creek
stJntaneousflow. (After Soil ConservationService'35)
time for
The selectedduration was} hours,consideredto be the maximum allowable
called the Cyprus Creekformula, was developed to
inundationof crops.An equation,
flow rate, called the 24-hr removal rate. The equation,
determinethe canal design
curve
based on rainfall depth,-contributingdrainage area,and the SCS composite
number is
Q: CA5/6 ( 1s .10)
where Q : reqrriredchannelcapacity fot 24-ht removal (cfs)
C : drainagecoefflcient
A: drainageareaGq mi)
bY
The drainagecoefficient,C,fot Eq. 15.10is found from an equationdeveloPed
Stephensand Mi1ls36
C : 16.39+ (14.75Q,",) (15.1)
where
designeventfrom Fig' 4'I4'
Q"", : the scS direct runoff (in.) for the 24-hr
peak flow rate is
Once Eq. 15.10is solvedfor the given frequency,the instantaneous
drainage areas from 1 to about
obtainedfrom Fig. 15.19.The procedureis limited to
200 squaremiles.It is suggestedthat ratios of the peak instantaneous rate to the 24-hr
equal to 1.0. For flatland areas
canaliemoval rateUetirniLO b values greaterthan or
that the peak flows
that havepart of the areain storm ,"wJts, the SCS recornmends
fromFig. ts.tqu.increasedbytheamountsindicatedinFig. 15.20.TheSCSfurther
that are
recomniendsrestrictingur" of thit procedureto watershedsthat haveslopes
methods such as TR-20, TR-55'
lessthan 0.002. For stJeperslopewatersheds,other
TP l4g, or regressionequationsare recommended'
i)c<
- <
o11
& N
e&EEh+-il1e
I q
t * .
;>
3lj!.) - N o n o o Q a a o
4 q = = - N $ A O -
z ^ , = * - N
d q
;i^
- Y
.- (.)
e # F
e f q
+ + t r
o . a
t r o
< o .
E E b
c6
e
!
= >
()
!
r ,
+ ';
o
c{
, L
t * c ' t
q 67)
9 t s
o 9 H
i 5
>, jl
,* -Q
N v v
- -
qca
,-!t
. \ 4
-l,o: ,
- - ( J
: o 6 @ r v l n n q - : o
N N
0 ) d
L r
3rX
: r I
eleX ;;oung e8ere^V JnoH-tZ runrxrxehtr 01 luod snoeupluelsuJJo oqed
s40
o
!l
o
9 ^ ^
i 4rl
0
Percentageof Area Servedby Storm Sewers
Figure 15.20 Effect of urban storm sewerson peak dischargefor urban areas.
(After U.S. GeologicalSurvey.aT)
EXAMPLE 15.5
Usethe Cypro, Creek methodto determinethe peak 50-yr flow rate fron a 1.0 sq mi
drainageareathat hasa CN : 80,is 50 percentstormsewered,andhasa50-yr,24-hr
rainfall depthof 12.0inches.
Solution. From Fig. 4.I4, thedirectrunoff for 12 inchesof rain is 9.45in. The
drainagecoefficient,C, is found from Eq. 15.11,
: 155.t
C : 16.39+ (14.75X9.45)
15.3 PEAK FLOW FORMULASFOR SMALLRURALWATERSHEDS 341
The 24-hr removalrate is found from Eq. 15.10'

:
0 : 155'8(1'0)5/6 155'8cfs
rate to removalrate is 2.0, giving a
From Fig. 15.19the ratio of instantaneous
designflow rate of 311.6cfs if no stormsewersexisted.From Fig. 15.20,it is
found that the unseweredareadischargeshouldbe increasedby 35 percentfor
a watershedwith 50 percent storm sewers.The final designflow is 1.35 x
31'1.6: 420.7 cfs. rr
U.S.GeologicalSurveyRegressionEquations
for UrbanAreas
The U.S. GeologicalSurvey,in cooperationwith the FederalHighway Administra-
tion, conducteda nationwidestudy of flood magnitudeand frequencyin urban water-
sheds.37 The investigation involved26ggaugedbasins at 56 citiesin 31 states,includ-
ing Hawaii. The locations are shown in Fig. 15.21.Basin sizesrangedfrom 0.2 to
100 mi2.
Multiple linear regression(see,Chapter27) of a variety of independentparame-
ters was conductedto developpeak flow equationsthat could be applied to small,
ungaugedurban watershedsthroughoutthe United States.Similar USGS regression
. equationsfor large rural basinsare describedin Chaptet27'
The simplestform of the developedregressionequationsinvolvesthe three most
significantvariablesidentified.Thesewere contributing areaA (mi2),ba-sin^develop-
ment factorBDF (dimensionless), andthe correspondingpeak flow RQ,(cfs)for the lth
frequency from an identicalrural basin in the sameregionasthe urbanwatershed.The
latter vaiiable accounts for regional variations,and estimatescan be developedfrom
any of the applicable USGS flood frequency reports (seeSection27.4). The three-
parameter equations for the 2-,5-,IO-,25-,50-, 100-,and500-yearflowsaregiven
as37
-
ez: l3.2Ao.zt(13 BDFl-o.azpnotz
(Ls.r2)
-
es : 10.6Ao.rz(13 BDF)-o.3eReo18
( 1s . 1
3)
t0(13- BDnl-otuRQ?dn (15.14)
Qto : 9.5rAo
Qt5 : 8.68Ao
ts(13- BDF)-o'z+P9o'to (1s.1s)
Qso: 8.o4Ao
ts(13- BDFl-o'zzR03o" (1s.16)
ts(13- BOrT-ot'RQ?r!& (15.17)
Qno: 7.70Ao
Qsoo
- BDF)-'*RQ1i&
: 7.47A0'16(13 ( 1s . 18 )
Thesewere developedfrom data at 199of the 269 original sites.The other siteswere
deletedbecauseof the presence.ofdetentionstorageor missingdata. All theseequa-
tions havecoefficientsof determinationabove0.90.
Figure 15.22showsthe correspondence of estimatedand observedvaluesused
in devedping Eq. 15.15. Forty percentof the valuesfall within one standarddeviation
of the line.
regression Graphs for other recurrence intervals are similar to the 1O-year
graphshownin Fig. 15.22.
i a
O N
o v
N E
> p
li rii
E
- ' E
h
E
- ^ a
>'
s - _
q
. A o
,F
it .-r :
'o
3
r {
g
o ()
E
o /
B
- o
r d
l n
l V z
--l \Oa
I 0".
I
I
r)U . '
I
I j t
I r E l
A f
L,/
I ol E'J
I
,g q
--j g
I
, l
: : F
: -
(,)
i
I
PROBLEMS 353
15.5,
rainfall duration?
The 4-hr unit hydrographfor a 5600-acrewatershedis
Time (hr) n 1 4 6 8 10 t2
0 400 1000 800 400 200 0
0 (cf9
: discussthe
Rework Example 15.2 basedon a C : 0.2 and C 0'4' Compare and
effect of C on the dischargeat the outfall'
AwatershedhasareaA.Startingwithatriangular.shapedunithydrographwithabase : 484A/to'
lengthof 2.67t, and a heightof [0, deriveEq. 15'9 (seealsoEq' t2'25)' Qo
State and carr units of eachterm usedin the derivation'
UsingtheSCSdimensionlessunithydrographdescribedinChapter12,determinethe
peak
peaidischarge
ôf for a net storm of 101n.in 2 hr on a 400-acrebasinwith a time to
+ nt and i lag time of 3 hr. Comparewith Eq' 12'17'
rainfall at a
A 10.00-mi2watershedwith a 100-min time of concentrationreceives
rate of 2.75 in.lhr for a period of 200 min'
a. Determinethe peak d-ischarge (cfs)from the watershed1f C : 0'4'
rainfall.
b. Estimatethe dischargerate lcfs) 150 min after the beginningof
c. Estimate the dischar"gerate from the watershed 40 min after the beginning of
rainfall.
E * n
{
* F 6 0
F
/
9 4 0
o
o
E ) i
o - "
s?
o
o 2 0 100
-= -Time{min)-after-beianing-of rainfall
354 CHAPTER15 URBANANDSMALLWATERSHED
HYDROLOGY
1s.13. A storm gutter receivesdrainagefrom both sides.On the left it drains a rectangular
600-acreareaof t" : 60 min. On the right it drains a relatively steep300-acrearea
of t" : 10 min. The f index on both sidesis 0.5 in.ihr. Use the intensity-duration-
frequency curves in Fig. 15.7 to determinethe peak discharge(cf$ with a25-year
recurrenceinterval for (a) the 600-acreareaalone, (b) the 300-acrearea alone,and
(c) the combinedareaassumingthat the proportion of the 600-acreareacontributing
to runoff at any time r after rain beginsis l/60.
t5.14. A drainagebasin has a time of concentrationof 8 hr and producesa peak Q of
4032 cfs for a 10-hr storm with a net intensity of 2 in./hr. Determinethe peak flow
rate and the time base(duration)of the direct surfacerunoff for a net rain of 4 in./hr
lasting (a) 12 hr, (b) 8 hr, and (c) 4 hr. State any assumptionsused.
15.15. A 1.0-mi2parking lot has a runoff coefficientof 0.8 and a time of concentrationof
40 min. For the following three rainstorms,determinethe'peakdischarge(cf$ by the
rationalmethod:(a) 4.0 in./hr for 10 min, (b) 1.0in./hr for 40 min, and (c) 0.5 in./hr
for 60 min. State any assumptionregarding area contributing after various rainfall
durations.
15.16. The concentration time varies with dischargebut is relatively constant for large
discharges.From this statement,why do engineersfeel confidentin usingthe rational
formula?
15.17. Determinethe 50-yearflood for a20-mi2 basin at the northwestcorner of Nebraska.
Use the index-flood method and assumethat Fig. 26.4 appbes.
1s.18. Determinethe entire frequencycurve for the basin in Problem 15.17 and plot it on
probability paper.
15.19. Use the index-flood method to determinethe 10- and 50-yearpeaksfor a 6400-acre
drainagebasin near Lincoln, Nebraska.Assumethat Fig. 26.4 applies.
15.20. For the drainagebasin in Problem 15,19 determinethe probability that the 20-year
peak will be equaledor exceededat leastonce (a) next year and (b) in a 4-yr. period.
Referto Section26.1.
15.2L. For a 100-mi2drainagebasinnearLincoln, Nebraska,usethe index-flood methodto
determinethe probability that next year's flood will equal or exceed3000 cfs.
15.22. UseFig. 26.4 to determinethe return period (years)of the meanannualflood for that
region.How doesthis comparewith the theoreticalvalue for a Gumbel distribution?
How doesit comparewith a normal distribution?Refer to Section26.6.
ts.23. Usethe Cyprus Creekmethodto determinethe 25-yr peak dischargefor the watershed
describedin Example 15.3. Assumethat the watershedis nearly flat.
15.24. You are asked to determinethe magnitudeof the S0-yearflood for a small, rural
drainagebasin (nearyour town) that hasno streamflowrecords.Statethe namesof at
leasttwo techniquesthat would provide estimatesof the desiredvalue.
't5.25. The drainageareas,channellengths,and relevantelevations(underlined)for several
subbasinsof the Oak Creek Watershedat Lincoln, Nebraska,are shownin Fig. 24.8.
The watershedhas a SCScurve numberof CN : 75 which may be usedto determine
the direct runoff for any storm.Assumethat IDF curvesin Fig. 27.13 applyat Lincoln.
Treat the entire watershedasa singlebasinand determinethe 50-yearflood magnitude
at Point 8 using:
a. The rational method.
b. The SCSpeak flow graph,Fig. 15.8.
c. Snyder'smethod of syntheticunit hydrographs,Eq. 15.5.
d. The USGS index-flood method. Figure 26.4 applies.
REFERENCES 355
15.26. RepeatProblem 15.25 with SubareaI excluded.compare the results with Prob-
lem 15.25 and comment on the effectivenessat Point 8 for the 5O-yearevent of the
BranchedOak Reservoirat Point 9. (This reservoirwill easilystorethe 100-yearflood
from Area I.)
1s.27. RepeatProblem 15.25 for SubareaA'
15.28. RepeatProblem 15.25 for SubareaI'
15.29. Describecompletelyhow the magnitudeof the 30-yearflood for a watershedis deter-
mined by the USGS index-flood method.
15.30. A rural watershedwith a composite cN of 70 is being urbanized. Eventually'
36 percentof the areawill be impervious.Determinethe increasein runoff that can
be expected for a 6.2-in.rain.
15.31 Using the peak flow for the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrographin Ch. l2,_determine
the piak dischargefor a net storm of 10 in. in Zhr on a 400-actebasinwith a time to
peak of 4 hr and a lag time of 3 hr.
L5.32. A timber railroad bridgein Nebraskaat Milepost 27I.32 ontherailroad systemshown
in the sketchis to be replacedwith a new concretestructure.The 50- and 100-year
flood magnitudesare neededto establishthe low chord and embankmentelevations,
respectively.Determine the designflow rates using the scs TP-149 method. The
bridge drainsthe zone marked,about45 acres.The moderatelyslopedbasinlies in a
rype-n stormregion,the curve numberis 70, and the 24-hr 50- and 100-yearrainfall
depthsare 8.6" and g.4" respectively'
Bidge27l.32
The
15.33. Repeatproblem 15.32usingthe FHWA HEC-19 peakflow SCSdesignmethod.
time of concentration is 0.2 hrs. Valuesof 1ocan be determinedfrom the relationships
, in Fis. 414. Provide the answersin both metric and English units.
REFERENCES
"A Critique of Current Methods in Hydrologic Systems
1 . J. Amorocho and W. E. Hart,
Investigations," Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 45(2),301-321(Jwe 1964)'
p. jingh, ..NonlinearInstantaneousUnit-HydrographTheory," ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
2. f.
90(HY2), Par I, 313-347(Mar' 1964).
356 CHAPTER15 URBANANDSMALLWATERSHED HYDROLOGY
"ContinuousHydrographSynthesiswith an
3. W T. Sittner, C. E. Schauss,and J. C. Monro,
API:Iype HydrologicModel," WaterResourcesRes.5(5), 1007- 1022(1969).
4. J.E.Nash,"TheFormoftheInstantaneousUnitHydrograph,"Int.Assoc.Sci.Hyd.3@5),
r14-L2r(r9s7).
"Mathematical Models of CatchmentBehavior," Proc.
5. D. R. Dawdy and T. O'Donnel,
ASCEJ. Hyd. Div.91(HY4), 124-127(Iuly 1965).
6. S. L. S. Jacoby,"A MathematicalModel for Nonlinear Hydrologic Systems,"J. Geophy.
Res. 7l(20), 48t | - 4824(0ct. 1966).
7. R. Prasad, "A Nonlinear Hydrologic System ResponseModel," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd.
Div. 93(HY4)(1967).
"Hydrology of Urban Runoff," J. ASCE 85, 41-
8. A. L. Tholin and C. T. Keifer,
106(Mar. 1959).
9. N. H. Crawfordand R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Department of Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
Tech.Rep.No. 39, July 1966.
10. JohnC. Schaake,Jr., "synthesisof the Inlet Hydrograph,"Tech.Rep. 3, Storm Drainage
ResearchProject, JohnsHopkins University,Baltimore, MD, June 1965.
"WaterPollution Aspectsof UrbanRunoff," Federal
11. AmericanPublic WorksAssociation,
Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969.
"Urban Water ResourcesRe-
12. Arnerican Society of Civil Engineers,First Year Report,
search,"Sept. 1968.
13. W. Viessman,Jr., "Modeling of Water Quality Inputs from Urbanized Areas," Urban
Water ResourcesResearch, Study by ASCE Urban Hydrology Research Council,
Sept.1968,pp. A79-A103.
"Characterization,
14. S. R. Weible,R. B. Weidner,A. G. Christianson,and R. J. Anderson,
Treatment,and Disposal of Urban Storm Water," in Proceedingsof the Third Interna-
tional Conference,International AssociationonWater Pollution Researcft(S. H. Jenkins,
ed.). Elmsford,NY PergamonPress,1969.
"Pesticidesand Other
15. S. R. Weible,R. B. Weidner,J. M. Cohan,and A. G. Christianson,
Contaminants in Rainfall and Runoff," '/. Am. Water Works Assoc. 58(8),
1675(Aug.1966).
16. Division of WaterResources,Departmentof Civil Engineering,University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati. OH. "Urban Runoff Characteristics,"Water Pollution Control ResearchSe-
ries. EPA. 1970.
17. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., University of Florida, Gainewille, Water ResourcesEngineers,
Inc., "Storm Water ManagementModel," Environmental Protection Agency, Vol. 1,
r971.
18. E. Kuichling, "The Relation Betweenthe Rainfall and the Dischargeof Sewersin Popu-
lous Districts,"Tians.ASCE,20(1889).
19. W. W. Horner, "Modern Procedurein District SewerDesign," Eng. News 64,326(1910).
"Relation BetweenRainfall and Runoff from Small Urban
20. W. W Horner and F. L. Flynt,
Areas," Trans.ASCE 20(140),( 1936).
21. R. L. Rossnriller,"The Runoff Coefficient in the Rational Formula," EngineeringRe-
searchInstitute, Iowa State University,Feb. 1981.
"Experimental Examination of the
22. J. C. Schaake,Jr., J. C. Geye1,and J. W. Knapp,
RationalMethod," Proc.ASCEJ. Hyd. Div.93(HY6) (Nov. 1967).
"Airport Drainage," Advisory
23. FederalAviation Agency, Departmentof Transportation,
Circular, AIC 150-5320-58.Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOfflce, 1970.
Chapter16
HydrologicDesign
Prologue
The PurPoseof this chaPteris to:
. Introducethe hydrologistto proceduresusedin the United Statesfor designing

structuresfor safe and effectivepassageof flood flows'
r , Give sufficient information for the designerto selectthe applicablecriteria for
designinghYdrauhcstructures'
, provide a discussionof designstorm hyetographsand provide methodsfor
design.
selectingthe duration, depth, and distribution of plecipitation for
. DemonJtratehow designiloods can be developedwithout using precipitation
data'
' Discussparticular designmethods including airport drainage'urban storm
sewerdeiign, and flood control reservoirdesign'
. Describethe U.S. Federal EmergencyManagementAgency (FEMA) flood
of flood
plain managementsystemand piesent the hydrologicfundamentals
Plain analYsis.
piotto studying
Readersare encouragedto reviewthe materialin Chapters26 and27
designprocedurespresentedin this
PredictingPeakdischargerater
for use in designingminor and ma
aspects of engineering hydrology' I
small crodsroadculverts, levees,dt
akPort drainage structuresto the
lumped together'with major structr
design information. GenerallY,a h
dischargefor a designfrequencY,a
dischargehYdrograPhfor a design
rates,low-flow frequencYanalysis,
are often conductedas part of a designproiect'
360 CHAPTER DESIGN
16 HYDROLOGIC
Mostdesignsinvolvinghydrologicanalysesuseadesignfloodthatsimulates
recordsare
someseverefutirre eventorlmitates ime historicalevent.If streamflow
storm records
unavailable,designflood hydrographsare synthesizedfrom available
Only in rare casesare
usingthe rainfall--runoff proceduresof Chapters2, 12,and 15.
in small watersheds'
streamflowrecords adequatefor complex designs,particularly
in Chapter 15 are
Regionalanalysesand the empiric-coirelativemethodsdiscussed
Methods presented in chap-
usefulfor determiningpeak flow ratesat ungaugedsites'
hydrographs necessary for
ter 12 andin this chapterare used for developingentire
manYengineeringdesigns.
are describedin
uyirologic;ethJds for designingminor and major structures
levels, rnethodsfor
this chapter.included are discussions;f data needs,frequency
for floodplains and dams'
synthesizingdesignstorms,and hazard assessments
DESIGNPROCEDURES
16.1 HYDROLOGIC
in either the peak flow
Proceduresfor estimatingdesignflood flows (interestcan be
historical or projected
rate or the entire hydrogiaph)includemethodsthat examine
and methodsthat
flood flowsto arrive at i sultauteestimate(flow-basedmethods),
storms to flood flow rates
evaluatethe stormsthat producefloods,andthen convertthe
In eachcase,the analysis can be based on selectinga
(precipitation-basedmethods).
flood (callfrequency-based meth'
i"rign rr"qo"ncy and determiningthe ass,ociated
and_ narrowing the final
ods), developingdesignsfor a ringe of flood frequencies
(called risk-based methods)' or
choice on the basisof long-term c6sts and benefits
designingonthebasisofanestimateoftheprobablemaximumstormormanmum
RooAtnit could occur at the site (calledcritical-event methods).
basedon frequency-
Minor Structure Design Minor structuredesignis largely
Severalsteps in the hydrologicapproachto
basedor sometimesrisk]basedmethods.
to most design handbooks and adoptedtech-
minor structtJredesign are comrnon
niques.The generalsteps (eachis illustrated subsequently) are:
to the time
1. Determinethe duration of the critical storm,usually equated
concentrationof the watershed.
t Choosethe designfrequencY.
3. Obtain the storri OeptltUaseaon the selectedfrequencyand duration'
in
4. Qomputethe net direct runoff (severalmethodswere presented
ter 4).
5. Selectthe time distribution of the rainfall excess'
6.Synthesizetheunithydrographforthewatershed(seeChapterl2).
T.Applythederivedrainfall_excesspatterntothesyntheticunithydrograph
get the runoff hYdrograPh.
8. Establish the frequen-cyiftn" calculatedflood (usuallyassumedequalto t
designstorm frequencY).
DESIGNPROCEDURES
16.1 HYDROLOGIC 361
Major Structure Design Hydrologicdesignaspectsof maior structuresare consid-
erably more complexthan thoseof a small dam, crossroadculvert, or urban drainage
system.A designstorm hydrographfor a'large dam still is required but it is put to
greater use. The designstorm hydrographis routed to determinethe adequacyof
spillwaysand outlets operatedin conjunction with reservoir storage.The economic
selectionofthe spillwaysizefrom the variouspossibilitiesdictatesthe final designand
is a function of the degreeof protection providedfor downstreamlife and property,
project economy,agencypolicy andconstructionstandards,andreservoiroperational
requirements.Major structuredesignis largely basedon critical eventmethodspre-
sentedin Section16.5.
Water Resource System Design Most information and techniquespresentedin

this chapterare directedtoward the flood protection aspectof small and large struc-
tures.Needlessto say,a major structureis designedfor more than just flood protec-
tion; it is multipurposeand may provide storagefor irrigation, power, water supply,
navigation,and low-flow augmentation.The proper allocationof storageto theseuses
requiresan understandingof the entire streamflowhistory in terms of the frequency
of occurrenceof low flows and averagemonthly, seasonal,and yearly flows, as well
as the historical and designfloods. Material is presentedin Part Five to provide a
hydrologistwith the tools to developcomplete streamflowhistories for a complex
multipurposesysteminvolving various combinationsof minor and major structures,
water developmentprojects, and managementpractlces.
Flow-BasedMethods
For designlocationswhererecordsof streamflows are available,or whereflows from
anotherbasin can be transposedto the designlocation, a designflood magnitudecan
be estimateddirectly from the streamflows by any of the following methods:
'
1. Frequencyanalysisof flood flows at the designlocation or from a similar
basin in the region.
2. Useof regionalflood frequencyequations,normally developedfrom regres-
sion analysis(seeChapter 26) of gaugedflood data.
3. Examination of the stream and floodplain for signs of highest historical
floods and estimationof the flow rates using measurementsof the cross-
sectionand slopeof the stream.
Methods
Precipitation-Based
Where stream-gaugingrecordsare unavailableor inadequatefor streamflow.estima-
tion, designfloods can be estimatedby evaluatingthe precipitation that would pro-
ducethe flood, and then convertingthe frecipitation into runoffby any ofthe rainfall-
runoff methodsdescribedin Chapters10-15 or 2l-27. Typical methodsinclude:
1. Design using the greateststorm of record at the site, by converting the

precipitation to runoff.
2. Transpositionof a severehistoricalstormfrom anothersimilar watershedin
the region.
362 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
DESIGN
3. Frequency analysis of precipitation and conversion of design storm to

runoff.
4. Useof a theoreticalprobablemaximumprecipitation (PMP), or fraction of
PMP, basedon meteorologicalanalyses.
Becausethe flood flow rate is desiredin all cases,the flow-basedmethodsare

preferred over conversionof precipitation to runoff. Due to the relatively longer
period of time and greaternumberof locationsat which precipitation amountshave
been recorded, precipitation-basedmethods are used in the majority of designs,
especiallywith small and very large basins.Flow-basedmethodsare typically used
in the midrangeof basin sizes.
Frequency-BasedMethods
Regardlessof whetherflow or precipitation dataareused,designsmost often proceed
by selectinga minimum acceptablerecurrenceinterval and using proceduresfrom
Chapter27 to determinethe correspondingworst condition storm or flood that could
be equalledor exceededduring the selectedrecurrenceinterval. Criteria for selecting
designrecurrenceintervals are summarizedin Section 16.3. Resultsfrom frequency
analysisof flood flow data normally provide reliable estimatesof 2-, 5-, 10-, and
25-yearflows.Extrapolationbeyondthe rangeof the period of flow recordsis allowed,
but is lessreliable.
Risk-BasedMethods
Recenttrends in designof minor (and major) structuresare toward the use of eco-
nomic risk analysesrather than frequgncy-based designs.The risk methodselectsthe
structuresizeas that which minimizestotal expectedcosts.Tfreseare madeup of the
structurecostsplus the potential flood lossesassociatedwith the particular structure.
The procedureis illustrated in Fig. 16.1.The total expectedcost curve is the sum of
o
b0
q
Optimal structure size, S*

(least total expected cost)
Sîn Structure size, S
Figure 16.1 Principlesof economicriskanalysisforstructure

size selection. (U.S. Federal Highway Administration,
Hydraulic EngineeringCircular No. 17).
16.2 DATAFORHYDROLOGIC
DESIGN 363
the other two curves.Risk costs(flood damages,structuredamages,road and bridge
losses,traffic interruptions)and structurecostsare estimatedfor eachof severalsizes.
The optimal sizeis that with the smallestsum.Structuresselectedby risk analysisare
normally constrainedto sizesequal to or larger than thoseresultingfrom traditional
frequency-basedmethods.
CriticalEventMethods
Becauseof the high risk to lives or property below major structures,their design
generallyincludesprovisionsfor a flood causedby a combinationof the most severe
meteorologicand hydrologic conditions that are possible.Instead of designingfor
somefrequencyor leastexpectedtotal cost,flood handlingfacilities for the structures
are sizedto safelystoreor passthe most critical storm or flood possible.Methodsfor
designingby critical eventtechniquesinclude:
Estimating the probable maximum precipitation (PMP) and determining

the associatedflood flow rates and volumesby transformingthe precipita-
tion to runoff.
) Determiningthe probablemaximum flood (PMF) by determiningthe PMP
and convertingit to a flood by applicationof a rainfall-runoff model,includ-
ing snowmeltrunoff if pertinent.
3. Examining the flood plain and stream to identify palaeo-floodevidences
such as high-water marks, boulder marks on trees or banks, debris
lines, historical accountsby local residents,or geologicor geomorphologic
evidences.
4. In somecases,the critical eventmethodinvolvesestimatingthe magnitude
of the 500-yr eventby various frequencyor approximatemethods.Often,
suchas in mappingfloodplains,the 500-yr flood is estimatedas a multiple
of the 100-yr event, ranging from 1.5 to 2.5. Due to lack of longer-term
records, frequency-basedestimatesare seldom attemptedfor recurrence
intervals exceeding500 years.
16.2 DATAFORHYDROLOGIC
DESIGN
The designof any structurerequires a certain amount of data, even if only a field
estimateof the drainageareaand a descriptionof terraintype and cover.The following
material identiflessomegeneraldata types and sources.
PhysiographicData
The hydrologic study for any structurerequires a reliable topographicmap. United
StatesGeologicalSurveytopographicmapsusually are available.The mappingof the
United Statesis almost completewith 15-minute quadrangles,and many of these
areasaremappedby 7.5-minutequadrangles.County mapsand aerialphotoscan also
be usedto advantagein making preliminary studiesof the watershed.
364 DESIGN
CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIC
drainage
Based on an area map, a careful investigation of the watershed's
information can be obtained from USGS maps
behaviormust be made. Additional
Soil types and the inflltration and erosive
that depict predominantrock formations.
or univer-
characteristicsof soilscanbe securedfrom U.S. Soil Conservationdistricts
sity extensiondivisions.
of an
The drainageareascontributing to large dams require stricter analysis
in designing minor structures. The possibility of a
area,shydrotogyitranis necessary
for large
uniformly intenserainfall over the entire basin is an unrealisticassumption
The influenceof temporal and spatial variations of the rainfall should thus
watersheds. "worst possible" rainfall values are
be considered.For major dams, the estimated
in reservoir
generallyconvertedto a designdischargehydrograph,which is then used
reservoii and spillway size, surcharge storage, and
routing calculationsto propoition
maintain power requirements or sustained down-
, any additional outlets neededto
in hydrologic
streamflow for navigation,irrigation, or watersupply.The basicconcern
downstream interests using a realistic estimatefor
designof a large Aamis to protect
the designstorm hYdrograPh.
purpose the
Topographic'rnuf o"tuit necessarilyshifts with the type and .of
pi"ta reconnaisiance always increases the understanding of
structurebeing design"a.
insignificant the structule might be.
an area,shydrology*nomatter how
HydrologicData
the regionunder
one difficulty in hydrologicdesignis that of gettingadequatedatafor
data canbe-acquiredfrom pr-eviously published-reports issuedby
study.ConsiOerabie
is a list of federal agencies
governmentalagenciesand/or universities.The following
that PublishhYdrologicdata:
'
egricultural ResearchService
Soil ConservationService
Forest Service
U.S. ArmY CorPsof Engineers
National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration
Bureauof Reclamation
DePartmentof TransPortation
U.S. GeologicalSurvey' TopographicDivision
U.S. Geological.Survey,WaterResources Division
governments,inter-
Additional dlta often canbe procuredfrom departmentsof state
statecommissions,and regional and local agencies'
MeteorologicData
and Atmospheric
The National WeatherService, couchedin the National Oceanic
source of meteorologicdata published in a variety
Administration, is the primary
Report (HMR) series. Figure 16.2
of forms, including their Hyirometeorologic
showstheapplicablereportsforvariousgeographicandtopographicregionsofthe
DESIGN-FREQUENCYCRITERIA
365
16.3 HYDROLOGIC
Figure16.2HydrometeorologicalreportseriescoverageofconterminousUnitedStates.
(U.S.Bureauof Reclamation')
state,and local agenciescollect and analyze

United States.lNumerousother federal
who design,inspect, or regulatelarge
precipitation information-"tp""iuriv-tr'rore
"*"8l;.H[1;:1;ce require:.5::S:1g:,:f
stormhyetographs
design
forestimating or precrp-
in the region,maximum amount
ttre meteoroioii" .huru"t"ristics of Jtot-t storm
of precipitation,frequenciesof total
itable moisturein the atmospheJo;;r;r snowmelt for storms over the
durationsbf U;t, and influence.of
depthsf*;;;i"", mountain chains, topography
of major
region.tn ,o1n" areassuch", f;;;iii'*gion,
has a very distinct impact on precipitation'
CRITERIA
DESIGN-FREQUENCY
16.3 HYDROLOGIC
S e l e c t i o n o f f r e q u e i s m o s t o f t e n b a s e d o n p o t e n t i a l
d a m a g e t o p r o p e r r : l o s s e s s u c h a s i n t e r r u p t i o n o f
commefce'A stanc
the worst conditio
involved,a greal a
an
A11projects involve somerisks to property
design can proceed thror.t
human tife li absent'the
tn
quencylevel and designof the leastcost structure
alternativetoleastStructurecost,economicriskana]
rather than
the final designfrequencyis optimized
for several trequencret
would accommodatestorms
is u*"J. itr"r" costsincludenot only the actualconstfuction
leasttotal expectedcost
"o** du9 to interruption of servicesand
costsbut also the flood dama!;;irk una
economicanalysescan be used'
commerce.Either annual or p"resentworth
366 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGICDESIGN
MinorStructures
The designfrequenciesshown in Table 16.1 are typical of levels generallyencoun-
tered in minor structuredesign.An exampleof variationsthat do occur is the design
frequencyof a culvert,which undercasesof excessivebackwatercould effectivelyhalt
trafflc.
The Soil ConservationServicerecommendsthe use of a2l-year frequencyfor
minor urban drainagedesignif there is no potential loss of life or risk of extensive
damagesuch as first-floor elevationsof homes.A 100-yearfrequencyis commonly
recommendedwhen extensiveproperty damagemay occur.t
TABLE 16.1 MINORSTRUCTUREDESIGNFREQUENCIES
Typeof minorstructure Returnperiod,4 = 1/7,

Frequency
Highwaycrossroad
drainage"
0-400 ADT' 10yr 0.10
400-1700 ADT 10-25yr 0.10-0.04
1700-5000 ADT 25 yr 0.04
5000- ADT 50 yr o.o2
Airfields 5yr 0.20
Railroads 25-50 yr 0.04-0.02
Stormdrainage 2-10 yr 0.50-0.10
Levees 2-50 yr 0.50-0.02
Drainage ditches 5-50 yr 0.20-0.02
'ADT : averagedaily traffic. (After Ref. 3).
Large Dams
Damsrequirehydrologicanalysisduringthe designof the original structureandduring
periodic safetyevaluations.Significanteconomicand humanlossesarepossiblewhen
large quantitiesof water are rapidly releasedfrom storage.
Initial heightsof retardedwater behind the dam, disregardingthe total volume
of stored water, can produce destructiveflood wavesfor a considerabledistance
downstream.Basedon two criteria, the TaskForceon SpillwayDesignFloodsrecom-
meridedthe classificationof large damsas li,stedin Table 16.2.The type of construc-
tion has not been included in this grouping, althoughit affects the extentof failure
resulting from overtopping.
Many of the federalagencieshaveadopteddefinitionsfor hydraulic elementsof
dams.The following list is usedby the Soil ConservationService:
A spillwuy is an open or closedchannel,or both, used to convey excess

water from a reservoir.It may contain gates,either manually or automat-
ically controlled, to regulatethe dischargeof excesswater'
Theprincipal spillwayis the ungatedspillwaydesignedto conveythe water
from the retarding pool at releaserates establishedfor the structure.
The emergencyspillway of a dam is the spillwaydesignedto conveywater
in excessof that impoundedfor flood control or other beneficialpurposes.
16.3 HYDROLOGICDESIGN-FREQUENCYCRITERIA 367
FORI-ARGEDAMS
TABLE16,2 DESIGNCRITERIA
danger
lmpoundment
Potential
Failure damage Potential'
Storage Height
(acre-ft)o (ft) Loss of life Damage Spillwaydesignflood
Category (6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
>50,000 Considerable Excessiveor as Probablemaximum;

Major; failure cannot
matter of most severeflood
be tolerated
PolicY considered
reasonablypossible
on the basin
1000-50.000 40-100 Possiblebut Within financial Standardproject;

lntermediate
small capability of based on most severe
owner storm or
meteorological
conditions considered
reasonablycharacter-
istic of the sPecific
reglon
<1000 <50 None Of samemagni- Frequencybasis;

tude as cost 50-1O0-year
of the dam recurrence interval
and future potential

oBased on consideration of height of dam above tailwater, stoarags volume, and length of damage reach, present
population, and economic development of floodplain'
tstorage at design spillway pool level.
Sozrce: After SnYder.3
The retarding pool is the reservoir spaceallotted to the temporary rm-

poundmentoi floodwater.Its upperlimit is the elevationof the crestof the
emergencyspillway.
Retardingstorageis the volume in the retarding pool'
of
The sedimentpool is the reservoir spaceallotted to the accumulation
incoming sedimentduring the life of the structure'
Sedimentstorageis the volume allocatedto total sedimentaccumulation'
sedimentpool elevationis the elevationof the surfaceof the anticipated
sedimentaccumulationat the dam.
Anearthspitlwuyisanunvegetatedopenchannelspillwayinearthmate-
rials.
Avegetatedspillwayisavegetatedopenchannelspillwayconstructedof
earth materials.
A ramp spillway is a vegetatedspillway constructedon the downstream
faceof an earth dam.
where
The control section in an open channel spillway is that section
acceleratedflow passesthrough critical depth'
from
The inlet channelof an emergencyspillwayis the channelupstream
the control section.
Top of dam
Emergency
/ :Minimum spillway
spillwaycrestJ
Emergency
x r freeboard
Surcharge Normalpoollevel\
storage v I
Flood control
retardingstorage Reservoir
Minimum
Pool
Qo
reservoirpoollevelsandstoragezones'
Figure 16.3 Multipurpose
The exit channelof an emergencyspillwayis that portion of the channel

downstreamfrom the control sectionwhich conductsthe flow safelyto a
point where it may be releasedwithout jeopardizing the integrity of the
structure.
The emergencyspiltway lrydrographis that hydrographusedto establish
the minimum designdimensionsof the emergencyspillway'
Thefreeboard hydrographis the hydrographused to establishthe mini-
mum elevationof the toP of the dam.
Severalof thesefeaturesare illustrated in Fig' 16'3'
SmallDams
provide
Small damscustomarilyare designedusingtwo or more levelsof frequencyto
Figure 16.3
an emergencyspillway and ensure an adequateallowable freeboard.
(MF)-
showsa iypicit small dam with normal freeboard(NF) and minimal freeboard
The freeboardvaluesfor earth dams with riprap protection on the upstreamslope'
100-mph
shownin Tablq 16.3, atebasedon waverunup causedby storm winds with
wind velocities.Minimal freeboardpertainsto wind velocitiesof 50 mph. The fetch
shore. If
is definedas the perpendiculardistancefrom the structureto the windward
smoothconcrerc;atirerthan riprap is usedon the upstreamface' the freeboardvalues
shown shouldbe increased50 percent'"
DESIGN-FREQUENCYCFIITERIA
16.3 HYDROLOGIC 369
TABLE 16.3 USBR RECOMMENDED

NORMALAND MINIMUM
FREEBOARDVALUES,FT
Fetch (mi)
<1 4 3
I +
2.5 6 5
5 8 o
10 10 7
Soarce:After Ref. 4.
of
The U.S. Soil conservation Service designcriteria for principal spillways
should be
small dams are given in Table 16.4. The SCS TechnicalReleaseNo. 60
of this table.sDesign frequency_requirementsare
consultedfor full interpretation
SCS classifles
selectedto fit the planned or foreseeableuse of the structures.The
structuresinto three grouPs:u
Class a. Structureslocated in rural or agricultural areas where failure

mightdamagefarmbuildings,agriculturalland,ortownshiporcountry
roads.
ctass b. Structureslocated in predominantlyrural or agricultural areas
where failure might damageiiolated homes, main highways.or minor (
railroads, o, "urrr]"interruption of use or serviceof relatively important
public utilities.
Classc. Structureslocatedwhere failure might causeloss of life, serious
public
damageof homes,industrial and commercialbuildings,important
utilities, main highways,or railroads,
generally
The physicalsizeof a small dam can rangeto over 100^ft in heightbut
acre-ft of storage at the emer-
is restrictedto structuresretarding lessthan 25,000
attention if they are
gency spillway crest. Small dams generally receive.special
could cause the loss of life' Many
ion.i.o"i"d in populatedareaswhere dam failure
possibilityexists,the
flood deathshavebeencausedby dam or leveefailure. When this
designstorm for small damsis lstablishedby use of the probable maximum precipi-
the reasonable maximization of the
tatio'n, PMP. The PMP is generally defined as
maximum storm. Other definitions
meteorologicalfactorsthaioperate to producea
havebeen proPosed,T including:
canbe
1. The p1itp is the rnaximumamountand duration of precipitationthat
expectedto occur on a drainagebasin'
2. ThePMP is the flood that may be expectedfrom the most severecombina-
tion of critical meteorologicand hydrologicconditionsthat are reasonably
possiblein the region. T'he pMp Las a low, but unknown, probability of
occurrence.It is n-eitherthe maximumobserveddepthat the designlocation
or region nor a value that is completelyimmune to exceedance'
DESIGN
TABLE 16,4 SCS DESIGNCRITERIAFOR PRINCIPALSPILLWAYS

OF SMALL DAMS
Precioitationdata for maximum

frequency2of use of
Existing emergencyspillwaytype:
Class Purpose or planned
of dam of dam V"HI upstream dams Earth Vegetated
(a) 5lngle- Less than

irrigation 30,000 None 0.sDrJ O.5DL
only
Greaterthan
30,000 None 0.75DL 0.75DL
SingIe Lessthan
D6
or multiples 30,000 None !D5 0 r25
Greaterthan
30,000 None 0.5(Pso + Ploo) 0.5(Prs+ Pso)
All Anyt D
r 100 rD5 0
(b) Single or None or

multiple All any ! 100
(c) Single or None or

multiple All any Proo
I Product of reservoir storagevolume V, (acre-feet) times effective height of dam 11, (feet).
2Precipitation depths for indicated return periods (years).
3Applies to irrigation dams on ephemeralstreamsin areaswhere mean annual rainfall is less than 25 in.
aDL = designlife (years).
5Class (a) dams involving industrial or municipal water are to use minimum criteria equivalent to that of Class (b).
6In the case of a ramp spillway, the minimum criteria should be increasedfrom Prr to Pt66.
?Applies when the failure of the upstream dam may endangerthe lower dam.
Soarce.'Soil Conservation Servtce.
Estimatesof PMP are basedon an investigationby the U.S. WeatherBureau

conductedto establishthe maximumpossibleamountof precipitablewaterthat could
be achievedthroughoutthe United States.s'e Figure 16.4providesestimatesof precip-
itable water over watershedsbetweensealevel and 8,000 ft. Figure 16.5 extendsthe
estimatesabove 8,000 ft.1 Point valuesof PMP for the samelocale may vary with
duration of storm causingthe precipitation.Figure 16.6 providesPMP estimatesfor
6-hr storms.These and similar publishedcharts for other durations are helpful in
selectingthe PMP for any region in the United States.
the deiign frequenlies-for principal spillwaysfor small SCS Class aob, or c
damsare providedin Table 16.5.Theseare basedon 6-hr rainfall depthsfor ( 1) the
1OO-yearfrequency(Fig. 16.7) and(2) the PMP (Fig. 16.6).Designstormdepthsfor
all watershedshaving a time of concentration less than 6-hr are establishedin
Table 16.5.For thosewatershedswith greatertime of concentration,adjustmentsare
madeto the 6-hr storm depth to accountfor the gteateramountsof direct runoff in a
longerperiod of time. Theseadjustmentsare discussedin Section 16.4.
16.3 HYDROLOGICDESIGN-FREQUENCYCRITERIA 371
DEPTHSOF PRECIPITABLE WATER IN A COLUMN OF

AIR OF GIVEN HEIGHT ABOVE 1OOO
MILLIBARS
Assuming saturation with a pseudo-adiabatic lapse
mte for the indicated surface temperatures
Adapted ftom the U S Wther Bueau Hyalrometeorological Repon No 23
. TEMPEMrure
'76
80 .F
'10 '72
142230343842 46 505254 565860 62 64 66 68 74 78
800
a
-.:
=
z
p
h
a
H
d
Extended to 200 mbar

on Figure 16.5
1.0 1.5
ABLE WATER IN INCHES
Figure 16.4 Diagram for precipitable water determination from 1,000 to 700
millibars.(U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.)
L
372 16 HYDRoLoGIc
CHAPTER DESIGN
DEPTHS OF PRECIPITABLE WATER IN A COLUMN OF

AIR OF GIVEN HEIGHT ABOVE 1OOO MILLIBARS
Assuming witha pseudo-adiabatic
saturation lapse
rate for the indicated surface temDeratwes
Adapted from the U-S. Weather Bureau Hydrometeorolgical Report No 23
EMPEMTre
l8 26 66 70 74
200
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

WATERIN INCHES
PRECIPITABLE
Figure 16.5 Diagram fbr precipitable water determination from 800 to 200
millibars.From 1281.103-D-1908.(U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.)
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS 373
MaiorStructures
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS
Once the designfrequencyhasbeenestablished,the next stepin a structuredesignis
the determinaiionof six ,io.- puru-eters: the stormduration,the durationof rainfall
excess,the point depth, any ireal depth adjustment,the storm intensity and time
distribution, and the areal distribution pattern'
Duration
The length of storm usedby the SCS in designingemergencyand freeboardhydro-
graphsior small damsis of 6-hr durationor /c, whicheveris greater' Often, the minor
it*"tu.. being designedcannotbe justified economicallyon the basisof this length
of storm. Foi many minor structures, particularly urban drainage structures, a
designflood hydrogiaph is basedon a storm duration equal to the time of concen-
trati-onof the wateisneA.fnis procedureusesthe rational method of Chapter 15 or
the synthetic unit hydrographs of Chapter 12 along with a critical storm pattern
produced by arranging the rainfall excesspattern into the most critical sequence.
fn" SCS uies 24-hr durations for all urban watershedstudies'
Durationsof approximately6hr or lessare satisfactoryfor small watersheds,but
the lengthsof stormiln large areasrequire storm depths for periodsof up to 10 days'
Freque-ncy-based valuesare availablefor durationsof from 2 to I0 daysfor locations
within the United States.toSimilar data are also availablefor other selectedareas
outsidethe United States.Generally,however,designcriteria for large damsrequire
estimatesof storm depthsthat do not havefrequencylevelsassigned.
Durationof RainfallExcebs
Initial rainfall during most stormsinfiltrates or is otherwiseabstracted,and the dura-
tion of excessrainTf,is lessthan the actual rain duration by an amount.equalto the
time that initial abslractionsoccur. Excessrain duration 7s can be estimatedfor a
6-hr storm as a function of the curve number CN and precipitation P from
374 DESIGN
125" 120"
i 7t?
"d, \
,-o-
tv
Bureau,
Figure 16.6 The 10-mi2or less PMP for 6-hr duration (in.). (U.S. Weather
NOAA.)
storm
Fig. 16.8. This family of curves was developedby the Sclrlt y-h:I" P is the
A CNof 100 represents zero
O""pttruna CNis a losi parameterdefined1lhaptgr {.
lossessothatZg:6hrforCN:l00.Table16.6isusedtofindthedurationof
is the
excess rain for any storm duration greater than 6 hr. The rainfall ratio
(T'iUle 16.7) divided by the total precipitation
absrractionP* losi before runoff
to
amount P. The time ratio from Table 16.6 is multiplied by the rainfall duration
obtain Ze.
\
\
0 s0 r00 2?0 3?0 490 5P
90. 85' 6u
95"
Figure 16.6 Continued
Depth
available.
DESIGN
1.0
0.9
0.8
X \ o 0.7
0.6
.=a 0.5
0.3
v.z
0.1
I 2 3 4 s 6 Figure16.18 A6-hrdesignstormdistri-
Time(hr) bution for SCSdam design.(After Ref. 12.)
country. For more preciseinformation on boundariesin a statehavingmore than one

storrntype, contact the respectiveSCS State ConservationEngineer.
The greatestpeak flows from small basinsare usually causedby intense,brief
rains. Thesecan occur as distinct eventsor as portions of a longer storm. The 24-hr
storm duration is longerthan neededto determinepeaksfrom small watershedsbut
is appropriatefor determiningrunoff volumes.In light of this, the SCS usesthem to
studypeak flows, volumesof runoff, and direct iunoff hydrographsfrom watersheds
normally studiedby the agency.
Time distributionsfor PMP and other stormsusedin major structuredesigncan
be constructedfrom Fig. 16.20.This family of curvesis usedby the U.S. Burlau of
Reclamation6 in threegeographical zonesshownin Fig. 16.6.The corps of Engineers
usesa distributioncurve similar to Fig. 16.18for 6-hr SpS analyses.
Triangular Distribution The simplest design storm distribution is a triangular

shape.Becausethe depth,P, andduration,D, of rain are alreadyestablished,the peak
intensity,l-u,, is 2PfD, foundby solvingfor the height of the triangularhyetograih as
shownin Fig. r6.2L.The only remainingdecisionis the time to the peak, The ratio
40.
to/D has been investigatedfor a large number of storms at locationsin California,
Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey,and North carolina. values range from about
0.3 to 0.5.17Once the triangle is constructed,the intensitiesat regulaiintervals may
be graphicallyor analytically determinedfor input to the rainfall-runoff rnodelbeing
usedfor design.
Blocked IDF Distributions A frequentlyusedprocedurefor developinga design

storm distribution for short duration storms (up to about 2 hr) is to successively
construct blocks of a design storm.histogramby using the appropriate intensity-
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS
Rainfall
distribution
f--l ryp"r
ffi rvwIe
i--l rypeu
llffil rvnerrl
rF- ooo
V v
(b)
for zonesI'
Figure 16.19 SCS 24-hr rainfall distributions:(a) 24-hr rainfall distributions
for scs rainfall distributions'(After Ref' 16')
IA, II, and III and (b) approximateboundaries
1.00
0.90
r ORO
; o.7o
E o6n
tr nsn
; 0.40
E o.3o
o.20
0.10
Time (hr)
Figure 16.20 Distribution of 6-hr PMP for any area
west of the 105' meridian. (After Ref. 6.)
Time,
hr
Figure 16.21 Triangulardesignhyetograph.
duration-frequency curveto find therain intensitiesfor A/, 2 At,3 L,t,etc.,increments

of time and then to organizethese"blocks" of rain intensitiesin somepattern,usually
symmetrical,.around the center of the storm, making sure that the area under
the hyetographis equal to the designstorm depth, P, spreadover the designstorm
duration,D.
To apply the procedure, successivedepths of equal-probability storms with
durationsof A,t,2Lt,3A,t,4Lt,etc.,aredeterminedfrom the IDF curveandtabulated.
Next, any of a variety of procedures,such as the alternating block method, the
Chicagomethod,or the balancedmethod,are availablefor distributingtheseblocks
and assuring that the total rain depth equals P. Most assumethat the highest
16.4 DESIGNSTORMS 389
intensityoccursin the middle of the storm,the secondhighestoccursnext, and so on,

working out in both directions from the center block. The balanced method, for
exampli, assumesthat a Ar-hr stormwith intensityia,from the IDF curvecould occur,
with equal probability, during the middle of the D-hr designstorm. This intensity is
plotted as the middle block of the designstorm hyetograph.Next, the rain depth for
duration 2Lt is obtained from the IDF curve. Its distribution is assumedto be a
two-bar histogramwith the first half matchingthe intensity of the Ar-hr storm; the
secondhalf intensity is calculatedby spreadingthe rest of the rain depth for the 2
Al-hr durationunifoimly over the secondAr interval.The processis repeatedfor rain
depthsfor stormswith durationsof 3A/, 4Lt, . .. , up to D. The goalis to developa
storm hyetographsuchthat a storm of any duration,centeredat the middle of the
blockedIDF hyetograph,will havea total rain depthmatchingthe rain depthfrom the
IDF curve for the siven duration.
Areal Distribution
precipitation depths can and do vary from point to point during a storm. Areal
variation in designstorm depth is normally disregardedexceptin major structure
designs.The usual approachin major structureanalysisis to selecta design(usually
elliptical) or historic (transposed)isohyetalpattem for the PMP or SPS depth and
assignprecipitation depthsio the isohyetsin a fashionthat givesthe desiredaverage
depih over the basin. The averagedepth is determinedby the isohyetal method
illustrated in ChaPter2.
Four majorlypes of storm patterns are shown in Fig. 16.22 fot areasup to
400 mir. Thesewere identifiedby iluff in his analysisof midwesternstormpatterns.ll
The letters H andL representareaswith high and low precipitation depths,respec-
tively. The typical isohyetalpatternfor SPSstormshasbeenestablishedas generally
Valley
elliptical in itrapeas shownin nt. 16.23.This patternis usedby the Tennessee
?b Figure 16.22 Major types of storm pat-

terns: (a) closedelliptical, (b) open ellipti-
cal, (c) multicellular; and (d) banded.(After
Huff.tl)
DESIGN
t t t l
Scale: miles
Figure 16.23 Generalizedpattern storm.
lsohyet Area enclosed(mi2)
l1
B 45
C 114
D 279
E 546
F 903
G 1349
H 2508
4458
(After Ref.18.)
Authority (TVA)18for areasup to 3000 mi2.Variationsin the rainfall depth found in

a standardproject storm will divergefrom a maximum at the storm centerto a value
considerablylessthan the averagedepth at the edgesof the watershedboundaries.
This variation can be determinedand incorporatedin the designstorm.
A slightly modified isohyetalpattern for SPS storms is used by the Corps of
Engineersre asshownin Fig. 16.24.Thepercentages shownfor isohyetsA, B, . . . , G
are multiplied by the 96-hr SPS depth to give an elliptical pattern with the desired
averagedepth.Similarmapsfor 24.,48-, or 72-hr stormscanbe obtainedsimplyby
modifyingthe 96-hrpercentages of Fig. 16.24.Thisis accomplished usingthe depth-
area-duration curvesin Fig. I6.24.For example,if a24-hr stormis used,first notethat
theA isohyetof Fig. 16.24encloses an areaof 16nrr?.From Fig. 16,25thecorrespond-
ing SPSpercentagefor a24-hr stormis 116 percentrather than the 140percentvalue
used with a 96-hr storm. Thereforethe pattern percentagesvary with the selected
designstorm duration.
An additional aid for constructingdesignstorm distributionsover smallermid-
westernl8watersheds(up to 400 mi') is presentedin Table 16.10.The ratio of maxi-
mum point rainfall to mean rainfall over the basin is provided and can be used to
estimatethe maximum depth occurring at a storm centerif the mean areal depth is
16.5 CRITICALEVENT METHODS 391
l r r r r l l l
1 0 5 0 1 0 2 0
: miles
Figure 16.24 GeneralizedSPS isohyetal pattern for a 96-hr storm' The

pattern may be orientedin any direction and may correspondto the depth-
arearelation representedby a 96-hr storm.
lsohyet Area (mi2)
A l6
B 100
C 320
D 800
E 1800
F 3700
G 7100
(After Ref. 19.)
. known. Ratios for 50-, 100-, and 200-nr2 areasare equal to those in Table 16.10
multiplied by 0.91, 0.94, and 0.97, respectivd. For uniform rainfall the 95 percent
ratios of the table are recornmended.With extreme Variability the 5 percent ratio
applies.The 50 percentratios approximateaverageconditions'
EVENTULrnoos
16.5CRTilCAL
392 CHAPTER16 DESIGN
HYDROLOGIC
20,000
10,000 \
+ 72-hperiod
5,000
4,000
\\\
3,000
o
2,000
1,000
500
s=
,*Nr"
400
300
\\ \
200
o
I
\
100
50
40
\
30
\ \
20
10
40 60 80 100 120 140
of SPS
IsohyetPercentage value
Figure 16.25 SPS depth-area-duration curves by 24-hr

storm increments. (After Ref. 19.)
future event, and then design accordingly. These methods include the use of
the probable rnaximum precipitation PMP, probable maximum flood PMF, record
high storm depths, record high floods, multiples of frequency-basedfloods, and
paleohydrology.
ProbableMaximumPrecipitation
Probablemaximum precipitation depthsfor drainagebasinsin the United Statesare
providedin the respectiveNational WeatherServiceHMRs2oidentified in Fig. 16.2.
The probablemaximum stormis deflnedasthe most severestorm consideredreason-
ably possibleto occur.The resultingprobablemaximumflood is customarilyobtained
by usingunit hydrographsand rainfall estimatesof the PMP preparedby the National
rily'eather
Service2l(seeFigs. 16.6 and 16.26).
EVENTMETHODS 393
16.5 CRTTTCAL
ON 400 miz
POINTTO MEANRAINFALL
TABLE16.10 RATIOOF MAXIMUM
Mean rainfall(in.)
Rainfallperiod
(hr) 1.0 1.5 2.O 2.5 4.0 5.0
5% Probabilitylevel ratios
(Storms with extreme variation in intensity)
0.5 5.20 3.00 2.r8 1.70 r.4r 1.30 t.26 1.22
1 5.50 3.21 2.29 1.80 1.48 1.35 1.30 1.25
2 5.80 3.38 2.44 1.90 1.55 1.41 r.33 r.28
3 6.05 3.54 2.53 1.99 1.61 1.46 r.36 1.30
6 J.t I 2.69 2.r2 r.72 1.52 1.43 1.35
l2 4.01 2.86 2.25 1.83 1.60 1.50 1.40
18 4.14 2.96 2.33 1.90 1.65 1.54 1.43
)4 4.27 3.05 2.40 1.96 r.69 1.57 1.45
48 3.25 2.55 2.08 1.77 1.63 1.50
50% Probabilitylevelratios
(Stormswith averagetimedislributions)
0.5 2.66 2.02 1.5'1 1.32 1.22 1.16 |.14 l.l2
I 3.03 2.r5 1.65 L39 r.27 1.20 1.18 1.16
L 3.46 2.29 r.75 1.46 1.32 1.24 Lzr 1.19
3 3.77 2.42 1.85 1.52 1.38 t.28 1.23 t.22
6 2.59 1.98 r.63 r.43 1.33 r.28 1.26
12 2.78 2.12 r.75 1.50 r.39 1.32 1.30
l8 2.89 2.20 1.81 1.57 1.43 1.35 1.32
JA 3.00 2.28 1.87 1.60 1.47 1.38 1.33
48 3.r7 2.44 ,1.99 .1.68 1.53 r.46 1.38
95%Probability levelratios
(Stormswith uniformintensities)
0.5 2.38 1.53 r.28 1.18 r.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
I 2.75 1.72 1,38 1.23 1.20 l.l7 1.15 1.r4
2 3.15 1.90 1.47 1.28 1.24 1.20 1.18 1.16
J 3.46 2.02 1.53 1.33 1.27 1.22 r.20 1.18
6 2.24 t.67 r.43 1.31 1.27 1.24 1.21
t2 2.50 1.78 1.50 1.38 1 . 3I 1.28 1.25
l8 2.67 1.89 1.53 r.4l 1.33 1.30 1.27
)4 2.77 1.92 1.58 r.43 1.35 t.32 1.29
48 3.07 2.04 r.64 r.47 1.40 1.36 1.33
Sorrce.'After Huff.lr
A proposedmethodto estimatePMP advocatedby Hershfield2lsuggeststhat the

24-hr PMP at a point be computedby the equation
PMP24:P*KS, (16.1)
where PMPZ : the 24-hr probablemaximum precipitation
. F : the meanof the 24-hr annualmaximumsover the period of record
, K: a constantequalto 15
& : the standarddeviationof the 24-hr annual maximums
Adjustmentsto the value of F and S, for the record length are noted by Hershfield.
However, for appraisalpurposesthese adjustmentsprobably will not significantly
alter resultsmore than 5-10 percent.
DESIGN
\ ,/ \\ - - - - -20.1(3)
-"..- I
\ zo.t /
Figure16.26 Twenty-four-hour2000-mi2 ptvtp(in.). (1) Alexandria,

LA,
June13-17,1886.(2)Eautaw,AL, April 15-18,1900.(3)Elba,AL, March
l1- 16,1929.(4) Yankeetown,
FL, September 3=7, 1950.(5) Altapass,NC,
July13-17,1916.(6)Jefferson,
OH,September 10-13,1878.(AfterRef. 18.)
The U.S.Bureauof Reclamationunderwentconsiderableevaluationof its design

criteria for new damsand for safetyevaluationof existingdams,following the Teton,
Idaho, dam failure in 1976.The policy adoptedfor modification of existingdamsis
first to determinewhether they will accommodatethe peak dischargeof the PMF
without overtopping.In addition, the dam and appurtenantfeaturesmust accommo-
dateat leastthe first 80 percentof the PMF volumewithout failure. For embankment
dams,failure is assumedto occur if overtoppinglevelsare reached.
Recordedbdremes-Creager, and Crippenand Bue

EnvelopeCurves
Where frequency-basedmethodsof PMP/PMF studiesare unwarranted,designfor
critical eventscanbe basedon the greatestrecordedrain or flood flow for the location.
Similarly, tablesor curvesof flood data can be developedto give the maximum floods
of record in the region under study; seeCreagerflood envelopecurvesinFig. 16.27.
16.5 CRITICALEVENT METHODS 395
10.000
5,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
500
300
$ zoo
q? 100
s 0
ii JU
20 o 048-11
= {6gtrQs9ae
10
5
3
2
I
N-h o R 9 -3 ' 8 8 8 8 8 3 8 3 o o o o o
I i;;". .N 6
6
-A o o o o o
* N o h o
Drainage area (mi2)
Figure 16.27 Creagerenvelopecurves: O peak inflow for Harza Projects; 'recorded

unusualflood discharges.(1) Congo at Inga, Congo.(2) Tigris at Samarra,Iraq. (3)
Caroni at Guri, Venezuela.(4) Tigris at Eski Mosul, Iraq. (5) Jhelumat Mangla, Pakistan.
(6) Diyala at DerbendiKhan, Iraq. (7) GreaterZab at Bekhme,Iraq. (8) Surinameat
Brokopondo,Suriname.(9) LesserZab at DokenDam,Iraq. ( 10)PearlRiver,U.S"A.(11)
Cowlitz at Mayfield, U.S.A. (12) Cowlitz at Mossyrock,U.S.A. (13) Karadj, Iran.
(14) Agno at Ambuklao,Philippines.(15) Angat, Philippines.(16). Tachien,Formosa.
(Nole.'Curves taken from Hydroelectric Handbook, by Creagerand Justin. New York:
Wiley, 1950.)
In cases where estimates of PMP have not been made. volumes of rainfall to be
expected can also be approximated from Creager rainfall envelope curves of the world
record rainfalls as depicted in Fig. 16.28. Maximum flood flow data for 883 sites up
to 25,900 sq km formed the basis for the Crippen and Bue envelope equation given by
: A)31
6rlosA+caGogA)2+ca(log (16.2)
4o lgfc r+
where qo is the maximum flow (m3/sec),A is the drainage area (sq km) and the
coefficientsare from Table 16-11 usingFigure 16.29.
StandardProjectStorm
The standardproject stormis anotherrainfall depththat is usedin the designof large
dams. This value is usually obtainedfrom a survey of severestormsin the general
vicinity of the drainagebasin. The storm selectedas the SPS may be oriented to
produce the maximum amount of runoff for the SPF. Alternatively, severestorms
experiencedin meteorologically"similar" areascan be transposedover the study
atea.
2000
1
1000
600 A
400
200
/:fr>y%^"1", ndia
? 1oo
g ffi"*"[,,"1,
runkiKO , Formo t a -
anlalca
; 6 0 Fr-
aquio, Pldl .ppineIr landr
s 4 0 Ihra]l, TX
imethport, I A -
& 2 0 -n"irpfii,W
10 t-L{
lHoit,MO-
--J-f-1-
reaDe Arses, Bglqeqla
6 I Plumb. -
?oint,Jamaica I | |
2
4
IT
ft-
ri--ftTl- t-
ssen, Bal
I Unionville \4d. 9t2 24

2 4 6810 20 4060 3 6 t2 24 5 10 2030
+.>+/>
Hours DaYs Months
j Dulatron
Figure16.28Creagercurvesofworld'sgreatestrainfalls.(AfterRef.18')
FOR CRIPPENAND BUE PEAK DISCHARGE

TABLE 16,11 COEFFICIENTS
ENVELOPECURVES
Coefficients
Fig.16.29
c1 c2 c3 c4
Region Upperlimit(sqkm)
-.0394382 -.002975'7
I 26000 3.203865 .8049163
.74'72908 - . 0 5 5 1 7 8 0 -.0000965
2 7800 3.4'10923
.8443r24 -.0642062. -.0021362
3 26000 3.330746
.8906783 -.0870959 .0022803
4 26000 3.258400
.796472r -.0899000 .0022'744
5 26000 3.126412
.9123848 -.1013380 .00496r4
6 26000 3.500489
'7 .8503960 -.0998'74'7 .0042129
26000 3.326333
.9193289 -.0947436 .0029486
8 26000 3.236183
.8054884 -.0890172 ,0018961
9 26000 3.503734
1.0386350 -.059'7463 -.0042542
10 2600 3.314692
.8867450 -.102053s .0045531
11 26000 3.231389
.8806263 -.0747598 .0000138
12 18100 3.596209
.8519276 -.1094456 .0058948
26000 3.461373 -.0038285
IJ
.64'727rO -.0252243
I4 26000 3.07349'l -.00s7110
.9718339 -.0617496
15 50 3,451746
-.0649503 -.0034'776
16 2600 3.s65536 .9699340
.9445212 - . 0 6 7 8 1 3 1 -.002'7647
26000 3.389030
.0244991 -.0192899
L I
Nationwide 2600 3.743026 .7918884

..Maximum Flood flows in The ConterminousUnited States,''U.S.G.S
Source: AfIer Crippen,J. R., and C. D. Bue,
WaterSupPlYPaPer1887, 1977.
3 F r
o 6'* *
! o F F
k c : o o ll
6 -
S B (hE +
u) r
N
+
f O h 6 + i h n
o $ i o N
Q E ( o d d i r d d r ;
e a e 6
h n
d
n
N O N N
n h n
6
oa
Fcr
3 .* @'a q q q q q
@ n h a r
F * 9 - : . f + d r
,'! o
r r r @ r
i O O i O
A
FA g 3
" ' o * = v
: < = x x x
Y Y Y - - !s
E
O a ' o ^
o 6.?f) o + s o @
6 h n o
Jjas5
b.E 9-
q g 8d' @ + d r
* @ d
$
N
:! o F
O N N O O
> o 9
g o i n
f E a ^ N O O N 6
J = = z + rd ro; + \c;-;
* E - d i r
E
= ^^
d
N i h O
o o d s
E o e*v 9 r d o i v i . j
d
F< a' 6 N r o n
r 6 h o
;
; s H o+ + . . , j . . l 6
. L ( E v
- : d N i
= E ^
* E 5 oq i i : E
E E e
N d c n N d
6
t
r
Eec' o 6 n h n
n n d l q d l ^ ^ ^ -
o d
- . o o c^ \ \ 9 n
-
E= P- E* =' E 9 d O @ d
* : f + $ h
F 6 - o r
4 . 2
E PF a
tr E g-
\ q c t \ q
N h o o a
g ?
@ 9 0
6 I 3 = - o * < i d
. E X
E . Eg J + s o { 6
E o =
6 Pu "
* h h o s
n n r i
* O
i * 6 6 5
. E o g S t r r t 1 9
J @ E d * o o I
i * * i 6
t r F F {
o ^ N : O O A E 5 5 - E d
c + o
408 DESIGN
i:::\
V:
including storm
Figure 16.36 Children's artist rendering of urban undergroundsysteT,
A 1976 by David Macaulay.Reprintedwith per-
driins. From UNDERGROUND,Copyrighl
missionof HoughtonMifflin Co' Al1 rights reserved'
and
detention in gutters, house drains, catchbasins,and the storm sewer systems,
interceptionin extensivelylandscapedlocations'
Two items normally accountedfor in urban storm drain designare:
many
1, Infil,tration. The ability of the soil to infiltrate water dependson
given
characteristicsof the soil as noted in chapter 3. The rangeof values
in the following table is typical of variousbare soils after t hr of continuous
rainfall'
RATEs
rvircnr- |NFILTRATIoN
Soilgroup (in./hr)
Infiltration
High (sandy,oPen-structured) 0.50-1.00

Intermediate(loam) 0.10-0.50
Low (clay,close-structured) 0.01-0.10
The influenceof grasscover increasesthesevalues3 to 7'5 times'

16.8 FLOODPLAINANALYSIS 409
2. Retention This is usually assumedto be 0.10 in. for pervioussurfacessuch

as lawns and normal urban pervious surfaces'
Developmentof hydrologicparametersfor designof storm sewerpipes, street

gurrers,or detentionbasinsis by the rational method(or modified rational rnethod-
iee Chapter25) when peak flow ratesand approximatehydrographsare adequate,or
unit hydrographand kinematic wave hydrographsynthesismethodswhen greater
detail is needed.The latter usually involveuseof public domainor vendor-developed
stormwaterdesignsoftware.The hydrologicaspectsof computerizedhydrologicde-
text'
signtools are deiailedin Chapter25. In addition to the material presentedin this
descriptionsof usesof the rational method, modified rational method, ILLUDAS'
TR-sj, SWMM, DR3M, and other tools in designingurban storrrtdrainagefacilities
are addressedin numerousurban drainagedesigntextsand handbooks.Additionally,
many statedepartmentsof transportationor city and county engineer'soffices have
developedtocattyapplicabledrainagedesignmanuals.As well, the American Society
i'model" drainagedesignmanual for local adapta-
of Civil Engineeishas developeda
tion, availableby contacting ASCE in New York. Finally, the discussionof urhan
"shopper'sguide" to urban drainageanalysis
modelsin Chaptlr 25 includesa useful
and designsoftware.
16.8 FLOODPLAIN ANALYSIS
Due to heavymonetary and other floodplainlossesover the years,the federalgovern-

ment hasbeenconductingstudiesof floodplainsof the nation's waterwaysand meth-
. ods of protecting life und prop"tty and pieventing overdevelopmentthat causesin-
in
creasedwater levelsand more widespreadflooding. Hydrology is a key ingredient
these studies for identifying potential flow rates, studying effects of dams, open
channels,and.otherwater control structureson hydrographsand determiningvolumes
of floodwatersthat will needto be safelystoredand conveyedby the waterwaysand
floodplains.
U.S.NationalFlood lnsuranceProgram(NFIP)
In 1968, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development(HUD), later
to
called the FederalEmlrgency ManagementAgency (FEMA), initiated the NFIP
identify flood hazard areasand to provide occupants of floodplains with mapping of
the flood-proneareasand accesstolorv-costflood insurance'The NFIP requireslocal
gou"rn-"nt5, to adoptand implementflood managementprogramsthat preventdevel-
opmentsin excessof national standards'
Since the inception of the National Flood InsuranceProgram, flood hazatd
The
areas have been mapped in over 18,000 communities in the United States.
programcost over $t.O Uittion to complete and has since converted to a maintenance
effort of updating and expandingthe maps as developmentsoccur'-Each of these
for
studieshas required eithei approximateor detailedevaluationof peak flow rates
discharge, called the base flood, has
a range of recurrenceintervals. The 100-year
beendeterminedin all cases.The portion ofthe floodplainoccupiedby the baseflood
4'10 oHAPTER
16 HYDRoLoGIc
DESIGN
has been mapped,allowing communitiesto determinewhether a property is in the
100-yr floodplain,and in many cases,what water surfaceelevationwould be experi-
encedat the property during the baseflood.
Figure 16.37illustratesthe typical NFIP mappingand floodplainmanagement
procedure.Surveyedvalley and channelcross-sectionsare used in determiningthe
100-yr flow depth, allowing the hydrologistto delineatethe lateral extentof flooding
duringthe 100-yrflood. Then afloodwaywidth is generallydeterminedasthat portion
of the floodplain that is reservedin order to dischargethe 100-yearflood without
cumulativelyincreasingthe water surfacemore than 1.0 ft. This procedureis illus-
trated in Fig, 16.38.The floodwayis most often centeredover the main stream
channel,but can be offset or even split into severalzones.
Developmentwithin the floodwayis allowed only if compensatedby relocating
the floodway or mitigating the water surfaceincreasedue to the development.The
flood fringe is that portion of the floodplain outsidethe floodwayin which develop-
ment is allowed,up to a point of full encroachmentby buildings,roadbeds,berms,and
so forth. As much as sevento ten percentof the total land area of the United States
lies within the 100-yearfloodplain.The largestareasof floodplainare in the southern
parts of the country, and the most populatedfloodplainsare alongthe north Atlantic
coast,the GreatLakesregion,and in California.
The floodplain mapping effort produced a large amount of data and analyses
useful to designhydrologists.The productsof the program include:
1. The 10-, 50-, 100-, and 500-yearfrequencydischargefor streams.

2. The 10-, 50-, 100-,and 500-yearflood elevationsfor riverine,coastal,and
lacustrinefloodplains.
Floodway
Flood Fringe Flood Fringe
_ ',100_year"Floodplain
i
I
I
Channel
Figure 16.37 Definition sketchof floodplain delineations.

16,8 FLOODPLAINANALYSIS 411
100Year FloodPlain
Floodway Flood Fringe
Encroachment
the floodwaywidth'
for determining
Figure 16.38 Procedure
3.The100-and500-yearmappedfloodplaindelineationsatscalesranging
from 1:4800to 1:24,000'
4. The 100-yearfloodwaydata and mapping'
wave haz-
5. Coastalhigh hazard irea mapping 1*"u* subjectto significant
ards).
6. FloodwaYflow velocities'
7. Insurancerisk zones'
This information is provided in the form of three products:
|.FloodlnsurancestudyReportsprovidegeneralprogramandcommunity
floodway
backgroundinformation,tauutateaflood dischatgedata,tabulated.
surcharge information' tabu-
datalncluding velocity, floodwaywidth, and
of the 10-' 50-' 100-' and
lated flood insurance'zonedati, and profi'les
for riverine flooding'
500-yearflood elevationversusstreamdistances
of the 100-
2. Flood InsuranceRateMaps (FIRM maps)provide delineations
and500-yearfloodplains,basefloodelevations'coastalhighhazardareas'
andinsuranceriskzonesonaplanimetricbaseatascalebetweenl:4800
and 1:24,000.
3.FloodBoundaryHazardMapsprovidedelineationsofthel00-and500-
crosssections
yearfloodplains,locationsof surveyedfloodplainand channel
of the floodway
100-year on a
usedin hydraulic analyses,and delineations
1:4800and 1:24'000'
planimetricor topographicbaseat a scalebetween
HydrologYfor FloodPlainStudies
NFIP studiesare basedon
Flood flow frequency estimatesfor gaugedlocationsin
records.Annual peak
log-pearsonType III (seechapter 27; analysisof streamflow
recommendedby FEMA'
flows and historical data arcfitted accordingto procedures
412 CHAPTER16 HYDROLOGIGDESIGN
For ungaugedlocations,flood flow frequency'estimatesare developedthrough

regionalfrequencyanalysisor throughrainfall-runoff modeling.Equationspublished
by the U.S. GeologicalSurveyrelatepeak dfschargesof variousfrequenciesto various
drainagebasincharacteristicssuchassize,slope,elevation,shape,andland use.These
equationsare developedusing multiple regressiontechniques(see Chapter 26) at
gaugedsitesthroughoutthe region.
Rainfall-runoff modelingtechniques(Chapter24) use syntheticrainfall hyeto-
graphs.Storm-eventmodels, such as the Corps HEC-I and SCS TR-20 packages,
employdesignstormsof particular frequenciesand then mathematicallysimulatethe
physical runoff process.The resulting peak dischargeis assumedto have the same
frequencyas the rainfall.
U.S.Flood Hazards
Despiteconsiderableeffort and expenditurein identificationof floodplainsand flood
hazardareas,dam failuresand other catastrophiescontinueto resultin severedamage
to life, property, and the environment.Floods from hurricanes,intenserainstorms,
and rapid snowmelt or structure failure have all contributed to the loss of life. A
tabulationof eventscausingmore than 100 deathsin the United Statesis providedin
Table 16.15. As indicated, the majority are hurricane related, principally concen-
trated in the east-coastand Gulf of Mexico regionsas sfown in Fig. 16.39.
Monetary lossesfrom floodsare also large.Table 16.16showsa numberof past
U.S. floods producingover $50 million in flood damageseach,given in 1966dollars.
Collectively, these floods have produced flood dam4gesin billions of dollars, dis-
tributed through the yearsas shown in Fig. 16.40. I
The Federal InsuranceAdministration evaluatedthe floodplain areas in the
communitiesmappedby FEMA. By using demographicand economicinformation,
projectionsof future property at risk of flooding could be made.Results.suggest that
billions of investments in flood damageable property have occurred in floodplains.
Table 16.17lists the breakdown,by state,of estimated1990 developmentvalue that
will be in harm's way.
Dam Break Hazards

.-"-fabir- 16.18lists the outflow rates,peak depth, and storageat the time of failure for
'
18 significantdam failures in the United States.The death rate for dam failures is
relatedto the polpulation at risk (PAR). This term describesthosepeoplewho would
need to take someaction to avoid the rising water.
Figures 16.41 and 16.42showthe lossesas functions of PAR for low (lessthan
1.5 hr) and high (greater than 1.5 hr) advancewarning times, respectively.The
high-warning-timelossesare significantlyless.This strongly supportsthe incorpora-
tion of early warningand flood delayfeaturesin the designof any structure.Data used
in plotting Figs. 16.41 and 16.42 are given in Table 16.19.
Table 16.20providesa typical time line requiredfor alerting downstreamresi-
dentsof a severestorm and potential dam failure. The valuesgiven are hypothetical,
and apply to an assumed15-mi reach betweenthe storm center and the populated
atea.
SUMMARY 413
TABLE 16.15 FLOODSCAUSING1OOOR MOREDEATHSIN THE

UNITEDSTATES
Streamor place Lives lost Cause

Year
1831 BaratariaIsle, LA 150 Hurricane tidal flood

1856 Isle Derniere,LA 320 Hurricane tidal flosd
ConnecticutRiver tributarY t43 Dam failure
1874
Indianola,TX 176 Hurricane tidal flood
1875
Sabine,TX 150 Hurricane tidal flood
1886
1889 Johnstown,PA 2t00 Dam failure
Vic. GrandIsle,'LA 2000 Hurricane tidal flood
1893
PuertoRico 3000 Hurricane tide and waves
1899
Galveston,TX 6000+ Hurricane tidal flood
1900
Central States 100+ Rainfall-river floods
1903
HePPner,OR 247 Rainfall-river floods
1903
Gulf coast 151 Hurricane tidal flood
1906
Gulf coast-New Orleans 700 Hurricane tidal flood
1909
Miami, Muskingham,and Ohio Rivers 46'7 Rainfall-river floods
1913
Brazos River, TX 177 Rainfall-river floods
1913
Louisianaand TexasGulf coast 550 Hurricane tidal flood
1915
Louisianaand TexasGulf coast 284 Hurricane tidal floo<l
l9l9
Upper ArkansasRiver t20 Rainfall-river flood
l92l
Miami and Clewiston,FL 350 Hurricane tidal and river flood
1926
Lower MississiPPiRiver 100+ Rainfall-river floqd
1927
Vermont t20 Rainfall-river flood
1927
Puerto Rico 300 Hurricane tide and waves
1928
Lake Okeechobee,FL 2400 Hurricane tidal flood
1928
San Francisco,CA 350 Dam failure
1928
,))\ Hurricane tide and waves
1932 PuertoRico
Florida KeYs 400 Hurricane tidal flood
1935
RePublicanRiver, KS, NE 110 Rainfall-river flood
1935
NortheasternUnited States ro7 Rainfall, snowmelt-river fl oods
1936
Ohio River 137 Rainfall-river flood
1937
New Englandcoast 200 Hurricane tidal and river flood
1938
NortheasternUnited States 115 Hurricane rainfall-river floods
1955
Westcoast,LA 556 Hurricane tide and river floods
195'l
PuertoRico r07 Hurricane rainfall-river floods
1960
Buffalo Creek, WV t25 Dam disaster
1972
' 245 Rainfall
1972 RaPid.Creek,SD
t1976 Big Thompson,Co r39 Rainfall
414 CHAPTER DESIGN
16 HYDROLOGIC
Figure 16.39 Number

by state of major hurri-
canesin the United States,
I 899-1989.(Soarce.'Na-
tional Hurricane Center,
National WeatherService,
NOAA.)
Figure 16.40 Average

annual flood damagesin
the U.S., 1916-85.
(Source:National
WeatherService,NOAA.) Damages
Damages (1985 $)
Damages/200 million population (1985 $)
rg2o 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 8s
Last Yearof five'YearPeriod

TABLE 16.16 FLOODSRESULTINGIN DAMAGESEXCEEDING$50 MILLION
IN THE UNITEDSTATES
Damage($ millions)
Streamor place dollars 1966 Dollars

Contemporary Cause
Year
N.A." 1,161 Rainfall-river flood
t844 Upper MississiPPiRiver
.A 84 Dam failure
1889 Johnstown,PA
25 100 Hurricane tidal floods
1900 Galveston,TX
25 273 Rainfall and dam failure
1903 Passaicand DelawareRivers
50 N.A, Rainfall-river flood
1903 Missouri River basin
150 516 Rainfall-river flood
1 9 1 3 Ohio River basin
t28 349 Hurricane rainfall-river floods
t913 Brazos and ColoradoRivers, TX
t3 64 Rainfall-river flood
1921 ArkansasRiver '7rl
130 Hurricanetidal and river floods
1926 Miami and Clewiston,FL
N.A, ]I Rainfall-river floods
t926 Illinois River
1927 New England
284 N,A. Rainfall-river flood
1927 Lower MississiPPi
50 90 Hurricane tide and waves
1928 Puerto Rico
1935 Susquehannaand DelawareRivers
374 Rainfall-river flood
r936 NortheasternUnited States zzl
150 3tl Rainfall- snowmelt fl ood
t936 Ohio River basin
1937 Ohio River basin
125 3'76 Hurricanetidal and river floods
1 9 3 8 New England sffeams
100 294 Rainfall-river floods
1938 California streams
t942 Mid-Atlantic. coastalstreams
172 N.A. Rainfall-river floods
1943 Central states
63 rt7 Huriicane tidal and river floodb
1944 South Florida
1944 Missouii River basin
1945 Hudson River basin
54 98 Hurricane tidal and,rivet floods
1945 South Florida
34 6l Rainfall-river floods
60 88 Hurricanetidal and river floods
1947 South Florida
t947 Missouri River basin
to2 226 Rainfall-river floods
1948 Columbia River basin
57 Rainfall-river floods
1950 San JoaquinRiver, CA
1 9 5I KansasRiver basin
180 N.A. Snowmeltfloods
1952 Missouri River basin
1952 Upper MississiPPiRiver
1954 New England streams
684 879 Huiricane tidal and river floods
1955 NortheasternUnited States
1955 California and Oregonstreams
1957 Texas rivers
lt4 r20 Rainfall-river floods
78 86 Hurricanetidal and river floods
1960 South Florida
1 9 6 1 Texascoast
32s 3+Z Hurricanetidal and river floods
1964 Florida
1964 Ohio River basin 106 r12 Rainfall-river floods
t'73 183 Rainfall-river floods
1964 California streams
289 3lL Rainfall-river floods
1964 Columbia River -North Pacific
r39 144 Hurricanetidal and river floods
t965 South Florida
158 r62 Rainfall-snowmelt river flood
1965 Upper MississiPPiRiver
19l N.A, Rainfall-river floods
1965 Platte River, CO, NE
1965 ArkansasRiver, CO, KS
322 338 Hurricane tidal flood
1965 New Orleans and vicinitY
,N.A. : not available.
Source:IJ.S.WaterResourcesCouncil, 1968.
TABLE 16.17 ESTIMATEDPROPERryVALUEAT RISKFROMFLOODING,
ORDER.BASEDON 1990COSTS
RANKEDIN DECREASING
Rank State Propertyvalue,X $1000
1 California 163,323,1,92
2 Florida 131,548,814
3 Texas 72,376,950
Louisiana 45,402,322
5 Arizona 45,094,183
6 New Iersey 38,945,265
7 New York 32,005,900
8 Illinois 26,880,755
9 Massachusetts 23,8t3,115
l0 Pennsylvania 18,888,390
tl Virginia 17,441,420
12 Maryland 16,330,448
13 Washington t6,245,009
L4 Ohio t5,273,r47
15 Michigan 13,449,078
16 North Carolina 12,993,067
l7 Wisconsin 12,r8r,725
18 Georgia 11,832,494
1,9 Connecticut tt,1r7,290
20 Missouri 11,654,861
2l Indiana r0,786,741
22 Minnesota 10,655,t64
z3 Nebraska 10,360,574t
/)A
Oklahoma 9,501,778
25 Alabama 9,274,903
26 South Carolina 9,220,305
2'7 Tennessee 8,037,425
28 Colorado 7,137,757
29 Oregon 6,861,790
30 Mississippi 6,134,073
3l New Mexico 5,519,278
JZ Kansas 5,279,t94
33 Iowa 5,26r,678
3+ RhodeIsland 4,312,117
35 Kentucky 4,r70,637
36 North Dakota 3,924,872
3 t Urah 3,812,936
38 Nevada 3,437,813
39 Arkansas 3,005,rs0
40 Delaware 2,954,467
4I Maine 2,416,322
4) West Virginia 2,098,262
43 New Hampshire t,991,453
44 South Dakota 1,430,610
4f Idaho 1,39t,498
46 Hawaii 1,323,90s
47 Vermont 1,091,099
48 Wyoming 1,081,460
49 Montana 881,661
50 Alaska 647,81,8
"status of Floodplain Hazard Evaluation Under the National Flood Insurance Program,"
Source: B. R. Mrazik,
Emergency ManagementAgency, Washington,DC, 1986.
_ fed9r91
17.3 SUBSURFACE DISTRIBUTIONOFWATER 429
locations it has become more important than overdrafts of groundwater
supplies.
Today,the hydrologistmust be concernedwith both the qualitli and quantity
aspecrs
of groundwater.Furthermore, there is emerging an increasing specialization
in
groundwaterquality modeling.This latter type of modelingis ge;erally
beyondthe
scopeof this text but information on this topic may be founOin'Refs. j-6.
17.2 GROUNDWATER
FLOW-GENERALPROPEFTIES
Understandingthe movementof groundwaterrequiresa knowledgeof
the time and
spacedependencies of the flow, the nature of thJporous medium and fluid, and the
,boundariesof the flow system.
Groundwaterflowsareusuallythree-dimensional.Unfortunately,the solution
of
suchproblemsby analytic methodsis complexunlessthe systemis symmetric.7,8
In
othercases,spacedependencyin oneofthe ioordinate direciions.uy 6"
so slightthat
assumptionof two-dimensionalflow is satisfactory.Many problemsof practical
im-
portancefall into this class.Sometimesone-dimensional flow can be assumed,thus
further simplifying the solution.
Fluid propertiessuchas velocity, pressure,temperature,density,and vis6osity
often vary_intime and space.When timi dependencyoccurs,the issueis
termed an
unsteadyflow problem and solutionsare usually difficult. On the other hand,
situa-
tions where-spacedependencyaloneexistsare iteady
flow problems.Only nomoge-
neous (single-phase)fluids are consideredhere. For a discussionof muliiple phase
flow, Refs.5 and g are recommended.
Bou-ndaries to groundwaterflow systemsmay be fixed geologicstructuresor free
water surfacesthat are dependentfor their position on the stateol the flow. A hydrol-
ogistmust be ableto definetheseboundariesmathematicallyif the groundwater
flow
problemsare to be solved.
Porousmedia through which groundwatersflow may be classifiedas isotropic,
anisotropic,heterogeneous, homogeneous, or severalpossiblecombinationsofthese.
An isotropic medium has uniform properties in all directions from a given point.
Anisotropic mediahaveone or more propertiesthat dependon a given diiection.
For
example,permeabilityof the medium might be greateialong a horizontal plane
than
alonga vertical.one.Heterogeneoas mediahavenonuniform-propertiesof umrotropy
or isotropy, while homogeneous media are uniform in their ihaiacteristics.
17.3 SUBSURFACE
DISTRIBUTION
OF WATER
4; sotLs,ANDGEoLocy
cHAprER17 GR.,NDWATER,
l. Soilwater zone.A soil water zonebeginsat the ground surfaceand extends
downward through the major root band. Its total depth is variable and
fi',,nH#,:?'l*?,T#*.Ji'.i,'"1:f,
:ffi::J;
,:'##l":ff
l;"lhr?ff
may be encounteredin this region: hygroscopicwater, which is adsorbed
from the air; capillary water, held by surfacetension; and gravitational
water, which is excesssoil water draining through the soil'
2. Intermediatezone.This belt extendsfrom the bottom of the soil-watetzone
to the top of the capillary fringe and may ghangefrom nonexistenceto
severalhundredfeet in thickness.The zoneis essentiallya connectinglink
between a near-ground surface region and the near-water-tableregion
' through which infiltrating fluids must pass.
3. Capiltary zone. Acapillary zoneextendsfrom the watertable (Fig.I7 '2) to
a height determinedby the capillary rise that can be generatedin the soil.
The capillary band thicknessis a function of soil textureand may fluctuate
not only from region to region but also within a local area.
4. Saturatedzone. In the saturatedzone, groundwaterfills the pore spaces
completelyand porosity is thereforea direct measureof storagevolume.
Part of this water (speciflcretention) cannot be removedby pumpirygor
drainagebecauseofmolecular and surfacetensionforces.Specificretention
is the ratio of volume of water retained againstgravity drainageto gloss
volume of the soil.
Waterthat can be drainedfrom a soil by gravity is known as the specificyield.

It is expressedasthe ratio of the volumeof waterthat can be drainedby gravity to the
grossvolumeof the soil. Valuesof speciflcyield dependon the soil particle size,shape
and distribution of pores, and degreeof compactionof the soil. Averagevaluesfor
alluvial aquifersrange from 10 to 20 percent. Meinzer and others have developed
proceduresfor determiningthe specificyield.12
CONSIDERATIONS
17.4 GEOLOGIC
The determinationof groundwatervolumesand flow ratesrequiresa thoroughknowl-
edgeof the geologyof a groundwaterbasin.In bedrock areas,hydrologiccharacteris-
tics of the rocks,that is, their location,size,orientation,and ability to storeor transmit
water,mustbe known. In unconsolidatedrock areas,basinsoften containhundredsto
thousandsof feet of semiconsolidated to unconsolidatedfill depositsthat originated
from the erosionof headwaterareas.Suchfllls often contain extensivequantitiesof
storedwater. The characteristicsof thesebasin fills must be evaluated.
A knowledge of the distribution and nature of geohydrologicunits such as
aquifurs,aquifugis, andaquicludesis essentialto proper planningfor developmentor
managementof groundwatersupplies.In addition,bedrockbasinboundariesmustbe
locatedand an evaluationmadeof their leakagecharacteristics.
An aquifer is a water-bearingstratumor formation that is capableof transmit-
ting waterin quantitiessufficientto permit development.Aquifers may be considered
17,4 GEOLOGICCONSIDERATIONS 431
P^^L
...u,ritlge Discharge
arc?
area
E]
F
(/)
a
TT]
F
F
zp
(b)
Figure 17.2 Deflnition sketches of groundwater systems and mechanisms for

rechargeand withdrawal: (a) aquifernotationt0and (b) componentsofthe hydrologic
cycleaffectinggroundwater. II
as falling into two categories, confined and unconfined, depending on whether a water
table or free surface exists under atmospheric pressure. Storage volume within an
aquifer is changed whenever water is recharged to, or discharged from, an aquifer. In
the case of an unconfined aquifer this may easily be determined as
AS:SIAV (17.1)
432 CHAPTER17 GROUNDWATER,SOILS,AND GEOLOGY
where AS : the changein storagevolume

S, : the averagespecificyield of the aquifer
AV : the volumeof the aquiferlying betweenthe original watertable andthe
water table at somelater specifictime
For saturated, confined aquifers, pressure changes produce only slight
modificationsin the storagevolume. In this case,the weight of the overburdenis
supportedpartly by hydiostatic pressureand somewhatby solid material in the
uqoif"t. When hydrostaticpressurein a conflned aquifer is reducedby pumping or
othermeans,theioad on the aquiferincreases,causingits compression,with the result
that somewateris forced out. Decreasingthe hydrostaticpressurealsocausesa small
expansion,which in turn produces an additional releaseof water. For confined
aquifers,water yield is expiessedin terms of a storagecofficient S", definedas the
volumeof wateian aquifei takesin or releasesper unit surfaceareaof aquiferper unit
changein head normal to the surface.Figure 17.2 illtstrates the classificationsof
aquifers.
In additionto water-bearingstrataexhibitingsatisfactoryratesofyield, thereare
also non-water-bearingand impermeablestratathat may contain large quantitiesof
water but whosetransmissionrates are not high enoughto permit effectivedevelop-
ment. An aquifugeis a formation impermeableand devoidof water; an aquicludeis
an imPerviousstratum.
In the following three chapters,the mechanicsof groundwaterflow and the
elementsof groundwatermodelingwill be introduced.The techniquespresentedall
dependon a=knowledgeof the physical systemto be modeled.Before a numerical
model can be developed,a conciptual framework must be devised.This framework
must take into accountthe region's topographyand geology;the types of aquifers,
their thickness,lateral extent,boundaries,lithological variations,and characteristics;
the nature and extent of rechargeand dischar_ge areas,their rates of dischargeand
recharge;and the elevationof the water table''
Topography
To understandhow a groundwatersystemoperates,it is essentialto know something
aboutthe region's surface.A topographicmap shouldbe compiledshowingall surface
water bodies,including streami, iakis, and artificial channelsand/or ponds,as well
as land surfacecontours.Furthermore,an inventory of pumping wells, observation
wells, and explorationwells shouldbe madefor purposessuchas identifying types of
soilsand rocks,pinpointingdischargelocationsandrates;and determiningwatertable
elevations.
SubsurfaceGeologY
The geologicstructureof a groundwater'basin governsthe occurrenceand movement
of the grirndwater withinlt. Specifically,the number and types of water-bearing
formations, their vertical dimensions,interconnections,hydraulic properties, and
outcrop patternsmust be understoodbefore the systemcan be analyzed.uOnce the
subsuriaceconditions have been identified, contour maps of the upper and lower
SUMMARY 433
boundariesof aquifers,watertable contourmaps,and mapsof aquifercharacteristics
can be prepared.Well-drillers logs, experimentaltest wells, and other geophysical
explorationmethodscan be usedto obtakr the neededgeologic data.s-e'13'14
17.5 FLUCTUATIONS
IN GROUNDWATER
LEVEL
Any circumstancethat alters the pressureimposedon undergroundwater will also
causea variation in the groundwaterlevel. Seasonalfactors,changesin stream and
river stages,evapotranspiration,atmosphericpressurechanges,winds, tides,external
loads,various forms of withdrawal and recharge,and earthquakesall may produce
fluctuationsin the water table level or piezometricsurface,dependingon whetherthe
aquifer is free or confined.eIt is important that an engineer concernedwith the
developmentand utilization of groundwatersuppliesbe awareof thesefactors.The
engineershould also be able to evaluatetheir importance relative to operation of a
speciflcgroundwaterbasin.
17.6 GROUNDWATER-SURFACE
WATERRELATIONS
Notwithstandingthat water resourcedevelopmenthas often been basedon tL pr"-
dominantuseof either surfacewateror groundwater,it mustbe emphasizedthat these
two componentsof the total water resource are interdependent.Changesin one
componentcan havefar-reachingeffectson the other. Coordinateddevelopmentand
managementof the combinedresourceare critical. Linkage betweensurfacewaters
and groundwatersshouldbe investigatedin all regionalstudiesso that adverseeffects
can be noted if they exist and opportunitiesfor joint managementunderstood.
In Part Three it was shown how surface stream flows are sustainedby the
groundwaterresource,and it was also pointed out that groundwatersare replenished
by infiltration derived from precipitation on the earth's surface.
Undergroundreservoirsare often extensiveand can serveto store water for a
multitude of uses.If withdrawalsfrom thesereservoirsconsistentlyexceedrecharge,
mining occursandultimate depletionof the resourceresults.By properly coordinating
the use of surfacewater and groundwatersupplies,optimum regional water resource
developmentseemsmost likely to be assured.Several studiesdirected toward this
coordinatedusehavebeeninitiated.r5'16
r Summary
The importance of groundwaterto the health and well-being of humans is well
documented.Groundwateris a major sourceof freshwaterfor public consumption,
industrial uses, and the irrigation of crops. For example, more than half of the
freshwaterused in Florida for all purposescomes from groundwatersources,and
about 90 percent of that state'spopulation dependson groundwaterfor its potable
watersupply.The needto husbandthis resourceis clear.Quantity and quality dimen-
sionsare both important.
4g4 CHNPTENTZ GROUNDWATER,SOILS,AND GEOLOGY
Groundwaterprotectionandmanagementpracticesmustbebasedonanunder.
groundwateris^distributed
standing of groundwatersources,the rianner in which
soil characteristicsof the region'
below the earth's surface,geologic,topogiaphic,and
andtheinterconnectionsbetweengroundwaterandsurfacewatersources.
REFERENCES
"Ground Water,"Mech'Eng' (Jan' 1960)'
1 . J. G. Ferris, ..GrouniwaterProtection," Final Report of the National
L. The Conservationrounoaiion,
GroundwaterPolicy Forum, Washington,D'C'' 1987'
p"rru.u, diUiu- G' Gray' and Gegpe-F Pirltder'.Groundwater
E. F. Wood, Ra'ymonde.
CoitaminationfromHazardousWastes'EnglewoodCliffs'NJ:Prentice-Hall'1984'
in the United States.
;. ffi;;; R'pu,ri"t, unJ f. euurt" s, Grouidwater Contarnination
ehitadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress' 1983'
R.A.FreezeandJ.A.Cir"..y,Groundwater'EnglwoodCliffs'NJ:Prentice-Hall'19'19'
of llydrology' New York: McGraw-Hill' 1993'
D. R. Maidment (ed.), ii"aLook ,,Niurnerical
J. Boonstraand N. A. O" nlJa"r, Modeling of GroundwaterBasins,"Interna-
The Netherlands'1981''
tional Institute for Land Reclamationand Improvement'
Wiley' 1965'
R. J. M. DeWiest,Geolrydrology'New York:
Wiley' 1960"
D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology' New York:
..croonowu# n"gi#, of the United States," GeologicalSurvey water
R. c. Heath,
Supply PaperNo. 22a2' iishiniton, D'C-: U'S' GovernmentPrinting Office' 1984'
proteciion "The Report to Congress:^Waste DisposalPrac-
1 1 . U.S. Environmentat ig"""y,
summary'U'S' EPA' PB 265-364'
tices and Their Eft'ectson Groundwater,"Executive
1977.
States,"U'S' Geological
tz. o. E. Meinzer, "The occurrence of Groundwaterin the united
Survey,Water-SupplyPaperNo' 489'"A 1923'
1 3 . H. H. Cooper, Jr. and i. n. lacoU, GeneralizedGraphical Method -for Evaluating
Trans'Am' Geophys'Union
Formation constants una so*-u.izing well-Field History,"
27, 526-534(1946).
"Outline of Methodsfor EstimatingCrounlw11e1fupplies"' U'S' Geolog-
1 4 . O. E. Meinzer,
D C:' 19?2-
ical Survey,Water-SupplyPaper638-C, Washington'
"Conjurrliu" Op"tution of Dams and Aquifers"' Proc' ASCEJ' Hyd' Div'
1 5 . Nathan Buras,
S9(HY6) (Nov. 1963).
16. F'B.Clendenen,..AComprehensivePlanfortheConjunctiveU{ilizationofaSurface
water SupplyDevelopment:Solano
Reservoirwith undergroun'Js,orug" for Basin-wide 1959.
project california,,, po.to. oi Eni thesis,university of california, Berkeley,
Chapter1B
Mechanicsof Flow
r. Prologue
i I
Presentthe principlesof groundwaterflow.
I Describesoil propertiesthat affect groundwaterstorageand movement.
. Describethe relevanthydrodynamicequations.
. Relatethe mechanicsof groundwaterflow to modelingregional groundwater
systemsand calculating flows to wells and other groundwater collection
devices.
18.1 HYDROSTATICS
Water locatedin pore spacesof a saturatedmedium is under pressure(calledpore
pressure),which cin be determinedby insertinga piezometerin the mediumat a point
of interest.If LocationA (Fig. 18.1)is considered,it can be seenthat pore pressure
is given by
P:h"l
(18.1)
where p : the pore pressure(gaugepressure)

h o : the headmeasuredfrom the point to the water table
v : the specificweight of water

Pore pressureis consideredpositive or negative,dependingon whetherthe pressure
headis measuredabove(poJitive)or below (negative)the point under consideration.
If an arbitrary datum is established,the total head or piezometric head abovethe
datum is
Po:Z'th (18.2)
wherePois known as the piezometricpotential. In Fig' 18.1 this is equal to ho 1- 7o

for poiniA in the saturatedzone andza - h6forPointB in the unsaturatedzone.The
43r.
436 CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
Figure 18.1 Definitionsketchshowinghydrostaticpres-

suresin a porousmedium.
Iermh"is the pore pressureof A while -hu denotestensionor vacuum(negative,pore

pressure)at B.
FLOW
18.2 GROUNDWATER
Analogiescan be drawn betweenflow in pipesunder pressureand in fully saturated
confinid aquifers.The flow of groundwaterwith a free surfaceis also similar to that
in an open channel.A major differenceis the geometryof a groundwatersystemflow
channel as compared with common hydraulic pipe flow or channel systems'The
problem "un eutily be recognizedby envisioninga dischargingcross section com-
posedof a numbei of small openings,eachwith its own geometry,orientation, and
iir" ,o that the flow velocity issuingfrom eachpore varies in both magnitudeand
direction. Difflculties in analyzingsuch systemsare apparent. Computations are
usually basedon macroscopicaveragesof fluid and medium propertiesover a given
cross-sectional area.
Unknown quantitiesto be determinedin groundwaterflow problemsare density,la
pressure,and velocity if constanttemperatureconditionsare assumedto exist'r In
general,water is consideredincompressible,so the number of working variablesis
ieduced.An exceptionto this is discussedlater relative to the storagecoefficientfor
a confined aquifei. Primary emphasishere will be placed on the flow of water in a
saturatedporousmedium.
18.3 DARCY'SLAW
Darcy's law for fluid flow through a horizontal permeablebed is statedas'
O: - K A dh
- (18.3)
dx
LAW
18.3 DARCY'S 437
where A : the total cross-sectionalareaincluding the spaceoccupiedby the

porous material
K : the hydraulic conductivity of the material
Q: the flow acrossthe control areaA
In Eq. 18.3
h : z *
P-+c (18.4)
v
where h - the piezometrichead
the elevationabovea datum
p : the hydrostaticpressure
C _ an arbitrary constant
If the specificdischargeS = QIA is substitutedin Eq. 18.3,
q: -K*(,.t) ( 18 .s )
,
Note that 4 also equalsthe porosity n multiplied by the pore velocity Vo.Darcy's law
is widely used in groundwaterflow problems.Severalapplicationsare illustrated in
later sections.
No is definedherein as
PQd (18.6)
No:
lL
where q : the specificdischarge
d : the mean grain diameter
P : fluid densitY
p : dynamic viscositY
For many conditions of practical importance (zones lying adjacent to collecting
devicesare an exception),Darcy's law has been found to apply'
Of specialinterestis the fact that the Darcy equationis analogousto Ohm's law
' : (*)u (18.7)
where i:thecurrent
R : the resistance
E : the voltage
current and velocity are analogous,asareK andI f R, andE anddhldx.The similarity
of the two equationsis the basis for electric analog models of groundwaterflow
svstems.2'3
I
EXAMPLE 18.1
:
Water temperaturein an aquifer is 60'F and the rate of water movement t .2 ft I day.
The averageparticle diameterin the porous medium is 0.08 in. Find the Reynolds
number and indicate whetherDarcy's law is applicable.
. Solution. Equation 18.6 gives the Reynoldsnumber as
X*:#
This may also be written as
qd
N--'
t)
From TableA.2 in Appendix A, o is found to be 12l X 10-s ft2lsec.Converting

the velocity4 into units of ftlsec gives4 : I.2/86,400 : 1.39 X 10-5' The
meangrain diameterin ft : 0.08/12 : 0.0067.Substitutingthesevaluesin the
equation,we obtain
r.39x10-sx0.0067
Nn:
1 . 2 1X 1 0 - s
0.0077
SinceN,, < 1.0,Darcy's law doesapply' rl
18.4 PERMEABILITY
The hydraulic conductivity K is an important parametrthat is often separatedinto
two components,one related to the medium, the other to the fluid. The product
k:Cdz (18.8)
can be written
X:4 (18.e)
lL
Dimensionsof intrinsic permeability areL2. Sincevaluesof k given asft2 or cm2

are extremelysmall, a unit of measureknown as the darcy has beenwidely adopted.
1 darcy : 0.987 x 10-s cm2 or 1.062x l0-1r f*
Severalwaysof expressinghydraulic conductivity are reportedin the literature.
The U.S. GeologicalSurveyhasdefinedthe standardcoefficientof permeabilityK" as
- the nunber of gallons per day of water passingthrough 1 ft2 of medium under a
" If Eqs. 18.46 are substitutedinto Eq. 18.50,then
(18.s2)
#o;+frat:o
The total differential dry'is equal to zero,and ry'must be a constant.A seriesof
curves {(r, y) equalto a successionof constantscan be drawn and will be tangentat
all points to the velocity vectors.Thesecurvestrace the flow path of a fluid particle
and are known as streamlinesor flowlines. An important property of the stream
function is demonstratedwith the aid of Fig. 18.2. Consider the flow crossinga
vertical sectionAB betweengfueamlines definedas f1 and tltr.lf the dischargeacross
the sectionis designatedas Q, it is apparentthat
n:r,' udy ( 1 8.s 3)
f*t
Q : I d,t' (18.s4)
J,t,^
and
Q:Qt-Q, (18.55)
Equation 18.55illustratesthe important property that flow betweentwo streamlines

is ionstant. Streamline spaclngreveals the relative magnitudesof flow velocities
betweenthem. Higher valuesare associatedwith narrower spacings,and vice versa.
The curvesin Fig. 18.2 designatedas @rand Q,, calledeqaipotentiallines, ate
determinedby velocity potentials Q@, y): constant. These curves intersect the
flowlines at right angles,illustrated in the following way. The total differential d@is
given by
a 0 ,+ a + ,
d0: frdx (18.s6)
fidt
substituting for terms aslax and 0Q/sy their equivalentsu and o gives us
udx-lody:O (18.s7)
and
dy u
(18.58)
dx t)
Thusequipotentiallineqarenormalto flowlines.Therystemsf flowlinesandequipo-

tentiallinesformsa flow net.
18.8 BOUNDARYCONDITIONS 447
'
One significantpoint of differencebetween{ and ry'functionsis that equipoten-
tial lines exist only when the flow is irrotational. For two-dimensional flow the
condition of irrotationality is said to exist when the z componentof vorticity (. is
ZA[O; Ot
t,: (x-,4): o (18.se)
Proof of this is givenby Eskinazi.6substitutingforu and o in Eq. 18.59in termsof

@,we obtain
'
d-Q _ a26:0 (18.60)
6xdy EY0x
This indicatesthat when the velocity potential exists,the criterion for irrotationality
is satisfied.
Once either streamlinesor equipotentiallines in a flow domain are determined,
the other is automaticallyknown becauseof the relations in Eq. 18.48.Thus r
r: [(X*- H,o.) (18.61a)
and
- H*)
r: [(Xo. (18.6lb)
It is enough then to determineonly one of the functions, since the other can be
obtainedusing relationsEqs. 18.61aand 18.61b.The complexpotentialgiven by
(r8.62)
Of
where l, the squareroot of -1, is widely used in analytic flow net analyses'a's
specialimportanceis the fact that
y2w:V26+iYzt1r:g (18.63)
satisfiesthe conditions of continuity and irrotationality simultaneously.

Equations presentedin this section have been limited to the case of two-
dimensional flow. Extension to three dimensionswould be obtained in a similar
fashion.
CONDITIONS
18.8 BOUNDARY
surfaces).
Impervious boundariesmay be artificial objects zuch as.concretedams, rock
strata,oi soil stratathat arehighiy impervious.In Fig' 18.3the imperviousboundary
AB representssucha limit. Sinceflow cannotcrossan imperviousboundary,velocity

componentsnormal to it vanishand the imperviousboundaryis a streamline.In other
words,at the boundary,V : constant.
Next look at the upstreamface of the earth damBC. At any point of elevation
y along BC the pressurecan be assumedhydrostatic,or
p:y(h-y) (18.64)
The definition of a velocity potential statesthat
o' : - * \( vz *' r/ )* . (18.65)
Substitutingfor pressurein Eq. 18.65yields
o:-*l *r]*t (18.66)

and
6:-Kh+C (18.67)
Thusfor a constantreservoirlevelh andan isotropicmedium,

d : constant
and surfaceBC, often termed a reservoir boundary, is an equipotentialline.
The free surfaceor line of seepageCD in Fig. 18.3 is seento be a boundary
betweenthe saturatedand unsaturatedzones.Since flow doesnot occur acrossthis
boundary,it is obviouslyalso a streamline.Pressurealong this free surfacemust be
constant,and thereforealong CD
6 + Ky: constant (18.68)
This is a linear relation in $, and therefore equal vertical falls along CD must be
associatedwith successiveequipotential drops. One important groundwater flow
problem is to determinethe location of the line of seepage.
The surfaceof seepageDE of Fig. 18.3 representsthe location at which water
seepsthrough the downstreamface of the dam and trickles toward point E. The
pressurealongDE is atmospheric.The surfaceof seepageis neither a flowline nor an
equipotentialline.
ImPervious laYer
Figure 18.3 Some common boundary conditions.

18.9 FLOWNETS 449
18.9 FLOWNETS
Flow nets, or graphicalrepresentationsof families of streamlinesand equipotential
lines, are widely used in groundwaterstudies to determine quantities, rates, and
directions of flow. The use of flow nets is limited to steadyincompressibleflow at
constant viscosity and density for homogeneousmedia or for regions that can be
compartmentalizedinto homogeneoussegments.Darcy's law must be applicableto
the flow conditions.
The mannerin which a flow net canbe usedin problem solvingis bestexplained
with the aid of Fig. 18.4. This diagram showsa portion of a flow net constructedso
that eachunit b.oundedby a pair of streamlinesand equipotentiallines is approxi-
mately square.The reasonfor this will be clear later.
A flow net can be determinedexactly if functions Q and $ are known before-
hand.This is often not the case,and as a result, graphicallyconstructedflow nets are
widely used. The preparation of a flow net requires application of the concept of
square elementsand adherenceto boundary conditions. Graphical flow nets ard
usually difficult for a beginnerto create,but with reasonablepractice an acceptable
net canbe drawn.Variousmechanicalmethodsfor graphicalflow net constructionare
presentedin the literature and are not discussedhere.5'e
After a flow net hasbeenconstructed,it can be analyzedusingthe geometryof
the net and by applylngDarcy's law.
Rememberingthat h : p/y + z, we find thatFig' 18'4 showsthat the hydraulic
gradient G2betweentwo equipotentiallines is given by
o r:x (18.6e)
Then by applyingDarcy's law, in the mannerof Todd,2the flow incrementbetween

adjacentstreamlinesis
Lq: '*(*) (18.70)
whereLm representsthe cross-sectionalarea for a net of unit width normal to the

plane of the diagram. If the flow net is constructedin an orthogonalmanner and
h- Ll
Equalpotential lines
(0 = constant)
Lm
r d "
Qz
Figure 18.4 Segmentof an orthogonalflow net.

composedof approximatelysquareelements,
Lm: L,s and Lq = K Lh (18'71)
Now if there are n equipotentialdrops betweenthe equipotentiallines, it is evident

that
h
Lh: -
IL
sections
wherc his the total headloss over the n spaces.If the flow is divided into m
by the flowlines,then the discharge per unit width of the medium is
o:iu:Y (r8.72)
when the medium's hydraulic conductivityis known, the dischargecan be computed

using Eq. 18.72 and a knowledgeof flow net geometry'
Where the flow net has a iree surfaceor line of seepage,the entranceand exil
of these
conditions given in Fig. 18.3 are useful. A more comprehensivediscussion
conditionsis given in Ref. 10.
Some trouble arisesin flow net construction at locations where the velocity
according
becomesinfinite or vanishes.Suchpoints are known assingularpoints and
to De'Wiestmay be placed in three separatecategories.a In the first classification
flowlines and equipotentiallines do not intersect at right angles'Sucha situationoften
occurswhen a boundarycoincideswith a flowline; PointA in Fig. 18.5is-anelamnl-e.
The secondclassificationhas a discontinuityalongthe boundary that abruptly
such
changesthe slope of the streamline.In Fig. 18.6 PointsA, B, and c represent
B it is zero'
discontinuities.At PointsA and c the velocity is infinite, while at Point
flow
If the angleof discontinuitymeasuredin a counterclockwisedirection insidethe
The angle
field is le-ssthan 180o,the velocity is zero; if larger than 180o'it is inflnite'
atA is 270",for examPle.
net'
The third categoiyincludesthe casewherea sourceor sink existsin the flow
of the flow net
Under these circumstancesthe velocity is infinite, since squares
Line of seepage
Tangent
Surface of
seepage
tt
a<90o,0<90"
(a) ft)
(After
Figure 18.5 Some entranceand exit conditions for the line of seepage'
Casagrande.lo)
18..!O VARIABLEHYDRAULICCONDUCTMry 451
Figure 18.6 Flowlineslopediscontinuities'

approach zero sizeas the source or sink is approached.Wells and rechargewells
'
representsinks and sourcesin a practical senseand are discussedlater.
CONDUCTIVITY
18.10VARIABLEHYDRAULIC
It is commonfor flow within a porousmedium of one hydraulic conductivityto enter
another region with a different hydraulic conductivity. When such a boundary is
crossed.flowlines are refracted.The changein direction that occurs can be deter-
mined as a function of the two permeabilitiesinvolved in the manner of Todd and
DeWiest.2'a Figure 18.7illustratesthis.
consider two soils of permeabilitiesK, and K, which are separatedby the
boundary lR shown in Fig. 18.7. The directions of the flowlines before and after
crossingthe boundary are definedby angles0, and 0r'
Figure 18.7 Flowline refraction.

" For continuity to be preserved,the velocity componentsin media K, and Kt,

which are normal to the boundary,mustbe equal,sincethe cross-sectionalareaat the
boundaryis AB for a unit depth.UsingDarcy's law and noting the equipotentialdrops
h" and hr, we flnd
o#cos
K,L*cos o' : u, - 92 (18.73)
From the geometry of the flgure it is apparentthat

AC : AB sin 0t
BD : AB sin 0z
The headlossbetweenA andB is shownon the figure to be equalto both Lh" andA,hu,
and sincethere can be only a singlevalue,
Lh": Ah6 |
in Eq. 18.73produces
Introducingtheseexpressions
K t _ K ,
(18.74)
tan 0, tan 02
For refractedflow in a saturatedporous medium, the ratio of the tangentsof
anglesformed by the intersectionof flowlineswith normals to the boundary is given
by the ratio of hydraulic conductivities.As a result of refraction, the flow net on the
K2 sideof the boundarywill no longerbe squaresif the equipotentialline spacingDB
is maintained.To adjust the net on the K2 side,the relation
Lhu Kl
( 18 .7s )
Lt%- It
can be usedwhere Lhb + Lh".
Equipotentiallines are also refractedin crossingpermeability boundaries.The
relation for this is
K, tan at
_ (18.76)
K2 tan a,
where a is the anglebetweenthe equipotentialline and a normal to the boundary of

permeability.a
18.11ANISOTROPY
In many caseshydraulic conductivity is dependenton the direction of flow within a
givenlayerof soil. This condition is saidto be anisotropic.Sedimentarydepositsoften
fit this aspect,with flow occurring more readily along the plane of depositionthan
acrossit. Where the permeability within a plane is uniform but very small acrossit
as comparedto that along the plane, a flow net can still be usedafter proper adjust-
ments are made. A discussionof this is given elsewhere.a's'11'12 Nonhomogeneous
18.12 DUPUIT'S THEORY 453
'sometimesbe analyzed by
aquifers require special considerationbut may Yslng
outsidethe scopeof this
representativeor averageparameters'A detailid study is
book.3-5'r2
THEORY
18.12DUPUIT'S
free surfacecan be analyzed
Groundwaterflow problemsin which one boundaryis a
flow. This theory is foundedon two
on the basis of Dupuit's theory of unconfined
ptptl in tgO:.t' First, if the line of seepageis only slightly
assumptionsmadeby
and, correspondingly,equlp:ten-
inclined, streamlinesr""y b" consideredhorizontal
slopes of the line of seepage tl"
tial lines will be essentiallyvertical. Second, -utfd
at" known to be satisfactorily
hydraulic gradient *r "fit. Whel fleld conditioos
to Dupuit's theory
representedby theseusru-ption*, the resultsobtainedaccording
"o'-pur"veryfavorablywiththosearrivedatbymorerigoroustechniques'
into a mathemdt-
Figure 18.8 is u,"fol in translatingthe foregoingassumptions
th" figut" which has a base'ateadx dy
ical statement.Consideran elementgiien in
the x direction and consid-
and a vertical height h,Writing the cJntinuity equaiionin
ering steadYflow to be the case,
(18.77)
infloqo : velocitSo X area,o
The velocity at x : 0 is given by Darcy's law as
,ro: _K* (18.78)
: 0 is
Thus the dischargeacrossthe elementat x
- K- - a h . d Y (18.7e)
Qo: *h
expansionas
The outflow at x = dx is obtainedby a Taylor's series
-K*.h aY\+ ' ' (18.80)
Qor: ,_ " + o-
-dv
Ax,.
_ _ *(-**n
..
6x\ dr
_
/
' Figure 1,8.8 Definition sketch for devel-

opment of DuPuit's equation'
Subtractingthe outflow from the inflow if K is consideredconstant,we obtain
I* - o,: K dxa,
" !(n*) tt*.
dx\ 6x/
or r,_ o.: rydr,A+fg)

'x
2 Ax\6x/
(r8.
wheredx anddy are consideredfixed lengths.A similar considerationin the y
tion yields
r,-o,:ryy*W) , (18
Assuminsthat thereis no movementin the vertical direction.theseare the
i componentsof the inflow and outflow.Furthermore,still dealingwith steadyflow,
; changein storagemust be zero. As a result, I
)
Kd:dy * Kd:dy : o
2
+fg)
lx\Ex / 2
*(#)
ay\6y /
o8
and since (K dx dy)12 is constant,this reducesto
A2h2
- r . Azhz
-:0
6x' 0y'
or Y 2 h z: 0 (18.
Consequently,. accordingto Dupuit' s assumptions,Laplace's equation for
functionh2 must be satisfied.la
In the particular casewhererechargeis occurring as a resultofinfiltrated
reachingthe water table, a simple adjustmentmay be made to Eq. 18.85. If
rechargeintensity(dimensionallyLT-t) is specifiedasR, thenthe total rechargeto
elementof Fig. 18.8 is R dx dy and the continuity equationfor steadyflow beco
*4!*(#.#).Rdxdy:s (18
or more simply,
v2h2+?o:o
Now, applyingDupuit's theory to the flow problem illustratedin Fig. 18.9,
assumingone-dimensionalflow in the x direction only, we obtain the discharge
unit width of the aquifer given by Darcy's law:
O: -Kh#
In this instanceh is the height of the line of seepageat any position x along
imperviousboundary.For the one-dimensionalexampleconsideredhere, Eq. 18
18.12 DUPUIT'STHEORY 455
fto=50ft
free surface
(b)
Figure 18.9 Steady flow in a porous medium between two

witer bodies: (a) free surface with infiltration and (b) free
surfacewithout infi ltration.
becomes
d 2h2
--;-;: (18.e0)
u
clx'
Upon integration,
h2:ax*b ( 18.e 1)
wherea andb are constants.
Then for boundarv conditions at x : O,h : hs,
b=ht (18.e2)
Differentiationof Eq. 18.91yields
^. dh = A ( 18.e 3)
Ztl';-
ax
-QIK. Making this substitution,we obtain
Also from Darcy's equation,h dhldx :
-2Q
o:-T- (18.e4)
and inserting the valuesof the constantsin Eq' 18.91,we obtain
h2=-2f*+nt (18,e5)
456 .CHAPTER18 MECHANICSOF FLOW
(often calledDupuit' s parabola)'
This is the equationof a free surface.It is a parabola
andonotingthat at * : L,
If the existenceof a surfaceof seepage.afBi. ignor.d,
h : hr, we f,nd that Eq. 18'95becomes
2QL (18.e6)
hL: _ x n ra
or (18.e7)
o
- = L2 o l-n?)
L'"
which is known as the Dupuit equation'
EXAMPLE 18.3
RefertoFig.ls.ga.GiventhedimensionsshownandarechargeintensityRof
: 1000 ft using Dupuit's equation'Assumerthat
0.01 ftlday, find the Oi."ft"tg" ut x
K: 8.
Solution. Note that
Q=n
dx
or
Q=Rxi.C
Atx:0,
.
Q: Qo
therefore,
Q: Rx -l Qo
Also,
- dh
Q -Kh=
nh
- oh Rx ' r Qo
i:
IntegratingYields
- Kh,l,,
: o*,il'
* o^*1, -"lo
2lo" 2lo
and inserting the limits, we obtain
-K(h'-Lh7):ry
o )
* QoL
L r
- K(h?- h'r) RL
1)^:----:----
z L 2
PROBLEMS 457
Then since Q : Rx + Qo,
K(h'^- h?\
o R(.
,)
+ -
2L
- . -
R 0 . 0 1 7 . 5 : 0.075gpd/ft2
-
o : 0.075(1000 _ soo)+ 8(50, 40r)
2000
0.075x 500 , 8 x 9 0 0
2000
3 7 . 5+ 3 . 6
4Ll gpdlftz T I
r summary
Understandingthe movementof groundwaterrequiresa knowledgeof the time and
space dependencyof the flow, nature of the porous medium and fluid, and the
boundariesof the flow system.In particular, groundwaterdevelopmentand manage-
ment dependon understandingthe storagepropertiesofthe associatedsoils and rocks
'
and the ability of thesesubsurfacematerialsto transmit water. Fundamentalto the
mechanicsof groundwaterflow is Darcy's law (Eq. 18.3).Usingthis equationalong
with a knowledgeof the hydraulic conductivity K, estimatesof flow can be had. The
hydrodynamicequationspresentedin this chapter serve as models for a variety of
groundwatgrflow calculations.Applications are given in Chapters19 and 20.
PROBLEMS'
18.1. What is the Reynoldsnumber for flow in a soil when the water temperatureis 55oF,
the velocity is 0.5 ftlday, and the mean grain diameteris 0.08 in.?
18.2. The water temperaturein an aquifer is 60'F, the velocity is 1.0 ftlday. The average
particle diameterof the soil is 0.06 in. Find the Reynoldsnumberand indicatewhether
Darcy's law applies.
18.3. ReworkProblem 18.2assumingthe temperatureis 65"F and the velocity is 0.8 ftlday.
18.4. A laboratory test of a soil gives a standardcoeff,cientofpermeability of 3.8 x 102
gpdlft2.If the prevailingfield temperatureis 60"F,find the field coefficientof perme-
ability. "
18.5. ReworkProblem 18.4 assumingK" is 3.8 x r02 gpd/ft2and the temperatureis 65'F.
18.6. Given the well and flow net datain the following flgure, find the dischargeusinga flow
net solution.The well is fully penetrating;K : 2.87 X 10-4 ftlsec, a: 180 ft,
b = 43 ft, and c : 50 ft.
18.7. ReworkProblem 18.6assumingK : 8.2 x 10-5 mlsec,a: 85 m, b : 2l m, and
c:26m.
Stagnation flowline
5
4
3
2
Axis of I
symmetry -1
-2
-3
/
18.8. ReworkProble1 m8 . 6 a s s u m i nKg: 8 ' 4 X 1 0 - 5m l s e c , a : 1 0 0 m ,b : 2 2 m , a n d

c:35m.
18.9. A stratum of clean sand and gravel 15 ft deep has a coefficient of permeability of
K : 3.25 X 10-3 ftlsec, and is suppliedwith waterfrom achannelthat penetratesto
the bottom of the stratum.If the water surfacein an infiltration gallery is 2 ft above
the bottom of the stratum.and its distanceto the channelis 50 ft, what is the flow into
a foot of gallery?UseEq. 18.97.
REFERENCES
1. Henri Darcy, Lesfontaines publiquesde la ville de Dijon. Paris: V. Dalmont, 1856.
2. D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology. New Yorkl V/iley, 1960.
3. William C. Walton, GroundwaterResourceEvaluation.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
4. R. J. M. DeWiest,Geohydrology.New York: Wiley, 1965.
5. M. E. Harr, Groundwaterand Seepage.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.
6. SalamonEskinazi,Principles of Fluid Mechanics.Boston:Allyn and Bacon,7962-
"Flow of Groundwater,"in EngineeringHydraulics (Hunter Rouse,ed.) New
7. C.E. Jacob,
York Wiley, 1950.
Chapter '1I
Wellsand Collection
Devices
r Prologue I
Thepurposeof this chapteris to:
. Presentmethodsfor calculatingconfined and unconfinedsteadyradial flow
toward a well.
. Describeproceduresfor dealingwith unsteadygroundwaterflow conditions.
. Describea method for estimatingflow to an infiltration gallery.
Groundwateris collectedprimarily by wells, althoughinfiltration galleriesare some-

times usedwherethe circumstancesare appropriate.tOutflows from natural springs
are also amenableto collection,but once thesewatersexit the ground, they become
surfaceflows and are handled as such. Wells are holes or shafts, usually vertical,
excavatedin the earth for the purpose of bringing groundwater to the surface.
Infiltration galleriesarehorizontalconduitsfor interceptingand collectinggroundwa-
ter by gravity flow. Problemsof groundwaterflow to wells and infiltration galleries
can be solvedby applyingDarcy's law. ,
19.1 FLOW TO WELLS
A well systemcan be consideredas composedof three elements-the well structure,

pump, and dischargepiping.2The well itself containsan open sectionthrough which
waterentersand a casingto transportthe flow to the ground surface.The open section
is usually a perforatedcasingor slottedmetal screenpermitting waterto enter and at
the sametime preventingcollapseof the hole. Occasionally,gravel is placed at the
bottom of the well casingaround the screen.
When a well is pumped,wateris removedfrom the aquiferimmediatelyadjacent
to the screen.Flow then becomesestablishedat locationssomedistancefrom the well
in order to replenishthis withdrawal. Becauseof flow resistanceoffered by the soil.
a head loss results and the piezometric surfaceadjacent to the well is depressed.
producinga coneof depression(Fig. 19. 1), which spreadsuntil equilibriumis reached
and steady-stateconditions are established.
19.2 STEADYUNCONFINEDRADIALFLOW TOWARDA WELL 461
Impervious
Figure 19.1 Well in an unconfinedaquifer.
The hydraulic characteristicsof an aquifer (which are describedby the storage

coefficient and aquifer permeability) can be determinedby laboratory or field tests'
The three 111ort "o111*onlyusedfield methodsare thp applicationof tracers,the use
of field permeameterr,uni aquiferperformancetests.3A discussionof aquiferper!o.r.
mancetestsis given here alongwith the developmentof flow equationsfor wells.2'a's
Aquifer performancetestsmay be either equilibrium or nonequilibriumtests.In
an equilibrium testthe coneof depressionmustbe stabilizedfor a flow equationto be
derived.For a nonequilibriumtesithe derivationincludesa condition that steady-state
conditionshavenot beenreached.Adolph Thiem publishedthe first performancetests
basedon equilibriumconditionsin 1906.6
RADIALFLOWTOWARDA WELL
19.2 STEADYUNCONFINED
Q: hrxYKrfi (le.1)
where 2rrxy : the areathrough any cylindrical shell, in ft2 with the well as its
. axis
Kr: the hydraulic conductivity (ftlsec)
dyfdx : the water table gradient at any distancex
Q: the well discharge(ft'lsec)
Integratingover the limits specified,we find that
f,2 r.. fo,
Il -gYr : 2rrK1ly ay (re.2)
Jt n Jhl
462 CHAPTER19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
2rrKr(h2z- h?)
Q n f12 _ 2
( 1e.3)
- ^ - g
and o : nKr(hi hl) (te.4)

ln(rr/r1)
converting K, to the field units of gpdlftz, Q to gpm, and ln to 1og,we can rewrite
Eq. 19.4as
1055Qlog(r2lrr)
------;-;----;;- (1e.s)
,ar:
" n;- ni
If the drawdownin the well doesnot exceedone half of the original aquiferthickness
ho,reasonable estimatesof Q or Krcanbe obtainedby usingEq.19.4 or tr9.5,even
if the heighth, is measuredat the well peripherywhere1L: r*, the radius of the well
boring.
EXAMPLE 19.1
An 18-in. well fully penetratesan unconfinedaquifer of 100-ft depth.Two observa:
tion wells located100 and 235 ft from the pumpedwell areknown to havedrawdowns
of 22.2 and 21.ft, respectively.If the flow is steady and K1 : 1320 gpdlft2, what
would be the discharge?
Solution. Equation 19.4 is applicable,and for the given units this is
K(h?- h?)
Q :
1055Iog(r2/r1)
=
log(r2/r') rwQ35l1'00) :0.37rlt
hz: 100-21=79ft
ht= 100- 22.2: 77.8ft
t32O(792- 77.82)
Q : 1055x 0.37107
634.44gPm lr
RADIALFLOWTOWARDA WELL
19.3 STEADYCONFINED
The basic equilibrium equationfor a confined aquifer can be obtainedin a similar
manner, using the notation of Fig. I9.2. The sameassumptionsapply. Mathemati-
cally, the flow in ft3lsecis found from
o : 2nxmXr!
"dx
(1e.6)
Integrating,we obtain
h"-h,
O:2rrK'm
" :#
(re.7)
ln\r2/h)
.I9.4 WELL IN A UNIFORMFLOWFIELD 463
--12+l
Figure 19.2 Radialflow to a well in a confinedaquifer.
The coefficient of permeability may be determinedby rearrangingEq. 19.7 to the

form
- -_ 528Q log(rz/r'\
nr (1e.8)
*&; h)
where Q : gpm
K f : the permeability (gpd/ft')
r , h : ft
EXAMPLE 19.2
Determinethe permeabilityof an artesianaquiferbeingpumpedby a fully penetrating
well. The aquifer is 90 ft thick and composedof medium sand. The steady-state
pumpingrate is 850 gpm. The drawdownof an observationwell 50 ft awayis 10 ft;
in a secondobservationwell 500 ft awayit is 1 ft.
Solution
52SQroe?Jr')
Kf:
m(h2 - h')
528 x 850 x log 10
90x(10-1)
: 554gpdlfr2 rl
FIELD
19.4 WELL IN A UNIFORM"FLOW
For a steady-statewell in a uniform flow field wherethe original piezometricsurface

is not horizontal, a somewhatdifferent situation from that previously assumedpre-
vails. Consider the artesian aquifer shown in Fig. 19.3. The heretofore assumed
circular area of influencebecomesdistortedin this case.A solution is possibleby
applyingpotentialtheory,by usinggraphicalmeans,or, if the slopeof the piezometric
surfaceis very slight, Eq. 19.7 may be employedwithout seriouserror.
Original
piezometric
surface
Figure 19.3 Wellin a uniformflow fieldandflow net definition'
. Figure 19.3providesa graphicalsolutionto a uniform flow field problem.First,

an ortholgonalflow net consistingof flowlines and equipotentiallines must be con-
structed.This shouldbe done so that the completedflow net will be composedof a
number of elementsthat approachlittle squaresin shape.Once the net is complete,
if can be analyzedUy consideringthe net geomtry and using Darcy's law in the
manner of Todd.3
EXAMPLE 19.3
Find the dischargeto the well of Fig. 19.3by using an applicableflow net. Consider
the aquiferto be 35 ft thick, 4 : i.65 x 1d-4 fps, and other dimensionsas shown'
Solution. UsingEq. 18'72,we find that
n : * *n'
whereh:35*25:60ft
m : 2 X 5 : 1 0
, n:I4
3.65X10-4x60x10
t4
: 0.0156cfsper unit thlcknessof the aquifer
The total dischargeQ is thus
r r
Q : 0.0156 X 35 : 0.55 cfs ot 245 gPm
19.5 WELLFIELDS 465
19.5 WELL FIELDS
When more than one unit in a well fleld is pumped,there is a compositeeffect on the
free water surface.This consequence is illustratedby Fig. 19.4in which the conesof
depressionare seento overlap.The drawdownat a given location is equalto the sum
of the individual drawdowns.
If, within a particular well field, pumpingratesof the pumpedwells are known,
the compositedrawdownat a point can be determined.In like manner,if the draw-
down at one point is known, the well flows can be calculated'
If the drawdownat a given point is designatedas m, andsubscripts1,2, ' 'n
are usedto relate this drawdownto a particular well(e.g ., mt fefers to the drawdown
for I7,), for the total drawdownmr at somelocation'
n
sr : (1e.e)
lTlr: ^Z lTli
The numberof wells, their rate of pumping,and well-fieldgeometryand charac-

'
teristicsdeterminethe total drawdownat a specifiedlocation.
Again consideringEq. 19.4,we obtain
h3- h' : #*t"1 (1e.10)
lt can be seenthat the drawdownfor a well pumped atrate Q canbe computedif ho,
ro, and r are known. It follows then from Eq. 19.9 that for n pumped wells in an
unconfinedaquifer
h 3h- ' : 2 * . " ? ( 1 e .11)
Figure 19.4 Combinedeffect of pumping severalwells at equal rates'

where ho : the original height of the water table

h : the combined effect height of the water table after pumping n wells
Q, : the flow rate of the ith well r
foi : distance of the lth well to a location at which the drawdown is
considerednegligible
r, : the distancefrom well i to the point at which the drawdownis being
investigated
Todd indicatesthat valuesof rousedin practiceoften rangefrom 500 to 1000ft.3 The

impact of this assumptionis softenedbecauseQ inEq. 19.10is not very sensitiveto
16.Equation19.11shouldbe usedonly wheredrawdownsare relativd small.
For flow in a confinedaquifer the expressionfor combineddrawdownbecomes
n
h o - h : 2 =Q:, ,n'o' (r9.r2)

z1rKm f1
Equationsfor well flow covering a variety of particular well-field patternsare

reported in the literature.3'7Those given here are applicablefor steadyflow in a
homogeneousisotropic medium.
19.6THEMETHODOF IMAGES
Some groundwaterflow problems subjectedto boundary conditions negating the

direct useof radial flow equationscanbe transformedinto infinite systemsfitting these
equationsby applyingthe methodof images.2'8'e
When a streamis locatednear a pumped well and the streamand aquifer are
interconnected,the drawdowncurve of a pumpedwell may be affectedas shownin
Fig. 19.5. Another boundary condition often affecting the drawdownof a well is an
imperviousformation that limits the extentof the aquifer.The cone of depressionof
a pumpedwell is not affecteduntil the boundary is intersected.After that, the shape
of the drawdown curve will be changedby the boundary. Boundary effects can
frequently be evaluatedby meansof "image wells." The boundary condition is re-
placedby either a rechargingor a dischargingwell that is pumped or rechargedat a
rate equivalentto that of the pumpedwell. That is, in an infinite aquifer,drawdowns
of the real and imagewells would be identical.The imagewell is locatedat a distance
from the boundary equal to that of the real well but on the oppositeside(Fig. 19.5).
Streamsare replacedby rechargewells while impermeableboundariesare supplanted
by pumpedimagewells.Computationsfor the caseof a well and imperviousboundary
directly follow the proceduresoutlined under the sectionon well fields.For the well
and streamsystem,the rechargeimagewell is consideredto havea negativedischarge.
The headsare then addedaccordingto this sign convention.
The procedurefor combiningdrawdowncurvesof real and imagewells to obtain
an actual drawdown curve is illustratetl graphically for the example shown in
Fis. 19.5.More detailedinformationon othercasescan be found elsewhere.e'10
19.7 UNSTEADY FLOW 467
Cone of depressionof real well without sffeam
connectedto
Figure L9.5 Drawdown in a pumping well whose aquifer is
a stream'
FLOW
19.7 UNSTEADY
directly from
when a new well is first pumped, alargeportion of the dischargecomes
u.nder these circum-
the storagevolume releasedas the cone of depression_d91elons,
the yield of
stancesthe equilibrium equationsoverestimatepermeabilityandtherefore
is usually the situa-
the well. When steady-stateconditionsare not encountered-as
approaches can,be
tion in practice-a nonequilibrium gOgltlgl must be used' Two
method of C. V. Theis or a simplifiedprocedure suchasthat
taken,t^heratherrigorous
proposedby Dcob.l1'12
consideration
In tgjS treis publisheda nonequilibriumapproachthat takesinto
an analogybetween
time and storagecharacteristicsof the aquifer.ll His methoduses
flow to a well' The
heattransferdescribedby the Biot-Fouiier law and groundwater
boundary conditions'
method providesa solution to Eq. 18.41 for given initial and
constantthickness'
Application of the methodis appiopriatefor confinedaquifersof
of flow must be
For'use under conditions of unconhneOflow, vertical components
negligible,and changesin aquifer storagethrough water expansionand aquifer com-

pressionmust also be negligiblerelative to the gravity drainageof poresas the water
table drops as a result of pumping.l3
Theis statesthat the drawdown(s) in an observationwell locatedat a distance
r from the pumpedwell is given by
O f * " - o"
s : -4rrT ', (1e.13)
J, ;
in which Q : (constant) pumping rate (L3T-r units), Z : aquifer transmissivity
(LtT 'units), and a is a dimensionless
variabledefinedby
, ,s"
u : r--4tT (re.r4)
where r is the radial distancefrom the pumpingwell to an observationwell, S. is the
aquiferstorativity(dimensionless), and r is time. The integralin Eq. 19.13is usually
known asthewellfunctionof u andiscommonlywritten asW(u).It maybe evaluated
from the infinite series
a 1
w(u): _'0.577216
- ln u * u - =+ - + -]-- (1e.1s)
2x21 3x3l
Usingthis notation,Eq. 19.13can be written as
"( : -
Qw(u) (1e.i6)
4irT
The basic assumptiopsemployedin the Theis equation are essentiallythe sameas
thosein Eq.I9.7 exceptfor the nonsteady-statecondition. Some valuesof the well
function are given in Table 19.1.
In American practice,Eqs. 19.13 and 19.I4 commonly appearin the following
form,
rI4.6Qf* "-' ,
t: (re.r7)
, J,;o'
I . 8 71 2S "
,: n
(1e.18)
where 7 is given in units of gpd/ft, Q hasunits of gpm, and / is the time in dayssince
the start of pumping.
Equations19.13and 19.14canbe solvedby comparinga log-logplot of a versus
I4z(z)known as i type curve, with a log-1ogplot of the observeddatar2ft versuss. In
plotting type curves,W(u) ands are ordinates,z and rt ft areabscissas. The two curves
are superimposedand movedaboutuntil segmentscoincide.In this operationthe axes
must remain parallel. A coincidentpoint is then selectedon the matchedcurvesand
both plots marked.The type curve then yieldsvaluesof u and W(u) for the desired
point. Correspondingvaluesofs and r'ft aredeterminedfrom a plot ofthe observed
FLOW
1g7 UNSTEADY 469'
TABLE19.1 VALUESOF W(U}FORVARIOUSVALUESOF U

'L0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 9.0
2.0 3,0
-'
0.0011 0.00036 0,00012 0,000038 0.000012
XI 0.219 0.049 0 . 0 1 3 0.0038
0.70 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.26
x 10-r t.82 1.22 0.91
2.68 2.47 z,Jv 2.1,5 2.03 1.92
x 10-2 4.04 3.35 2.96
4.95 4.' 13 4.54 4.39 4,26 4.14
x 10-3 6,33 5.64 5.23
7.25 7,02 6.84 6,69 6.55 6.44
x 10-4 8.63 7.94 1.53
9.55 9.33 9.r4 8.99 8.86 8.74
x 10-5 10.94 t0.24 9.84
11 . 6 3 r1.45 rt.29 I 1.16 1l.04
x 10-6 t3.24 12.55 12.14 11 . 8 5
14.15 1.3.93 13.75 13.60 t3.46 13.34
x 10-7 15.54 14.85 14.44
16.46 16.23 16.05 15.90 t5.'16 15.65
x 10-8 17.84 t7,15 16.74
18.54 18.35 18,20 18.07 17.95
x 10-e 20.15 19,45 19.05 t8.76
20.84 20.66 20.50 20.37 20.25
x 10-10 aa A< 21.76 2 r . 3 5 2r.06
23.14 22,96 22.8t 22.67 22,5s
x 10-11 24.75 24.06 23.65 2 3 . 3 6
25.44 25.26 25.rr 24.9'1 24.86
x 10-t2 27.0s 26.36 25.96 25.67
27.97 27.75 27.56 2'1.41 27.28 27.16
x 10-13 29.36 28,66 28.26
30.05 29.8'7 29.71 29.58 29.46
x 10-14 31.66 30.97 30.56 30.27
32.35 32.1,7 32,02 31.88 3t.76
x 10-15 33,96 32.86 32.58
..Methodsfor Determinlng Permeability of water Bearing M.aterialswith Special Referenceto Dischargt.fig
Source: AfterL,K. Wenzel,
Washington'DC' 1942'
Well Methods," U. S. GeologiJSt.""V, W"t*-Supp-ly Paper 887'
values for
data. Inserting these values in Eqs. 19.13 and 1,9.1'4and,rearranging,
transmissibilityI and storage
"cancoefficientS" can be found'
often this procedure be shortenedand simplified' when r is small and t
in the seriesof
large, Jacobfound that valuesof u arc generallysmall'12Thus terms
and the expressionfor Zbecomes
fql te.tS bpyondthe secondonebecomenegligible
264Q(loet2 - log tt) (1e.1e)
'
h"- h
which can be further reducedto
264Q (re.20)
T _
Lh
: - n)lloe t' - log t')l
where Ah drawdownper log cycle of time l(ho
Q : well discharge(gPm)
ho,h : as definedinFig' I9.2
T : the transmissibilitY(gPd/ft)
- paper' The
Field data on drawdown(ho h) versust arc dtaftedon semilogarthmic
a straightline
drawdownis plotted on an arithmetic soale,Fig. 19.6. Thisplotforms
and
*to*" slopepermits computingformation constantsusing Eq' 1'9'20
0.3Tto
\^- : -r ' (1,9.2t)
obtainedthrough
with rothe time correspondingto zerodrawdown.Equation 19.21is
manipulationof Eq. 19'13.
, = t4 = 4e,8oo
sd/ft
r\too'
tl
II
I
Time since PumPing began (min)
Figure 1.9.6 Pumpingtest data, Jacobmethod.
EXAMPLE 19.4
Usingthe following data, find the formation constantsfor an aquiferusinga graphical
solution to the Theis equation.Dischargeequals540 gpm.
Distancefrom Average
pumpedwell, drawdown,
r (ft) 1 2/ t s (ft)
50 1,250 3.04
100 5,000 2.16
-
150 il,250 1,.63
200 20,000 r.28
300 45,000 0.80
400 80,000 0.51
500 125,000 0.33
600 180,000 0.22
700 245,000 0.15
800 320.000 0 .l 0
FLOW
19.7 UNSTEADY
1.0
0.9 't
0.8 | , I I
0.7 W(u)vs. u
o.o
? 0.s
E o.+
B
E 0.3
5 6 7 891x105
I rrzldav)
' Figure L9.7 Graphicalsolutionto Theis'sequation'
Solution.Plotsversusr2ftand}V(a)versusaasshowninFig.lg.T.Determine
Eqs' 19'7 and 19'8:-
the match point as noted and computeS" and Z using
lr4t6Q
T : w(u)
s
1 1 4 . 6X 5 4 0 -
: --18- ^ 1.9 : 91,860gpdift
c -----
uT
u"
1.87r'1t
_ 0.09x 91,860: 0,22 tr
1.87X 20,000
EXAMPLE 19.5
7"andstorage
of transmissibility
usingthedatagiv.enin Fig. 19.6,findthe_coefficient :
S, for an aquiflr, givenQ: 1000gprn andr 300ft'
coeffrcient
Solution.FindthevalueofAhfromthegraph,5.3ft.ThenbyEq.|9.20
- - Tx31000
2640 264
T: -ff:-
: 49,800gpd/ft
Using Eq. 19.21.,we find that

O.3Tto
s": r'
Note from Fig. 19.6 that ts : 2.6 min. Converting to days, we find q6il)ti-
becomes \--l
'
, 0 - 1 . 8 1x l b - ' d a y s
0 . 3 x 4 9 , 8 0 0 X 1 .X
81 0 - 3
and s": (3oo)'
: 0.0003 I T
EXAMPLE 19.6
Find the drawdownat an observationpoint 200 ft awayfrom a pumping well. Given
that T : 3.0 x 10a gpd/ft, the pumping time is 12 days,S" : 3 X 10-4, and
0 = 3oogpm,
Solution. From Eq. L9.L8,u can be computed,
x 104x l2l : 6.23x I}-s
u : u.87 x (200)'x 3 x L0-41113.0
Referringto Table 19.1 and interpolating,we estimateW(u) to be 9.1. Then,
using Eq. 19.17, the drawdownis found to be
s : [114.6x 9.1 x 300]/[3.0x 104]: 10.41ft rr
EXAMPLE 19.7
A well is beingpumpedat a constantrate of 0.0038 m3/s.Giventhat I : 0.0028m2ls,
r : 90 meters, and the storagecoefficient : 0.00098, find the drawdown in the
observationwell for a time period of (a) 1,000 sec.and (b) 20 hours.
Solution
a. Using Eq. 19.14,u canbe computedas follows,

u :190 x 90 x 0.000981/[4x 1000 x 0.0028]
u : 0.71
Then from Table 19.1,W(u) is found to be 0.36. Applying Eq. 19'16,the
drawdowncan be determined,
r : [0.0038 x n x 0.0028]
x 0.367114
s : 0.039m
b. Follow the procedureusedin (a)
' u : 1 9 0 x 9 0 x 0 . 0 0 0 9 8 1 / [x47 2 , 0 0 0 x 0 . 0 0 2 8 ]
a : 0.0098
Then from Table 19.1, W(u) is found to be 4.06 Applying Eq. 19'16,the
drawdowncan be determined,
s = [0.0038 x n x 0.00281
x 4.06]114
s : 0 . 4 4 m r r
19.10 FLOW TO AN INFILTRATIONGALLERY 473
1e.8LEAKYAQUIFERS
a_)
imper-
The foregoinganalyseshavedealtwith free aquifersor thosecopfinedbe#een
strata are not com-
vious str-ata.1nt"ulity, many casesexist wherein the confining
PletelYimPerviousand water is at
aquifer. The flow regime is altere<
about 1930,leakYaquifershaveber
De Glee, Jacob,Hantush, DeWies
ers.t'to-'uA thorough treatmentc
interestedreadersshouldconsulttheindicatedreferences.
WELLS
19.9 PARTIALLYPENETRATING
of the well' The
ln many actual situations there is only partial penetration
previouslyfor full
questionthen arisesasto the applicability of proceduresdeveloped
Penetration. ln 1957Hantush
Numerousstudiesof this problemhavebeenconducted'7'2't'28
aquiferbecomes
reportedthat steadyflow to a well just penetratingan infinite leaky
aquiferthickness'28
very nearlyradial at a distancefrom the well of about1.5timesthe
increasingly
As depth of penetrationincreases,the approachto,radial flow becomes
apparent.Therefore,computationofdrawdownsforpartiallypenetrating'wellsare
provided that the
made using equationsfoi total penetration with relative safety,
aquifer thickness'At
distancefr"o-ifr" pumped we11ls greaterthan 1.5 times the
other relations
points closerto the weli, it is frequJntly possibleto use a flow net or
develoPedfor this region.
GALLERY
19.10FLOWTO AN INFILTRATION
conduit constructed
An infiltration gallery may be defined as a partially pervious
part of this flow will be
acrossthe path of t6" to"uigroundwater flow iuch that all or
parallel to a streamso that
intercepted.Thesegalleries-areoften built in a valley area
under gravity-flow
they can convey the collected flow to some designatedlocation
.ondition*.Figurelg.Sshowsatypicalcrosssectionthroughagallerywithone
'perviousface. pervious wall
corrrputation of dischargeto an inflltration gallery with one
(Fig. f g.Sjis accomplished inihe manneroutlinedby Dupuit-2e Severalassumptions
tangentof the angleof
mustbe madelo effectthe solution.They are that the sineand
inclination ofthe water table are interchangeable; that the velocity vectorsare evefy-
is incompressibleand
where horizontal and uniformly distribuied; that the soil
effects are negligible'
isotropic; and that the gallery is of sufficient length that end
do limit the utility of
While permitting u ,oluion oi the problem, theseassumptions
the results.
Basedontheseassumptions,andfollowingtheproceduregiveninSec-
per unit width' using the
tion 18.12,Eq. 18.97canbe usedto calculatethe discharge
L
474 CHAPTER
19 WELLS AND COLLECTIONDEVICES
Ground surface
Intersection of assumed
and actual water tables
X+
throughan infiltrationgallery.
Figure 19.8 Cross-section
nomenclature
of Fig. 19.8,Eq. 18.97becomes
K . - "-
s :;(hi he)
This equationindicatesthat the computedwatertableis parabolic.This is often called
Dupuit's parabola.Figure 19.8 showsthat the computedwater table differs from the
actual water table in an increasingmanner as the gallery face is approached.It is
thereforeapparentthat the computedparaboladoesnot accuratelydescribethe real
water table. The differences,however,are small except near the point of outflow,
providing the initial assumptionsare satisfled.The calculateddischargeapproximates
the true dischargemore closelyas the ratio of Z/h, increases.
EXAMPLE 19.8
A stratum of clean sand and gravel20 ft deep has a coefficient of permeability of

K : 3.25 X 10-3ftlsec,andis suppliedwith waterfrom a channelthat penetrates to
the bottom of the stratum.If the water surfacein an infiltration gallery is 3 ft above
the bottom of the stratum,and its distanceto the channelis 50 ft, what is the flow into
a foot of gallery?UseEq. 18.97.
Solution
q : 0.5(3.25x 10-3)(20x 20 - 3 x 3)/50
\ : 0.072 cfs, the flow into one foot of gallery I r
19.11SALTWATER
INTRUSION
The contaminationof fresh groundwaterby the intrusion of salt water often presents
a seriousquality problem. Islands and coastalregions are particularly vulnerable.
Aquifers locatedinland sometimescontaiq highly salinewaters as well. Freshwater
BASINDEVELOPMENT 475
15.12 GROUNDWATER
BASINDEVELOPMENT
19.12GROUNDWATER
To use groundwaterresourcesefficiently while simultaneouslypermitting the maxi-
mum dJvelopmentof the resource,equilibrium must be establishedbetweenwilh-
drawals and replenishments.Economic, legal, political, social, and water quality
aspectsrequire full consideration.
Lasting suppliesof groundwaterwill be assuredonly whenlong-termwithdrawls
arebalanceJby rechargeduringthe correspondingperiod. The potentialof a ground-
water basin can be assessedby employingthe water budgetequation,
)r-)o:As
where the inflow ) l includesall forms of recharge,the total outflow ) O includes
everykind ofdischarge,and AS representsthe changein storageduringthe accounting
perioO. The most significant forms of recharge and dischargeare those listed in
Table t9.2.
A groundwaterhydrologistmust be able to estimatethe quantity of water that
canbe economicallyand safeiyproducedfrom a groundwaterbasinin a specifiedtime
period. He or sheshouldalsobe competentto evaluatethe consequences of imposing
variousrates of withdrawal on an underground supply.
Developmentof groundwaterbasins should be based on careful study, since
groundwaterresourcesare finite and exhaustible.If the various types of recharge
balance the withdrawals from a basin over a period of time, no difficulty will be
encountered.Excessivedrafts, however,can depleteundergroundwater suppliesto a
point whereeconomicdevelopmentis not feasible.The mining of waterwill ultimately
depletethe entire supply.
ANDDISCHARGE
OFRECHARGE
TABLE19,2 SdUETONT"TS
Recharge Discharge
Seepagefrom streams,Ponds,lakes Seepageto lakes, streams,spnngs

Subsurfaceinflows Subsurfaceoutflows
Infiltrated precipitation Evapotranspiration
Water rechargedartificallY Pumping or other artificial meansof collection
i-_
r Summary
The collection of groundwateris accomplishedprimarily through the constructionof
wells, and many Tactorsinfluence the numerical estimation"of their performance.
Some situation, ur" amenableto solutionthrough the utilization of relatively simple
mathematicalexpressions.Others dependupon sophisticatedapplicationof the hy-
drodynamicequationsundervariousConditionsof nonuniformity of aquifermaterials
and a variety oiboundary conditions.The readeris cautionednot to be misledby the
simplicity oi ,o-" of thqsolutionspresentedand to observethat many of theserl\
to speciaiconditions and are not applicableto all groundwater-flowsituations.(. , )
The rate of movementof water through the ground is of a different magnr'tudd
than that through natural or artificial channelsor conduits.Typical flow ratesrange
of
from 5 ft/day ti afew feet per year. Theselow ratesof flow exacerbatethe impact
groundwater sourcesand complicate cleanup since natural
contaminani spills on
flushing from the site may take many yearsto occur'
The methodsdescribedin this chapterfor estimatingflows to collection devices
arebasedmainly on the principlesof fluid flow embodiedin Darcy's law. Applicafions
arelimited to flowsin the laminar range,but undermostconditionsencounteredin the
field, Darcy's law applies.Examplesof the ure of equationsdescribingthe mechanics
of flow to wells andinfiltration gilleries were given in this chapter.Both steady-state
and unsteadvflow conditions were addressedas well'
PROBLEMS
coefflcient of
19.1. A 12-in. well fully penetfatesa confined aquifer 100 ft thick. The
permeabilityis 60d gpd/ft'. Two test wells located40 and 120 ft awayshow a differ-
ence in drawdown U-"i*een them of 9 ft. Find the rate of flow delivered by the well.
of
1g.2. A l2-in. well fully penetratesa confined aqpifer 100 ft thick. The coefficient
permeability is 600 gpd/ft2. Two test wells located 45 and 120 ft away show a
the
difference in drawdoin between them of 8 ft. Find the rate of flow delivered by
well.
well' The
19.3. Determine the permeability of an artesianaquifer for a fully penetrating
ft thick. The steady-state pumping
aquifer is composedof medium sand and is 100
rate is 1200 gpm. The drawdown in an observation well 75 ft away is 14 ft, and the
observation well 500 ft away is l.2ft. Find Kin gallons per day
drawdownin a second
per squarefoot.
ftj/day/ft'
Lg.4. Considera confined aquifer with a coefficientof transmissibilityT of 680
Att:5min,thedrawdowns:5.6ft;at50min,s:23'Ift;andat100min's:
28.2 ftrThe observationwell is 75 ft awayfrom the pumpingwell. Find the discharge
of the well.
19.5. Giventhefollowingdata:0:59,000ft3lday'T:630ft3/day't,,3}days'r:1ft'
the draw-
and s" : 6.4 x L6,4. Considerthis to be a nonequilibriumproblem.Find
down s. Note that for
a:8.0x10-e W(a): 13'sa
u:8.2 X 10-e W(u)= 19.94
' PROBLEMS 477
19.6. ' Determinethe permeabilityof an artesianaquiferbeingpumpedby a fully penetrating

well, The aquifercomposedof medium sandis 130ft thick. The steady-state pumping
rate is 1300 gpm. The drawdown in an observbtion well 6{ft away is 12 ft, and in a
secondwell 500 ft awayis 1.2 ft. Find Ky in gpdlft2.
1g.7. Considera confined aquifer with a coefficientof transmissibilityT : 700 ft3lday-ft.
Atr : 5 minthe drawdown: 5.1ft; at50min,s = 20.0ft; at 100min,s = 26'2ft.
The observationwell is 60 ft from the pumping well. Find the dischargeof the well.
19.8. Assumethat an aquiferbeing pumpedat atate of 300 gpm is confined and pumping
testdata are given as follows.Find the cbefficientof transmissibilityTand the sttragq
coefficientS. Assumer = 55 ft. | )
Time sincepumping started (min) 1,3 2.5 4.2 8.0 11.0 100.0
Drawdowns (ft) 4.6 8.1 9.3 12.0 15.1 29.0
19.9. We are given the following dat4:
Q = 60,000 ft3ldaY t:30days r:lft

r : 650fcl(dar(fo s"=6.4 x 1o-4
Assumethis to be a nonequilibriumproblem. Find the drawdowns. Note for

a : 8.0 x 10-e lV(u) : 18.06
u : 8.2 X 10-e W(u) = 19.94
u : 8.6 x 10-e W(u) : 17.99
19.10. An 18-in. well fully penetratesan unconfinedaquifer 100 ft deep.Ttvo observation

wells located90 and 235 ft from the pumped well are known to havedrawdownsof
225 and20.6ft, respectivd. If the flow is steadyandKy: 1300gpd/ft2, what would
be the discharge?
lg.1l. A confinedaquifer 80 ft deepis being pumpedunderequilibrium conditionsat a rate
'
of 700 gpm. The well fully penetratesthe aquifer. Watpr levelsin observationwells
150 and 230 ft from the pumped well are 95 and 97 ft, respectively.Find the field
coefflcient of permeability.
lg.112. A well is pumpedat the rate of 500 gpm undernonequilibriumconditions.For the data
listed, find the formation constantsS and Z. Use the Theis method.
Averagedrawdown,
r"/t h (ft)
1,250. 3.2+
5,000 2.t8
tt,250 .1.93
20,000 r.28
45,000 0.80
80,000 0.56
125,000 0.38
180,000 0.22
245,000 0.15
320,000 0.10
478 CHAPTER19 WELLSANDCOLLECTION DEVICES
"We
19.13. are given a well pumping at arate of 590 gpm. An observationwell is locatedat
r : 180 ft. Find S and Z using the Jacobmethod for the following test data.
Drawdown Time Drawdown Time

(ft) (min) (ft) (min)
0.43
0.94
l 08
1.20
r.34
26
78
99
t3r
t'73
2.00
2.06
2.12
2.15
2.20
2.23
66r
732
843
926
IO34
r134
o
|.46 2t8
1.56 266 2.28 1272
1.63 303 2.30 1351
1.68 331 2.32 I4t9
1.71 364 2.36 r520
l 85 481 2.38 1611
1.93 5'13
tg:t4. A24-1n.diameterwell penetratesthe full depthof an unconfinedaquifer.The original

watertable and a bedrockaquifugewere located50 and 150ft, respectively,belowthe
land surface.After pumping al arate of 1700 gpm continuously for 1920 days.
equilibrium drawdownconditions were established,and the original water levels in
observationwells located 1000 and 100 ft from the center of the pumpedwell were
lowered 10 and 20 ft, respectively.
a. Determinethe field permeability (gpdlftz) of the aquifer.
b. For the samewell, zero drawdownoccurredoutsidea circle with a 10,000-ftradius
measuredfrom the centerof the pumpedwell. Insidethe circle, the averagedraw-
down in the water table was observedto be 10 ft. Determine the coefficient of
storageof the aquifer.
19.15. A well fully penetratesthe 100-ft depth of a saturatedunconflned aquifer. The
drawdownat the well casingis 40 ft whenequilibriumconditionsare establishedusing
a constantdischargeof 50 gpm. What is the drawdownwhenequilibriumis established
using a constantdischargeof 66 gpm?
19.16. After a long rainless period, the flow in Wahoo Creek decreasesby 8 cfs from
Memphisdownstream8 mi to Ashland.The streampenetratesan unconfinedaquifer,
wherethe water table contoursnear the creek parallel the westbank and slopeto the
streamby 0.00020, while on the east side the contours slope awayfrom the stream
toward-theLincoln wellfield at 0.00095. Computethe transmissivityof the aquifer
knowing Q : TIt, where1 is the slopeand I is the length.
19.17. The time-drawdown data for an observationwell located 300 ft from a pumped
artesianwell (500 gpm) are given in the following table.Find the coefficientof storage
(ft3 of water/ft3of aquifer)and the transmissivity(gpd/ft) of the aquiferby the Theis
method. Use 3 x 3 cycle log PaPer.
REFERENCES 479
Time Drawdown Time Drawdown

(hr) (ft) (h0 (ft)
1.8 0.27 9.8 r.09

2.\ 0.30 12.2 t.25
. A 0.3'l t4.7 1.40
3.0 0.42 16.3 1.50
3.7 0.50 18.4 l 60
4.9 0.61 21.0 t.70
7.5 0.84 24.4 1.80
19.18. Over a 100-mi2surfacearea, the averagelevel of the water table for an unconfined
aquiferhas dropped I 0 ft becauseof the removalof 128,000 area-ftof waterfrom the
aquifer.Determinethe storagecoefficientfor the aquifer.The specificyield is 0.2 and
the porosityis 0.22.
19.19. Over a 100-mi2 surface area, the averagelevel of the piezometric surface for a
confined aquifer in the Denver area has declined 400 ft as a result of long-te1m
pumping.Determinethe amountof the water (acre-ft) pumpedfrom the aquifer' The
porosity is 0.3 and the coefficient of storageis 0.0002.
L9.20. Find the drawdownat an observationpoint 250 ft awayfrom a pumping well, given --
:
thatT = 3.1 x 104 gpdlft,the pumpingtime is 10 days,S" 3 x 10-4, andQ
280 gpm.
19.21. Find the permeabilityof an artesianaquiferbeingpumpedby a fully penetratingwell.
The aquiier is 130 ft thick and is composedof medium sand.The steady-statepump-
ing raie is 1300 gpm. The drawdownin an observationwell 65 ft awayis 12 ft' and
in a secondwell 500 ft awayit is 1.2 ft. Find Kyin gpdlft2.
19.22, An 18 in. well fully penetratesan unconflnedaquifer 100 ft deep.Two observation
wells located90 and 235 ft from the pumpedwell are known to havedrawdownsof
22.5 ft and20.6 ft respectively.If the flow is steady arld Ky: 1300 gpd/ft2, what
would be the discharge?
: 0.0028m2ls,
19.23. A well is being pumpedat a constantrate of 0.004 m3/s.Given thatT
r : 100meters,and the storagecoefficient : 0.001, find the drawdown in the obser-
vation well for a time period of (a) t hr, and (b) 24 hours'
= 0.0028mzls,
19.24. A well is being pumpedat a constantrate of 0.003 m3/s.Given thatT
the storage"oiin"i"nt = 0.001, and the time since pumplng began is 12 hours,find
the drawdownin an observation well for a radial distance of (a) 150 m, and (b) 500 m'
REFERENCES
1 . J. W Clark, w. viessman, Jr., and M. J. Hammer,water supply and Pollution conffol,
2nd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell' 1965.
"Field TestsDeterminePotential Quantity, Quality of Ground Water
2. John F. Hoffman,
Supply," Heating, Piping, and Air Conditioning(Aug' 1961)'
3 . D. K. Todd, GroundwaterHydrology, New York: Wiley, 1960'
Chapter20
ModelingRegional
GroundwaterSYstems
r Prologue
The PurPoseof this chaPteris to:
' Describethe featureSof large-scalegroundwatersystems.

. Introduce the principlesof finite differenceapproachesto modelingregional
groundwatersystems.
. Iilustrate the application of groundwatermodeling techniquesto the Upper Big
Blue basin in Nebraska.
flow of
The analytical methodsdescribedso far havebeen applicablemainly to the
regional ground-
warcr rc individual wells. In this chapter,the conceptsof analyzing
water systemsare introduced.Suchanalysesare requisitesfor the wise development,
management,andoperationofexpansivegroundwaterresources'
jointly in most
Given that waier quantity an-dquality aspectsmustbe dealt with
waterresourcesdecision-makingprol"tt"t, t"gional groundwater models mrrstoften
- be designedto includeboth of tfuse dimensions.l-2s The fluid flow aspects of ground-
are complex and
water modelsare presentedin this chapter.Solutetransportmodels.
is given at the end of
beyondthe scope-ofthis book, but a biief introduction to them
and role of
the chapter.It is important for the readerto understandthe importance
thesewater quality-orientedmodels'
MODELS
GROUNDWATER
20.1 REGIONAL
(mathematical)
Groundwatersystemsmodels may be of the analog or the digital
type most
variety. The focus of this chapter is on the digital type of lodel, the
commonly employedtoday. Such models are characterized by a set of equations
These models.may be
,"pr"r"nting the ihysical i.o""*"* occurring in an aquifer.
are discussed
deierministt or pio-babilisticin nature, but only deterministic-models
featuresof the
here. They describethe cause-effectrelations stemmingfrom known
physicalsystemunder study'
482 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONALGROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
Approximate equations
Simplify equation so numerically resulting
that solutions may in a matrix equation
be obtained by that may be solved
analytical methods using a computer
l _ t_
model'
a mathematical
Figure 20.1 Logic diagramfor develqping
Worthington'OH')
(Courtesyof theNationalWaterWellAssociation,
Figure 20.1 characterizes the procedurefor developinga deterministicmathe-

matical model. A conceptual model is formulated based on a knowledge of the
characteristicsof the region and an understandingof the mechanicsof groundwater
flow. The next stepis to translatethe conceptualmodel into a mathematicalmodel,
usuallyrepresentedby a partial differential equationor setof equationsaccompanied
Uy approplia@boundaryand initial conditions.Conditionsof continuity and conser-
uution of momentum, usually describedby Darcy's law, are incorporated in the
model,Other modelfeaturesincludeartesianor watertable condition designationand
dimensionality(one-,two-, or three-dimensional).If water quality and/or heattrans-
fer considerationsareto be incorporatedin the model,additionalequationsdescribing
conservationof massfor the chemicalspeciesinvolvedand conservationof energyare
required.Typically usedrelationsare Fick's law for chemicaldiffusion and Fourier's
law for heat transport.
Once the mithematical model has been formulated, it can be applied to the
situation at hand. This requiresconvertingthe governingequationsinto forms that
facilitate solution.Ordinarily this is achievedthrough the use of numericalmethods
suchasfinite differencesor dnite elementsto representthe applicablepartial differen-
tial equations.In using a finite differenceapproach,for example,the regionis divided
into grid elementsund th" continuousvariablesare representedas discretevariables
at the nodal points. In this manner,the governingdifferential equationis replacedby
a finite nu-b"r of algebraicexpressions that canbe solvedin an iterativeway.Models
of this type find wide applicationin the estimationof site-specificaquifer behavior.
They havepro\iento be effectiveunderirregularboundaryconditions,wherethereare
heterogeneities, and where highly variablepumping or rechargerates are expected'l
Severil types of groundwater models and their applications are summarizedin
Figure 20.2.
A numberof stepsmustbe followedin modelinga targetedgroundwaterregion'
Figure 20.3 is illustritive. The f,rst step is to define the boundaries.They may be
ptiysical,suchas an imperviouslayer, or arbitrary, suchas the choiceof a politically,
Applications
'Geothermal Land subsidence
Watersupply Seawaterintrusion
Regionai aquifer Land fills Thermal storage

analysis
Near-well Waste injection Heat PumP

performance
Groundwatel- Radioactive Thermal poliution

surface water waste storage
interactions
Dewatering Holding pontls

operauons
Groundwater
pollution
Figure20.2Typesofgroundwatermodelsandtypicalapplications.(Courtesyof
OH')
Worthington,
theNationalWaterWellAssociation,
elementsby
or otherwise,definedsubregion.Next, the region is divided into discrete
superimposing a rectangularor polygonal grid (see Figute 20'4)'
' (s. and z) and
once th-egrid is determined,the controlling aquiferparameters
grid element. If solutetransport is includedin the
the initial conditionsare setfor each
dispersion properties must also
model, additional parameterssuchai hydrodynamic
hive been met, the model can be operated
be specifigd.Atter atl of thesespecifications
(history matching). comparisons of
and its output comparedwith recordedhistory
with counterpart model predictions permit
recordedvaluesof headand other features
considered
parameteradjustmentsto be madeuntil observedand computeddata are
by the modelerto be in closeagreement.
to analyzea
Upon completion of thelodel's calibration, it can be applied
options. The model's prediction of the
variety of managementand/or development
can be a valuable aid to decision-making
outcomesof these alternative strategies
include: the
processes.Examplesof the types oI problems that can be addressed
of use; the impact on an aquifer of
utilty of an aquifer to suppoit various levels
the effects on underground storageof
varying naturaiand artificial rechargerates;
rate of movement of subsurface contam-
weli lo-cation,spacing,andpumpingrate; the
inants;and saltwaterintrusion.
caution
while numerical groundwatermodelshavemuch to recommendthem,
and interpreted appropriately. Prickett
must be exercisedto enJurethat they are used
three waysin
notesthat overkill, inappropriatepiediction, and misinterpretationare
To avoid these pitfalls, both the modeler
which groundwater-#"t, can Uemisused.s
(courtesv
use' ortheNation
arwater
illiiT3:':,",*itlffi,ffi:ff tlSl
and user must understandthe underlying assumptionsupon which the model was
founded,its limitations, andits sourcesof errors.Usedwisely,modelscanbe powerful
decision-makingaids. Used inappropriately,they can lead to erroneousand some-
times damagingproposals.
20.2 FINITE-DIFFERENCE.METHODS
Digital simulation requires an adequatemathematical description of the physical

processesto be modeled.For groundwaterflow this descriptionconsistsof a partial
differential equationand accompanyingboundaryand initial conditions.The govern-
ing equationis integratedto produce a solution that gives the water levels or heads
associatedwith the aquifer being studied at selectedpoints in space and time.
The model can simulateyears of physical activity in a span of seconds,so that the
METHODS 485
2A.2 FINITE-DIFFERENCE
(a)
A.r
Ly ..,--V ^t
,
/_-/ | 1"
', / 1 . 1 , /
4Finitedifference
/ , , . , a
/ srld DlocK
(b)
boundaries.(b) Finite-dif-
Figure 20.4 (a) Map view of aquifershowingwell field and
t At' is the spacing
i"r""n"" grid{oi aquifir study,wGre Ax is the spacTqii lhu *ection'
thicknesg.Solid dots: block-center nodes;open
in tt" y-at"rtion, and f is itre aquifer
of the National Waterwell Association, worthing-
circles:source-sink nooo tcoo*sy
ton. OH.)
consequences of proposedactionscan be evaluatedbefore decisionsinvolving con-

struction or social changeare implemented.The expectationis that the model runs
will lead to wiser and more cost-effective'decisions. *
The finite-differencemethodis basedon the subdivisionof an aquiferinto a grid
and the analysisof flows associatedwith zonesof the aquifer.The equationthat must
be solvedis derivedfrom continuity considerationqand Darcy's law for groundwater
motion. This yieldsthe followirigpartial differential equation(a versionof Eq. 18.41),
describingflow through an areally extensiveaquifer.Note that the equationpresented
here describesthe two-dimensionalcase:
s#P.N#ot:s!+w (20.r)
where h : total hydraulic head (L),

x : x direction in a cartesiancoordinatesystem(L),
y : y direction in a cartesiancoordinatesystem(L),
S: specificyield of the aquifer (dimensionless),
Z : transmissivityof the aquifer(I]lT)
V[ : sourceand sink term (L/T)
In the aboveequation,vertical flow velocitiesare consideredto be negligible
everywherein the aquifer.The following assumptionsareimplict in the derivation:the
flow is two-dimensional;fluid densityis constantin time and space;hydraulicconduc-
tivity is uniform within the aquifer; flow obeysDarcy's law; and the specificyield of
the aquifer is constantin spaceand time. Equation 20.1 is nonlinear for unconfined
aquifersbecausetransmissivityis a function of headand thus the dependentvariable.
In order to integrateEq.20.I, initial valuesof head, transmissivity,saturated
thicknessof the aquifer,andthe amountsof waterproducedby sourcesand sinksmust
be identified for every point in the region of the integration.The specificyield and
location of geometric boundaries must also be defined. Unfortunately, analytic
solutionsto Eq. 2O.l are impossibleto obtain exceptfor the most trivial cases.It is
thus necessaryto resort to numerical integration techniquesto obtain the desired
answers.t'to-to
Application of finite-difference techniquesto groundwaterflow problems re-
quiresthat the region of concernbe divided into many small subregionsor elements
(Fig. 20.5). For each of theseelements,characteristicvaluesof all the variablesin
Eq. 20.I are specified.Thesevaluesare assignedto the centersof the elements,which
are called nodes.The headsin adjacentnodesare relatedthrough a finite-difference
equation,which is derivedfrom Eq. 20.1. Thesedifferenceequationscan be derived
by an appropriateTaylor's seriesexpansionor by massbalanceconsiderations.8 The
resulting algebraicequations can then be solvedsimultaneously to yield the headsat
eachnode for each time step considered.
It should be understoodthat the simulation methodspresentedin this chapter
are pointed toward the analysisof regional rather than localized groundwaterprob-
lems such the prediction of the drawdownat a particular well. In suchcases,the
as
methodsdiscussedin Chapter 19 are usually the most appropriate.Here we,are
mainly concernedwith waterlevel or headchangesthat might occur over a large area
due to prescribedwater-usepractices.
2O.2 FINITE-DIFFERENCEMETHODS 487
t, I o
m,1
eAx'--- Node
I
Subregion Ay l,,i
/
I
-
Boundary
\ ofregion of
\ integration
a m,n
l, nd
for a finite-
Figure 20.5 Subdivisionof a region of integrationinto computationalelements
differenceProblemformulation.
BoundaryConditions
In order to integrateEq.20.l,the governingboundary conditionsmust be-specified'
Chap-
Two typesof bJundary condition aie discussedhere.Otherswere presentedin
ters 18 and 19.
chosen
Where the region of integrationis limited by a political or arbitrarily
boundary,it is oftei the policy to employ a constant-gradient boundary condition'10
change
In this "ur", unar.umption is madethat the gradientof the watertable will not
llvel may rise or fall. Where streams with
alongthe boundaryeventhoughthe water
are encountered, stream boundary condi-
interconnectionsto the groundwatersystem
as
tions are employed.Constant-gradientboundariesare expressedmathematically
a h l \ (20.2)
*:81x'!)
where g\x, y): a constant specifiedat the location x, y throughoutthe period of
simulation (dimensionless)
/z : hydraulic head (L)
s : direction perpendicularto the boundary (L)
Streamboundariesare expressedas
h : f(x, Y, t) (20.3)
wheref(x,y,/)=anunknownfunctionoftimeatthelocationx'y
(dimensionless)
h = hydraulic head (L)
The volumetric rate of flow acrossthe constant-headboundariesdescribedby

Bq.20.2 can be modeledat eachtime stepusing the Darcy equ-ation:ro
o: rfrtr (20.4)
where h:head(L)
Al = dummy variable denoting the length of the side of the subregion
perpendicularto s (L)
s : dummy variable denoting the direction of flow perpendicularto the
boundary (L)
p : volumetricdischarge(LilT)
Z : transmissivityat the boundary (IllT)
Use of this equationat a boundary is illustrated by the notation of Fig. 20.6.
Considerthe flow from left to right in the x direction acrossthe left-handsideof the
elementalregiondepicted.The node i - I, j lies outsidethe regionof integrationand
thus it may be assumedthat no information aboutit is available.An assumptionmay
be madeto circumventthis problem.It is that the transmissivityacrossthe boundary
is uniform and equal to Tt,t.
In finite-differenceform the head changeterm in Eq. 18.26 can be statedas
ah _hi.j-hi-l,j
(20.s)
6x A,x
But the headh,-r,, doesnot exist, and anotherapproximationis required,
h,,i - h,-r,i : hi*r,j - hi,j (20.6)
Thesetwo expressionsare then substitutedin Eq. 20.4 to yield
f,,,u#'LY
Q;-r/",i: (20.7)
Boundary
where
6 h= r .
dx
'i a
_ 1^ ' i'
.
Figure 20t6 Subregions adjacent to a constant-

gradientboundary.
2O.2 FINITE.DIFFERENCEMETHODS 489
At the beginningof each time step, a new volumetric flux is calculatedalong each
constant-gradient boundary.This is accomplishedby usingthe headsand transmissiv-
ities computedin the previoustime interval. .
Surfacestreams are sometimes treated as constant-head boundaries in ground-
water problems. The assumption is adequate where the water level in the surface body
is expectedto remain unchanged during the time period of the modeling process. In
many instances, however, surfaceflows, and hence heads, are significantly affected by
withdrawalsor rechargesto the interconnectedgroundwatersystem.They may then
be a limited sourceof water supplyfor the groundwater.system.To accommodatethe
surfacewater-groundwaterlinkage, a leakageterm may be applied.toThis expression
may take the form
= -fi{n,.,.r
leakage,,r,1 h,i,o) (20.8)
where b, , : thicknessof the streambed(L)

hi,i.t : head in the aquifer at node i, j, at time k; k : 0 indicatesinitial
conditions(L)
t
k;,; : hydraulic conductivity at node i,.i (LlT).
When Eq. 20.8 is used,the streamis consideredto coverthe entire arearepre-
sentedby the related node. After eachtime step the leakagefrom the streamto the
aquiferis calculatedand streamflowsare depletedaccordingly.If the streamflowat a
particular node becomeszero, the model can be madeto note that the streamis dry
and break the hydraulic connection atthat point.l0
Time Stepsand ElementDimensions

The successof any finite-difference schemedependson the incremental valuesas-
signedthe elementdimensionsand the time steps.In general,the smallerthe dimen-
sionsof elementsand time increments,the closerthe finite-differenceapproximation
to the differential equation.However,as thesepartitions are madesmaller,a price in
computationalcostsand data needsmustbe paid. Furthermore,oversubdivisionmay
evenbring about computationalintractability. Thus the object is to selectthe degree
of definition that results in an adequaterepresehtationof the systemwhile keeping
data and computationalcosts at a minimum. There are proceduresfor making such
selections,but, exceptfor a brief discussionin the following section, they are not
presentedhere.lo-la
Flow Model
One.Dimensional
To illustrate the finite-difference approachto groundwaterproblem solving, a one-
dimensionalconceptualizationis discussed. Although mostpractical-scalemodelsare
two- or three-dimensional in character, their developmentis only an extensionof the
one-dimensional case. For details of some of the more complex modelsthe reader
should consult the appropriate references.6-8'i0-1sThe book by McWhorter and
Sunadais easy to read and includes excellentexample problems.8The treatment of
one-dimensional flow taken here follows the approach of that reference.
Upstream Downstream head I{,

headHn
H6*Huatt=0
Flow
hi*t
-----w IlD-constantatt>0
Confined aquifer
l+Ay+l
flowcase.(After
groundwater
Figure20.7 Gridnotationfor a one-dimensional
McWhorter andSunada.8)
Let us considera one-dimensionalflow in a confinedaquifersystemsuchasthat

illustratedby Fig. 20.7.lt is assumedthat the flow is unsteadyand that the flowlines
are parallel and not time dependent.On this basis,a unit width of the aquifercan be
studiedand observationsmadeaboutit can easilybe translatedto the total system.As
shownin the figure, the unit width of the aquiferis A.r. The flow regionis overlaidby
a grid, and for eachgrid element,valuesof hydraulic conductivity Kr, elementlength
y,, aquiferthicknessb,, storagecoefficientSi, and the initial valuesof headh, must be
specified.The massbalancefor grid elementI requiresthat the inflow (Qr-t-,) from
elementI - 1 to elementI minusthe outflow{Qt-,*r)fromelementlto elementI * I
must be balancedby the rate of changein storagewhich occursin elementi, LV,/LI.
To simplify the problem, let us further considerthat the aquifer is of uniform
thicknessand that it is homogeneous and isotropic. Thus the valuesof K, ,S,b, and Ay
are constant,and we shall considerthat from studiesof the aquifer properties,they
are also known. Thereforeit mav be statedthat
K t : K z : ! . . : K ^ : K
Sr:Sz:..':S.:S
bt:bz:',,:b*:b
N r : L Y ,= ' ' ' : L Y - = N (20.e)
wherethe subscriptln representsthe total numberof grid elements.Usingthis notation
and Fig. 20.7, we can seethat the flow from elementi - 1 to I is
-UOO'| ' (20.10)

. Oi-r-i:
;i
where i : the elementnumber
n : the selectedtime
Equation20.10is recognizedas Darcy's equation.It is assumedin this repre-
sentationthat the head generatingthe flow at time n is the differencebetweenthe
averageheadsat the two adjacent elementsdivided by the distancebetweentheir
centers(nodes).This approximationapproachesexactnessas Ay diminishesto zero.
2O,2 FINITE.DIFFERENCEMETHODS 491
The ireaA appearingin Eq. 20.10 is the cross-sectional area of flow and is
obtainedasthe productof Al and b. Sincewe are dealingwith a unit width of aquifer,
A.r : 1 and sinceb is a constantby definition here, Eq. 20.10 mtry be written
hl - "h,!
i-t
o,- -': -7"i ' (20.11)
Ay
where 7 : Kb. A similar expressionfor the flow from element ito i * 1 may be
obtained:
(20.r2)
Equations20.11 and 20.12 representthe inflow and outflow from elementi. Consid-
ering that continuity conditionsmust be met, this changein flow acrossthe element
*urt b" balancedby the changein storagewhich occursduring the time step.This is
siven as
fr:'.(ry) ' (zo.tz)
in the continuity equation(inflow - outflow :

Now insertingthesethreeexpressions
changein storage),we get
(-rhi -,ni ) - f -rhi-,-- hi) : , 6,(h'lo'^.

'\
t''i)
1zo.r+i
\ Av / \ AY / ^t /
the equationbecomes
By rearrangement,
(20.1s)
which is known as the explicit or forward difference form of the finite-difference

equationif n is designatedas the current value of time. If, on the other hand, n is
definedas / + Ar, thin the equationis the implicit or backwarddifferenceequation.
Eachof theseforms hasits own solutiontechniques.8 The explicit solutionto Eq. 20.15
will be discussed here.
By letting n : t inF;q.2O.l and rearranging,one obtains
- +
ffirr;, +hi-) nllr ##]
tur+^, (20.16)
In this casethe spabederivativesare centeredat the beginningof the time stepand the
singleunknownls h!*^'. Equation 20.16 canbe solvedexplicitly at eachelementfor
the headat the next period of time. The solutiondependsonly on a knowledgeof the
492 CHAPTER20 MODELINGREGIONAI-GROUNDWATERSYSTEMS
an unstable condition. Irt the one-dimensionalhomogeneouscase discussedhere,

stability is assuredif
TLt
<1 (20.r7)
s/,vY t
The equationshowsthat the choiceof time and spaceincrementsis not independent.
Satisfactionof Eq. 20.17 doesnot guaranteean accurateapproximation,however;it
only providesfor a stablesolution.8
EXAMPLE 2O.T
Refer to the one-dimensionalflow problem of Fig: 20.8. Let us assumethat the
elementlength is 4 m and that the thicknessof the confinedaquiferis 2 m. It is further
: 0 and that
assumedthit the headat the left and right sidesof the region is 8 m at /
the head on the right side takes on the value 2 mfot all t greatet than zero. K :
0.5 m/day and S 0.02. As shown in the figure, there are five elements.Using the
:
notation of eq. 20.16,the initial condition is hf; : 8.0 m. Use the explicit methodto
determinefuture heads.
Solution
1. First a determinationmust be made of the time step to use. This may be

accomplished usingEq. 20.17.
1 s(Ay)': ; W :
Lt <- 0 . 1d6a v s
The valueof Zused in the aboveexpressionwas obtainedusingthe relation

T:Kb:
Z:0.5X2.0:1.0
To be on the safeside,we shall choosea time stepof 0.1 days,althoughany
value lessthan 0.16 would have assuredstability.
8m
A)=4m
Figtrre 20.8 Sketch for Example 20.1.

20.3 FINITE-ELEMENTMETHODS 493
^'
2."For the first time step,t : 0.1, we can calculateh'a* and corresponding
headsfor the other elementsusing Eq. 20.16.Thus
h,;",: *, ",,411
+ hg) 0 f , --s(Ay),1
rful
f# @?
and substitutingnumerical values,we get
,n, : 1.0(ol) ^f. - 2(1.0)(0.1)l
/,1' (ffi(2.0 + 8.0)
+ 8.olt
drn+Fl
: 3 . 1 + 3 . 0 : 6 . 1 3m
Sinceft? andho2: 8.0 m and sinceh, : 8,0 by definition,it can easilybe

shownusingEq. 20.16 thatthe valuesof hlr andhl't ate not changedfrom
their original level of 8.0 during the first time step.
3. Now considerthe secondtime step,t + Lt = 0.2 days.For element4,
:
h2, + hg\+ nZ'lt-
#(h2, #] I
) : 5.4 m
: 0.31Q.0+ 8.0) + 6.13(0.37
For element3
-
hg':ffi(h:'+h9\+l,l'[r
ffi]
: 0 . 3 1 ( 6 . 1+3 8 . 0 )+ 8 . 0 ( 0 . 3 7: 7
) '4m
Element 2 doesnot have a head changeuntil the third time step.
4. The processdemonstratedis repeateduntil the headshavebeencalculated
for the total time period of interest.For this example,they will ultimately
reachequilibriumconditions. rl
This exampleproblem illustratesthe mechanicsof the finite-differenceproce-

dure. Problemsof practical scalewould require the use of a computer,but the ap-
proach would still be the same.
METHODS
20.3 FINITE.ELEMENT
The mostwidely usednumericaltechniquesfor solvinggroundwaterflow problemsare
the finite-differenceand finite-elementmethods.The finite-elementmethodis similar
to the finite-differencemethodin that both approacheslead to a set of N equationsin
Nunknowns that canbe solvedby relaxation.6Nodesin the finite-elementmethodare
usually the corner points of an irregular triangular or quadrilateral mesh for two-
dimensionalapplications,while for three-dimensionalapplications,bricks or tetrahe-
drons are commonly used.The sizeand shapeof the elementsselectedare arbitrary.
They are chosento fit the applicationat hand.They differ from the regularrectangular
grid elementsusedin finite-differencemodeling.Elementsthat are closestto points
of flow concentratiensuchas wells are usually smaller than those further removed
from suchinfluences.Aquifer parameterssuchashydraulic conductivity may

be kept
constantfor a given elementbut may vary from one to another. To minimize
the
variational function, its partial derivativewith respectto head,,isevaluatedfor
each
node and equatedto zero.The procedureresultsin a set of algebraicequations
that
can be solved by iteration, matrix solution, or a combination of thesemethods.ra
Finite-elementmodelersmust understandpartial differential equationsand
the cal-
culus of variations.6
The finite-elementapproachoffers someadvantagesover the finite-difference
technique.Often, a smaller nodal grid is required, unA tnir offers economies
in
computer effort. The finite-elementapproachcan also accommodateone condition
that the finite-difference approach is unable to handle.6When using the
finite-
differencemethod,the principal directionsof anisotropyin an anisotroplcformation
are parallel to the coordinatedirections.In caseswhele two anisotropicformations
having different principal directions occur in a flow field, the finite-difference
ap-
proach cannot produce a solution, whereasthe finite-element approach
can. TLe
finite-elementtechniquecan be used to simulate transient aquifei-performance.
A
detaileddiscussionof the finite-elementtechniqueis beyondthe scopeof this boor<,
but there are many good referencesfor the interestedreader.6'rsts.zi
,
20.4 MODEL APPLICATIONS
To illustrate how simulation modelscan be usedto provide insightsinto water

man-
agementschemes,a model analysisof the Upper Big Blue basin aquiferin Nebraska
is presented'The studywasconductedby the Conservationand SurveyDivision
of the
University of Nebraskaunder the direction of Huntoon.l0
The useof groundwaterfor irrigation in the Upper Big Blue basinwas observed
to be rapidly increasingand by 1972 about3.: wetlslmit iere in operation.At
that
time farmerswere becomingconcernedaboutthe progressivedeclineof water levels
and were seekingguidanceaboutthe efficiencyof implementingsomeform of
basin-
wide water managementproram. The Universiry of Nebraski designeda model
to
evaluatethe situationand to explorevariousproposalsfor recharging:theaquifer
and
for estimatingthe long-term consequences of siveral scenariosof water use in the
basin.
The study area is shown in Fig. 20.9. Generallythe water table is free in the
regionof interest'Figure 20.10 showsthe configurationof the watertable asobserved
in 1953.For modelingpurposes,the water-levelcontoursshown were considered
to
be representativeof predevelopmentconditions.This assumptionwas basedon
the
fact that groundw-aterwithdrawals before this time were not extensive.It was
also
surmisedthat the Lonburs representeda water table in which an equilibrium existed
betweennatural rechargeand dischargein the region.Transmissivitieswereestimated
from drill-hole sample logs recorded in the area. These values are needed
for
modelingand are also important indicesof the potential yield of wells that might
be
constructed.
As might be suspected,the information of most concernto the local landowners
and water plannerswas the rate of decline of the water table. In particular, it
was
t-
.-/l )
6)
z
()
I
o
bo
o\
N
b0
H
,-
H
3
d
C)
C)
a
C)
o
a
b
Q
@
? ca
ra
U
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6
a H
e
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(.)
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20.4 , MODELAPPLICATIONS 497
desiredto knbw how rapidly the groundwaterresourcewould Le depleted,where and

when waterlevel declineswould posean economicconstrainton water use,and what
impactsfuture developmentsand/or managementwould haveon thdrate of decline.
The model developedto explorethesefeatureswas a two-dimensionalrepresen-
tation of flow through an areally extensiveaquifer.loEquation 20.1, alongwith the
appropriate boundary conditions, constituted the model. The region shown in
n1g.Z0.Swas divided into a finite-differencegrid and, after substitutionof the nodal
ualu"t of Z and S, the model was operatedto predict water-levelchangesto the year
2020 for variouspolicies of rechargeand for severallevelsof development.Calibra-
tion of the model was accomplishedusinghistoricdata. The model was operatedover
the period 1953-1972 using the known distribution of wells and the averagenet
pu-pug" per well to establisha match betweenobservedand estimatedwater-level
"ttung"i. Once this was accomplished,the simulation of future trends proceeded.
Figures20.II and20.12showthe correspondence achievedin the matchingprocess.
On the basisof the model studies,it wasdeterminedthat waterlevelsin the study
areawould continueto declineevenif developmentwas limited to the l912level. It
wasfurther predictedthat someparts of the areawould experienceseveregroundwa-
ter shortageiby the year 2000. It was found, however,that by employingartificial
rechargefrethods, permanentgroundwatersuppliescould be assured.To assessthe
effectsof artificial recharge,two water delivery systemswere modeled.Both of these
delivered water from Platte River Valley sourcesto rechargewells located in the
project area. Using thesetwo water delivery systems,three rechargeschemeswere
ii-ulut"d. The grosseffect of introducingthe rechargewells was the cancellationof
the effects of the proportionatenumber of pumping wells. Figure 2O-I3 showsthe
computedwater-levelchangesat one location under a graduateddevelopmentplan
(projected on the basisof the 1972rate of development)with no rechargeand.then
wlth graauateddevelopmentfor eachof the three rechargeschemes.The continual
downwardtrend in waier level with no recharge(curve 1) clear$ showsthe nature of
the problemin the UpperBig Bluebasin.The othercUrvesdepictingthe threeartificial
,""hurg" options show that stability can be achievedif such an approachis taken.
While the costs of implementing artificial rechargemight be excessive,it is
apparentthat any long-terrn solution to the declining water table problem, short of
reducinguse, would require a supplementalsourceof water.
Operationof the modelprovidedusefulinsightsinto the natureof the watertable
problem and suggestedthat irrigators shouldbe making someimportant water man-
agementdecisionsabout their future mode of operation..^ ^-
The modeling of groundwatersystemsis complex.lo-25In structuring models
suchasthat just discussed,simplifying assumptionsmustusuallybe made.Thesehave
to do with aquifer pbrameterssuch as transmissivity,specificyield (for unconfined
aquifers),and storagecoefficient (for confined systems)'Furthermore,the boundary
conditions are normally approximationsof what occurs in the physical system.and
assumptionsaboutthe uniformity of materialsin varioussubsurfacestrataare some-
times crude.This doesnot meanthat groundwatermodelscannotbe expectedto yield
useful results.It doesimply that the usersof the modelsmust be cautiousabouthow
they interpretthe output.For example,an areally extensiveaquifermodel suchasthat
developedby Huntoon for analyzingthe Blue River problem can be expectedto give
o
E
o
()
a
F \ $ H
Z-u----
E.l( o
H
o
s-
I
e \
\=e
1t "-
-o-
:d65'
r-O
t\-z
a
,
lo
U
E
o
U
9pc
H ' A
o o i
* O
d O
E =
H E
d 9
: : 4
J
o >.o
F I X
ti ;i
N X
6 o ! l
L ;
hn:\
a;-Y
2O.4 MODELAPPLICATIONS 499
ô 8 2
.8 s4
d 8 6
A rl-- Computed trend
e 6 6 1/
\/
Eno V Measured water levels
P, 92
e 9 4
6 v
tse6
h q R
F 100
1,02
Y V
1956 1958 t959 1960 t961 t962 1964 1965 t967 1968 1969 1970 r97I 1972 1973
Year
andcomputed
Figure20.1.2 Measured trends'(AfterHuntoon'10)'
water-level
reliable information about water-leveltrends for various conflgurationsof develop-

ment. It shouldnot, on the other hand, be consideredan accuratepredictivetool for
monitoringthe water-levelchangeat somespecificpoint in the regionof concern.This
type of information could be derived only from a more detailed modeling of the
lolafif surroundingthe point. The informationprovidedby the Blue River modelwas
targetedto showlocal landownerswhat the future might hold for severaldevelopment
levelsand for severalmanagementoptions.The actual water levelspredictedby the
model were not of central concern;what was of interestwas the determinationthat
unlessfuture developmentwas restrictedand supplementalwater provided,or unless
current usescould be significantlyreduced,the outlook in the next 50 yearswas not
good for irrigated farming.
The model thus providedthe basisfor making somequantitativeobservations
aboutthe future. It also providedinsightsinto the relief that might be expectedfrom
artificial recharge.Beyondthat, it could be usedto model other possiblemanagement
Figure 20.13 Computed water-level

changesunder a plan of graduateddevelop-
ment for conditions of (1) no techatge,(2)
rechargeunder Scheme1, (3) rechargeun-
2010 2020
der Scheme 2, and (4) recharge under
Scheme3. (After Huntoon.lo)
options.A,model suchas this, carefully usedand properly interpreted,can thus add

a powerful dimensionto decision-makingprocesses.
20.5 GROUNDWATER
QUALIW MODELS
Groundwaterquality hasbecomea major sourceof concernin recentyears.This has
comeaboutfrom the realizationthat many groundwatersourcesthat wereat onetime
consideredalmost pristine have now been degradedin quality by seepagesfrom
dumps, leakagefrom industrial waste holding ponds, and by other waste disposal
and/or industrial and agricultural practices.To deal with suchproblems,'therehas
been an expandingmovementto developquantitative techniquesto understandthe
mechanicsof groundwaterquality. Thesemodels,althoughnot as advancedas their
surfacewater counterparts,are now beginningto play an important role in water
quality management.
The subjectof groundwaterquality modelingis complexand underrapid devel-
opment.Accordingly,a thoroughtreatmentof the subjectis beyondthe scopeof this
book. The importance of this topic cannot be overemphasized,however, and the
readeris encouragedto consultthe referencesat the end of the chapter,specifically
Refs.6 and 26-30.
In 1974, Gelhar and Wilson developeda lumped parametermodel for dealing
with water quality in a stream-aquifersystem.The nomenclatureand conceptualiza-
tion of their model are shown in Fig. 20.14.2eThe rationale for using a lumped
parameterapproachwasthat when dealingwith changesin groundwaterquality over
long periods of time, temporal rather than spatial variationsare most important.
Changesin water table in the Gelhar-Wilson (GW) model are representedby
the following equation:
dh -q+e*q,-ep
'nd- t= (20.18)
where h - averagethicknessof the saturatedzone

p : averageeffectiveporosity
e : natural rechargerate
natural outflow from the aquifer
4 , : artificial recharge/unitarea
Q p : pumping ratelunit area
T _ time
This is just anotherform of the continuity equationrelating inflow, outflow, and the
changein storage(lefrhand term in Eq. 20.18).The changein concentrationof a
constituentis given by
,dc
Pndt- (e -l q, -t aph)c : ec. * q,c, (2o.re)
20.5 GROUNDWATERQUALITYMODELS
. Ct
(b)
of the Gelhar-Wilsonmodel'(After
Figure 20.L4 Schematic
NovotnyandChesters.2a)
where c: concentration
c; : coflcefltrationof the natural recharge
c, : concentrationof the artificial recharge
c: a first-orderrate constantfor degradationof the contaminant
The GW model assumesthat dispersionis negligible.This assumptionmay be
made on the basis that the objective of the model iS to estimateregional-average
The model also provides for the determinationof hydraulic and
concentratiolrs.2e
soluteresponsetimes for the system.Theseare measuresof the lag that occursin the
moue-"ni of both water and constituentinputs to the system.Gelhar and Wilson
assumethat the responseof an aquiferto a specificinput can be likened to that of a
well-mixed linear reservoir.Their studiesshowedthat the model's determinationof
the concentrationof constituentsleavingan aquifer is representativeof the average
concentrationof the constituentin the aquifer.On this basis,,itappearsthat the model
is well suitedto estimatingthe quality of groundwaterdischargingto a surfacestream,

providing-ihe aquifer is narrow relative to the length along which dischargeoccurs.
r summary
Groundwaterin a regionalaquifer systemis constantlyin motion. The amountstored
at any time is affectedby artificial and natural-recharge,evapotranspiration,flow to
springs and surface water courses,and by collection devices such as wells and
infi ltration galleries.
Natural hydrologic statesmay be significantly affected by human activities.
Aquifer depletionshaving regional and national economicimplications are not un-
corlmon. Depletionof the Ogallala aquiferin the central United Statesby long-term
and extensivewater withdrawalsfor irrigation is a good example.On the other hand,
waterlevelshavebeenmadeto rise, sometimesinadvertently,by humanintervention.
Leaky irrigation canalsin central Nebraskawere at one time responsiblefor ground-
waterlevel risesin somefarming locationsof a magnitudesufficientto jeopardizeuse
of the land. Once major problemsof depletionor over-replenishmentoccur, they are
not easilydealt with. In general,a safe-yieldpolicy for groundwatermanagementhas
merit and shouldbe considered.6'30.
Regional groundwater flow problems are usually modeled by an equation
combiningDarcy's law and the equationof continuity.The resultingpartial differen-
tial equationoor setof equations,describesthe hydraulicrelationswithin the aquifer.
To effect a solution to the governingequation(s),the aquifer's hydraulic features,
geometry,and initial and boundary conditions must be determined.Unfortunately,
many groundwaterproblems exist for which exact analytic solutionscannot be ob-
tained.In suchcases,it is necessaryto rely on numericalmethodsfor modeling.Under
suchcircumstances,an approximatesolutionis obtainedby replacingthe basicdiffer-
ential equationswith another set of equationsthat can be solved iteratively on a
computer.Both finite differenceand finite elementmethodsare applicable.
The finite differenceapproachdescribedin this chapterreplacesthe governing
partial differential equationswith a setof algebraicequations.Thesecanbe solvedon
the computerto producea set of water table elevationsat a finite numberof locations
in the aquifer.
Once the groundwatermodel has been calibrated,it can be usedto predict the
outcomes(impacts) of alternativedevelopmentand/or managementstrategiespro-
posed for an aquifer. Such analysesare valuable adjuncts to decision-makingpro-
cesses.Models can, for example,simulate the effects of opening new well fields,
analyzechangedbperating practices for existing well fields, explore schemesfor
artificial recharge,and predict the impactsof proposedirrigation developmentplans.
Groundwatermodelscan be applied to unconfinedaquifers,semiconfinedaquifers,
confined aquifers,or any combinationthereof. They can accommodatelarge varia-
tions in aquiferparameterssuchashydraulicconductivityand storagecoefficient,and
they can be usedto analyzeunsteadyas well as steadyflow problems.
REFERENCES 503
PROBLEMS
20.t. Refer to Fig. 20.8. Assumethat the elementlength is 5 m and the thicknessof the
confined aquifer is 2.5 m. The head at the left and right sidesis 8.1 m at r : 0, and
the head on the right is 2.5 m for all r > 0. K : 0.5 m/day and S : 0.02. Use the
explicit method to determineheadsat future times.
20.2. Referto Fig. 20.8.Assumethe elementlengthis 10 ft andthe thicknessof the confined
aquiferis 8 ft. The headat the left and right is 21 ft at t : 0, and it drops on the right
sideto 8 ft for all t > 0. K: 1.5 ftlday-ands : 0.02. use the explicitmethodto
calculatefuture heads.
20.3. Referto Fig. 20.12.Asidefrom the trend, what elsecanyou deducefrom studyingthis
figure?
20.4. Discusshow you would go about designinga grid for a regional groundwaterstudy.
What types of boun{ary conditions might you specify?Why?
REFERENCES
1. J. W. Mercer and C. R. Faust,Ground-WaterModeling.Worthington,OH: National Water
Well Association,1981.
2. C.A.AppelandJ.D.Bredehoeft,"statusofGroundwaterModelingintheU.S.Geological
Survey," U.S, Geol. Survey Circular 737(1976).
"Utilization of Numerical Groundwa-
3. Y. Bachmat,B. Andres,D. Holta, and S. Sebastian,
ter Models for Water ResourceManagement,"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ReportEPA-600/8-78-012.
"Contribution of Ground-waterModeling to Planning," J. Hydrol' 43(Oct.
4. J.E. Moore,
r979).
"Ground-water Computer Models-State of the Att,'l Ground Water
5. T. A. Prickett,
r7(2),t2r-r28(r979).
6. R. A. Freezeand J. A. Cherry, Groundwater.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1979.
7. G. D. Bennett, Introduction to Ground Water Hydraulics, book 3, Applications of Hy-
draulics. Washington,D.C.: U.S. GeologicalSurvey,U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
1976.
8. D. B. McWhorter and D. K. Sunada, Ground Water Hydrology and Hydraulics. Fott
Collins,CO: WaterResources Publications,1977'
9. D. K. Todd,GroundwaterHydrology,2d ed.New York: Wiley' 1980'
"PredictedWater-LevelDeclinesfor Alternative GroundwaterDevelop-
10. P. W. Huntoon,
ments in the Upper Big Blue River Basin,Nebraska,"ResourceRep.No. 6, Conservation
and Survey Div., University of Nebraska,Lincoln, 1974.
"The Numerical Solution of Parabolic and
11. D. W Peacemenand H. H. Rachford, Jr.,
Elliptic DiffetentialEquations,"Soc. Indust. Afpl. Math. J.3,28-4I(I955)'
"Application of th Digital Computer for Aquifer
12. G. F. Pinder and J. D. Bredehoeft,
Evaluation,"WaterResourcesRes.4(4), 1069- 1093(1968).
13. I. Remson,G. M. Hornberger,and F. J. Molz, NumericalMethodsin SubsurfaceHydrol-
ogy. New York: Witey, 1971.
14. T. A. Prickett and C. G. Lonnquist,SelectedDigital ComputerTechniques for Groundwa-
ter ResourceEvaluation,Illinois StateWater Survey Bull. No. 55, 1971.
PARTFIVE
MODELING
HYDROLOGIC
Chapter21
lntroductionto Hydrologic
Modeling
r Prologue
. Introduce the types and classesof hydrologicmodels.

. Illustrate the limitations, alternatives,steps,general components,and data
needsof hydrologicsimulation models.
. Presenta philosophicalprotocol for performing successfulmodelingstudies.
. Give an overview of groundwatermodel types.
. Distinguishthe need for separate,specificproceduresdetailedi4 subsequent
Chapters22, 23, 24, and25.
Information regardingratesandvolumesof flow at any point of interestalonga stream

is necessaryin the analysisand designof many types of water projects. Although
many streamshavebeen gaugedto provide continuousrecords of streamflow,plan-
nersand engineersare sometimesfacedwith little or no availablestreamflowinforma-
tion and must rely on synthesisand simulatlon as tools to generateartificial flow
sequencesfor use in rationalizing decisionsregardingstructuresizes,the effects of
land use, flood control measures,water supplies,water quality, and the effects of
natural or inducedwatershedor climatic changes.
The problemsof decisionmaking in both the designand operationof large-scale
systemsof flood control reservoirs,canals,aqueducts,and water supplysystemshave
resultedin a need for mathematicalapproachessuchas simulation and synthesisto
investigatethe total project. Simulationis definedas the mathematicaldescriptionof
the responseof a'hydrologic water resourcesystemto a seriesof eventsduring a
selectedtime period.For example,simulationcanmeancalculatingdaily, monthly, or
seasonalstreamflowbasedon rainfall; or computingthe dischargehydrographresult-
ing from a known or hypotheticalstorm; or simply fllling in the missingvaluesin a
streamflowrecord.
Simulation is commonly used in generating streamflow hydrographsfrom
rainfall and drainagebasin data. The philosophiesand overall concepts used in
simulation are introduced in this chapter. Chapter 22 summarizesconcepts of
508 cHAprER21 rNTRoDUcroN
To HyDRoLocrcMoDELING
streamdowsynthesisby stochasticmethods.Chapters23-25provide detailsregard-
ing determinislic continuousmodels, single-eventmodels,urban runoff and storm
sewerdesignmodels,and water quality models.
Stochastictechniquesusedto extendrecords,either rainfall or streamflow,are
classifiedas synthesismethods.This procedurerelies on the statisticalpropertiesof
an existingrecord or regionalestimatesof theseparameters.An overviewof synthesis
techniquesis presentedin Chapter22.
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
SIMULATION
In this chapter, simulation of all or parts of a surface,groundwater,or combined

systemimplies the use of computersto imitate historical eventsor predict the future
responseof the physicalsystemto a specificplan or action. Physical,analog,hybrid,
or other modelsfor simulatingthe behaviorof hydraulic and hydrologicsystemsand
systemcomponentshave had, and will continue to have, application in imitating
prototype behSviorbut are not discussedhere.
A few of the numerousevent,continuous,andurbanruneff computermodelsfor
simulatingthe hydrologiccycle are comparedin Table 21.1. As shown in the tabfe,
mostof the modelsweredevelopedfor, or by, universitiesor federalagencies.All have
moderate-to-extensive input data requirements,and all have from 1 to 10 percentof
TABLE 21.1 DIGITALSIMULATIONMODELSOF HYDROLOGICPROCESSES
Percentage
of inputsby Date of original
Code name Model name Agencyor organization judgmenf development
Continuous simulationmodels-Chapter23
streamflow
API Antecedent Frecipitation Index Model Private I 1969
USDAHL 1970,1973,1974 RevisedWatershedHydrology ARS I t970
SWM-IV Stanford WatershedModel IV Stanford University 10 1959
HSPF Hydrocomp Simulation Program-FORTRAN EPA 10 196l
NWSRFS National Weather Service Runoff Forecast System 10 t972
SSARR Streamflow Synthesisand Reservoir Regulation Corps 3 1958
PRMS Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System USGS 5 1982
SWRRB Simulator for Water Resourcesin Rural Basins USDA 10 r990
Rainfall-runoff event-simulation models-Chapter 24
HEC-1 HEC-I Flood HydrographPackage Corps I 1973
TR-20 Computer Program for Project Hydrology scs 5 I 965
USGS USGS Rainfall-Runoff Model USGS 10 t972
HYMO Hydrologic Model Computer Language ARS 1 r972
SWMM Storm Water ManasementModel EPA 5 t971.
Urbanrunoffsimulation
models-Chapter
25
UCUR University of Cincinnati Urban Runoff Model University of Cinci4natr z t972
STORM Quantity and Quality ofUrban Runoff Corps 3 r974
MITCAT MIT Catchment Model MIT 5 t970
SWMM Storm Water ManagementModel EPA 5 I9'71
ILLUDAS Illinois Urban Drainage Area Simulator Illinois State Survey I 1972
DR3M Distributed Routing Rainfall-Runoff Model USGS 5 1978
PSURM PennsylvaniaState Urban RunoffModel PennsylvaniaState University 5 1979
"Judgment percentagesare from U.S. Army WaterwaysExperiment Station.r
SIMULATION509
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
by repeatedtrials
inputs that arejudginent pafameters.Theseare normally validated
are primarily event simulation modelsbut
with the models.The urban runoff models
descriptions of urban models are deferred
havebeenisolatedin Table2 1. 1 becausethe
to ChaPter25.
modelsshown
Severalof the major eventand continuousstreamflowsimulation
23 and24.The Stanford and HEC-1 models
in Table2!.1aredescribedin chapters
most models listed in Table 2I't are briefly
are emphasized.For further referince, "Models and Meth-
described,alongwith about 100 other models, in the publication
ods Applicable to Corps of EngineersStudi-es."1 Fleming's text plesentscomplete
descriptionsof the SSARR, S'[iM, HSP, USDAHL' and other models'2
Classificationof SimulationModels
In recent decadesthe scienceof ct
water resourcesystemshas Passed
engineeringprocedure.The variedni
has causeda proliferation of catego
classiflcationsare Presented.
physical vs. Mathematical Models Physicalmodelsinclude analogtechnologies

In contrast' mathematical
and principlesof similitude appliedto smali-scalemodels'
to represent the system'A laboratory flume
models,"iy on mathematicafJtut"-.nt,
while the unit hydrograph theory of
rhay be a 1:10 physical model of a stream,
response of a watershedto variouseffective
Chapter12 is a mathematicalmodelof the
rain hYetograPhs.
by consider-
is achieved
Continuous vs. Discrete Models A secondclassification
models as continuous becausethe processes
ing physical,analog,and some digital
occur and are modeledcontinuous
necessityand advantagesof slicing
qualifY as discrete models' A we
indication method for routing a flo
instantaneousreservoirdischargerz
' time.
over time and time-
Dynamic vs. static Models Processesthat involve changes
dynamic models' In contrast' modelsthat
varying interactionscan be simrrlatedby
ui" irequently called static' Few hydrologic
examine time-independentprocer*"*
simulation modelsfall into the latter category'
havehad the greatest
Descriptive vs. conceptual Models Descriptivemodels
becausethey are
appticaiionand are of particular interestto practicinghydrologists
and the useof basic
designedto accountfor observedphenomenathrough empiricisrn
momentum conservation assumptions' concep-
fundamentalssuchas continuity or
heavily on theory to interpletphenomena rather
tual models,on the other hand, rely
Examples of the latter include models based on
than torepresentthe physicalpto""tt.
510 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTIONTO HYDROLOGICMODELING
probabiliiy theory.Recenttrendsin the useof artificial intelligenceand expertsystems

in water systemmodelingwould classifyas conceptualmethods.
Lumped vs. Distributed Parameter Models Modelsthat ignore spatialvaria-

tions in parametersthroughoutan entire systemare classifiedas lumpedparameter
models.An exampleis the use of a unit hydrographfor predicting time di;tributions
of surfacerunoff for different stormsover a homogeneous drainagearea.The "lumped
parameter" is the X-hour unit hydrographusedfor convolutionwith rain to givelhe
storm hydrograph.The time from end of rain to end of runoff is also a lumped
parameteras it is held constantfor all storms.Distributedparametermodelsaccount
for behavior variations from point to point throughout the *yst"*. Most modern
groundwatersimulationmodelsare distributedin that they allow variationsin storage
andtransmissivityparametersovera grid or lattice systemsuperimposedoverthe plan
of an aquifer.More recently,surfacewater systemsare being analyzedthroughuseof
distributedparameterGeographicalInformation System(GIS) technologies.
Black-Box vs. Structure-lmitating Models Both of thesemodelsacceptinput

and transform it into output. In the former case,the transformationis accomplished
by techniquesthat havelittle or no physicalbasis.The alchemist'spurported ability
to transform lead into gold or plants into medicinewas accomplishedin a black-box
fashion- In hydrology, black-box models may sometimestransform "plants" into
"medicine"
even though the reasonsfor successare not clearly understood.For
example,a modelthat acceptsa sequenceofnumbers,reduceseachby 20 percent,and
outputsthe resultsmight be entirely adequatefor predictingthe attenuationof a flood
waveas it travelsthrough a reachof a given stream.In contrast,a structure-imitating
modelwould be designedto useacceptedprinciplesof fluid mechanicsand hydraulics
to facilitate the transformation.
Stochastic vs. Deterministic Models Many stochasticprocessesare approxi-

mated by deterministic approachesif they exclude all considerationof random
parametersor inputs. For example,the simulation of a reservoir systemoperating
policy for water supply would properly include considerationsof unceitainties
in natural inflows, yet many water supply systemsare designedon a deterministic
basisby masscurve analyses,which assumethat sequencesof historical inflows are
repetitive.
Deterministic methods of modeling hydrologic behavior of a watershedhave
becomepopular. Deterministic simulation describesthe behaviorof the hydrologic
cycle in terms of ma[hematicalrelations outlining the interactionsof variousphases
' of the hydrologicclcle. Frequently,the modelsare structuredto simulatea streamflow
value,hourly or daily, from given rainfall amountswithin the watershedboundaries.
The model is "verified" or "calibrated" by comparingresults of the simulation with
existingrecords.Oncethe modelis adjustedto fit the known period of data,additional
periods of streamflowcan be generated.
Event'Based vs. Contlnuous Models Hydrologicsystemscan be investigatedin

greaterdetail if the time frame of simulationis shortened.Many short-termhydrologic
modelscould be classifiedas event-simulationmodelsas contrastedwith seauential
' 21.1 HYDROLOGIC
SIMULATION 511
or coniinuousmodels.An exampleof the former is the Corps of Engineers-single-

model
eventmodel, HEC-1,3 and an exampleof the latter is the Stanfordwatershed
which is normally operated to simulate three'
developedby Crawford and Linsley,a
A typical event simulation model might use
four, five, oi *or" yearsof streamflow.
a time incrementof t hr or perhaps even I min'
have arisen
water Budget vs. Predictive Models sevelal model classiflcations
One important comparison
that distingtish betweenthe purposesof the model types.
precipi-
is whetherthe model proposesto predict future conditionsusing synthesized
tation and watershedconditions or
model is definedas a model or set of
of inflows, outflows,and changesin
advisedthat simulationmodel studier
use the Parametersthat affirm the b
shed.For example,meteorologicdat
watershed'A water
application amounts might be known for a given agricultural
(ET) formula
budgetmodelwould be uied to determinethe correctevapotranspiration
in the continuity equation
parametersby testing a range of valuesuntil a balance
day-by-day or month-by-
occursfor all time increments.This is often performedon a
budget model'
month basis. once the ET parametersare derived from the water
conditions'or farming
predictive simulationsof diffirent crop patterns,meteorologic
relationshipsin the model
practicescould be performedwith the satisfactionthat the
corroboratehistorical water budget
outputsare measured(precipitation
. studiesrequire the simultaneousdt
ondarY Processessuch as ET, infil
spatial distribution of water applications'
Limitationsof Simulation
systems'some
Becausesimulation entails a mathematicalabstractionof real-world
system behavior canôccur. The extent to which the
degreeof *i,,"p,",entation of "depends
on many factors' The test of a developed
model and systemoutputs vary
by demonstrating that the behavior is consis-
simulationmodelconsistsof u"iifi"uiion
tent with the known behaviorof the physical system'
resources
Even verified simulation models have limitations in usesfor water
models will allow performance assessments of
planhing and analysis.Simulation
particularly opti-
specificschemesbut cannotbe usedefficiently to generateoptions,
once a near-optimal plan is formulated^by some
mal plans, for stated objectives.
of simulation runs are normally effective for testing
othertechnique,a limited number
variablesusing ran-
and improving the plan by modifying combinationsof decision
Techniques for generating optimal plans are
dom or systeriaticsamplingtechniques.
describedin Section21'3'
proce-
Another limitation of simulationmodelsinvolveschangingthe operating
of the system being modeled' Programming
duresfor potentialor existingcomponents
for example,requires
u "o*pot", to handle reservoir storageand releaseprocesses'
rules, and considerable reprogramming is re-
large portions to define the operatin!
qoir"a if other operatingproceduresare to be investigated.
t-
512 oHAPTER
21 INTRoDUoTIoN
To HYDRoLoGIc
MoDELING
A'fourth limitation of simulationmodelsis the potential overrelianceon sophis-
ticated output when hydrologicand economicinputs are inadequate.The techniques
of operational hydrology can be used to obviate data inadequacies,but these also
require input. Controversyover the use of syntheticdata centerson the questionof
whetheroperationalhydrologyprovidesbetter information than that containedin the
input.
Utilityof Simulation
Computersimulation of hydrologicprocesseshas severalimportant advantagesthat
shouldbe recognizedwheneverconsideringthe merits of a simulation approachto a
problem that has other possiblesolutions.One alternativeto digital simulationis to
build and operateeither the prototype systemor a physically scaledversion.Simula-
tion by physical modeling has been applied successfullyto the analysisof many
componentsof systemssuchas the designof hydraulic structuresor the investigation
of streambank stability.However,for the analysisof complexwaterresourcesystems
comprisedof many interactingcomponents,computersimulation often provesto be
the only feasibletool.
Another alternative to digital simulation is a hand solution of the governing
equations.Simulation models,once formulated, can accomplishidentical results in
lesstime. Also, solutionsthat would be impossibleto achieveby hand are frequently
achievedby simulation.In addition, the systemcan be nondestructivelytested;prd-
posedmodificationsof the designsof systemelementscan be testedfor feasibility or
comparedwith alternatives;andmanyproposalscanbe studiedin a shorttime period.
An often overlookedadvantageof simulation includes the insight gained by
gathering,organizing,and processingthe data, and by mentally and mathematically
formulating the model algorithmsthat reproducebehaviorpatternsin the prototype.
Stepsin DigitalSimulation
A simulationmodel is a set of equationsand algorithms(e.g.,operatingpolicies for
reservoirs)that describethe real systemand imitate the behaviorof the system.A
fundamentalfirst stepin organizinga simulationmodelinvolvesa detailedanalysisof
all existingand proposedcomponentsof the systemand the collection of pertinent
data. This stepis called the systemidentification or inventory phase.Includeditems
of interestare site locations,reservoircharacteristics.rainfall and streamflowhisto-
ries, water and power demands,and so forth. Typical inventory items requiredfor a
simulatiol study and data needsthat are specificto someof the modelsare detailed
in subsequentparagraphs.
The second-phase is model conceptualiTation,which often providesfeedbackto
the first phasebf defining actual data requirementsfor the planner and identifying
systemcomponentsthat areimportant to the behaviorof the system.This stepinvolves
(1) selectinga techniqueor techniquesthat are to be used to representthe system
elements,(2) formulating the comprehensivemathematicsof the techniques,and (3)
translatingthe proposedformulation into a working computerprogramthat intercon-
nects all the subsystems and algorithms.
Following the systemidentification and conceptualizationphasesare several
stepsof the implementationphase. Theseinclude(1) validatingthe model,preferably
SIMULATION 513
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
for the
by demonstrating that the model reproduces any available observed behavior
(2) modifying the algorithms as necessary to improve the
actual or a similir system;
(3) putting the model to work by carrying out the simula-
accuracy of the model; and
tion exPeriments.
Model Protocoi
Five axiomsfor performingsuccessfulmodelstudies,adaptedfrom recommendations
by Friedrich,5are:
1. Evaluatethe data beforebeginning.

t Document assumPtions.
3. Plan and control the sequenceof computerruns'
4. Insist on reasonablenessof output.
5 . Document,document,document.
Examining and evaluatingthe basic data are essential.An annotated,bibliographic

program \
record of the data ,orrr."* shouldbe maintained.It is alwaysgood adviceto
of the numerical
modelsthat output (echo)datavaluesasthey arereadin. Verification
valuesand proper entry of the data can be establishedfrom the echo.
Statisticssuchasih" 1n"un,mode,median,range,standarddeviation,skewness,
for
kurtosis, and rank order are often helpful in locating entry errors' Checking
ahead of the rainfall? Are
inconsistenciescan identify errors. Didthe runoff occur
characters
waterlevelsgraduallyvaried,or are there discontinuities?Do alphabetical
be interpreted as missing or
appearin th! data?Will blank valuesin the data sets
(division by zeto)? For hy-
zeros?Will zeros in the data sets result in overflows
drographrouting, doesthe time interval selectedfall betweenthe limits recommended
for staUltityand convergenceof the numerical method usedto solvethe differential
equations?
^
Assumptionsare also important to the successof a simulation' Assumptions
assump-
were madeby the p.og.u--"iwhen developingthe mod91,and additional
the standarddeviation
tions aremadeby userJ.Fo, "*u-ple, a programthat calculates
must be
from an unbiased estimating equation assumesthat the sample size
N = 30 is often considered
sufficiently lafge to validate ihe estimate.A value of
used' as
minimal. For a TP-149 (Chapter 15) application, is a 24-hr storm being
be used prior to reading and
assumedby the method?No computerprogram should
and becoming awareof the
undershndingthe assumptionsmadeUy ttre programmer
assumptionsimplicit in the hydrologicprocessthat was programmed'
'ih" lor cpst of simulationcan reiult in unnecessaryruns and may enticeusers
bstantively to the information originally
purposeofruns) and working the plan can
isonrY asmarr
dtli|l,""i:#THfftime
monetary limits to
r alproximate time and
in a single
useasa guideduringa simulationproject. combining severalinvestigations
Some of the models available
run is anotherway to conductarrefficient simulation.
allowthis.Forexample,TR-20(seeChapter24)allowsthegenerationofflood
514 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTION MODELING
TO HYDROLOGIC
hydrographsfrom severalstormsat once.It is often desirableto generatethe2-,5-,

'
10-, 25-, 50-,100-, and 500-yearflood dischargeat a singlewatershedlocation.
The computer is able to generatefar more output than the hydrologistcan
analyze.Most modelsincorporateoptionsallowingthe userto specifyoutputquantity.
In additionto controlling outpul, a predeterminationshouldbe madeof which specific
analyseswill be performed. A tabulation of key output data can be developedto
compile and evaluatetrends (and make coursgcorrections)after eachrun. Because
deterministichydrologyis about 80 percent acbounting,many opportunitiesexist in
simulation for assessing water budgelbalances.If the total rechargeto an aquifer is
less than the total outflow and withdrawls, but simulatedwater tables are rising, a
checkof input and model parametersshouldbe made.Writing important conclusions
on the printed output of simulationruns helpsdocumentthe study and guiderevisions
in future runs.
Documentation of simulation studies is generally deficient in practice. The
record should communicatethe findings in a way that provides a later reviewer
generalunderstandingof the work plan followed,decisionsmade,andreasonsfor each
run. The documentationshouldstateassumptionsmade,provide samplesof the input
and output,explaininput preparationrequirements,statehow sensitivethe resultsare
to parameterchangesand assumptions,and documentreasonsout-of-rangeparame-
ters were accepted.
Documentationis an ongoingand continual task. It is especiallycrucial if the
model will be employedin regulatory proceduresor litigation. A comprehensive
documentation processwould6:
1. Include an outline descriptionofthe problem being studied.

2. Identify the equations,techniques,and methodsused.
3. Demonstratethe model's validity to this problem.
4. Discussthe code.
5. Include all assumptionsusedin the code and in preparingthe input.
6. List publishedor known limitations or rangesof the applicability of the
model.
7. Characterizethe uncertaintiesin the model; describesensitivitytests.
8. Describeparametersand data setsused.
9. Statethe regulatory or legal criteria incorporatedin the model.
10. Describe the verification, whether with test data or analytical solutions.
11. Include a narrative descriptionof the results,indicating any unexpectedor
unusualoutcomes.
12.Presentany other details deemedrelevant.
13.Discusithe modelused.
14.Documentchansesmade in the model code.
Componentsof HydrologicSimulationModels
Numerousmathematicalmodelshavebeen developedfor the purposeof simulating
various hydrologicphenomenaand systems.A generalconceptualmodel including
mostof the importantcomponentsis shownin Fig. 21.1;severalothersare described
subsequeht$.Irnportedwater in the lorygl leJtcould be input to reservoiror ground-
)
SIMULATION
21,1 HYDROLOGIC 515
System outflow
Snow accumulation
and melt
Depression Overiand flow

storage direct runoff
System outflow
SYsteminflow System rntlow
Figure2l..l.Componentsofasurfaceandsubsurfacewaterresourcesystem.
allocationson
water storageor channelflow, or it might be guideddirectly to water
The routing of
the far rlgtriif either storageor distribuiion were deemedunnecessary.
parameter
channelflo* o, overlandflow could be accompdbhedby simple lumped
flow eq-uationsfor discrete segments of
techniques,or solutionsof the unsteady-state
and algorithms
the channelcould be used.In other words,the selectionof techniques
depends on the d9ere9of refinement desired as output
to fepresenteachcomponent
is justifled
and also on knowledgl of the system.A distributedparameterapproach
described in
only when availableinformation is adequate.Componentsof modelsare
ChaPters22-25.
DataNeedsfor HydrologicSimulation
aspart of the
The simulation6f all or part of a water systemrequiresa data inventory
(90 percent or mofe) are
initial planningproc"ts. Most modelinput datarequirements
or obtained from engineering
map or tield ariaitable,or canbe empiricallydetermined
inventory topics that encompasses
, handbooksand equations.A generallist of data
most hydrologic- economicmodelingneedsfollows'
A. Basin and SubbasinCharacteristics

l, Lagtimes, travel times in reaches,times of concentration'
2.Contributingareas,depressions,meanoverlandflowdistancesandslopes'
\--
516 CHAPTER21 INTRODUCTION
TO HYDROLOGIC
MODELING
3. Designstorm abstractions:evapotranspiration, infiltration, depression,and

interception losses.composite curve numbers,infiltr_ationcapacitiesand
parameters,@indexes.
4. Land-usepractices,soil types, surfaceand subsurfacedivides.
5. Water-usesites for recreation,irrigation, flood damagereduction, diver-
sions,flow augmentation,and pumping.
6. Numbering systemfor junctions, subareas,gaugingand precipitation sta-
trons.
7. Imprevious areas, forested areas, areas between isochrones, irrigable
acreages.
B. ChannelCharacteristics
1". Channelbed and valley floor profiles and slopes.
2. Manning or Ch6zycoefficientsfor variousreaches,or hydrhulicor field data
from which thesecoefficientscould be estimated.
3. Channeland valley cross-sectionaldata for eachriver reach.
4. Seepageinformation; channellossesand baseflows.
5. channel and overbank storagecharacteristics,existingor proposedchan-
nelization and leveedata.
6. Sedimentloads,bank stability, and vegetativegrowth.
c. MeteorologicData
1. Hourly and daily precipitation for gaugesin or near the watershed.
2. Temperature,relative humidity, and solar radiation data.
3. Data on wind speedand direction.
4. Evaporationpan data.
D. WaterUse Data
1. Flows returned to streamsfrom treatmentplants or industries.
2. Diversionsfrom streamsand reservoirs.
3. Transbasindiversionsfrom and to the basin.
4. Stream and ditch geometricpropertiesand seepagecharacteristics.
5. Irrigated acreagesand irrigation practices,including water useefficiencies.
6. Crop types and water consumptionrequirements.
7. Pastconservationpracticessuchas terracing,insfallation of irrigation re-
turn pits, and conservationtillage.
8. Stock wateringpractices.
9. Presenceand types of phreatophytesin stream valleys and along ditch
banks.
E. StreamflowData
1. Hourly, daily, monthly, annual streamflow data at all gauging stations,
includin$ statisticalanalyses.
2. Flood frequencydata ani curvesat gaugingstations,or regionalcurvesfor
ungaugedsites,preferablyon an annual and seasonalbasis.
_3. Flow duration data and curves at gauging stations (also any synthesized
data for ungaugedareas).
4. Rating curves; stage-discharge, velocity-discharge, depth-discharge
curvesfor certain reaches.
SIMULATION517
21.1 HYDROLOGIC
$, Flooded area curves.

6. Stageversusarea flooded'
7. StageversusfrequencYcurves'
8. Stageversusflooi damagecurves,preferablyon a seasonalbasis.
9. Hydraulic radius versusdischargecurves'
10. Sireamflowsat ungaugedsitesas fractions of gaugedvalues.
ll. Returnflows as fractionsof water-useallocationsdivertedfor consumptive
use.
12. Seasonaldistributionsof allocationsto users'
13. Minimal streamflowto be maintainedat eachsite'
14.Masscurvesandstorage_yieldanalysesatgaugedsites'
F. Design Floods and Flood Routing
l. Designstormand flood determination;temporaland spatialdistributionand
mtenslty.
2. Maximum regional stormsand floods'
3. Selection.andverificationof flood routing techniquesto be usedand neces-
sary routrng parameters.
4. Baseflow estimatesduring designfloods'
5. Availablerecords of historic floods'
G. ReservoirInformation
L. List of potential sitesand location data'
2. Elevation-storagecurves.
3. Elevation-area curves.
4. Normal, minimal, other pool levels'
5. Evaporationand seepageloss data or estimates'
6. Sediment,dead storagerequirements'
7. Reservoireconomiclife.
8. Flood control operatingpolicies and rule curves'
9. Outflow characteristics,weir and outlet equations,controls.
10. Reservoir-basedrecreationbenefit functions'
L1. Costsversusreservoirstoragecapacities'
12. Purposesof eachreservoirand beneficiariesand benefits.
NonmodelingAssessments
can be
After researchingthe availabledata and information, the needfor simulation
If a decisionis made to proceed,the appropriatesimulation model can be
assessed.
selected,a sequenceplanned,and data prepared'
Transformationof raw data into usabieform doesnot alwaysrequire a simula-
can
tion model.Much of the usualinformationneededfor waterresourcesassessments
be preparedby hand or by using analytical proceduresavailable in microcomputer
format.Typicalnonmodelinganalysesincludethefollowing:
1. Identify water-user groups and all basin sites for hydropower produc-
irrigation, flood damagereduction from
tion, reservoir-based-recreation,
TO HYDRoLOGICMODELING
reservoircapacity,industrial and municipal water supply,diversions,and

flow augmentation.
t Compile annualand seasonalstreamflowsand flood recordsat eachgauged
site for the period of record at eachsite.
3. Determine the fraction of the allocation to each consumptiveuse that is
assumedto return to the streamat eachuser site in the basin.
4. Perform frequencyanalysesof annual streamflowand flood valuesat each
gaugesite in the basin.
Determinefor eachreservoirsite the eVaporationand seepagelosses.
6. Selectmeanprobabilitiesto be usedin the firm and secondaryyield analy-
SES.
7. Developflood peak probability distributionsat eachpotential flood damage

center or reachin the basin.
8. Determinethe fraction of water to be allocatedduring eachperiod to each
water-usesite in the basin.
9. Determine existing and proposed hydropower plant capacitiesand load
factors.
10. Identify any minimal allowablestreamflowsto be maintainedfor flow aug-
mentation at eachflow augmentationreachin the basin.
11. Specify any maximal or minimal constraintson any of the annual or sea-
sonal water allocations,storagecapacities,or target yields.
12. Specify any constraintson maximal or minimal dead storage,active stor-
age, flood control storage,or total storagecapacitiesat any or all of the
reservoirsitesin the basin.
13. Determine annual capital, operation, maintenance, and replacement
(OMR) costsat eachreservoirsite as functions of a rangeof total reservoir
'capacities
or scalesof development.
14. Determinebenefitsas functions of energyproduced.
L5. Determineannual capital and OMR costsat eachhydropowerproduction
site as functions of variousplant capacities.
16. Determine benefit-loss functions for a variety of allocationsto domestic,
commercial,industrial, and diversionuses.
17. Determine short-run lossesas functions of deviations (both deficit and
surplus)in plannedor target allocationsto user sites.
18. Developbenefit functions at eachirrigation site in the basin.This analysis
requiresinformation on the area of land that can be irrigated per unit of
water allocated,the quantitiesof eachcrop that can be producedper unit
areaof land, the total fixed and variablecostsof producingeachcrop, and
the unit"pricesthat will clear the market of any quantity of eachcrop.
19. Developflood-damage-reductionbeneflt functions at eachpotential flood
damagesite. This analysisrequiresrecords of historical and/or simulated
floods, channel storagecapacities,and flood control reservoir operating
policies.
20. Developreservoir-basedrecreationbenefitfunctions at eachrecreationsite
in the basin.
SIMULATION
21.2 GROUNDWATER 519
21.2 GROUNDWATER SIMULATION
Digital simulation models are used in a different manner to study the storageand
movementof water in a porous medium. Distributedrather than lumped parameter
models are used to imitate observedevents and to evaluatefuture trends in the
developmentand managementof groundwatersystems.The equationsdescribingthe
flow of waterin a poroui mediumwerederivedin Chapter18 andmodelingof regional
systemswas discirssedin Chapter 20. This section deals primarily with techniques
used in solving the hydrodynamicequationsof motion and continuity, followed by
brief discussionsof (i) typical input requirements,(2) techniquesof calibrating and
verifying the models, and (3) the sensitivity of groundwatermodels to parameter
changeslAnexampleof the calibrationand applicationof a groundwatermodelis also
provided.
ModelTypes
Groundwaterstudiesinvolve the adaptationof a particular code to the problem at
hand. Severalpopular public domain computer codesfor solving various types of
groundwaterflow problemsare listedin Table2L2.The codesbecomemodelswhen
the systembeingsiudiedis describedto the codeby inputting the systemgeometryand
known internai operandi (aquifer and flow field parameters,initial and boundary
conditions, and water use and flow stressesapplied in time to all or parts of
the system).Codes have emerged in four general categories:groundwaterflow
codes,solutetransport codes,particle tracking codes,andaquifer testdata analysis
programs.to
Groundwaterflow codesprovide the user with the distribution of headsin an
aquifer that would result from a simulated set of distributed recharge-discharge
stressesat cells or line segments.From Darcy's law, the flow passingany two points
can be calculated from the head differential. The codes are used to model both
confined and unconfinedaquifers.Eachcan be structuredto model regional flow, or
flow in proximity of a singG well or wellfield. Steady-stateand transientconditions
canbe evaluated.Boundaiiescanbe barriers,full or partially penetratingstreamsand
lakes,leaky zones,or constantheador constantgradientperimeters.By application
of Darcy's 1aw,the seepagevelocitiesof groundwatercan be determinedafter solving
for the head differentials.
When groundwaterseepagevelocitiesareknown, the advection,dispersion,and
changesin concentrationof iolutes can be modeled.Solutetransportmodelsbuild on
groundwaterflow modelsby the addition of advection,dispersion,and/or chemical
reactionequations.If the chemical,dispersion,or dilution concentrationchangesdue
m groundwaterflow are not important, particle tracking codesmodel transport by
advectionand providean easiermethodthan solutetransportmodelsto track the path
and traveltimes of solutesthat moveunderthe influenceof headdifferentials.Aquifer
test data programsprovide userswith computersolutionsto many of the hand calcu-
lations (Ctrapter li) neededto graph and interpret aquifer test data for determining
aquifer and well Parameters'
I
\.
TO HYDROLOGIC
MODELING
TABLE 21.2 GROUNDWATER

MODELINGCODES
Acronymfor code Description Source

Groundwaterflow models
PLASM Two-dimensionalfi nite difference ru.sws 1971
MODFLOW Three-dimensionalflnite difference USGS 1988
AQUIFEM-1 T!wo-and three-dimensionalfinite element MIT r979
GWFLOW Packageof1 analytical solutions IGWMC 1975
GWSIM-II Storageand movementmodel' TDWR 1 9 81
GWFL3D Three-dimensionalfinite difference TDWR r991
MODRET Seepagefrom retention ponds USGS 1992
Solutetransooftmodels
SUTRA Dissolvedsubstancetransport model USGS 1980
RANDOMWALK Two-dimensionaltransientmodel ill. SWS 1981
MT3D Three-dimensionalsolutetransport EPA 1990
AT123D Analytical solution package DOE 1981
MOC Two-dimensionalsolutetransport USGS t978
HST3D 3-D heat and solutetransport model USGS r992
Particletrackingmodels
FLOWPATH Two-dimensionalsteadystate SSG 1990
PATH3D Three-dimensionaltransient solutions Wisc GS 1989
MODPATH Three-dimensionaltransient solutions USGS t991
WHPA Analyticai solution package EPA 1990
Aquifertest analyses
TECTYPE Pump and slug test by curve matching ssG 1988
PUMPTEST Pumping and slug test IGWMC 1980
THCVFIT Pumping and slug test IGWMC 1989
TGUESS Specific capacitydetermination IGWMC 1990
Note: IGWMC : International Groundwater Modeling Center; Ili. SWS : Illinois State Water Survey;
SSG : Scientific Software Group; EPA : Environmental Protection Agency; USGS : U.S. Geological Survey;
Wisc. GS = Wisconsin Geological Survey; MIT : MassachusettsInstitute of Technology; TDWR : Texas De-
partment of Water Resources;DOE : Department of Energy.
SolutionTechniques
With few exceptions,the hydrodynamic equations for groundwaterflow have no
analyticalsolutions,and groundwatermodelingreliesonfinite-dffirence and,finite-
elementmethodsto provide approximatesolutionsto a wide variety of groundwater
problems.The choice of method is normally driven by the systemto be modeled.
Other numericalmethodsincludeboundary integral methods,integratedfinitedffir-
ence methods,and analytic elementmethods.
Thesesolutions,as with streamflowsimulation models,are facilitated by first
subdividingthe region to be modeledinto subareas.Groundwatersystemsubdivision
dependsmore on geometriccriteria and lesson topographiccriteria in the sensethat
the region is overlaidby a regular or semiregularpattem of node points at which (or
betweenwhich) specificmeasuresof aquifer and water systemparametersare input
and other parametersare calculated.Approximate solutionsof simultaneouslinear
and nonlinearequationsare found by making initial estimatesof the solution values,
testingthe estimatesin the equationsof motion and continuity, adjustingthe values,
andfinally acceptingminor violationsin the basicprinciplesor making further adjust-
ments of-the parametersin an orderly and convergingfashion.
SIMULATION
21.2 GROUNDWATEFT 521
r Theorderly solutionof finite differenceanalogsof the steady-stateor unsteady-

stare partial difierential equation of motion for flow of groundwaterin a confined
'
aquifer or an unconfinedaquifer is obtainedby rela_xationmethods'An eady relax-
ation solutionof the equationis discussedby Jacob.TFor two-dimensionalproblems,
the iterativealternating-direction-implicit(ADI) methoddevelopedby Peacemanand
Rachfordsis often adoPted.
prickett and Lonnquisteused the ADI techniqueto calculate fluctuations in
watertable elevationsat all nodesin an aquifermodelby proceedingthrough time in
small incrementsfrom a known initial state.Their modelis computationallyefficient
and readily appliedand is particularly attractivefor usewith problemsinvolvingtime
variablesind nu-"tous nodes.The primary aquiferparametersare the permeability
and storagecoefficient,which, if assumedconstantover the aquifer plan, result in a
homogenJousandisotropigcondition.For thosefamiliar with relaxationmethods'the
Gauss-seidelandthe successive over-relaxation(SOR)methodshavehad application
in solvingdifference equations.
DataRequirements
Input to groundwatersystemmodelsmay be classifiedas spatialand temporal' Spatial
input inciudesinitial oi projectedwater table maps,saturatedthicknessdata over the
."gion, land surfacecontourmaps,transmissivitymaps,regionalvariationsin storage
coefficients,locationsand typei of wells and canals,locationsand types of aquifer
boundariesboth lateral and vertical, a nodecoordinatesystem,actualor net pumpage
rates,percolationand rechargerates for precipitation and other appliedwaters,logs
of drilled wells, geologicstratigraphy,and soil types and cropping patterns.
Time-dependenidatarequirementsfor aquifer models involve principally the
formulation of ti-" schedules,using a rangeof time incrementsfor suchvariablesas
pumpingrates,precipitationhyetographs,canaland streamflowhydrographs,ground-
waterevapotranspiration rates,and developmentvariablessuchasthe timing of added
wells or other system components. Becauseeachtemporal schedulecan apply only
to a particular iubset of node positions, the time-dependentrequirementsare also
spatial.
In addition to the listed input parameters,aquifer modelsrequire reliable esti-
matesof the percentagesof waters in the land phasethat actually percolateto the
aquifer being modeled.Theseestimatescan be basedon knowledgeof the physical
processesinvolved in unsaturatedflow through porous medium but are most often
obtainedasjudgmentparametersthat are modifiedduringthe calibrationphaseof the
simulation. Simply stated,the lateral movementand the changesin piezometeror
watertable leneli are easilymodeledif the node-by-nodestresses(withdrawalratesor
rechargerates)aie known. The latter parametersare governedby the complexmove-
ment of water in the unsaturatedsoil zone and by the random precipitation and
consumptiveusepatternsof the region.The art of modelinggroundwatersystemslies
in the ability to evaluatetheseparameters'
Calibration
Groundwatermodelcalibrationremovessomeof the guessworkinvolvedin parameter
determination.Severalcombinationsof parameters,basedon availableknowledgeof
I the physical syqtem,are testedin the model during a period for which records are
L,
522 21 INTRODUCTIoN
CHAPTER To HYDRoLoGIc
MoDELING
availabi-e.
Simulatedresultsare then comparedwith historical events.After structur-
ing the model,calibrationis achievedby operatingthe model during the studyperiod
by imposinghistoricalprecipitationamounts,canaldiversions,evaporationand evap-
otranspirationrates, streamflowsand stream levels, pumping rates during known
periods, and other stresseson the aquifer. Calibration is achievedafter the flow,
storage,and other parametershavebeenadjustedwithin reasonablelirnits to produce
the best imitation of recordedevents.
CaseExample
A typical finite-differencestudyinvolvingsurfacewaterand groundwatermodelingin
central Nebraskawas performed by Marlette and Lewis.tt The region involved is
shownin Fig. 2I.2.In additionto the surfaceirrigation systemrepresented by the
severalcanalsand laterals,over 1200wells withdraw waterfrom the aquiferbetween
the PlatteRiver and the Gothenburgand DawsonCounty canals.The aquiferrecharge
and withdrawal amountsas percentagesof precipitation, snowfall, pumped water,
deliveredcanal water, evaporation,and evapotranspirationwere estimatedusing a
mix of judgment andphysicalprocessevaluations.The resultingsetthat producedthe
bestcomparisonwith recordedeventsat the six observationwells showninFig.2l.2
is summarizedin Table 21.3. Samplesof the comparisonbetweenrecordedand
simulatedwaterlevelsin the DawsonCounty study during aZ-yearcalibrationperiod
are shownin Figs. 21.3 and2l.4.
The Prickettand Lonnquistmodelwasappliedin the DawsonCounty study.The
storagecoefflcientfor this unconfinedaquiferwas establishedby calibrationtrials as
0.25 and the adopted permeability was 61 mlday. Other trials were made using
variouscombinations of S andK, with S rangingfrom 0.10to 0.30andwith Kranging
between4I and I02 mlday. As with most unconfined aquifer models,water table
elevationswere most sensitiveto fluctuationsin the storasecoefflcient.Fisure 21.5 is
tt'iorX
'q;
\F
Figure 21.2. Grid coordinatesfor Dawson County, Nebraska,aquifer

model. o : observationwell.
SIMULATION
21.2 GROUNDWATER 523
TABLE..21.3 ADOPTEDRECHARGE FORWATERALLOCATIONS
CRITERIA
OVERTHEDAWSONCOUNTYAQUIFER
Aquiferrecharge/withdrawal
as a percentage
ot
Systemcomponent Allocationand appliedamounts appliedamount
Rainfall Recordeddepth if daily amount exceeded 30

0.25 cm at all nodes
Snowfall 25Voofrecorded depthsat all nodes 30
Pumpedwater Averagerate of 50 l/sec at-all well nodes 50
during irrigation seasons
Delivered canal water Recordeddaily rates,applied to land 30
surfaceone node laterally uphill and two
nodesdownhill from canal
Evaporation Observeddaily lake evaporationdepth at 100
all marsh and water surfacenodes
Evapotranspiration I25Voof daily lake evaporation,applied at 15
all alfalfa nodes
o
o
6
B
0.999
d
0.998
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N
1970 1971
Figure2L.3. Simulatedandrecordedwaterlevelsat observation
w e l l Di n F i g . 2 1 . 2 .:I8 2 ; i : 3 7 .
a typical summary of the calibration results at a single observationwell located at

PositionF in Fig. 21.2.
After vefification, the Dawson County model was applied to investigatethe
short-terminfluenceof severalmanagementschemes.Included among the schemes
were investigationsinvolving the completeremoval or shutdownof the surfacewater
canals,and other testsin which isolatedcanal contributionsto rechargewere deter-
mined by operatingthe model with singlecanals and comparingresults with water
table fluctuationsfor identicalconditionswith all canalsremoved.Many other appli-
cationsof the model are possible.This particular study revealedthat rechargefrom
o
a
F
0.999
0.998
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N
1970 l97l
Figure 21.4. Simulated and recorded water levels at observation

well F in Fig. 21.2. I : 97; i : 42.
a lu3
(J
o
q)
(.1
'F1
H
0)
i3
- 702
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O
t9'70 r97|
changes
Figure 21.5. Water-level with constantpermeabilityandvarying
Well4 Fig. 21.2;K : 6Im/day;I : 97;J : 42.
storagecoefficients.
the existingcanal systemcontributesto the waterbalancqof the aquiferbut is not the

dominantfactor\n the shortrun. The naturalrechargefrom precipitationandfrom the
Platte River accountfor the long-term water table stability in the region.
PROTOCOL
SIMULATION
21.3 HYDROLOGIC
The useof hydrologicsimulationas a tool in the decision-makingprocessis not new
but is of a different, more sophisticatedand more encompassingform. A model is a
rgplesentationof an actualor proposedsystemthat permitsthe evaluationand-rmanip-
21.g HYDROLOGICSIMULATIONPROTOCOL 525
useof
ulation of-manyyearsof prototypebehavior.This is the featurethat makesthe
thesetooii so attractiveand hoids suchpotential for the analysis of even the largest,
so well
mostcomplexsystems.It is alsothe prin-ipal featurethat makesthis approach
suitedto water resourcessystemplanning and analysis'
Apart from the useof cot1entionalhandmethodsand someelementarymodels,
planninghastraditionally beena practiceof judgment.This is changing,however,as
quantititive tools are developedthat permit the analysisof large numbersof alterna-
out but is
tives and plans.Judgment,a-nessentialelementof the process,is not ruled
to those in the planning
strengthenedthrough new insights that were not available
professiona few years ago. "What if ?"
Plannersare conti;ually required to anticipatethe future and ask
and "What's best?" questions.Quantitativeplanning techniques,suchas simulation
cost than
can provide detailedinformation aboutmore planning alternativesfor less
has occurred principally at
uny oth", approachavailable.Developmentof thesetools
universitiesand federal agencies.
CombinedUse of Simutationand OptimizationModels

at this
An important secondtype of quantitativeplanningtool shouldbe mentioned
information to select a
point.Screeningmodelsare designedto utilize llmiPd system
or set of objectives.Hence
bestplan u*oni many alternativesfor a specifiedobjective
toward
screeningmodJs, or optimizationmodelsasthey are often called,are oriented
plan formulation rn contrast to th
Simulation models are suited to de
reliable information on which to bi
"If
modelsaddressthe question, out
tion models,on the otherhand,ask,
will the systemlook like after we arr
special merits of each, these two
planningtechnologies. Completeder
ing, oPtimization,and simulation r
Final designvaluesshouldbe
to the systemel-ements and operatinga detailedsimulation model over time using a
sequenceof known or synthesizedprecipitation-amounts and/or streamflows,while at
the sametime accumulatingbenefiisovertime for flood control, reservoirand stream-
siderecreation,wateryields,strean
and anY other factorsnot consider
model. Severalsimulationruns wi
resultin a plan that bestmeetsthe c
generatedby coilventionalmethods'
infor-
Resultsof optimization modelswill provide readily obtainedand useful
in order to testthe most promis-
mation for initiating more refinedsimulationanalyses
of
ing measuresand arrive at final plans for the design,construction,and operation
a water resourcesystem.Even thor
for decisionsregardingboth the de
postoptimizationsimulation is rec
assumptionsoften requiredin prel
L
for preliminary screeningof developmentalternativesowing to time and cost limita-

tions.Unlessa new generationof computersevolves,currenttime and sizelimitations
do not allow screeningby simulating all iilternativesunlesssubstantialsacrificesin
realismare made.For the present,preliminary screeningfollowedby detailedsimula-
tion appearsto be the most effectivemeansfor arriving at optimal waterdevelopment
and managementPlans.
MODELS
SIMULATION
21.4 CORPSOF ENGINEERS
In 1964,the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersdevelopeda specialtybranch locatedat
the HydrologicEngineeringCenter(HEC) in Davis,California. The facility provides
a centerforipplying academicresearchresultsto practical needsof the Corps fleld
offices.In addition, the centerprovidestraining and technical assistanceto govern-
menr agenciesin advancedhydrology,hydraulics,and reservoiroperations.
Over the years, a large number of analytical tools were developedat HEC.
Table 2I.4 summarizesthe computerprogramsin categoriesof hydrology,river/reser-
voir hydraulics, reservoir operations, stochastichydrology, river/reservoir water
TABLE 21.4 HEC WATER RESOURCECOMPUTERPROGRAMS
Name Date of latest version Purpose
HydrologyModels
HEC-I, Flood HydrograPhPackage September1980 Simulatesthe precipitation runoff
processin any comPlexriver
Basin Rainfall and SnowmeltComputation July 1966
many subbasilsof a river basin

using gaugedata and weightings
(includedin HEC-1).
Unit Graph and HydrographComputation Iuly 1966 Computessubbasin

interception/infiltration, unit
hydrographsbaseflow, and
runoff hydrograph(included in
HEC-1).
Unit Graph Loss Rate OPtimization August 1966 Estimatesbest-fitvaluesfor unit

graph and lossrate Parameters
from given precipitation and
subbasinrunoff (included in
HEC-1).
HydrographCombining and Routing August 1966 Combinesrunoff from subbasinsat

confluencesand routes
hydrographs througha river
network using hydrologicrouting
methods(includedin HEC-1).
21.4 CORPSOF ENGINEERSSIMULATIONMODELS 527
TABLE21.4 (Continued)*
Name Dateof latestversion Purpose
Streamflow Routing OptiffIization July 1966 Estimatesbest-fit valuesfor

hydrologic streamflow routing
parameterswith given upstream'
downstream,and local inflow
hydrographs(includedin HEC-l).
Interior Drainage Flood Routing November1978 Computes seepage,gravitY and

pressue flow, pumping and
overtopping dischargesfor Pond
areasbehind leveesor other flow
obstructions.Main river elevation
and ponding area
elevation-area-capacitydata are
usedin computingdischarges.
Storage,Treatment, Overflow, Runoff Model JuJy1976 Simulatesthe precipitation runoff

(..STORM") processfor a single, usuallY
urban, basin for manY Yearsof
hourly precipitation data.
Simulates qualitY of urban runoff
and dry weather sewageflow.
EvaluatesquantitY and qualilY of
overflow for combinations of
sewagetreatmenl plant storage
and treatment rate.
hYdraulics
River/reservoir
HEC-2, Water SurfaceProfiles August 1979
super-critical. AnalYzes
allowableencroachmentfor a
given rise in water surface.
Gradually Varied UnsteadyFlow Profiles Iarnary L976 Simulatesone-dimensional,

unsteady,free surfaceflows in a
branching river network. Natural
and artificial cross sectionsmaY
be used. Uses an exPlicit centered
difference computational scheme.
Geometric Elements from Cross Section June 1976 Computestables of hYdraulic

Coordinates("GEDA') elementsfor use bY the GraduallY
Varied UnsteadYFlow Profiles or
other programs.InterPolates
values for area, top width, n
value, and hydraulic radius at
evenly spacedlocations along a
reach.
PROBLEMS
21.1. Simulation and synthesisare treatedseparatelyin Chapters'22and 23. List the most
distinguishingcharacteristicsof eachmethod and give an exampleof each.
21.2. Listatleastthreereasonsmanyofthedevelopedmodelsoftherainfall-runoffprocess
might not be usedby hydrologists.
21.3. You are askedto determinea designinflow hydrographto a reservoirat a site where
no recordsof streamfloware'available.I,!st generalstepsyou would take as a hydrol-
' ogist in developingthe entire designinflow hydrograph.
REFERENCES
"Models and MethodsApplicableto Corps of
1. U.S. Army WaterwaysExperimentStation,
EngineersUrban Studies,"MiscellaneousPaperH-74-8, National TechnicalInformation
Service,Aug.1974.
2. GeorgeFleming, ComputerSimulation Techniquesin Hydrology. New York: American
Elsevier,1975.
"HEC-I Flood HydrographPackage,"Users and Pro-
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
grammersManuals,HEC Program723-X6-L20I0, Jan.1973.
+ . N. H. Crawford and R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Department of Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Stanford, CA,
Tech.Rep.No. 39, July 1966.
5 . A. J. Friedrich, "Managementof ComputerUse in SolvingEngineeringProblems,"U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers,Hydrologic EngineeringCenter,Davis,CA, 1979.
6 . National ResearchCouncil, Ground WaterModels-Scientific and RegulatoryApplica-
tions. Water Scienceand TechnologyBoard, Commissionon PhysicalSciences,Mathe-
matics,and Resources, National AcademyPress,Washington, D.C., 1990.
7 . C. E. Jacob,"Flow of Groundwater,"in EngineeringHydraulics (HunterRouse,ed.)' New
York: Wiley, 1950.
"The Numerical Solution of Parabolicand Elliptic
8 . D. W. Peacemanand N. H. Rachford,
DifferentialEquations,"J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math.3' (1955).
"selectedDigital ComputerTechniquesfor Ground-
9 . T. A. Prickett and C. G. Lonnquist,
waterResourceEvaluation,"Ilinois StateWaterSurveyBull. No. 55,197I.
1 0 . D. R. Maidment, (ed.), Handbookof Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.
"Digital Simulationof Conjunctive-Useof Groundwater
1 1 . R. R. Marlette and G. L. Lewis,
in DawsonCounty, Nebraska,"Civil EngineeringReport, University of Nebraska,Lin-
coln, 1973.
12. W. K. Johnson,"Use of SystemsAnalysis in Water ResourcePlanning," Proc- ASCE J.
Hyd. Div. (1974).
1 3 .R. deNeufvi[e and D. H. Marks, SystemsPlanning and Design CaseStudiesin Modeling
Optimizationand EvaluatioiT . EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,I914.
14. D. P. Loucks, "stochasticMethodsfor Analyzing River Basin Systems."Cornell Univer-
sity Water Resourcesand Marine SciencesCenter,Ithaca, NY, Aug. 1969. ',
1 5 . A. Maass,(ed.),Designof WaterResourcesSystem*Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity
Press,1962.
t6. A. F. Pabst, "Next Generation HEC Catchment Modeling," Proceedings,ASCE Hy-
draulicsDivision Symposiumon EngineeringHydrology,SanFrancisco,CA, July 25-30'
1993.
Chapter22
Time":?J5:
Hydrologic
r Prologue
. Show how time seriesanalysisis used for generatingsynthetic hydrologic

records.
. Give definitionsof termsusedto describethe stochasticaspectsof hydrologic
series.
. Introduce fundamentalsof streamflowsynthesisincluding masscurve analy-
sis, random generationof sequences,serial-dependentsequences,and se-
quenceshavingprescribedfrequencydistributions'
Time-seriesanalysisof hydrologicvariableshas becomea practical methodol-

ogy for generatingsyntheticsequencesof precipitation or steamflowvaluesthat can
ui-usedlor u tung" of applicationsfrom filling in missingdata in a gaugedrecord to,
extendingmonthiy streamflowrecordsl, and from analyzinglong-term reliability of
yields of-watersheds2 or reservoirst'oto forecastingfloodsor snowmeltrunoff quanti-
iies from syntheticprecipitation sequences.5 Thesesynthetic hydrologytechniques
augmentttre simulationtools describedin Chapter21. Both have,experienced wide-
spiead use by hydrologistsand engineers.6Synthesisinvolves the generation of a
,"qu"n"" of valuesfor somehydrologicvariable(daily, monthly, seasonal, or annual).
The techniquesare most often applied to produce streamflowsequencesfor use in
reservoir designor operation studiesbut can also be used to generaterainfall se-
quencesthat can subsequentlybe input to simulation models'
If historioalflows iould be consideredto be representativeof all possiblefuture
variationsthat someproject will experienceduring its lifetime, there would be little
needfor synthetichyOroiogy.The hiitorical record is seldomadequatefor predicting
future eventswith certainty,however.The exacthistoricalpatternis unlikely to recur,
sequencesof dry years (or wet years) may not have been as severeas they may
beiome, and the singlehistorical record gives the planner limited knowledgeof the
magnitudeof risks involved.
536 CHAPTER22 HYDROLOGICTIME SERIESANALYSIS
Syhthesisenableshydrologiststo deal with data inadequaci.es, particularly if

record lengths are not sufficiently extensive.Short historical records of hydrologic
variables*"fu u, streamfloware extendedto longer sequenceslrsing hydrologic syn-
thesisand other techniquesof the broad scienceknown as operational hydrology'1
Thesenew, syntheticsequences either preservethe statisticalcharacterof the histor-
ical records or follow a prescribedprobability distribution, or both. When coupled
with computer simulation techniques,the techniquesprovide hydrologistswith im-
proved designand analysiscapabilities.
The rnethodsdescribedin this chapterare basedon probability and statistics.
The material presentedin Chapter 26 should be reviewed prior to studying this
chapter.
HYDROLOGY
22.1 SYNTHETIC
Hydrologic synthesistechniquesare classifiedas (I) historical repetition methods,
suchas masscurve analyses,which assumethat historical recordswill repeatthem-
sevlesin as many end-to-endrepetitionsas required to bracketthe planningperiod;
(2) random generationtechniques,such as Monte Carlo techniques,which assume
that the historicalrecordsare a numberof random,independentevents,any of which
could occur within a definedprobability distribution; and (3) persistencemethods,
such as Markov generationtechniques,which assumethat flows in sequenceare
dependentand thit the next flow in.sequenceis influencedby some subsetof the
previousflows. Historical repetition or random generationtechniquesare normally
applied only to annual or seasonalflows. Successiveflows for shortertime intervals
are usually correlated,necessitatinganalysisby the Markov generationmethod.
As with most subfieldsof hydrology,a number of computerprogramsfor time-
seriesanalysisandhydrologicdatasynthesishavebeendeveloped.One ofthe first, and
, one of the most widely app1i"d,wasthe U.S. Army Corps of Engineersmodel HEC-4
(seeSection21.a) pubfishedin I97IJ Its use is limited, though, to synthesizing
sequences of seriaitydependentmonthly streamflowsin a river reach.Other codess'e
are avarlableto thi hy-drologist,however. Additional models and descriptionsof
theory and applicationsof time-seriesanalysisof precipitation and streamfloware
detailedin a number of availabletexts and publications'10-l3
MassCurveAnalysis
One of the earliestand simplestsynthesistechniqueswas devisedby Ripplla to inves-
tigate reservoirptoragecapacityrequirements.His analysisassumesthat the future
inflowsto a reseivoirwill be a duplicateof the historicalrecord repeatedin its entirety
as many times end fo end as is necessaryto span the useful life of the reservoir.
Sufficient storageis then selectedto hold surpluswaters for releaseduring critical
periods when inflows fall short of demands.Reservoirsize selectionis easily accom-
pmfr"a from an analysisof peaks and troughs in the mass curve of accumulated
syntheticinflow versustime.15-17 Future flows can be similar, but are unlikely to be
identicalto pastflows.Randomgenerationand Markov modelingtechniquesproduce
seqUences t-hatare difJerentfrom, although still representativeof, historical flows.
-
HYDROLOGY 537
22.1 SYNTHETIC
EXAMPLE 22.1
Streamflowspast a proposedreservoir site during a 5-year period of record were,
respectively,in eachyear14,000,10,000,6000,8000,and 12,000acre-ft.use Rippl's
,nur. Crrru"method to determinethe size of reservoir neededto provide a yield of
9000 acre-ft in eachof the next 10 years.
solution. A lo-year sequenceof syntheticflows,usingRippl's assumptions,is
shown in Table Z2.l.Inflows are set equal to the historical record repeated
twice. rl
FOREXAMPLE22'1
TABLE22.1 STREAMFLOWS
Flows (thousandsof acre-ft)
Year r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
Inflow 1 4 1 0 6 8 1 2 1 4 1 0 6 8 1 2
14 24 30 38 50 64 74 80 88 100
Cumulative inflow
draft of 9000 acre-ft per year for 10 years.
90,000
80,000
^
I 70,000
Storagerequfued
B 60,000 for 9000-acre-ft/Yr ,' Cumulative draft,
draft is maximum , slopeof9000 acre-fl/Yr
50,000
40,000 4000 acre ft storagerequired
U
30,000
. 20,000
10.000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Year
- cumulative
Eigarc 22.1 Mass curve for ExamPle 22.1:
inflow; --- cumulativedtaft.
538 CHAPTER
22 HYDRoLoGIc
TIMESERIES
ANALYSIS
RandomGeneratiOn
one method of generatingsequencesof future flows is a simplerandom rearrange-
ment of past records.If the streamis ungaugedand recordsare not available,a
probability distributioncan be selectedand a sequenceof future flows that follow the
distribution and haveprescribedstatisticalmomentsis generated.
Wheneverhistorical flows are available,a reasonablesequenceof future flows
can be synthesizedby first consultinga table of randomnumbers,selectinga number,
matchingthis with the rank-in-file numberof a pastflow, and listing thecorresponding
flow as the first value in the new sequence.The next random numberwould be used
in a similar fasion to generatethe next flow, and so on. Randomnumbershavingno
correspondingflows are neglectedand the next randomnumberis selected.Table-B.3
in Appendix B is a table of uniformly distributedrandom numbers(eachsuccessive
numberhas an equalprobability of taking on any of the possiblevalues).To illustrate
the use of Table B.3 in the random generationprocess,the first three yearsof a
syntheticflow sequencecould be generatedby selectingthe 53rd, 74th, and23rdfrom
the list of past flows. Alternatively, the flows in 1953, 1974, and 1923 could also be
selectedas the new randomsequence.
Most computershave random number generationcapabilitiesin their system
libraries. Rather than storing large tables of numberssuchas Table B.3, successive
random integersare usually generatedby the computer.
EXA]I/IPLE22.2
Annualflowsin CrookedCreekwere 19,000,14,000,21,000,8000,11,000,23,000,
1 0 , 0 0 0 , a n d 9 0 0 0 a c r e - f t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f ol ,r2y,e3a, 4
r s, 5 , 6 , 7 , a n d 8 . G e n e r a t e a
5-year sequenceof annual flows, O,, by matching five random numberswith year
numbers.
Solution. Randomintegersbetween0 and 9 are generatedfrom the computer.
The Q, valuesin Table22.2 areselectedfrom the eight given flowsby matching
the respectiveyear numberwith the random number.The digit t has no corre-
spondingflow in the 8-year sequence,so the next random number, 2, places
the 14,000-cfs flow in Year 2 in the first position of the synthetic 5-year
sequence.rI
TABLE 22.2 DEVELOPMENTOF
s.YEAR SYNTHETIC
SEQUENCE
Randomdigit Q(acre-ft)
I o Skip
2 2 14,000
3 5 11,000
I
8 9,000
5 I 19,000
6 I
8.000
3.- a regressioncoefficient of the standarddeviation for the daily flow loga-

rithms within each month of record to the logarithm of the monthly to-
'
tal flow.,
Given the calculatedstatistics,the simulationof daily flows could be structured

in the following manner:
1. Generatestandardized variatesfrom Eq. 22'1,0.

2. Use the logarithm of the monthly mean flow as an initial estimateof the
mean of the logarithmic daily flows for the month'
3. Calculatethe standarddeviationof flow logarithmsby the previouslydeter-
mined regressionequation.
4. Apply the inverseof Eq. 22.1I,
k--
?lz(' -:) . 'l-;
13 1
(22.r2)
to transformthe standardizedvariatesto flows,multiplying by the appropri-

ate standarddeviationand addingthe mean.
5. Add the differencebetweenthe total monthly flow generatedand the given
monthly flow to the given monthly flow, and repeatthe simulation.
6. Multiply daily results of the secondsimulation by the ratio of the given
monthly total to the generatedmonthly total.
Each simulation techniquecommonly requiresmodificiationswhen applied to
individual problems.Methodsoutlined thus far can be utilized as guidesin establish-
ing a procedureto follow in synthesizingflows.Simulationof flows for a given station
hasbeenpresentedwith serial correlation,skewness,means,and standarddeviations
rnaintained.When generatingstreamflowsequences for an entire system,the preser-
vation of cross-correlationbetweenstationsbecomesa significantfactor.
Syntheticallygeneratedrunoff sequences are employedto determinethe capac-
ities of reservoirsto satisfy specifieddemands.Individually generatedflow magni-
tudesare uncertain, as are the syntheticallygeneratedsequencesof flows. Hydrolo-
gistscanestimateprobabilitiesof flowsby generatingseveralequally likd sequences
of flowsand then evaluatingrecurrencesof certain values.Herein lies one of the most
useful applicationsof Markov generatingtechniques.
i Summary
Hydrologicmodelingis often presentedas comprisingonly the deterministicmodels
of the rainfall-runoff processdescribedin Chapters2I,23,24, and 25. The fully
equippedhydrologistincorporatesthe synthetichydrology models describedin this
chapterin the analysisand designof water resotrces systems.A growing numberof
projects are constructedor operatedon the basis of synthetichydrology and time-
sedesanalysiseachyear.
PROBLEMS 545
PROBLEMS
22'2 and detet-
22.1. plot cumulativeinflows versustime for the S-yearrecord in Example yield of
mine by mass curve analysisthe size of the r_eservoirneededto provide a
12,000acre-ft in eachoithe next 24years. What is,the maximumyield possible?
sequenceof synthetic
use the annual rainfall trom Table 26.2to generatea lO-year
'r, t
assumption'
annual rain depthsfor Richmond using Rippl's masscurve
curve methods'Use
22.3. RepeatProblem 22.2 wingrandom generationrather than mass
numberJfrom taUl'n.: and match thesewith the last two digits of
i*o-Olglt.unaom
the yearnumbersin Problem26.32.
22.4. RepeatProblem22.2wingrandomgenerationtogenefateal0-yearsyntheticse-
standard and
qu"n"" of annual rain defths that has.a normal CDF with a mean 1
equal to that of ihe annual rain data from Problem 26'32'
deviation
follow a log-Pearson
tr< Repeat Problem 22.4 assumingthat the annual rain depths
statisiicsusethe mean, standarddeviation,and skewofthe
Type III distribution.For
logarithmsof annualrain at Richmond'
22.6. SelectagaugedStreaminyourgeographiclocationandprepareaquarterlymodel
Type III (c) Pearson
using (a) normal distribution, (Uitog-nbrmal distribution' and
distribution.
)a1 CanyouconvertthesimulationprobleminExamp|e22.4toalog_normaldistribution
given in the example?
simulation?What difficulties aie encounteredwith the data
22.8. Selectamonthofthunderstormactivityinyourregion.FrompublishedNoAAhourly
storms'for
duration of
rainfall data, flt a distributionto the time betweenstorms,and
data covering the month.
selected Preparea computerpfogram
20 yearsof recorded
of storms'
to randomly generatethe times betweenstormsand the durations
22.9. Flowsduring6yearsofrecordwereusedinsynthesizingthemasscurveshownonthe
following page.
a.UseRippl'sassumptionandthegraphtodeterminethemissingmagnitudeofthe
flow for the 12th Year.
yield of 2000 acre-
b Determinethe reservoircapacityrequired to allow an annual
ftlyr. RePeatfor 500 acte-ftlYr'
does this value relate
c. Determine the maximum yieid possibleat the site. How
statisticallYto the flows?
a table of randomprecip-
22.10. Describewith words and equationshow you would develop
havea mean of 4 in' and a standard
itation depthsthat follow a normal distributionand
deviationof3in.Useyourmethodtocalculatethefirstthreedepths.
is given below' use random
22.LI. A sequenceof uniformly distributedrandom numbers
generationto generatei 5_y"u, sequenceof annual rain depths that will follow a
have a mean of 25'8 in'' a standarddeviation
F"u..on fype iU distribution and will
of4'0in.,andaskewcoefficientof_2.2o.Randomnumberstobeusedare20,0I'
9 0 . 0 3 .a n d 8 0 .
to a PearsonType III
22.L2. Total July runoff from a basinis randomly distributedaccording
is 10,000 the
acre-ft', standard deviation is 1000 acre-ft' the
distribution. The mean
is 0.50. Start with Q1 :
skewis -0.6, and the lag-oneserialcorrelationcoefficient
flows if a sequence of randomly selected
10,000and find nu" -oiJuu.kov-generated
return periodsgives2, 100, 10,2, and 50 years'
30,000
25,000
20,000
9l
B
15,000
U 10.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
Year
Figtre 22.9 Mass curve.
REFERENCES
1 . U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,*HEC-4 Monthly Streamflow Sirnulation," Hydrologic
EngineeringCenter, 197l.
2. R. M. Hirsch, "synthetic Hydrology and Water Supply Reliability," Water Resources
Research, v. 15, no. 6, L979.
J. R. M. Vogel,andJ. R. Stedinger,"The Valueof StochasticStreamflowModelsin Overyear
ReservoirDesign Applications," WaterResourcesResearch,v. 25, no. 9, 1988.
A
D. K. Frevert,et al., "Use of StochasticHydrologyin ReservoirOperation," J. Irrigation
and DrainageEngineering,ASCE,v. 115,no. 3, 1989.
"An Evaluationof the Practicality and Complexityof SomeRainfall
5 . J. W. Delleur, et al.,
and Runoff Time SeriesModels," WaterResourcesResearch,v. 12, no. 5, 1976.
6. J. D. Salas, et al., "Applied Modeling of Hydrologic Time Series," Water Resources
Publications,Littleton, CO, 1980.
"Operational HydrologyUsing Residuals,"J. Hydraulics
1 . G. K. Young,and W. C. Pisano,
Division,ASCE,v.94, no. HY4, 1968.
"Applied StochasticTechniques,PersonalComputer Ver-
8 . U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
sion 5.2. User'sManual," Earth SciencesDivision,Denver,CO, 1990.
"SPIGOT, A Synthetic StreamflowGenerationSoft-
9 . J. C. Grygier, and J. R. Stedinger,
ware Package," School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University
Ithaca.NY. 1990.
Chapter23
ContinuousSimulationModels
r Prologue
, Introduce and describecomputercodesavailablefor performing contrnuous

simulation of surfacerunoff and streamflow'
. Presentin detail how one of the programs-the Stanfordwatershedmodel-
cycle'
simulatesthe miscellan"ou, "otnponentsof the hydrologic
.Showthemajorsimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheleadingmodels.
. Providea detailedcasestudyof how the modelparametersare developedfrom
availableinformation.
. Illustrate, by using the casestudy,the stepsinvolvedin calibratinga continu-
ous model and verifying the results'
. show how well the moleh are able to replicate gaugedstreamflows.
with tools for esti-

Simulation modelsdescribedin this chapterprovide hydrologists
accounting in tittt" for precipitation' direct runoff '
mating streamflowby continuously
deep percolation' base flow' and stream-
infiltration, evaportranspiration,interflow,
stormi, continuous simulation models track
flow. During rain-free intervalsbetween
to evaporation, deep percolation,and base flow,
the storageof water.andits depletion
until the next rain or snow eventoccurs'
ThemodelsarebasedonthephysicalprocessesdescribedinChaptersl_14.As
yasdeterministiciools't1;:H':1;ffi ff;ff t:
such,theycrassif :T:TLi""ll':'ff
rain and snow into runoff and streamflow'
or other similar procedures'can be usedto
r are then input to continuoussimulation
in Table2l'l ate
Severalof the continuoussimulationmodelsidentifiedearlier
model, version IV (swM-IV)' is presented
describedhere.The Stanford watershed
indetailastypicaloftheothermodels.Manyoftheothersare,infact,basedon
2g.1 CONTINUOUS STREAMFLOW SIMUIATIONMODELS 549
in the
SWM{V, and several simulate various componentsof the hydrologic cycle
independentcasestudies of
samemanner. Section 23.2 ptesentsand comparestwo
and how the
Stanford model studies,showinghow the parameterswere {etermined
modelswere calibratedand applied to the problemsbeing assessed'
STREAMFLOW
23.1 CONTINUOUS MODELS
SIMUI-ATION
API Model
of a
This model was one of the earlieststructuredto give a deterr.ninisticsimulation
It was originally testedon watersheds of 68 and
continuousstreamflowhydrograph.
g:i miz and must be calibrated^to each watershedto obtain a reliable method of r
givenin Fig. 23' 1'
simulatint the streamflow.lA flow diagramshowingthe structureis
ttie interrelations pertaining to of
Four basic components describe .this .model
hydrograph, an API (antecedent precipitation index,
streamflowin a river: a unit
groundwater
introduced in chapter 2 and iilustrated in Sec. 10'3), a relation for
recession,and a relation for computing the groundwater flow hydrograph asa function
This model generates both groundwater flow and
of the diiect runoff hydrograph.
precipitation values.The API model continues to enjoy
direct runoff dischargefrom
widespreadpopularity and use in simulation modeling'
Direct runoff
hydrograph
lunit-hydrograPh method)
Groundwater
outflow
hydrograph
Figure 23.1 Schematic diagram of API-type hYdrologic

model. (After Sittner et al'r)
550 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODELS
StanfordWatershedModel lV (SWM-|V)
Crawford and Linsley designedthis digital computerprogram to simulateportions
(the land phase)of the hydrologic cycle for an entire waftished.2The model has
undergonemuchdevelopmentsinceits conceptionand is currently availablefrom the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under the name HSPF, which is a public
domain FORTRAN version (discussedsubsequently)of the original program. The
SWM-IV hasbeenwidely acceptedas a tool to synthesizea continuoushydrographof
hourly or daily streamflowsat a watershed,outlet.A lumped parameterapproachis
used and data requirementsare much less than for alternative distributedmodels.
Hour$ and daily precipitationdata,daily evaporationdata,and a variety of watershed
parametersare input.
The relationsand linkage of the variouscomponentsof SWM-IV are shownin
Fig.23.2. Hydrologicfundamentalsare usedat eachpoint to transformthe input data
into a hydrographof streamflowat the basinoutlet. Rainfall and evaporationdata are
first enteredinto the program.Incoming rainfall is distributed,as showninFig.23.2,
amonginterception,imperviousareassuchas lakes and streams,and water destined
to be infiltrated or to appearin the upper zone as surfacerunoff or interflow, both of
which contributeto the channelinflow. The infiltration and upper zone storageeven-
tually percolateto lower zone storageand to activeand inactive groundwaterstorage.
User-assignedparametersgovern the rate of water movementbetweenthe storage
zonesshownin Fig. 23.2.
Three zonesof moistureregulatesoil moistureprofiles and groundwatercondi-
tions. The rapid runoff responseencounteredin smaller watershedsis accountedfor
in the upper zone,while both upper and lower zonbscontrol suchfactorsas overland
flow, infiltration, and groundwaterstorage.The lower zone is responsiblefor longer-
term inflltration and groundwaterstoragethat is later releasedas base flow to the
stream.The total streamflowis a combinationof overlandflow, groundwaterflow, and
interflow.
Model Structure The SWM-IV is madeup of a sequenceof computationroutines

for eachprocessin the hydrologiccycle (interception,infiltration, routing, and so on).
Separatediscussionsof each componentare provided in the following paragraphs.
Actual calculationsproceedfrom processto processas ilfustrated by the arrows in
Fig.23.2. All the moisturethat was originally storedin the watershedor wasinput as
precipitation during any time period is balancedin the continuity equation
P : E + R + A S (23.r)
where P : precipitation
E :.evapotranspiration
R : runoff
AS : the total change in storagein the upper, lower, and groundwater
storagezones
The changein storagefor each zone is calculated as the difference between the
volumesof inflow and outflow. Furthermore,all hydrologicactivity in a time interval
is simulatedand balancedbeforethe programproceedsto the next time interval. The
simulationterminateswhen no additional data are input.
2g.1 CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS 551
maximumsare providedin Table23.1.
TABLE23.1 ryPICALMAXIMUM
INTERCEPTIONRATES
Watershed cover Interceptionrate (in./hr)
Glassland 0.10
Moderateforest cover 0.15
Heavy forest cover 0.20
Source: After Crawford and Linsley.2
Evapotranspiration In SWM-IV evapotranspiration(ET) is assumedto occur at

"upper" storagezone' The upper
the potential rate from interceptionstorageand the
zonesimulatesthe depressions andhighly permeablesurfacesoils.The lower soil zone
simulatesthe linkage to the groundwaterstoragezone' ,
Evapotranspirationfrom the lower zone is set equal to the ET opportunity,
defined in fig. ZZ.Z.W opportunity is defined as the maximum amount of water
availablefor ET at a partiiular location durrng a prescribedtime interval. In the
modelinglogic, ET occursfrom severallocations(seeFig. 23'2) includingthe inter-
ceptionstorage,upperzonestofage,lower zonestorage,streamand lake surfaces,and
groundwaterttotug". Evapotranspirationfrominterception arrdlpper zone storageis
Jet equal to the potential rate, Eo, which is assumedto be the lake evaporationrate
calcuiatedasthe productof a pan coefficienttimes the input valuesof the evaporation
pan data.The evaporationof any interceptedwateris assumedto occur at a rate equal
io the potential evapotranspirationrate and ceaseswhen the interceptionstoragehas
been depleted.
Evaporationfrom streamand lake surfacesalsooccursat the potentialrate. The
total volgmeis governedby the total surfaceareaof streamsand lakes(ETL) defined
as the ratio of the total str-eamand lake areain the watershedto the total watershed
area.Evapotranspirationfrom groundwaterstoragealso occurs at the potential rate
and is caiculatedin a similar fashion using a surfacearea equal to a factor K24EL
multiplied by the watershedarea.Thus the parameterK24EL representsthe fraction
of tfre total watershedarea over which evapotranspirationfrom the groundwater
storagewill occur.Most investigatorssetthis parameterat avalue equalto the fraction
of the watershedarea coveredby phreatophytes.Its value is normally small but can
be large, for eiample, in an agri-ultural area that has many acresof subirrigated
alfalfa.
If interceptionstorageis depleted,the modelwill attemptto satisfythe potential
for ET by drawingfrom the upper zone storageat the potential rate. Once the upper
zone sto;ageis dJpleted,ET ociurs from the lower zonebut not at the potential rate;
the ET ratb from the lower zone is alwayslessthan Eo. When interception and the
uppef zone storagedo not satisfythe potential,any excessentersas EoinFig-23.3,
23 CONTINUOUS
CHAPTER MODEI.S
SIMUIATION
/-------'-------\
t.,
/r Actual
\. evaootransoiration
-'-r--- /
\ /
\--------1-------J
I
l* - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----\
Figure 23.2 Stanford watershedmodel IV flowchart. (After Crawford and Linsley.2)

29.1 CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS 553
F".""I
(: "iPrf) @
Channel inflow @
Channel inflow
Channel inflow
tt
zi Simulated
\ -k^-*ff^." t
, streamflow ,'
\ - - - - ; - - J
Eigure 23.2 Continued

"7
''E. h
a'.:
va'
x x
n l -
25 50 75 100
Percentase
oraretxTi*
SfttaffiTffi,:'JTl?J."pportunitv
Figure 23.3 Evapotranspiration relation used in the
Stanfordwatershedmodel. (After Crawford and Lins-
ley'1
and the rate of evapotranspiration from the lower zone is determined from the shaded
afea, or
E:Eo_% Q3.2)
2r
The variable r is the evapotranspirationopportunity, deflnedas the maximum water
amountavailablefor ET at a particular location during a prescribedtime period. This
factorvariesfrom point to point over any watershedfrom zero to a maximumvalue of
-.^ LZS
r : ,''J (23.3)
LZSN
where LZS : the current soil moisture storagein the lower zone (in.)
LZSN : a nominal storagelevel, normally set equal to the medianvalue of
the lower zone storage(in.)
K3 : an input parameterthat is a function of watershedcover as shown
inTable 23.2
The ratio LZSILZSN is known as the lower zone soil moisture ratio and is usedto
comparethe actuallower zone storagewith the nominal value at any time. Valuesof
ET opportunity are assumedto vary over a watershedfrom zero to r along.thestraight
line shownin Fig. 23.3. This assumedlinear cumulativedistributionof the parameter
over an area is also usedin evaluatingareal disftibutionsof infiltration rates.
Infiltration Like the erapotranspirationopportunity, the infiltration capacity of a

watershedis highly variable from point to point and is assumedto be distributed
accordingto a linear cumulativedistributionfunction shownas a line from the origin
to Point b inFig.23.4.
TABLE23.2 ryHCALLOWER
ZONE
EVAPOTMNSPIRATION
PARAMETERS
Watershedcover
Open land 0.20

Grassland 0.23
Light forest 0.28
Heavy forest 0.30
a -
Percentage of area with an infiltration capacity

equal to or less than the indicated value
Figure 23.4 Assumedlinear areal variation of

inflltration capacity over a watershed. (After
Crawford and Linsley.2)
Infiltration into the lower and groundwaterstoragezones is determinedas a

function of the moisture supply 7 available for infiltration. Steps to determine
infiltration for a given moisture supply7 are:
"infiltration" in
1. The net infiltration is determinedfrom the area labeled
Fig. 23.4.This wateris assumedto infiltrate into the lower and groundwater
storagezones.The areaenclosedby the trapezoidis given by the equations
in the first row of Table23.3.If themoisturesupply7 exceedsthe maximum
infiltration capacityb, the maximum allowed net infiltration is b/2, which
is the median infiltration capacity.
2. Some of the moisture supply contributesto an increasein the interflow
detentionduring any time increment and is calculatedas the region indi-
catedby an arrow in Fig. 23.4.Eqtationsfor this areausingvariousranges
in x are providedin the secondrow of Table 23.3. The volume of water in
a stateofbeing transportedasinterflow at any instantis calledthe interflow
detentionor detainedinterflow.
3. Any remainingmoisturesupplied,AD in Fig. 23.4, contributesto increasing
the surface detention during the time increment. Equations for this
triangular-shapedarea are included in Table 23.3 for various valuesof 7.
TABLE 23,3 EQUATIONSFOR THE SHADEDAREAS IN FIG. 23.3
Component xcb
_ v 2 b b
Net infiltration x-
zb t 2
i2/ r\ - b i2 u-t,-
Increasein interflow detention - l l - - f ts
2r\ c/ 2 2cb 2'
- c b
Increasein surfacedetention x-t
2rb 2rb
/ r \ / , t \ c - l
Percentageof increaseddetention r oo(-r:) r oo(-r "* _ r tr ) too2- _
ilbj
assignedto interflow
Searce; After Crawford and Linsley.2

ThEquantity of net infiltration is contrblledlargelyby the maximuminfiltration

capacityb, while the pbrameterc significaltly affectshydrographshapesbecausethe
parametercoritrols the amount of water'detainedduring thelime increment. The
valuesof b andc foi ahy time intetval dependon the soil moistureratio, LZS/LZSN,
and on the input parametersCB and CC; CB is an index that controls the rate of
infilffation and dependson the soil permeabilityand the volume of moisturethat can
be storedin the soil. Valuesin the rangefrom 0.3 to 1.2 arecommon.The parameter
CC is an input value that fixes the level of interflow relative to the overland flow.
Valuesof CC rangefrom 1.0 to 5.0.
If the soil moistureratio is lessthan 1.0, the variable b is found from
cB
"u : (23.4)
2ALzs/LzsN)
and whenLZS/LZSN is greaterthan 1.0,the equationfor b is

.
0 :
C B rr?5)
,n-rr"tvttt*, *n
Theseequationswere developedby Crawfordand Linsley from num0rousttials using

SWM-IV in many different watersheds.When the soil moistureratio reachesa value
of 2.0, the variable b reachesits minimum value of *r of CB. The parameterc is
determinedfrctm
c : .(CC)ZQzslLzsN) (23.6)
Variations in parametetsb and c with changesinLZS/LZSN aie shown in Figs.
23.5 and23.6.Midrangevaluesof CB : 1.0and CC : 1.0wereusedin developing
thesecurves.
Figure 23.7 is a graph of distributionof water amonginfiltration, intefflow,'and
overland flow for various valuesof the moisture supply 7. Different valuesof b and c
would producea different set of curves.
Water stoied as overland flow surface detention will either contribute to
streamflowof enterthe upper zone storageas'depictedin Fig. 23.2.The portion that
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 r.4 1.6 1.8 2.O
ratt" (-!ZL'J
Lowerzonesoilmoisture
Figure 23.5 Variationin patarneterb for variousvaluesofthe soil

moistureratio. (After Crawfordand Linsley.2)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
/ Lzs)
Lowerzone soll molstufe rauo \-I_ZSN'
Figure 23.6 Variation in parameterc for various values of the

soil moisture ratio. (After Crawford and Linsley.2)
o
o
I lncrease in overland
E flow surface detention
O b=L.0
c=1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1,.4 1.6

Moisturesupply7
Figure 23.7 Typical SWM-IV responseto moisture sup-
ply variations.(After Crawford and Linsley.2)
100
; Y
8F 80
o 9 ^
bR 60
, Inflection
\ 1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
rati" (ffi)
Upperzonesoilmoisture
Figure 23.8 Delayedinfiltration as a function ofupper zone

soilmoisture ratio. (After Crawford and Linsley.z)
entersthe upper zone storageis called delayedinfiltration and is a function of the

upper zone soil moistureratio,\JZS/UZSN, as shownin Fig. 23.8. The inflection
point occursat a soil moistureratio of 2.0. If the ratio is lessthhn 2.A, thepercentage
retainedby the upper zone is given by
- (ffi)(--ri-)"''
e: roolr' (23.7)
]
where UZI| is determinedfrom
r J Z r r : r r l # k - r . o+] r . o (23.8)
The curve is definedto the right of the inflection point by

f/ t.0_)r,',-l
P': lool(tt . uzLz/ (23.e)
r
whereUZI2 is determinedfrom
rrzr2:rrlffi-z.+
o ]r . o (23.r0)
Upper Zone Storage The upper storagezone,as shownin Fig. 23.2; receivesa
large portion of the rain during the flrst few hours of the storm, while the lower and
groundwaterstoragezonesmay or may not receiveany moisture.The portion of the
upper zone storagethat is not evaporatedor transpiredis proportionedto the surface
runoff, interflow, and percolation.Percolation(upperzone depletion)from the upper
zoneto thelowerzonein Fig.23.2ocursonly whenUZS/UZSN exceeds LZS/LZSN.
When this occurs,the percolationrate in in./hr is determinedfrom
PERC -
: o.oo3(cBxuzs$(ffi (23.rr)
ffi)'
where CB is an index that controls the rate of infiltration. It rangesfrom 0.3 to 1.2
dependingon the soil permeability and on the volume of moisturethat can be stored
in the soil. The variablesUZS and UZSN are definedas the actual and nominal soil
moisturestorageamountsin the upper zone.The nominal value of UZSN is approx-
imately a function of watershedtopographyand cover and is alwaysconsideredto be
much smaller than the nominal LZSN value.The initial estimatesof UZSN relative
to LZSN are found ftomTable 23.4.
TABLE 23.4 VALOESOF UZSN AS A FUNCTIONOF LZSN FOR INITIAL

ESTIMATESIN SIMULATIONWITH SWM-IV
Watershed
Steepslopes,limited vegetation,low depressionstorage O.O6LZSN

Moderateslopes,moderatevegetaion,moderatedepressionstorage O.OSLZSN
Heavy vegetalor forest cover, soils subjectto cracking,high depression O.14LZSN
storage,very mild slopes
Source: After Crawford and Linesley.2

The parametersLZSN and CB must also be estimatedat the beginningof a

simulation study.The combinationthat will most satisfactorilyreproduceboth long-
and short-termhistorical responsesto hydrologic inputs can be determinedby the
following procedure:2
1. Assumean initial value for LZSN equal to one quarterof the mean annual
rainfall plus 4 in. (usedin arid and semiaridregions),or one eighth of the
annual mean rainfall plus 4 in. (usedin coastal,humid, or subhumidcli-
marcsJ.
) Determinethe initial value of UZSN fromTable 23.4.
3. Assumea valuefor CB in the normal rangefrom 0.3 to I.2.
4. Simulatea period of record usingthe streamflow,rainfall, and evaporation
data and systematicallyadjust LZSN, UZSN, CB, and other parameters
until agreementbetweensynthesizedand recordedstreamflowsis satisfac-
tory. If the annualwaterbudgetsdo not balance,LZSN is adjusted;CB is
adjustedon the basis of comparisonsbetween synthesizedand recorded
flow rates for individual storms.
Lower Zone Storage and Groundwater The lower groundwaterstoragezonein

Fig.23.2 receiveswaterfrom the net infiltration and from percolation.The percola-
tion rateis determinedfrom F;q.23.I1.Thepercentage of net infiltrationthat reaches
groundwaterstoragedependson the soil moisture ratio LZS ILZSN as shownin Fig.
23.9.If this ratio is lessthan 1.0,the percentageP, is found from
P,:1oo[#(-#t,"', (23.r2)
andif LZS/LZSN is greaterthan 1.0,the percentageis
+:roofr'-(--rg
l"] (23.r3)
equations,
rnboth tn",*:r*
:, _ .,., (23.r4)
i'E;il, ]
Notefrom Fig.23.9 thatthe nominal storageLZSN equalsthe lower zonestorageLZS
when half or 50 percent of all the incoming moisture enters groundwaterstorage.
The outflow from the groundwaterstorage,GWE at any time is basedon the
commonly usedlinear semilogarithmicplot of baseflow dischargeversustime. This
techniquewasdelcribedin Section11.4andillustratedin Fig. 11.8.In modifledform
the baseflow equationis
GwF : (LKK4)[1.0 + KV(Gws)](sGw) (23.rs)
where LKK4 is definedby
LKK4:1.0-(KK24)t/e6 (23.16)
in which KK24 is the minimum of all the observeddaily recessionconstants(see
Secti,on11.4), whereeachconstantis the ratio of the groundwaterdischargerateto the
Inflection
9oo
oF ltt
\ i
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5
*u" (;R)
Soilmoisture
Figure 23.9 Percentage of infiltratedwaterthat reaches

groundwater (After
storage. CrawfordandLinsley'2)
(K n
groundwaterdischargerute 24 hr earlier. Thus the recessionconstantKK24
has values
Eq. 11.1)is determinedusingt : I day.The variableGWS in Eq.23.15
given
that dependon the long-terminflows to groundwaterstorage.Its value on any
day (e.i., the lth day)is calculatedas97 percenLofthepreviousday'svalue, adjusted
: ground-
foi any inflow to groundwaterstorage,or GWS; 0'97 (GWS'-1 * inflow to
water storageduring daYl)'
In Eq. 23.J{, SGW is a groundwater storage parametel that reflects the
term
fluctuationJin the volume of water storedand rangesfrom 0.10 to 3.90 in' The
groundwater
KV in Eq. 23.15 allows for changesthat are known to exist in the
recessionratesas time passes. when KV is zero, E,q.23.15reducesto Eq. 11.1and
the groundwaterrecessilon follows the linear semilogrelation- If the usual dry season
being
recessionrate KKz4is too largefor wet periods(whengroundwaterslofaggsare
from the streams)ihe parameterKV is hand-adjusted so that the
rechargedby seepage
value during
term i0 +-KVaGWS) will reduce the effective rate to some desired
reces-
rechargeperiods.Table 23.5illustratesthis computationby showingeffective
set equal to 1'0'
sion rates for variouscombinationsof KK24 and GWS when KV is
lost to deep or
The fraction of activeor deepgroundwaterstoragethat is either
or is diverted as flow across the drainage
inactive groundwaterstorage Gi;.b.D
basin boundary is input ur pu.u*tt"r K24L. This fraction is the total inflow to
RECESSION
TABLE23.5 EFFECTIVE FOR
RATES
VARIOUSCOMBINATIONSOF KK24
AND GWS WHEN l(/ : 1'0
GWS
0,5 1.0
n07
0.99 0.99 0.985 0.98
0.98 0.98 0.970 0.96 0.94
0.97 0.97 0.955 0.94 0.91
0.96 0.96 0.940 0.92 0.88
Source: After Crawford and Linsley.2

S1REAMFLOW
23.1 CONTINUOUS MODELS 561
SIMULATION
groundwaterand representsall the active groundwaterstoragethat does not con-
tribute to streamflow.
Overland Flow The overlandflo* pro".r. hasbeenstudiedLy -uny investigators.
hydraulictechniques.
Averagevalues of lengths, slopes,and roughnessesof overland flow in the
Manning and continuity equationsare usedin SWM-IV to continuouslycalculatethe
surfacedetentionstorageD".The overlandflow dischargerate q is then relatedto D,.
As the rain supplyrate continuesin time, the amountof water detainedon the
surfaceincreasesuntil an equilibrium depth is established.The amount of surface
detentionat equilibrium estimatedby SWM-IV is
6
0.000818i0 no'6L1'6 (23.r7)
D":
s0'3
where D" : the surfacedetention at equilibrium (ft3lft of overland flow width)

j : the rain rate (in./hr)
S : the slope(ftlft)
L : the length of overlandffow (ft)
ru : Manning's roughnesscoefficient
The overland flow dischargerate is next determinedas a function of detention storage
from
, : # y,,(?)"'[,0* o,o(r2)']"' (23.18)
where e : the overland flow dischargerate (cfs per ft of width)

D : the averagedetention storagedurrng the time interval
The equationalso appliesduring the recessionthat occurs after rain ceases,but the
ratio blD" is assumedto be 1.0. Typical overland flow roughnesscoefficientsafe
providedin Table23.6.
The time at which detention storagereachesan equilibrium is determirtedfrom
0.94L3/5n3/s (23.te)
t
.e : -
i2/s S3/ro
where /, is the time to equilibrium (min). Crawford and Linsley show that these
equationsvery accuratelyieproducemeasuredoverlandflow hydrographs.2
For eachtime interval Lt, an end-of-intervalsurfacedetentionD, is calculated
from the initial value D, plus any water addedAD (Fig. n.q to surfacedetention
storageduring the time interval, lessany ovedandflow dischargeQthatescapes from
.4.
562 CHAPTER23 SIMULATIONMODELS
CONTINUOUS
TABLE;3.6 ryPICAL MANNINGEQUATIONOVERLANDFLOW

ROUGHNESSPARAMETERS, NN
Watershed cover Manning'sn for overlandflow
Smooth asphalt 0.012

Asphalt or concretePaving 0.014
Packedclay 0.03
Light turf 0.20
Denseturf 0.35
DenseshrubberYand forest litter 0.40
Source: After Crawfordand Linsley.2
continu-
detentionstorageduring the time interval. This is simply an expressionof
itv. or
Dz:Dt+LD-4Lt (23.20)
(D: + D)/2' Equa-
The discharge@is found from Eq' 23.18usinga valueo! D .
tions 23.17- 2i.20 allow the completedetermination of overland flow using easily
found basin-widevaluesof the averagelength, slope, and roughness overlandflow'
same
Interflow The watertemporarilydetainedasinterflow storageis treatedin the
inflow to interflow detention was
fashion as overland flow detention storage.The
a daily recession constant similar
definedin Fig. 23.4.Theoutflowis simulatedusing
IRC is the
to that definedfor groundwaterdischarge.The interflow recessionconstant
to the interflow discharge 24 hr
averageratio of the interflow dischargeat any time
outflow from detention storage is
earlier.For each15-min time intervalmodeled,the
rNTF : LIFC4(SRGX) (23.2r)
where
()1n\
LIFC4:1.0-(tRc;'inu
Its
The variableSRGXis the water storedin the interflow detentionat any time.
applied to each time
value continuouslychangeswhen the continuity equation is
on the
interval. The end-of-inteival value of SRGX depends,accordingto continuity,
from the interflow
valueat the beginningofthe interval and any inflow to or discharge
detentionduring the interval.
a hy-
channel Translation and Routing The Stanfordwatershedmodelutilizes
to the watershed
drologicwatershedrouting techniqueto translatethe channelinflow
as
outlei. Clark's IUH time-ar"a to"ihod describedin Section 12.6is adoptedalmost
presentedinchapterl2.Inplaceofthenetrainhyetograph,theStanfordmodelviews
"inflow" hyetograph.This inflow is
the sum of all channelinflow componentsas an
routed
then translatedin time through the channelto the basinoutlet, whereit is next
caused by storage
through an equivalentstoragesystemto accountfor the attenuation
sensethat
in the-channelsystem.Roulingthrough the linear reservoir (linear in the
Eq. 12.35) is accom-
storageis assumedto be directly proportional to the outflow'
plishedfrom
or:7-KS1(1 -01) (23.23) I
)
STREAMFLOW
29.1 CONTINUOUS MODELS 563
SIMUI-ATION
where Oz: the outflow rate aI the end of the time interval
o t : the outflow rate at the beginning
I _ the average inflow rate during the time interval
Also,
KSI : vK *- 6Ltlz
* (23.24)
Examplesof the determinationof K and othernecessaryparametersfrom watershed

data areincludedin Section23.2.
Applications of the SWM-IV Applicationsof the model typically beginwith data

for a three- to six-yearcalibration period for which rainfall and runoff data arc
available.Thesedata are usedto allow successiveadjustmentsof severalparameters
until the simulatedand recordedhydrographsof the streamflowagree.If sufficient
data areavailable,a secondperiod of record may be reservedfor use as a control to
checkthe accuracyof the paiametersderivedfrom a calibration with the first half of
the data.
The Stanfordwatershedmodelwasoriginally developedin 1959and hasunder-
goneseveralmodificationssincethat time. James3translatedthe Crawfordand Lins-
ley model from ALGOL to FORTRAN. Several modifications of the FORTRAN
versionhave evolvedfrom a variety of investigations.Included amongtheseare the
Kentucky watershed model (KWM),4'5 the Kentucky self-calibrating_version
(OpSETi,4the Ohio State University version, the Texas version,6the Hydrocomp
SimulationProgram (HSP) written in PL/1, and EPA-produced,nonproprietary
FORTRAN u"rrion of HSP called HSPF, and the National WeatherServicerunoff
forecastingmodel. Brief descriptionsof severalof theseare includedbelow.
ARS RevisedModelof WatershedHydrology(USDAHL)

Growing interest in the effects of soil types, vegetation,pavements,and farming
practicei on infiltration and overlandflow hasresultedin the growth of the USDAHL
continuoussimulation model. The 1974 versionTof this model was developedby
investigatorsat the Agricultural ResearchServiceHydrographLaboratory.
Input data to the model are relatively extensive.Continuousrecords of the
precipitation,the weekly averagetemperatures,the weekly averagepan-evaporation
amounts,and detaileddata onioils, vegetation,land use, and cultural practicesare
required'
The studywatershedis initially dividedinto asmany asfour distinctland-useor
soil-type ,on".. Fourteen subroutinesand a main calling routine computefor each
zone the snowmelt, inflltration, overland flow, channel flow, evapotranspiration,
groundwaterevaporationand movement,groundwaterrecharge,and return flow'
Evapotranspirationpotentialsare estirnatedby app$ing assignedcoefficientsto
pun-"uuplrution data. Infiltration for eachsoil or land-usezone is computedusing a
modifiedHoltan equation.Waterstoredin cracksin dry soilsis simulatedasa function
of soil moisture.Manning's equationand the continuity equationare used to route
overlandflow. The streamflowis routedby a simultaneoussolution of the continuity
564 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUS MODELS
SIMULATION
equdiion and a storagefunction. Groundwatermovementsare calculatedby Darcy's

equation.The daily snowmelton each-zoneis calculatedas a function of the temper-
ature at which snowmeltstarts,the weightedaveragevegetativedensityfor the zone,
the weekly averageair temperature,and the potential snowmeltper day in the zone
snowpack. Precipitation falling during a snowmelt day also contributes to the
snowmeltequation.
Among otheruses,the modelhasbeenappliedby the Soil ConservationService
in preparing environmentalimpact statements.Figure 23.10 showsthe results of
applying the 1974 version to annual runoff'from four widely separatedand widely
diversifiedARS experimentalwatersheds.In addition to the runoff, the model com-
putes the evapotranspirationamounts, soil moisture changes,return flows, and
groundwaterrechargedepthsfor eachof the zones.
Although other modificationsare possible,the USDAHL model is specifically
designedfor relatively small rural watersheds,generallyunder 20 squaremiles.
$-i
E
U
Cumulative computed runoff, O (in.)
Figure 23.10 Chart showing the accuracy of USDAHL-74 model for

estimatingthe cumulativecomputedrunoff as comparedwith the cumula-
tive measuredrunoff at four watersheds.o W-97, Coshocton,OH: A W- 11,
Hastings,NE; I W-3, Ft. Lauderadale,FL; x W-G, Riesel, TX (After
Holtan andLopez.l)
2g.1 CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS 565
NationalWeatherServiceRiver Forecast
System(NWSRFS)
yet anotherversionof the Stanfordwatershedmodelwasdevelopedby the Hydrologic
The
ResearchLaboratory staff at the National WeatherServiceOffice of Hydrology.8
use in forcecasting river flows and stages by the
NWSRFS model wis developedfor
has been applied successfully to several river
National WeatherService.The model
River
basinsrangingin sizefrom 70 mi2in North Carolinato 1000mi2in Oklahoma'
does not require the detail incorporated in SWM for
forecastin! in"largeriver basins
the NWS model includes two major changes
smaller watersheds.For this reason'
fewer process
involvingthe useof a longertime increment,simplifiedprogramming,
for determining optimal watershed parameters
comput;ions, and a rapid procedure
that allow the model to reproduce historical flows accurately.
inputs and
A 6-hr time incrementis usedby the model, allowing fewer rainfall
of processes such as overland flow that
,nor" i.po.tant, fewer detailedcalcuiations
are thus completed mo_re rapidly than with
occur in'shorter time periods.Iterations
the National Weather Service optimization
the SWM. As with the OPSETmodel,
available
procedurefor determiningparametervaluesgivesthe model a strengthnot
with the SWM-IV.
Other modificationsincludeh
uPPerand lower zone retentionand
the uPPersoil zone to groundwate
groundwaterevapotranspirational
jointlY comPutedin the NWS versi
and ground-
natedand is replacedby three types ofrunoff: surfacerunoff, interflow'
water flow-representing fast, medium, and slow response'
instanta-
Input data for modll calibration consistof meandaily dischargesand
runoff events. Rainfall is input as a continuous
neoushydrographsfor a few selected
techniques.Be-
record of 6-hr basin-widemeansdeterminedfrom areal averaging
and in the detail of process simulation'the
causeof the changesin routing increment
outputfromtheNwsiersionissimilarinmakeuptotheSWM-IVoutput.
COEStreamflowSynthesisand ReservoirRegulation
Model (SSARR)
for large
Another widely used continuous streamflow simulation model designed
The SSARR model was developed
basinswas devllopedby the corps of Engineers.e
operation
primarily for streamflowand flood fo.ecastingand for reservoirdesignand
hydrologists at the National Weather
studies.i,rior to the developmentof NWSRFS,
model has been applied to both rain and
Service used.the SSARR model. The
snowmeltevents.
basin into
Applications of the model begin with a subdivisionof the drainage
and character consistent with subdivides,
homogeneoushydrologic units of i size
otherdistinguish-
channelconfluences,rJservoirsites,diversionpoints,soil types,and
fbr ail significantpoints throughoutthe
ing features.The streamflowsare computed
river sYstem.
566 23 CONTINUOUS
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMUI-ATION
duintutt data can be input at any numberof stationsin the basin.The part that
will run off is divided into the baseflow, subsurfaceor interflow, and surfacerunoff.
The division is based on indices and on the intensity of the direct runoff. Each
componentis simply delayedaccordingto different processes,and all are then com-
bined to producethe final subbasinoutflow hydrograph.This subarearunoff is then
routed through stream channelsand reservoirsto be combined with other subarea
hydrographs,all of which becomepart of the output.
Routingsthrough channelsand reservoirsare accomplishedby the sametech-
nique.This requiresan assumptionof shortstreamreaches,and occasionalallowances
for backwatereffectsare necessaryin the channelrouting process.Streamflowsare
synthesizedon the basisof rainfall and snowmeltrunoff. Snowmeltcanbe determined
on the basis of the precipitation depth, elevation,air and dew point temperatures,
albedo,radiation, and wind speed.Snowmeltoptions include the temperatureindex
method or the energybudgetmethod.
Input includesthe precipitation depths,the watershed-runoffindicesfor subdi-
viding flow among the three processes,initial reservoir elevationsand outflows,
drainageareas,bounds on usablestorageand allowabledischargefrom reservoirs,
total computationperiods,routing intervals,and other specialinstructionsto control
plots, prints, and other input-outputalternatives.
This model was one of the earliestcontinuousstreamflowsimulation models
using a lumped parameterrepresentationand has its primary strengthin its verified
accuracyindicatedby testsconductedin severallarge drainagebasinsincluding the
ColumbiaRiver basin and the Mekong River basin.
HydrocompSimulationProgram(HSP)
A commercial version of the Stanford water model was developedat Hydrocomp,
Inc., namedthe HydrocompSimulationProgram.toAmong severaladvantages incor-
poratedin HSP are hydraulic reservoirrouting techniquesand kinematic-wavechan-
nel routing techniques.Other major changesinclude the addition of water quality
simulation capabilities.Due to theseadditions,the model is often referredto as the
Hydrocomp water quality model.
The HSP model has been usedroutinely for severaltypes of hydrologicstudy
including floodplain mapping,water quality studies,storm water and urban flooding
studies,urban drainagefacility design,and water quality aspectsof urban runoff.
The model consistsof three computerroutines:
l, Library allowsthe useof direct accessdisk storageto handleinput datawith

efficient data managementroutines.
2. Lands handlesthe usual SWM lands phasealong with addedprocessesin
calculating soil moisture budgets,groundwaterrecharge and discharge,
inflow to streamchannels,and eutrophication.
3. Channel is responsiblefor assemblingand routing all channel inflow
through channelnetworks,lakes, and reservoirs.
The HSP model incorporatesa continuouswater balanceby trackingprecipita-

tion through all possibleavenuesof the hydrologicand water resourcesystem.The
29j CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS 567
groundwaterinflow, interflow, and surfacerunoff are individually simulated,lagged,

ind combinedat appropriatetimes as the channelinflow. The routing of computed
inflow through the ihannel networkutilizes a modified kinematic-wavemodel.Water
quality constituentsare relatedto variabledischargeratesand other waterparameters
so that the coupling of quantity and quality of the runoff is accomplished.
Inputs foisimulating waterquality includethe temperature,radiation,wind, and
humidity and observedvalues of the factors under study which form the basis for
calibration.At lest two yearsof data are preferablefor calibration; however,calibra-
tion hasbeenachievedwith lessthan one year of data. Other requiredinput includes
hourly precipitationin 5-, 15-, or 30-min or greater time incrementsand potential
evapoffanspiration;if snow or water quality simulation is desired,the temperature,
radiation, wind, and humidity factorsare needed'
Outputsfrom HSP can be obtainedfor any desiredpoint within the watershed.
Included in the output options are valuesof quality dataat outfalls or other points,
river stages,,"r"ruoi, levels,hourly and meandaily dischargerates,streamand lake
remperarures,dissolvedoxygenand total dissolvedsolids,algaecounts,phosphorus'
nitr;te, nitrite, ammonia,iotal nitrogen, phosphate,pH, carbonaceousBOD, coli-
forms, conservativemetals,and the usual daily, monthly, and annualwater budgets,
snow depths,and end-of-periodmoistureequivalents'
Typical simulation periods in HSP applicationsrange from 20 to 50 years.
Hour-by-hour data are not viewed as an exact sequenceof future flows. Rather, the
data arcusedfor analysisof the probability of occurrencesof rangesin the factorsof
interest.When usedin this -unir"r, the model is functioning with a purposesimilar
to that of someof the operationalhydrologytechniquesdescribedin Chapter22.
EPA HydrocompSimulationProgram-Fortran(HSPR
Following developmentof the HSP versionof the Stanfordmodel,the U.S. Environ-
mental Piotection Agency contractedin 1980 to have public-domain version made
availablefor continuousstreamflowsimulationand water quality modeling.The orig-
inal program,written in ALGOL, wasconvertedto FORTRAN 77'11The HSPF code
is availa|le for PC applications.Substantialportions of water quality modeling al-
gorithms were addedio HSP in developingHSPF. The hydrologiccycle processes,
however, are essentiallythe same as in SWM-IV and HSP' One exceptionis the
addition of severalrouting proceduresnot previouslyavailable.
parametersthat drive ihe routinesin HSPFmustbe estimatedfor all the hydro-
logic processes,making verification of the model difficult becauseof the numerous
combinationsof paramiter values.Methodsof estimatingtheseparametersand cali-
bratingthe modeiareillustratedin the casestudiesin Section23.2 (Table23.8 defines
over 35 parametersusedin the Stanfordmodel)'
ModelingSystem(PRMS)
USGSPrecipitation'Runoff
After developingtheir urban storm-eventmodel, DR3M (seeChapter 25), the U.S'
GeologicalSurv"y developedseveralother computercodesto model continuoushy-
drologicpro""rr"r. fne pRUS performssimulationof daily streamflowsfor a variety
of precipitation,climate,and land usecombinations.It is availablefrom the USGSin
I
L.
PC, riinicomputeroor mainframeformat.12During storms,the model givesoutput on

any prescribedtime interval. Betweenstorm periods,the model tracks soil moisture
and other storage/depletionzones on a daily basis until the next storm interval.
Streamflowis output as mean daily flow rates.
A lumped-parameterapproachis utilized in PRMS.The smallestsubdivisionof
the study watershedis a hydrologic responseunit that is assumed. to behaveas a
homogeneous hydrologicelement.The USGS has delineatedHRUs in most areasof
the United States.Like the D.R3M model,the streams,storm sewers,reservoirs,and
detentionponds in the watershedare modeledas nodes and interconnectinglinks'
Hydrographrouting in channelsand reservoirsis accomplished.bykinematic-wave
and storage-indicationmethods,respectively.
ARS Simulatorfor WaterResourcesin Rural

Basins(SWRRB)
Through a cooperativeprogram with TexasA&M University, the Agricultural Re-
search Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, developeda continuous daily
streamflow simulation ptog.a- for use in modeling ungaugedagricultural areas.t3
This FORTRAN 77 water budgermodel is availablefrom the ARS in PC format. Its
developmentfocusedon a model that would allow the user to predict impacts of
variouswatershedmanagementpracticessuchas crop rotation, fall plowing, urban-
ization, conservation tillage, terracing, fallowing, and floodwater detention on
monthly and annual water and sedimentyields from rural basins.
Sedimentyields for each of the subwatersheds, and for the total basin, are
calculatedusingthe universalsoil lossequation.laThe methoduseswatershedhydrol-
ogy outputsfrom the rainfall-runoff portion to estimatesedimentyield, using inputs
of runoff volume,peak flows,soil type anderodibility, crop types,erosionmanagment
factors,and watershedslopeand length.
The subbasinsare modeledin a lumped-parameterstyle.Oncerainfall or snow-
fall recordsare input, physical-processalgorithmsare linked as shownin Fig. 23.11
for solar radiation, snowmelt,surfacerunoff, ET, conveyancelosses,sedimentpro-
ductionfrom individual storms,evqporationfrom watersurfaces,percolation,and soil
moistureaccounting.Crop productionis alsocalculatedbasedon crop types,temper-
ature, consumptiveuse of water, and irrigation practices.
Hydrologicabstractionsfor eachsubwatershed are estimatedby the SCS curve
number(CN) method(Chapter4, Section4.9). Soil waterbudgetingis performedby
adding the net moistureinput to the soil profile from precipitation after subtracting
direct runoff, ET (consumptiveuseby the cropsand evaporationfrom soils),percola-
tion, and retu{n flow (groundwaterflow back to the streams).Direct surfacerunoff is
set equal to the net rain from the CN method. For input to the sedimentyield
component, a peak flow rate for individual storms is estimatedusing a modified
rational method (Chapter 15). Snowmelt is calculatedby the degree-daymethod
'
describedin Chapter14.
ExpertSystems
Recenttrends in systemsanalysisare leadingto developmenlof expert system(ES)
techniquesthat rely on artificial intelligencefor use in planning and designof water
-, .oo^,,r^ô -rîo;id--7[- mrfian-.m h-c-ciw?i'- ii-FiYmqfinn nhfqined frnm extencive
29.1 CONTINUOUSSTREAMFLOWSIMULATIONMODELS
C*.')
'
/READTNPUTDATA/
INITIALIZE PARAMETERS
READ OR GENERATE PRECIPITATION

AND MAX/MIN TEMPERATURE
GENERATE SOLAR RADIATION
CoMPI.ITE SOIL TEMPERATTTRE
COMPUTE SNOWFALL
AND SNOWMELT
ACE
COMPUTEPEAK RATE TRANSMISSIONLOSSES.

OUTI-ET
SBDT,M}{T YIEIO ENO ROUTE SEDIMENT TO BASIN
COMPUTEANDPRINT
FINALBASIN STATISTICS
Figure 23.11 Flowchart of the SWRRB hydrologic-

pr6""*, algorithms.(After Arnold't3)
interviJws of one or more experts in some field. The computer can then make
"decisions"in muchthe sameway asthe,experts,applyingtheir judgment and experi-
ence and making theseavailableto othersthrough the expert systemmodel.
Streamflowmodels,especiallythosethat perform continuoussimulation,incor-
porateinput parametersthat require considerablejudgment. Developersand usersof
ahe watershed models have accumulated decades of experience in assigning
coefflcientsand parameters.Their experienceand judgment can be extractedby an
interview processinvolving hundredsof questionsto build an expert systemmode'.
The modelnot only incorporatesdirect answersbut alsoaddresses uncertaintiesabout
each.Early applicdLtions with this modeling technique show considerable promise.ls
In addition to streamflowsimulation, expert systemshave the potential to be
useful in the designand management of complex river basin systems of dams, reser-
voirs,powerplants,diversioncanals,and flood control structures.Operationsfor such
systemsinvolve independentand collective decisionsby dozens of professionals'
Theseexpertsare normally in radio or telephonecontact with numerousother con-
trollers and decision-makers.If ES data could be developedfrom theseteams,the
potential for improvedmanagementexists.A prime incentiveof implementingexpert
iystemsin waterresourcessystemsinvolvescapturinginsightsof experiencedprofes-
sionalsbefore they retire or move into other positions.
MODELSTUDIES
SIMULATION
23.2 CONTINUOUS
This sectiondescribesin detail two independentapplicationsof the Kentuckyversion
of the Stanfordwatershedmodel to small basinsin Kentucky and Nebraska.Results
obtainedby Clarkel6in modelingthe CaveCreek (CC) watershedin Kentuckyand by
the authorslTusing KWM for the Big BordeauxCreek (BBC) watershedin Nebraska
are compared. Both are small, homogeneouswatershedshaving relative$ good
recordsof precipitationandrunoff. The two casestudiesare describedsimultaneously
to showhow different analystsdealt with the decisionsrequiredto developinput data
and parameters.
Selectionof WatershedSize and Study Period

Severalguidelinesexist for selectinga watershedsubareasize and time period to be
modeledin a simulation study.The use of relatively small, homogeneous watersheds
or subdivisionsof larger watersheds is recommended to minimize any difficulty
causedby ignoring spatial variations in precipitation over larger areas. This also
minimizes the'effects of lumping watershed characteristics such as soil types, soil
profiles,imperviousareas,andland uses into singleparameters representing the entire
catchment.Ross suggestsan upper limit of 25 fii12for study-watersheddrainage
areas.18
One difficulty in restrictingwatershedsizearisesfrom the fact that few strearns
for small drainageareasare continuouslygauged,and refiable streamflow data are
difficult to obtain. For example,the BBC watershedwas selectedbecauseit was one
of few small watershedsin Nebraskawith sufficientrecords.The CaveCreek water-
. shedwas selegtedon the basisof the following criteria'1e
MODELSTUDIES
SIMULATION
2g.2 CONTINUOUS 571
'A
1. minimum of 10 yearsof continuousrunoff recordsin order to establish
the existingrainfall-runoff relation.
2. A drainas" ur"u of less than 5 mi2 so as to be reptesentativeof small
drainage6asinsfor which better runoff coefficientsare needed'
3. A locaiion in closeproximity to a rain guagefor which hour$ precipitation
dataarc available.
4. The availability of soil surveysfor the watershedunder study.
DataSources
Hourly precipitation data were availableat sites L20 fiil from the CC watershedand
8.0 mi fromthe BBC gaugingstation.Soil surveyrecordsand runoff data were
availablefor both watersheds.Daily pan evaporationdata were availableapproxi-
mately 30 mi south of the BBC watershedand 25 mi south of the CC watershed.
Drainageareasof 2.53 mi2for the CC watershe d and9 .22 mi2for the BBC watershed
were found from U.S. GeologicalSurveyquadranglemaps.Input parametersfor the
Stanfordand Kentuckyversionsare comparedand definedin Table23.7. Numerical
values,usingthe Stanfordversionparameternames,aretabulatedfor both watersheds
in Table 23.8. Each parameteris describedin detail in the following sections.
Time-Area HistogramData
The time-area histograms for the BBC and CC watershedsare developedin
Traveltimes and times of concentrationfor the
Figs.23.12 and23.Ii, respectively.
Stanfordwatershedmodel are found from the Kirpich equation(for watershedslarger
than 15 acres),ies1
a : ooo78(#)" (23.2s)
where T" : the time of concentration(min)

L : the horizontal projection of the channellength from the most distant
point to the basin outlet (ft)
:
S the slopebetweenthe two points
In developingthe time-area histogramfor Big BordeauxCreek, 30 points and
correspondingi.auettimes (min) were plottedas shownin Fig. 23.12.The dashed
isochrones(lines of equal travel time to the basin outlet) were constructedby linear
interpolation between the plotted points. Areas betweenparis of isochroneswere
determinedfrom planimeteiing.To contrast,the time-area histogramfor CaveCreek
was construcrcdfas shown in Fig. 23.13, by assumingthat the flow velocity was
constant"u"ryrli"r", equalto the averagestreamflowvelocity obtainedby dividing f
into the channel length Z. This procedure simply places all points along each
isochroneat equal distancesto the basin outlet.
WatershedParameters
The watersheddrainage area (AREA), the impervious fraction of the watershed
surfacedraining directly into the stream (A), the fractional streamand lake surface
area(ETL), the averageground slopeof overlandflow perpendicularto the contours
TABLE 2i,7 PARAMETERNAME COMPARISONSFOR KENTUCKYAND

STANFORDWATERSHEDMODELS
Parametername
Kentucky Stanford
verston verston ParameterdescriPtion
NCTRI Z Integernumber of elementsin the time-area histograq

CTRI C Time-area histogramordinate
(cfs)
RMPF MINH DischargevalueLelow which no synthesizeddata are to be printed
Multiplication factor for precipitation data for a distant statton
RGPMB K1
AREA AREA Watersheddrainagearea (mi2)
FIMP Fraction of watershedareathat is impervious
FWTR ETL Fraction of watershedarea in lakes or swamps
VINTMR EPXM Maximum rate of vegetativeinterceptionfor a dry watershed(in'/hr)
BUZC CX lndex for estimatingsurfacestoragecapacity
SUZC EDF Ind,exfor estimatingsoil surfacestoragecapacityduring summers
LZC LZSN Index of moisture storagein soil profile abovewater table (in')
ETLF K3 Evapotranspirationparameterfor lower zone soil moisture
SUBWF K24L Subsurface flow from the basin
GWETF K24EL Groundwaterevapotranspirationby phreatophytes
SIAC EF Factorvarying infiltration by season
BMIR CB Index of infiltration rate
BIVF CY Index of rate and quantity of water enteringinterflow
oFss SS Averagebasin ground slope (ftlft)
OFSL L Averageoverland flow distance(ft)
OFMN NN Manning roughnesscoeff,cientfor overland flow
OFMNIS NNU Manning roughnesscoefficientfor flow over impervious areas
IFRC IRC Daily intelflow recessionconstant
CSRX KSC Streamflowrouting parameterfor 1owflows
FSRX KSF Streamflowrouting parameterfor flood flows
CHCAP CHCAP Index capacity of existingchannel,bank-full (cfs)
EXQPV RFC Exponentof flow for nonlinearrouting
BFNLR t<r/24 Daily baseflow nonlinearrecessionadjustmentfactor
BFRC KK24 Daily baseflow recessionconstant
GWS GWS Indexof groundwaterstorage(in.)
(in')
UZS UZS Depth of interception and depressionstorageat beginningof year
LZS LZS Cuirent equivalentdepth of moisturein the soil profile (in')
BENX Cunent value of BFNLR
IFS Interflow storage
CONOPT DKN Control options for input, output, and internal branching
aoa Qaa Title of computer simulation output, alphanumericinput
DIV DIV Mean daily diversion into or out of the basin (cfs)
(SS),and the nban length of overlandflow (r) for the Big Bordeauxcreek watershed
series
were determinedfrom-areas,elevations,and lengths measuredfrom 7.5-min
for BBC values). Other BBC parameter
usGS topographicmaps (see Table 23.8
: half the product of the stream
values utl gri : 0.0d5 (determinedfrom ETL
length and channelwidth at the outlet), SS : 0.088 ftlft (determinedfrom Fig '23'14
u, ih- -"un of'140 measuredvaluesbetween 20-ft contours at eachgridline interseg-
tion), and L: 183.2ft (determinedfrom Fig.23.14 as the averageof l40lengths
measuredperpendicularto contour lines from gridline intersection points to the
TABLE 23.8 SUMMARYOF INPUT PARAMETERSFOR BIG BORDEAUXCREEK
AND CAVE CREEK WATERSHEDS
a^
Parameter BBC
name Description value(s) Units value(s)
TCONC Time of concentration 105 min 60

TINC Routing interval 15 min i5
Z Number of elementsin the time-area histogram 7 - 4
C Time-area histogramordinates 0.129 0.18

0.158 0.29
, 0.221 0.31
0.151 0.22
0.126
0.145
0.070
AREA Watersheddrainagearea 9.22 mi2 2.53
^ Impervious fraction of the watershedsurface 0.0 0.0
ETL Watershedstream and lake surfacearea as fraction of
watershedarea 0.005 0.0
0.088 ft/ft 0.075
ss Averageoverland flow ground sloPe
183.2 ft 300.0
L Averagelength of overland flow
Bank-full flow in channelat gaugingstation 39 cfs 40
CHCAP
IRC Daily interflow recession constant 0.485 0.75
KK24 Daily baseflow recessionconstant \ 0.977 0.94
KSC Streamflowrouting parameter for low flows 0.989 0.90
Streamflowrouting parameterfor flood flows 0.989 0.90
KSF
MINH Minimum hourly flow rate to be printed 1.0 cfs 0.2
Precipitation adjustmentfactor for distant gauge 1.0 1.0
K1
NN Manning roughnesscoefficientfor overlandflow 0.3'7 0.10
Manning roughnesscoefficientfor impervious areas 0.0i3 0.015
NNU
EMiN Factorfor varying infiltration by seasons 0.5
EPXM Maximum interceptionrate for dry watershed 0.15 in./hr 0.10
CX Surfacestorage capacitY index 0.80 0.90
Soil surfacemoisturesioragecapacity 1.10 1.25
EDF
Soil profile moisture storage index Il./d ln. 4:85
LZSN
Soil evaporationparameter 0.28 0.25
K3
Index of inflow to deepinactive groundwater 0.0 0.0
K24L
K24EL Fraction of watershedareain phreatophytes 0.0 0.0
Factor allowing for seasonal infiltration rates 1.0 0.15
EF
Factorcontrolling infiltration rates 0.'75 0.65
CB
Index controlling water enteringinterflow 3.0 3.50
CY
Parameterfor allowing nonlinear recesslon 1.0 0.99
KV24
Groundwater storage volume parameter 0.1 in.
SGW
Equivalentdepth of upper zone storage 0.0 in.
UZS
Equivalentdepth of lower zone storage 7.0 in.
LZS
Index of antecedentmoisture conditions 0.2 in.
GWS
VOLUME Volume of water in swamP storage 0.0 acre-ft
EVCR Monthly evaporationpan coefficients Jan. 0.911
Feb. 0.911
Mar. 0.911
Apr. 0.911
May 0.552
June 0.677
July 0.654
Aug. 0.651
Sep. 0.642
Oct. 0.911
Nov. 0.911
Dec. 0.911
574 23 CONTINUOUS
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMULATION
0.3
I
15-min 0.2
isochrone
"15
rs 30 4s 60 90 105
Time(min)
Time.area
-l s
3li
a5-min
{
Ll--:Ja 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
$.(-t 68o
-l \t
Time (min)
30-minisochrone
45-min isochrone
60-min isochrone
N
--.1-^ t-\--
75-minisochrone
90-min isochrone
n
u . , 1
miles
r l
IJJJJ-JJJJJ
Figure 23.12 Time-areahistogramdevelopmentfor Big BordeauxCreek'

The valuesrepresenttravel times (min.) to the outlet.
nearestchannel).The averageoverlandflow distancescan also be estimatedas the
resulting in an estimateof the bank-full BBC flood of 39 cfs. Another techniquefor

determiningCHCAP involvesthe useof the stream-gauging-station rating curveif th
gaugeheightfor bank-full flow is known or can be estimatedfrom topographicmaps.
thJCave Creekvalueof 40 cfs wasdeterminedfrom a hydraulic analysisof the cross
spctigl and profile of the main channel.As a rule of thumb, CHCAP is selectedto
)
i
3l.ovo
_
.../ Time-arca histogtam
Time Contributing area

(min) (Vo)
0 -1 5 18.0
15-30 29.0
30-45 31.0
45-60 22.O
Figure 23.13 Derivation of the time-area histogramfor thecave creek

Watershed.Dashedlines representisochrones.(After Clarke'16)
0 miles 1
l r r r r r r t r l
0 1000 N
h
f""t
-w"
-q
:h &"{
, TGrid
interval:fm=tlZOft
\I
Figure 23.14 Grid overlay for determinationof the mean overland

- slopeand distancefor Big BordeauxCreek.
producewell-definedoverbank and floodplain flow if Q exceedstwice the value of

bffCAp. Similarly, low, shallow flows are assumedwheneverQ is lessthan half of
CHCAP.
StreamflowRecessionand Routing Parameters

The rate at which the model allows water to passthrough the upper soil zonesto the
channelsis controlled by the daily interflow recessionconstant(IRC)' A graphical
semilogarithmictechniqueof hydrographanalysisdevelopedby Barnes is used to
estimatethis parameter:21 The determinationof the interflow recessionconstantfor
Big BordeauxCreek is illustrated in Fig. 23.1.5,which is a semilogarithmicplot of
I o.s
E o.+
o
K 0.3
E V'L
o
d
p9
o.ro lnterflow
Llog Q = -0;725
Lt = 3.2 days
K=0.485=IRC
q
S o.os
o
& 0.04
0.03
1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 2 8 3 0 1 3 5
Date(Ju1Y-August'
1969)
Figure 23.15 Determination of the interflow recessionconstant

(fnC) for th9 Big BordeauxCreekflood eventof July 20, 1969.The
determinationof K: IRC, C' : QoK'andr: 1day.
2g.2 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODEL STUDIES 577
!2
F
o 5
b0
logQ,=1ogQ6+tlogK
logK= LlogQlLt
d
o
' 3 " ' s1

f f i z o | 9 1 1 3
1969)
Date(July-August,
Figure 23.16 Determination of the base flow recession constant

(K"K24) for the Big Bordeaux Creek flood event of July 20, 1969' The
determinationof K : KK24.
'
578 23 CONTINUOUS
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMULATION
alternative method for determining Kl<24 using data collected several days after
severalToodpeaksis illustratedfor CaveCreek in Fig. 23.I7. The line representsan
envelopedrawn to the right of the data points.
Two streamflowrouting parameteisare usedby the sinlulation model to route
inflow hydrographsto the point of interest for the basin (in this caseto the stream
garglng;tatiin ror compa;isonwith measuredflows). The first parameter1_519t_lt
usedinroutingonlyif channelflowsarelessthanhalf thechannelaapacity(CHCAP),
and the second (KSF) accountsfor channel and floodplain storageduring flood flows
. (flows greaterthan twice the channel capacity). Respective data for Big _B-ordeaux
Creek were determinedusing the two runoff hydrographs shown in Figs. 23.18 and
Z3.lg,representinglow and flood flows, respectively. Because the inflection point on
the recessionportion of eachhydrograph represents the time at which a reversalof
flow directionihrough the channelbanks occurs, then the parameters KSC and KSF
representdaily recessionconstantsfor the water in storage in the channel. The
equationused in determiningboth parameters is derived from a hydrologic routing
techniqueequatingl/K timei the differencein the averageinflow and outflow during
the routing period-withthe time rate of changeof the outflow in the channelreach.As
shownin the figures,the low flow and flood flow routing parametersfor Big_Bordeaux
Creek are identical. Table 23.8 showsthat a similar result was observedfor Cave
Creek.
HydrologicParametersand Data
In addition to the describedwatershedcharacteristics,severalhydrologicparameters
and an impressiveamount of hydrologicdata are required as input to the simulation
program. bue to the excessive'bulkof hydrologicdata for daily evaporation,hourly
pr"-lpitution, and daily streamflowfot a 4-yearperiod in BBC and a 10-yearperiod
4.0
o
d
3.0
1.0
2.0 3.0 4,0 5.0

. 24hr later(cfs)
Discharge
Figure 23.17 Determinationof KK24
for CaveCreek.(After Clarke.l6)
MODELSTUDIES 579
SIMULATION
23.2 CONTINUOUS
0.36
t = routinginterval= 15min = 0.0104days

,, = - 0'28at inflectionPoint
0.32 ',/ --#
, K = - f foi , = - : 60.264
--
6=0e43dals
o?o
x S C =K _ o . s t = 0 . 9 8 9
K + 0.5t
E o.rt
o In{lection
-
P0
,r' pomr
6 0.26
E
b0
8 0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
'
Date (October 1968)
Figure23.1sDeterminationoflowflowstreamflowroutingparame-
tei(rsc) for the Big Bordeauxcreek low flow eventof october3,
1968.
in CC, the actual hydrologicdata valueshavebeen compiled but'are not includedin

this text.
, Oneusefulhydrologicparameterusedasinput only in the BBC applicationis the
hourly flow at the gaugingsiation below which no printing of simulateddischargesis
desired.For the initial simulation of runoff from Big Bordeaux Creek, a MINH of
1.0 cfs was selectedto minimize the printed output. This can easilybe decreasedin
successivesirnulationtrials" after the uncertaintiesin someof the other parameters
havebeen reduced.
A precipitation-weightingadjustmentparameter(K1), representingthe long-
term ratio of av"rage precipitation over the basin to averageprecipitation at the
precipitationgaugp,might ue greateror lessthan 1.0 if the gaugewere locatedat any
di*tun." frornthJstudy basin.The recordinggaugesfor both watershedswere within
closeproxirtrity, and both K1 parameterswere set to 1.0.
ivlonthly-evaporationpan coefficients(EVCR) are usedby the simulationpro-
gram asmultlpters in convJrtinginput pan-evaporationdatato lake evaporationdata
The nearestevaporation
iand alsofor determiningpotentiale.'upottuntpirationrates)'
pan for Big Bordeaux Cieet is approximately20 mi south at the Box Butte Reservoir,
t = routing interval = 15 min = 0.0104 days

do =-t''
at lnrlectlon
Polnt
al
o a9
K=- *n =0.873days
du/dt - ).)
KSF= K-0.5t = 0.989
K + O.st
'?
5.0 -
Inflection
,r' pomt
!)
o
E
4.0
d
o
oo
6
J.U
t6 I7 18 t9
20 21 22 23 24 25
Date(March1969)
Figure 23.19 Determinationof flood flow streamflowrouting
parameter(KSF)for theBig BordeauxCreekfloodflow eventof
March17,1969.
providing records of daily and monthly pan-evaporationdepthsfor the months be-

tween and including May and September.Estimatesof correspondingmonthly lake
evaporationamountsat Box Butte Reservoirwere obtained from maps and charts
developedby Shaffer.22 Valueslisted in Table23.8 are assumedto apply to eachyear
of the simulation even though the simulation program allows changesfrom year to
year.
Manning's roughnessparametersfor flow over soil and impervioussurfacesare
both required as input to the program. For the Big BordeauxCreek area,the initial
estimatesfor qverlandflow (NN) and impervioussurfaceflow (NNU) were 0.37 and
0.013,representingcoefficientsfor denseshrubberyand forestlitter for overlandflow
and smoothconcletefor impervioussurfaceflow. The later n is significantonly if the
fraction of impervious area (A) is nonzero. The Cave Creek analysisincorporated
NN : 0.1Qfor light turf and NNU : 0.015for concretepavement.
ModelCalibration
Severalof the following parametersare determinedby trial and adjustmentuntil the
comparisonbetweenthe simulatedand recordedstreamflowsis satisfactory.Guide-
lines-forestablishinginitial valuesexistfor only a few of the parameters,whereasmost
SIMULATION
2g,2 CONTINUOUS STUDIES 581
MODEL
are initially determinedfrom suggested ranges.The BBC datain Table23'8 represent

initial, unmodified estimates;those shown for CC are the optimal result of many
repetitive runs.
One factor for varying infiltration by seasons(EMIN) rangesbetween0'1 and
1.0 and has been shownby Briggs to be signiflcantin matchingmeasuredand simu-
lated winter peak flow rates.23Becauseno guidelinesfor estimatingthis parameterare
presently u*ilubl", the suggestedmidvalue of 0.5 was selectedfor Big Bordeaux
Creek.
Severalsoil moistureandrouting parainetersrequireinitial input valuesthat are
difficult to estimatefrom availabledata.Calibrationproceduressuccessively improve
the initial estimatesby trial and adjustment.For Big BordeauxCreek,the parameters
and initial estimatesare as follows.
EPXM-the ma*imum interception rate (in./hr) for a dry watershed.

crawford and Linsley2suggesttrial valuesof 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 fot
grasslands,moderateforest covers,and heavyforest covers,respectively.
ifr" O.ts-in./hr valuewas selectedfor the moderateforestcoveralongBig
BordeauxCreek. Clarke used0.10 in the CaveCreek study'
CX-an index of the surfacecapacityto store water as interceptionand
depression storage.This parameternormallyrangesfrom 0.10to 1.65,and l
the midvalu" of o.go was selectedfor Big Bordeaux creek although a
greaternumber might be indicative of the forest cover. Clarke indepen-
dently.arrivedat a final, similar value (0.90) for CaveCreek'
EDF-an index of soil-surfacemoisturestoragecapacity,representingthe
additional moisturestoragecapacityavailableduring warmer months due
to vegetation.Dependingon the soil type, the index ranggsfrom 0.45 to
2.00. Sandysoilsiimilar to thosein the BBC areareadily give up moisture
to vegetation,resultingin increasedstoragecapacity.lnitia,l valuesof 1.10
and 1.25 were independentlyselectedfor the Big Bordeaux and cave
Creek areas.
LZSN-a soil-profile moisturestorageindex (in.) approximatelyequalto
the volume of water storedabovethe water table and below the ground
surface.This parameteris a major runoff-volume parameter,inversely
related to the basin yields, interflow, and groundwaterflow. The LZSN
index,dependingon porosity andthe specificyield of the soil, rangesfrom
2.0 to 20.0,and 4 in. plus half the meanannualrainfall can be usedas an
initial estimatein areasexperiencingseasonalrainfall' By the use of a
lg3I-Ig52 averageof 15.55 in. of annual precipitation, the Chadron,
: 11.78in. for Big
Nebraskl, precipitation station givesan initial LZSN
BordeauxCreek. A similar analysiswas usedfor CaveCreek'
K3-a soil evaporationparameterthat controlsthe rateof evapotranspi-
ration lossesfrom the lower soil zone.The parameterrangesfrom 0.2 to
0.9 dependingon the type and extentof the vegetativecover.As an initial
estimatefor the light forestcoYerin BBC, 0.28 was selected,which agreed
with the estimatis suggestedby Crawford and Linsley.2 Also, K3 is
and
_ approximatelyequal to ihe fraction of the basin covered by forest
grass-
dep-rooted vegetation.Recommendations2for barren ground,
lands,andheavyforestsare'respectively,0'20'0'23'and0'30;0'25was
oPtimal for the CaveCreek studY'
K24L - a Parametercontrollinl
from active groundwater stori
drainagebasinboundarY'It also
groundwaterthat Percolatesto
K}4LPatameter canbe estimatr
small
waterlevels,or it is often assumedto be zerobecausethesel0ssesare
comparedto the magnitudesof rainfall and runoff'
K24FjL-'the friLctionof the total watershedover which evapotranspira-
rate'
tion from groundwaterstorageis assumedto occul at the potential
This pararneteris assume d zero unless a significant quantity of vegetation
water,
drawswater directly from the watertable.Plantsthat seekphreatic
suchas cedar or cottonwood or alfalfa, are called phreatophytes'
EF-afactorrangingfrom0.lto4.0thatrelatesinfiltrationratesto
evaporationrates.Thisparametersimplyallowsamolerapidinfiltration
rate recovery during raim"t seasons.A normal starting value of 1'0 was
"nig
selectedfor Boideaux Creek, whereasthe CaveCreek value was set
much lower.
the soil
CB-an index that controls the rate of infiltration, dependingon
permeabilityandthevolumeofmoisturethatcanbestoredinthesoil.A
Big
midvalue oi O.ZS(0.3-1,.2) was selectedfor the sandy soils around
BordeauxCreek;asmallervalueof0.65wasoptimalfortheCaveCreek
study.
moisture
cY-an index controlling the time distributionand quantitiesof
enteringinterflow' This index rangesfrom 0'55 \" 4':' and a moderately
water-
high valueof 3.0 was selectedfor Big BordeauxCreekbecausethe
shedcontainsmany pine needfemats. clarke also selected a moderately
high CY for CaveCreek.
KY24-adailybaseflowrecessionadjustmentfaclorusedtoproducea
for Big
simulated"oruilin"u, baseflow recession.An initial value of 1'0
the base flow recession for the
Bordeaux creek was selectedbecause
hydrographinFig.23.16islinear.Lateradjustmentsmightberequiredin
matchingsimulatedand recordedbaseflow recessions'
SGW-agroundwaterStorageincrement(in.),reflectingthefluctuations
for Big
in storaqelolume. Usually, an initial estimate(0.10 was selected
and adjusted after several simulation trials;
Bordeaui creek) is made
3.90 in. Thib and the following four parameters
SGW rangesfrom 0.10 to
were usedonly in the BBC studY'
UZS-thecurrentvolume(in.)ofsoilsurfacemoistureasinterception
anddepressionstorage'Becausethesimulationbeginsonoctoberlofthe
as zero
first calibration yeai the parametermay initially be designated
unlessprecipitation occutt during the last few daysof September'
23.2 CONTINUOUSSIMULATIONMODEL STUDIES 583
LZS-the current volume (in.) of soil moisturestoragebetweenthe land

surfaceand the watertable.Sixty percentof LZSN, or 7.0 in., wasselected
to initiate the Big BordeauxCreek iimulation.
GWS-the current groundwaterslopeindex (in.). This index providesan
indication of antecedentmoistureconditions.Suggestedinitial valuesfall
between0.15 and 0.25, or the value assignedto SGW can be used.A
. midrange0.20 in. was selectedfor Big BordeauxCreek.
VOLUME-the volume (acre-ft) assignedto swamp storageand dry
groundrecharge,accountingfor the runoffrequired to rechargeswampsin
late summer.Since no swampswere visible on the USGS 7.5-min topo-
graphicmaps,an initial valueof 0.0 acre-ft was selectedfor Big Bordeaux
Creek.
HydrologicData
In addition to the parametervaluesof Table23.8, the Stanfordmodelrequiresa large
volume of hydrologic data for each water year of the simulation. The following de-
scription of requried input data for each water year illustrates the data that were
compiledand reducedto necessaryinput form for 4 wateryearsbeginningon October
1, 1968andendingon September30,1972.Only the input for BBC is described. The
input includesthe following data for eachwater year:
1. The new year identificationentry containsthe water year and the recorded
annual streamflow.The valuesof the annual streamflowfor Big Bordeaux
Creek are listed in Table 23.9.
2. A descriptionofthe streamgaugingsite.
3. The title to be appliedto the ordinatefor graphicalplotsof the simulatedand
recordedrunoff hydrograph;namely,the daily averageflow rate (cfs).
4. Pan-evaporationdata, read as 365 or 366 single entries containing daily
evaporationamounts(in.).
5. The monthly evaporationpan coefficients,comprising the data listed in
Table 23.8, beginningwith October.
6. Recordeddaily streamflows(averageflow for the day,cfs)readas 365or 366
entriesfor October I through September30.
7. Hour$ rainfall data, read for each water year. Two entries per day, each
containingan identificationofthe gaugeanddate,areusedto providehourly
TABLE23,9 ANNUAL
BIGBORDEAUX
CREEK
STREAMFLOWS
Recorded annual streamflow
Water years (acre-ft)
1968*1969 434.0
1969-1970
r970*1971 465.4
r97t-1972 296.4
584 23 CONTINUOUS
cHAPTER SIMUI.ATIoN
MoDELS
depthsin inchesbefore noon on the first and after noon on the second.Valuesare
requiredonly for half-daysexperiencingprecipitation.Becauseof the variablenum-
ber of possiblerainfall values,a sentinelentry with the year setequalto 2001 is placed
at the end of the data, indicatingthat all the precipitation data for the wateryear has
beenread.
Outputfrom the KentuckyVersion

Dependingon which optimal input, output, and branchingparametersare selected,a
variety of output data are availablefrom the Kentucky version, including plotted
graphs of measuredand synthesizeddaily streamflow rates. Options include the
following:
. 1. A table of synthesizedaveragedaily streamflowrates (cfs).

2. A table of monthly and annual totals of synthesizeddaily flow rates.
3. Synthesizedmonthly and annualtotals ofrunoffin equivalentinchesover
the watershed.
4. Svnthesizedmonthlv and annual interflow amounts (in.) over the water-
shed.
5. Svnthesizedmonthlv and annual baseflow amounts(in.) over the water-
s[eo.
6. The volume of synthesizedstreamflowrunoff from the watershedfor the
entire water year (acre-ft).
7. A summationof all the recordeddaily streamflowrates(cfs)for eachmonth
and year.
8. The recordedannual total of runoff (in.) over the watershed.
9. The recordedvolume of runoff from Novemberthrough March (in.) over
the watershed.
10. The amountof synthesizedsnowfrom Novemberthrough March (in.) over
the watershed.
11. The volume of the recordedannual streamflow(acre-ft).
12. The sum of the recorded precipitation for each month and for the year.
13. The synthesizedmonthly and annual totals of evapotranspiration(in.).
14. The monthly and annualrecordedlake evaporationamounts(in.).
15. End-of-the-monthlevelsof UZS, the current surfacemoisturestorage(in.).
16. End-of-the-month levels of LZS, the current soil moisture storage(in.).
17. End-of-the-month values of SGW the current groundwater storage
fluctuation(in.).
18. An annual moisture balance (in.), which representsthe moisture not ac-
countedfor within the program.This is illustratedin the CaveCreekoutput.
GaveCreekModelCalibration
Synthetic and actual flow rates at the Cave Creek gauging station are shown for a
singleday in Fig. 23.20. Other typical output for portions of one water year of the
simulationis presentedin Tables23.10and23.ll. The former providesan hour-by-
hour listing of all flow ratesin excessof the specifiedvalueof MINH, Table23.8. Note
SUMMARY 585
^ t20
Syrrthetic -r
100
a 8 0
t/
I
/
{,
o
s 6 0
!
I

E 4 0
l0 12 I4 16 18
Time (hr)
for
and recordedhydrographs
Figurp 23.20 Comparisonof synthesized
CaveCreek.(After C1arke.t6.1
that the streamflowwas zero from Octoberthrough Decemberand exceededMINH

only during two daysin January.
Table23.ll containsmostof the informationdescribedin the 18 items of outpuf
for the Kentuckyversion.The daily flows are followedby the syntheticand recorded
monthly totals, monthly interflow and base flow amounts, monthly precipitation
totals, monthly actual and potential ET amounts,and end-of-month storagesin'the
soil profile and groundwaterzones in inches. Of particular interest is the annual
summaryin the lower right. Of the 37.5 in. of precipitation,23.8 in. went to ET,
11.6in. ran off or was discharged from storage,and the remaining2.1 in. recharged
the soil profile. Moisture not accountedfor during the year was 0.0844 in.
Sensitivityof ModelResponseto ParameterChanges

One interestingand useful aspectof simulation is the easewith which changesin
watershedparameterscan be evaluated.Clarke testedthe sensitivity of KWM by
varying severalof the parametersin Table23.8 over reasonablerangeswhile holding
all other parametersconstant.The resultsof his analysisfor CaveCreek on a typical
day in March are summarizedin Table 23.12. Theseobservationswere taken from
graphssuchasFigs.23.2l and23.22,which illustratethe sensitivityof flood magni-
tude and timing to changesin Z and KSC. These results and the summary in
Table 23.12 are applicableonly to the CC watershedand should not be viewed as
generally applicable.
r Summary
If actual or synthesizedprecipitation recordsare available,one of the most effective
meansof analyzinghistoricalflowsor evaluatingfuture possibleflowsunderchanging
land use patterns is through any of the continuousstreamflow simulation models
describedin this chapter.Hydrologicproblemsand applicationsthat can be analyzed
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23.2 CONTINUOUSSIMUI-ATIONMODEL STUDTES 591
-
6000
5000
^ 4000
5 rooo
2000
1000
0
Time (hr)
Figure 23.21 Sensitivityof modelresponseto the length-of-overland-flow

parameter.(After Clarke.16)
5000 KSF = 0.85
^ 4000 \
5 :ooo I \
2000 S F = (t.99-
1000
0 10 12 t4 16 18 20 22
Time (hr)
Figwe 23.22 Sensitivityof modelresponse

to thechannelroutingparame-
ter. (After Clarke.16)
usingcontinuousmodelingincludewatershedyield studies,reservoirdesignand oper-

ation studies,sedimentyield estimatingfor reservoirdesignor analysisof impactsof
erosion controls on water quality, water supply studiesfor municipal, industrial or
agricultural demands,litigation over impactsof wellfieldsor direct diversions,deter-
mination of hydropower production potential, evaluationsof flows that will pass
through critical in*stream or riparian habitat reachesof a stream,identification of
flows that will be availablefor recreationalusesof a stream,and, amongnumerous
other applications,analysisof water quantity and quality impacts of removingdams
or rnaking other major upstreamchanges.
The modelsdescribedin this chapter,and other similar continuoussimulation
codes,are availablefrom the federal or state agenciesthat originatedthe code, or
from numerouspublic outlets or vendorswho havebeen authorizedto distributethe
software.
592 CHAPTER23 CONTINUOUS MODELS
SIMULATION
Problems
23.r. Assumethat a 30-mi2rural watershedin your localereceivesh 3-in. rain in a 10-day
period. Reconstructthe block diagram ofFig. 23.2 and plot approximatepercentages
io show,for averageconditions,how the rain would be distributed(a) initially and
(b) after 30 days.
23.2. A sloping,concreteparking lot experiencesrain at afate of 3.0 in.i hr for 60 min' The
tot is SOOft deepand has a slopeof 0.000-1ftlft. If the water detentionon the lot is
zero at the start of the storm,calculatethe completeoverlandflow hydrographfor 1 ft
of width using the SWM-IV equations.Use a 5-min routing interval and continue
computationsuntil all the detainedwater is discharged.
23.3. Calculatethe SWM-IV overlandflow time-to-equilibrium for the lot of Problem23'2
and compareit with the Kirpich time of concentrationfor the lot. Should thesebe
equal?
23.4. Cornpare,by listing traits and capabilitesof each,the SWM-IV with its more sophis-
ticated offspring HSP and HSPF.
23.5. Discussthe primary differencesamong the four versionsof the Stanfordwatershed
model describedin this chaPter.
23.6. Verify Eqs. 23.23 and 23.24by starting from Eqs. 13.4 and 13 '33'
"typical"
23.7. Discuss the watershedbehavior that is depicted in Fig. 23.7. Is this a
watershed?
23.8. Comparethe differencesbetweenthe two U.S. Departmentof Agriculture continuous
simuiationmodels,USDAHL and SWRRB,and discussthe applicationsthat would be
best suitedto each.
23.9. Review the differencesbetweenwater budget and simulation models discussedin
Chapter2l anddeterminewhich of the continuoussimulationmodelsdescribedhere
could be usedto perform water budgetcalculations.
23.10. For what applicationsmight the following be best suited?
API model
USDAHL
HSPF
PRMS
SWRRB
23.1r. For the continuoussimulationmodel selectedby your instructor,describefour differ-
ent types of problemsthat could be analyzedif you were given the ful1, calibrated
model.
REFERENCES
"ContinuousHydrographSynthesiswith an
1 . W. T. Sittner, C. E. Schauss,and J. C. Monro,
API-Type Hydrologic Model," WaterResourcesRes'5(5), 1007'1022(1969)'
L. N. H. diawford and R. K. Linsley,Jr.,
shedModel IV," Departmentof Civil Engineering,Stanford University, Tech. Rep. No.
3 9 .J u l y 1 9 6 6 .
"An Evaluationof RelationshipBetweenStreamflowPatternsand Watershed
J. L. D. James,
CharacteristicsThrough the Use of OPSET," ResearchRep. No' 36, Water Resources
Institute, University of Kentucky,Lexington, 1970'
Chapter24
Simulation
Single-Event
Models
r Prologue
. Describehow storm event models are structuredand how they are used to
simulatedirect runoff hydrographsfor singlestorms.
. Describethe five most widely usedfederal agencysingle-eventmodels(note
that popular single-eventurban runoff simulation models are describedin
Chapter25).
' Provide a detailedcasestudy using one of the models,HEC- 1'
. Introducethe emergingtechnologyof storm surgemodeling-the simulation
of hydraulic surgesresulting from wind energy acting on the ocean surface.
Many severefloodsare causedby short-duration,high-intensityrainfall events.
A single-eventwatershedmodel simulatesrunoff during and shortly following these
discreterain events.Usersof single-eventmodelsare normally interestedin the peak
flow rate, or the entire direct runoff hydrographif timing or volume of runoff is
needed.Single-eventmodelssimulatethe rainfall-runoff processand makeno special
effort to account for the rest of the hydrologic cycle. Few, if any, simulate soil
moisture,evapotranspiration,interflow, baseflow, or other processesoccurring be-
tween discreterainfall events.
Modelsdescribedin this chapterare applicableto studiesof watershedsthat are
primarily rural in makeup.Urbanizedsubareasare allowed,but for watershedsthat
ire principally urbanized, the single-event and continuous models described in
Chapter2i aremoreapplicable.Coastalfloodingthat is inducedby surgescreatedby
wind action on the ocean surfaceis modeledby a different class of single-event
models,describedin Section24'3.
24.1 STORMEVENTSIMULATION
Event simulation model structurescloselyimitate the rainfall and runoff processes
developedin earlierchapters.Lumpedparameterapproaches, suchasunit-hydrograph
methods,are generally incorporated even though some use distributed parameter
SIMULATION595
EVENT
24,1 STORM
techniques.. Preparationfor implementingmost single-eventsimulationstudiesbegins

with a watershedsubdivisioninto homogeneoussubbasinsas illustrated inFig' 24'1'
Computationsproceed from the most remote upstream subbaslnin a downstream
direction,
In any single-eventmodelfor a typical basin(Fig. 24.I),the runoff hydrographs
for eachof subbasinsA, B, . . . , E are computedindependently,and then routed and
cornbinedat appropriatepoints (callednodes)to obtain designhydrographsthrough-
out the basin.The modelieads input parametersfor the storm; then appliesthe storm
to the first upstreamsubbasin,Bf computesthe hydrographresultingfrom the storm
event; repeatsthe hydrographcomputationfor subbasinA; combinesthe two com-
puted'hydrographsinto a singlehydrograph;routesthe hydrographby conventional
iechniquest[rough reachC to the upstreamend of reservoirR, whereit is combined
with the compuied hydrographfor subbasinC; and so on through the procedure
detailedinFig.24.l.
Hydrographcomputationsfor subbasinsare most often determinedusing unit-
is
hydrogiaph proceduresas illustrated in Fig. 24.2. The precipitation hyetograph
input iniiormly overthe subbasinarea,andptecipitation losses are leaving
abstracted,
un "*..r, prelipitation hyetographthat is convoluted (see Chapter 12) with the
Outlet (point of concentration)
1. Subdividebasinto accommodatereservoirsites,damagecenters'
diversionpoints, surfaceand subsurfacedivides,gaugingstations'
precipitationstations,land uses,soil types,geomorphologicfeatures'
2. Lomputation sequencein eventsimulationmodels:
a. Computehydrographfor subbasinB'
b. Computehydrographfor subbasinA.
c. Add hydrograPhsforA and B.
d. Routecomtined hydrographto upstreamend of reservoirR'
b. Compute hydrograph for subbasinC.
f. Computehydrographfor subbasinD.
g. CombinethreehYdrograPhs at R.
h. Route combinedhydrographthroughreservoirR'
i. Route reservoir outflow hydrograph to outlet'
j. Computehydrographfor subbasinE'
k. Combinetwo hydrographsat outlet.
Figure 24.1 Typical watershed subdivision and computation
sequence for event-simulation models.
I Precioitation
- ?lg HJ'VhYetograPh
a
Time
s
/ Gross precipitation
/
Outlet
Excess (net
Time
I c"-bt". I
- -
\Z
Total streamflowhydrograph
Figure24.2 Typical lumpedparameterevent-simulationmodelof the rainfall-

runoff process.
AGENCY
24.2 FEDERAL MODELS 597
SINGLE.EVENT
prescribedunit hydrographto producea surfacerunoff hydrographfor the subbasin.
The abstractedlossesare divided among the loss componentson the basis of pre-
scribedparameters.Subsurfaceflows and waters derived from groundwaterstorage
are transformedinto a subsurfacerunoff hydrograph,which when combinedwith the
' surfacerunoff hydrographforms the total streamflow hydrographat the subbasin
outlet. This hydrographcan then be routed downstream,combined with another
contributing hydrograph,or simply output if this subbasinis the only, or the final,
subbasinbeine considered.
MODELS
24.2 FEDERALAGENCYSINGLE-EVENT
The rainfall-runoff processes depictedin Figs.24.1and24.2 arerecognizedby most
of the eventsimulationmodelsnamedin Table21.1. Specificcomputationtechniques
for losses,unit hydrographs,river routing, reservoirrouting, and baseflow are com-
paredin Table24.1for five of the major federalagencyrainfall-runoff eventsimula-
tion models.All the modelsallow selectionamongavailabletechniques.Brief descrip-
tions of eachof thesemodelsare followedby an illustrative exampleof an application
of the HEC-I model to a single storm occurring over a 250-mf watershednear
Lincoln, Nebraska.
U.S.GeologicalSurveyRainfall-RunoffModel
The USGSmodel can be usedin evaluatingshort streamflowrecordsand calculating
peak flow ratesfor natural drainagebasins.lThe programmonitorsthe daily moisture
content of the subbasinsoil and can be used as a continuousstreamflowsimulation
model.The model is classifiedas an eventsimulationmodelbecauseits calibrationis
based on short-termrecords of rainfall, evaporation,and dischargesduring a few
documentedfloods.It hasbeenmodified severaltimes and hasevolvedinto the USGS
urban continuoussimulation model, DR3M, describedin detail in Chapter25.
Input to the model consistsof initial estimatesof 10 parameters,which are
modified by the model through an optimization fitting procedurethat matchessimu-
lated and recordedflow rates. Other input includesdaily rainfall and evaporation,
close-interval(5-60 min) rainfall and dischargedata, drainageareas,impervious
areas,and baseflow rates for eachflood.
Phillip's2infiltration equationis usedto determinea rainfall excesshyetograph,
which is translatedto the subbasinoutlet and then routed through a linear reservoir,
using the time-.areawatershedrouting techniquedescribedin Chapter 13.
The USGSrainfall-runoff model can be usedto simulatestreamflowsfor rela-
tively short periodsfor small basinswith approximatelylinear storage-outflowchar-
acteristicsin regionswheresnowmeltor frozen groundis not significant.Output from
the model includes a table showingpeak discharges,storm runoff volumes, storm
rainfall amounts,and an iteration-by-iterationprintout of magnitudesof parameters
and residualsin fitting volumesand peak flow rates.
598 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENTSIMULATIONMODELS
TABLE 2II"1 HYDROLOGYPROCESSESAND OPTIONSUSED BY SEVERAL

AGENCY RAINFALL-RUNOFFEVENTSIMULATIONSMODELS
Model code names (sleeTable 21.1)
HEC-1 TR-20 USGS HYMO SWMM

Modeledcomoonents (Corps) (scs) (USGS) (ARS) (EPA)
Infiltration and losses

Holtan's equation
Horton's equation
Green-Ampt
Phillip's equation
SCS curve number method
Exponentiallossrate
Standardcapacitycurves
Unit hydrograph
Input x
Clark's X
Snyder's x
Two-parametergamma response
SCS dimensionlessunit hydrograph
River routing
Kinematic wave
Full dynamic wave
Muskingum X
Muskingum-Cunge X
Modified Puls X
Normal depth X
Variable storagecoefficient X
Att-kin method
Translation only
Reservoirrouting
Storage-indication(Puls)
Baseflow
Input X X
Constantvalue X X
, Recessionequation X
Snowmeltroutine Yes No No Yes
ComputerProgramfor ProjectFormulation
Hydrology(TR-20)
A particular$ powerful hydrologicprocessand water surfaceprofile computerpro-
gram was developedby CEIR, Inc.3and is known by the codename TR-20, which is
an acronymfor the U.S. Soil ConservationServiceTechnicalReleaseNuntber20. The
model is a computerprogram of methodsusedby the Soil ConservationServiceas
presentedin lhe National Engineering Handbook.a
The program 'is recognized as an engineer-orientedrather than computer-
oriented package,having been developedwith easeof use as a purpose.Input data
sheetsand output data are designedfor easein use and interpretationby field engi-
24.2 FEDERALAGENCY SINGLE-EVENTMODELS 599
neers,and the programcontainsa liberal numberof operationsthat are user-accom-

modating,even at the expenseof machinetime.
The TR-20 was designedto use soil and land-use information to determine
runoff hydrographsfor known stormsand to perform reservoirand channelrouting of
the generateO hyOrograpns. It is a single-eventmodel,with no provisionfor additional
lossesor inflltration beiweendiscretestorm events.The programhasbeenusedin all
50 statesby engineersfor flood insuranceand flood hazardstudies,for the designof
reservoirand channelprojects, and for urban and rural watershedplanning.
Surfacerunoff is computedfrom an historicalor syntheticstormusingthe SCS
curvenumberapproachdescribedin Chapter4 to abstractlosses'The standarddimen-
sionlesshydrogiaphshownin Fig. 12.13is usedto developunit hydrographsfor each
subareain the watershed.The ixcess rainfall hyetographis constructedusing the
effectiverain and a given rainfall distributionand is then appliedincrementallyto the
unit hydrographto obtain the subarearunoff hydrographfor th9 storm'
As shown in Table 24.I, TR-20 usesthe storage-indicationmethod to route
hydrographsthroughreservoirs(seeSection13.2).The baseflow is addedto the direct
.onoffhyatographs at any time to producethe total flow rates.The programusesthe
logic depictel in fig. Z+.iby computingthe total flow hydrographs,routing the flows
thiough streamchannelsandreservoirs,combiningthe routedhydrographswith those
from6ther tributaries,and routing the combinedhydrographsto the watershedoutlet'
Prior to 1983, the model routed stream inflow hydrographsby the convex method
(Sec-
(Section13.1),which has sincebeenreplacedby the modifiedatt-kinmethod
tion 13.3).Asmanyas200channelreachesandggreservoirsorfloodwater-retarding
structurescanbe accommodatedin any singleapplicationof the model.To add to this
the
capability,the programallowsthe concurrgntinput of up to 9 different stormsover
watershedarea.
Subdivisionof the watershedis facilitatedby determiningthe locationsof con-
trol points. Control points are defined as stream locations correspondingto cross-
or
sectionaldata, reservoirsites,damagecenters,diversionpoints, gaugingstations,
tributary confluenceswhere hydrographdata may be desired. Subarea data require-
ments include the drainagearea,the time of concentration,the reachlengths,struc-
reach
ture data as describedin-Section 21.1, andeither routing coefflcientsfor each
Whenever cross-sectional dala are pro-
or cfoss-sectionaldata along the channels.
elevations in addition to the peak flow
vided, the model calculatesihe water surface
rates and time of occurrence at each section. Subarea sizes are dictated by the
routing and flood hazatd information, it is
locations of control points. To provide
so that the hydraulic characteristics of the
necessaryto defineenoughcontiol points
in-
streamaie definedbetwJencontrof sections.Applications with TR-20 normally
few hundred feet to 2 mi or more apart' The
corporatecont*rolpoints spacedbetween-a
mi2'
."rolting subarLasthat contributerunoff to a control point are usually lessthan 5
less than 25 mi2 even though there is no
Common subareasizesfor structuresare
limitation on reachlength or subareasize within the program'
Minimal input daia requirementsto TR-20 includethe watershedcharacteristics,
at leastone actual or syntheiicstorm including the depth, duration, and distribution;
routing
the discharge,capaciiy, and elevation data for each structure; and the
coefficientsor cross-sectionaldata for eachreach.Input can be describedaccording

to the following outline:
1. Watershedcharacteristics.
a. The area(in mi2)contributingrunoff to eachreservoirand crosssection.
b. Runoff curve number CN for eachsubarea.(SeeChapter4.)
c. The antecedentmoisturecondition associatedwith eachsubarea,coded
as dry, normal, or wet.
d. The time of concentrationfor eacfi subarea(hr).
e. The length of eachchannelrouting reach and subareamainstream.
2. Velocity-routingcoefficienttable.
a. A table containingrouting coefficientsfor a rangeof velocities(ftlsec).
This table is containedwithin the program and need only be enteredif
the user desiresdifferent velocities.
3. Dimensionlesshydrograph.
a. This table is containedwithin the program and need only be enteredif
the user desiresa different hydrograph.
4. Actual hydrograph.
a. Actual hydrographscan be introduced at any point in the watershed.
Hydrographordinates are read as dischargerates (cfs) spacedat equal
time incrementsapart, up to a maximum of 300 entries.
b. Baseflow rates (cfs)can also be specifiefl'
5. Baseflow.
a. In additionto the option of specifyingthe baseflow ratesassociatedwith
a hydrographthat was input, the baseflow can be specifiedor modified
at any other control Point.
6. Stormdata.
a. Stormsare numberedfrom 1 to 9 and are input as cumulativedepthsat
equally spacedtime increments.
b. As an alternativeto specifyingcumulativedepthsat varioustime incre-
ments, a dimensionlessstorm can be input, and up to 9 stormscan be
synthesizedby specifyingeachstorm depth and duration'
7. Streamcross-sectional data.
a. Up to 200 crosssectionsmay be input for a singlerun. Cross-sectional
data consistof up to 20 pairs of valuesof the dischargeversusflow area.
b. If cross-sectionaldata are provided,the routing coefficientsare deter-
mined from them. In the absenceof suchdata, the user must specify a
routing coefficientfor eachreach.
8. Structure.data.
a. The rbservoirdataconsistof up to 20 pairsof outflow dischargerates(cfs)
versusstorage(acre-ft).
b. A maximum of 99 structuresare allowed in a run.
The desiredoutput from TR-20 must be specifiedby a set of input file control
variables.Hydrographsat eachcontrol point for eachstormcanbe printedby specify-
ing the control point identification in the control cards. Any combination gf the
following items can be producedat eachcontrol point:
AGENCY
24,2 FEDERAL MODELS 601'
SINGLE-EVENT
* . The peak dischargerate, time of peak, and peak watet'surfaceelevations.
2. The dischargerates in tabular form for the entire hydrograph'
3. Water surfaceelevationsfor t'heentire duration ofJunoff'
4. The volume of direct runoff, determinedfrom the area under the hy-
drograph.
5. Hydrographordinatesin any specifiedformat.
6. Summary tablescontainingwater balanceinformation'
Basicdata neededby the computerprogramare determinedfrom field surveys'

Rainfall frequency data are input from daia in the U.S. Weather Bureau TP-40
report.s Peak-dischargeand area-floodedinformation for presentand future condi-
tions for severalreturn periodsare output by TR-20 in a form suitablefor direct use
in an economicevaluationmodel.
ComputerLanguagefor Hydrologic
Problem-Oriented
Modeling(HYMO)
A unique computerlanguagedesignedfor use by hydrologistswho haveno conven-
tional computir programming experiencewas developedby Williams and Hann.6
Once the progru- has been compiled,the user forms a sequenceoJ commandsthat
synthesiz{ route, stoie, plot, or add hydrographsfor subareasof any watershed.
Seventeencommandsare availableto usein any sequenceto transformrainfall data
into runoff hydrographsand to route thesehydrographsthrough streamsand.reser-
voirs. The HYMO model also computesthe sedimentyield irt tons for individual
stormson the watershed.
Watershedrunoff hydrographsare cornputed by HYMO using unit-hydro-
graph techniques.Unit hydrographscan either be input or synthesizedaccordingto
the dimensionlessunit hydrographshown in Fig. 24.3. Tetms in the equationsare
1.0
. - i l - I
q = q' " ( - \ ttr-'trtrtr-tt

\'p I
t6 inflection point
s ls'o
q = qos(to-t)tx
tp
Figure 24.3 Dimensionlessunit hydrographused in HYMO.

(After Williams and Hann.6)
4 : flow rate (ft3lsec)at time t

q, : peak flow rate (ft3lsec)
te = time to peak (hr)
n : dimensionlessshapeparameter
q6 : flow rate at the inflection point (cfs)
/o : time at the inflection point (hr)
K : recessionconstant(hr)
Once K and to and 4oare known, the entire hydrographcan be computedfrom
the three segmentequationsshownin Fig. 24.3. The peak flow rate is computedby
the equation
BAO
u ^ - - (24.r)
where B : a watershedparameter,related to n as shown inFig.24.4
A : watershedarea (mi2)
O: volume of runoff (in.), determined by HYMO from the SCS
rainfall-runoff equationdescribedin Chapter4 t
The duration of the unit hydrographis equatedwith the selectedtime increment.The
runoff Q for the unit hydrographwould of course be 1.0 in. The parametern in
Fig. 24.4 is obtainedfrom Fig. 24.5. ParametersK and to for ungaugedwatersheds
500
50
10
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
n
Figure 24.4 Relation between dimensionless shape

parametern and watershedParameterB. (After Williams
and Hann.6)
MODELS
24.2 FEDEMLAGENCYSINGLE-EVENT 603
L2
10
s 6
0 0 . 5 1 1 . 5 2 2 . 5 3
K
tp
Figure 24.5 Relation betweendimensionless shape'

parametern and ratio of recessionconstantto time to
peak.(AfterWilliamsandHann.6.1
are determinedfrom regional regressionequationsbasedon 34 watershedslocated

in Texas,Oklahoma, Arkansas,Louisiana, Mississippi,and Tennessee,ranging in
size from 0.5 to 25 mi2, or
sLp-oi.'t(#,)"-
K : 27.oAo 231 (24.2)
!
and tp : 4.63Ao+"5rr-o''u( (24.3)
)t'"
where SLP : the differencein elevation(ft), divided by floodplain distance(mi),
betweenthe basin outlet and the most distant point on the divide
LfW : the,basinlength/width ratio
River routing is accomplishedin HYMO by a revised variable storqge
cofficient (VfC) method.TThe continuity equation,I - O : dS/dt, and the storage
equation,S : KO, are combinedand discretizedaccordingto the methodsoutlined
in Chapter 13. The VSC methodrecognizesthe variability in K as the flow leavesthe
confinesofthe streamchannelandinundatesthe floodplainand valley area.Relations
betweenK and O are determinedby HYMO from the input cross-sectionaldata, or
HYMO will calculatethe relation using Manning's equation if the floodplain and
channelroughnesscoefficientsare specified.The bed slopeand reachlength are also
part of the required input.
The Widelyadoptedstorage-indicationmethod(seeChapter 13) is usedto route

inflow hydrographsthroughreservoirs.The storage-outflowcurvemustbe determined
externallyby the userand is input to the prolram asa table containingpairedstorages
and outflows,using storagedefinedas zero wheneverthe outflow is zero.
The user-orientedcomrnandsand the datarequirementsfor eachcommandare
as follows:
1. Sta;t: the time rainfall beginson the watershed.
2. Storehydrograph:the time incremenfto,be used,the lowestflow rate to be
stored, the watershed atea, and the successiveflow rates spacedat the
specifledtime increment.
3. Develophydrograph:the desiredtime increment, the watershedatea, the
SCSrunoff curve numberCN, the watershedchannellength and maximum
differencein elevation,and the cumulativerainfall beginningwith zero and
accumulatedat the end of eachtime incrementuntil the end of the storm.
4. Computethe rating curve:cross-sectionalidentificationnumber,numberof
points in the crosssection,the maximum elevationof the crosssection,the
main channel and left and right floodplain slopes,Manning's n fot each
segment,and finally pairs of horizontal and vertical cpordinatesof the
points describingthe crosssection.
5. Reachcomputations:the numberof crosssectionsin the routing reach,the
time increment to be used in routing, the reach length, and the discharge
rates for which the variable storagecoefficientis to be computed'
6. Print hydrograph:the idpntification nurnberof the cross sectionat which
hydrographsare to be printed.
7. Plot hydrograph:the identificationnumberof the crosssectionsat which the
hydrographsare to be plotted.
8. Add hydrographs:the identification numbers of the hydrographsto be
added.
9. Route reservoir:the identificationriumbersof the locationsof .the outflow
andinflow hydrographs,andthe discharge-storage relation for the reservoir.
L0. Compute travel time: the reach identification number, reach length, and
reach slope.
11. Sedimentyield: severalfactors describingsoil erodibility, cropping man-
agement,erosioncontrol practices,slopelength, and slopegradient.
Output from HYMO includes the synthesizedor user-providedunit hydro-

graphs,the storm runoff hydrographs,the river- bnd reservoir-routedhydrographs,
and the sedimentyield for individual storms on each subwatershed.Hydrographs
computedby HYMO comparedcloselywith measuredhydrographsfrom the 34 test
watersheds.
Storm Water ManagementModel (SWMM)

The EnvironmentalProtectionAgency model,SWMM,s is Hstedin Table21.1 in two
locationscorrespondingto rainfall-runoff eventsimulationand urban runoff simula-
tion. The model is primarily an urban runoff simulation model and is describedin
detail-in Chapter25.
24.2 FEDERAL AGENCY SINGLE-EVENT MODELS 605
and
Lilie mostothers,the SWMM modelhasundergonenumefousmodiflcations
a single-event
improvementssinceits first releasein 1972.The initial version8was
model, and newer versionse,lo allow its ri'sein continuousmodeling of urban storm
a new snowmelt
waterflows and waterquality parameters.The latestreleaseincludes
scour and
routine, a new storm watei tto.ugt and treatment package'a sediment
depositionroutine, and a revisedinfiltration simulation'
hydrologic'
swMM's hydrographandrouting routinesarehydraulicratherthan
of single
A distributed parameier approachis used for subcatchmentsconsisiting
routed as
parking lots, city lots, and so on. Accumulatedrainfall on theseplots is first
or closed
overlandflow to gutter or storm drain inlets,whereit is then routed asopen
Of the five
channelflow to the receivingwatefsor to sometype of treatmentfacility'
greatest detail
event-simulationmodelscoripared in Table 24.l,the SWMM givesthe
in simulation,but cannotbe usedin large rural watershedsimulations.
step using
overland flow depths and flow rates are computedfor each time
depth over a
Manning's equation along with the continuity equation. The water
depth reachesa
subcatchmentwill increale without inducing an outflow until the
over the sub-
specifieddetentionrequirement.If and wheneverthe resulting depth
rate
câtchment, D., is largei than the specifieddetentionrequirement,Da, an outflow
is computedusing a modified Manning's equation
r .49.- (24.4)
V:-J1-(D,- D,)2/3St/2
vw(D, - D) (24.s)
and Q*:
where V:thevelocity
n : Manning's coefflcient
S : the ground slope
W : the width of the overlandflow
Q. : the outflow dischargerate
they are
After flow depthsand rates from all subcatchmentshave been computed,
guttef to form the total
combinedalong with the flow from the immediateupstream
flow in eachsuccessivegutter.
The gutter and PiPeflows are routed
to any points of interestin the network wh
ordinatesfor each time step in the routir
incrementsuntil the runoff from the storm
ters of the gutter shape,slope,and length
and are avail-
roughnessJoef{cienti ior ttre pipes or channelsmust also be supplied
able in most hydraulicstextbooks'
includethe
Other iniut requiredfor a typical simulationwith the SWMM model
following:
percent im-
1. Watershedcharacteristicssuchas the infiltration parameters,
pervious area, slope, area, detention storage depth' and Manning's
coefficientsfor overlandflow'
2. The rainfall hyetographfor the storm to be simulated'
3. The land-use data, averagemarket values of dwellings in subareas,and

populationsof subareas.
4. Characteristicsof gutters such as the gutter geornetry,slope, roughness
coefficients,maximum allowabledepths,and linkageswith other connect-
ing inlets or gutters.
5 . Street cleaningfrequency.
6. Treatmentdevicesselectedand their sizes.
7. Indexesfor costsof facilities.
8. Boundary conditionsin the receiving waters.
9. Storagefacilities, location, and volume.
1.0. Inlet characteristicssuchas surfaceelevationsand invert elevations.
11. Characteristicsof pipes such as type, geometry,slope,Manning's n, and
downstreamand upstreamjunction data.
HEC-I Flood HydrographPackage(HEC-1)

The U.S. Army Corpsof EngineersHydrologicEngineeringCenterdevelopeda series
of comprehensive computerprogramsascomputationalaidsfor consultants,universi-
ties, and federal, state, and local agencies(see Section 21.4). Programsfor flood
hydrographcomputations,watersurfaceprofile computations,reservoirsystemanaly-
ses,monthly streamflowsynthesis,and reservoir systemoperation for flood control
comprisethe series.The single-eventflood hydrographpackage,HEC-1, is described
here.tt
The HEC-1 model consistsof a calling program and six subroutines.Two of
these subroutinesdeterminethe optimal unit hydrograph,loss rare, or streamflow
routing parametersby matchingrecordedand simulatedhydrographvalues.The other
subroutinesperform snowmelt computations, unit-hydrographcomputations,hy-
drographrouting and combiningcomputations,and hydrographbalancingcomputa-
tions. In addition to being capable of simulating the usual rainfall-runoff event
processes,HEC-1 will also simulatemultiple floods for multiple basin development
plansandperform the economicanalysisof flood damagesby numericallyintegrating
areasunder damage-frequencycurvesfor existingand postdevelopmentconditions.
HEC- 1 underwentrevisionsin the early 1970sand againin the 1980s.Several
features were added (e.g., SCS curve number method, hydraulic routing), and a
microcomputerversion was developedin 1984. The 1985 releaseexpandedearlier
versionsto include kinematic hydrographrouting, simulation of urban runoff, hy-
drographanalysisfor flow over a dam or spillway,analysisof downstreamimpactsof
dam failures,multistagepumpingplants for interior drainage,and flood control sys-
fem economics.The 1990versionof HEC- 1, availablefor PCs or Harris minicomput-
ers, incorporatBsyet other improvements.It adds report-quality graphic and table
capability, storageand retrieval of data from other programs,and new hydrologic
proceduresincluding the popular Green and Ampt infiltration equation(Chapter4)
and the Muskingum-Cungeflood routing method (Chapter 13).
In addition to the unit-hydrographtechniquesof the earlier versions, the
modified HEC-I allows hydrographsynthesesby kinematic-waveoverland runoff
techniques,similar to those developedfor use in SWMM. The runoff can either be
concentratedat the outlet of the subareaor uniformly addedalong the watercourse
leogth through the subarea,distributingthe inflow to the channelor gutter in linearly
increasingamountsin the downstreamdirection. The 1990 versionallows the use of

the Muskingum-Cungerouting method in a land surfacerunoff calculation mode.
Precipitation can be directly input, or one of three synthetic storms (refer to
Chapter 16) can be selected.A standardproject storm (SPS) is availablefor large
basins (over 10 mi2) located east of 105' longitude, using proceduresdescribedin
Corpsof Engineersmanuals.A 96-hr durationis synthesized,but the stormhasa 6-hr
peak during eachday.
A secondtype of storm is the probablemaximum precipitation (PMP), using
estimatesfrom National Weather Service hydrometeorologicreports availablefor
different locations(Chapter 16 describesthese).A minimum duration is 24ht, and
stormsup to 96 hr long may be analyzed.The third method allows synthesisof any
duration from 5 min to 10 days.The userneedonly specify the desiredduration and
depth,and the programbalancesthe depth aroundthe central portion of the duration
usingthe blockedIDF methodof Section16.4.
The later versionsof HEC-I include all the precipitation loss, syntheticunit
hydrograph,and routing functions developedfor earlier versions.Additional loss
methodsincludeboth the SCS curve numbermethodand Holtan's lossrate equation
(an exponentialdecayfunction).
Becauseof the popularity of SCS techniques,the HEC-1 now includesTR-20
proceduresfor lossesand hydrographsynthesis.The duration ofthe SCS dimension-
lessunit hydrographis interpretedby HEC-1 as approximately0.2 times the time to
peak, but not exceedin g 0.25 times the time to peak (this convertsto 0.29 times the
lag time).
For routing through streamsand reservoirs,the newestversion of HEC-1 in-
cludesall previousmethods,and additionally performskinematic-wavechannelrout-
ing for severalstandardgeometriccross-sectionshapes.
In comparisonto other event-simulationmodels,HEC-1 is relatively compact
and still able to executea variety of computationalproceduresin a singlecomputer
run. The model is applicableonly to single-stormanalysisbecausethere is no provi-
sion for precipitation loss rate recovery during periods of little or no precipitation.
After dividing the watershedinto subareasand routing reachesas shown in
Fig. 24.6,the precipitation for a subareacan be determinedby one of four methods:
(1) nonrecordingand/or recordingprecipitation station data,(2) basinmeanprecip-
itation, (3) standardproject or probablemaximum hypotheticalprecipitation distri-
butions,or (4) syntheticbalancedstormmethodusingIDF data (Section16.4).Either
actual depthsor net rain amountsmay be input, dependingon the user's choice of
techniquesfor abstractinglosses.The HEC-1 lossrate function is easily bypassedif
the net rain is availablefor direct input.
The programlogic for HEC-1 is shownin Fig. 24.6.Hydrologic processessuch
as the subarearunoff computation, routing computation, hydrographcombining,
subtractingdivertedflow, balancing,comparing,or summarizingare specifiedin the
input usingthe sequence illustratedinFig.24.L
One lossrate in the HEC-1 modelis an exponentialdecayfunction that depends
on the rainfall intensity and the antecedentlosses.The instantaneousloss rate, in
in./hr, is
L, = K'Pf (24.6)
READINPUTDATA;
REFORMATDATAAND
WRITE TO WORKINGFILE
REA,DANDPRINT
JOB SPECIFICATION;
READ ANDPRINT DATA
COMPUTE
RL]NOFF
HYDROGRAPH
1
Figure 24.6 HEC-1 Program OperationsOverview.l
where L, : the instantaneousloss rate (in./hr)

P, : intensity of the rain (in./hr)
E : the exponentof recession(rangeof 0'5-0'9)
K' : acoefficient, decreasingwith time as lossesaccumulate
K, : KoC-cuMlllo+ AK Q4.7)
where Ko : the loss coefficient at the beginning of the storm (when

CUML = 0), an averagevalue of 0'6
CUML : the accumulatedloss(in.) from the beginningof the stormto time t
C : a coefficient,an averageof 3.0
If AK is zero, the loss rate coefficientK' becomesa parabolicfunction of the
accumulatedloss,CUML, and would thus plot asa straight-linefunction of CUML on
semilogarithmicgraphpaperif K were plotted on the logarithmic scale.The straight-
fine reLtion t aepiCteO ln Fig.24.7, showingthe decreasein the lossrate coefficient
asthe lossesaccumulateduring any storm.Becauselossratestypically decreasemuch
more rapidly during the initial minutesof a storm,the loss tate K' is increasedabove
the straightJineamountby an amountequal to AK, which in turn is madea function
of the amountof lossesth;t will accumulatebefore theK' value is againequalto the
0.2 cuMLl
A,K=Oif CUML> CUMLy
Ko
0 loss
Accumulated ' CUML(in.)
Figure 24.7 Variationof the lossrate coefficientK' with the
accumulatedlossamountCUML.
straight-linevalue,K. This initial accumulatedloss,CUML,, is user-specifieda-nd-rs

rela6d to AK in sucha fashionthat the initial lossrateK' is 20 percenttimes CUMLI
greaterthan Ko (seeFig. 24.7).Initialloss coefficientsKo are difficult to estimate,and
itandard purvesin Chapters4 and 23 are availableto determineinitial infiltration
rateS,26. For gaugedbasins,HEC- 1 allows the userto input rainfall and runoff data
from which the lossrate parametersare optimizedto give a bestfit to the information
provided. Estimatesof parametersfor ungaugedbasinsfall in the judgment realm
noted in Table 21.1. An alternativeto the describedlossrate function is availablein
HEC-1, which is an initial abstractionfollowed by a constantloss rate, similar to a
@index.
The HEC-1 model provides separatecomputations of snowmelt in up to
10 elevationzones.The precipitationin any zoneis consideredto be snowif the zone
temperatureis lessthan abase temperature,usually 32'F, plus 2".Thp snowmeltis
computedby the degree-dayor energybudgetmethodswheneverthe temperatureis
"qou1to or greaterthan the basetemperature.The elevationzonesareusually consid-
ered in incrementsof 1000 ft althoughany equal incrementscan be used.
unit hydrographsfor eaph subareacan be provided by the user, or clark's
methodl3 o{ synthesizingan instantaneousunit hydrograph (IUH) can be used.
Clark's method is more commonly recognizedas the time-area curve method of
hydrographsynthesisdescribedin Section12.6.The time-area histogram,determined
from an isochronal map of the watershed,is convolutedwith a unit design-storm
hyetographusingEq. 12.38,as illustratedin Fig. t2.l9.The methodsdescribedin
Section 1.3.2arc then usedto route the resultinghydrographthrough linear reservoir
storageusingEq. 12.35with a watershqdstoragecoefficientK. Input data for Clark's
610 24 SINGLE-EVENT
cHAPTER MoDELS
SIMULATIoN
method eonsistsof the time-area curve ordinates,the time of concentrationfor the
Clark unit graph,and the watershedstoragecoefficientK. If the time-area curve for
the watershedunder considerationis not'available,the model-providesa synthetic
time-arca curve at,the user's request.
Becausethe Corps of EngineerscommonlyusesSnyder'smethod(Chapter 12)
in unit-hydrographsynthesisfor large basins,the Snydertime lag from Eq. 11.5 and
Snyder'speakingcoefficientCofrom Eq.12.17 can be input, and Clark's parameters
will be determinedby HEC-1 from the Snydercoefficients.The actual or synthetic
time-area curve is still required.
Baseflow is treatedby HEC-1 as an exponentialrecessionusingan exponentof
0.1 in the following equation:
O r :# (24.8)
where Q, : the flow rate at the beginningof the time increment

Q2 : the flow rate at the end of the time increment
R : the ratio of the base flow to the base flow 10 time incrementslater
The base flow determinedfrom this equation is added to the direct runoff
hydrographordinatesdeterminedfrom unit-hydrographtechniques.The startingpoint
for the entire computationis the user-prescribedbaseflow rateat the beginningof the
simulation, which is normally the flow severaltime incrementsprior to any direct
runoff. Ifthe initial baseflow rate is specifiedas zero, the computerprogram output
containsonly direct runoff rates.
"storage-
The HEC-I packageallows the user a choiceof severalhydrologicor
routing" techniquesfor routing floodsthroughriver reachesand reservoirs.All usethe
continuity equation and some form of the storage-outflow relation; some are de-
scribed in more detail in Chapter 13. The five routing proceduresincluded in the
programare the following:
1. Modified Puls-this methodis also calledthe storageor storage-indication

methodand is a level-pool-routingtechniquenormally reservedfor usewith
reservoirsor flat streams.The techniquewas describedin detail in Sec-
tion I3.2.
. 2. Muskingum-describedin detail in Section13.1.
3. Muskingum-Cunge-a blendedhydrologicand hydraulic routing method
detailedin Section13.1.
4. Kinematicwave-described in Section13.3.
5. Straddle-stagger-also known as the progressiveaveragelag method.The
techniqpesimply averagesa subsetof consecutiveinflow rates, and the
averagedinflow value is lagged a specifiednumber of time incrementsto
form the outflow rate.
Input to HEC- 1 is facilitatedby arrangingthree categoriesof datain a sequence

compatiblewith the desiredcomputationsequence,summarizedin Table 24.2. The
individual input records are precededby a two-charactercode. The first character
MODELS 611
AGENCYSINGLE.EVENT
24.2 FEDERAL
OF INPUTDATAFORHEC-111
TABLE24.2 SUBDIVISIONS
Jobcontrol andhydraulics
Hydrology andendof job
Economics
I -, Job initialization K-, Job step control E_, etc., Economics, data
V-, Variableoutput summary H-, Hydrographtransformation ZZ,End of Job
O , Optimization Q-, Hydrographdata
J -" Job type B_, Basin data
P _, Precipitation data
L-, Loss (infiltration) data
U_, Unit graph da-ta
M-, MeIt data
R_, Routing data
S-, Storagedata
D_, Diversion data
W-, Pump withdrawal data
in Example24.1.
EXAMPLE 24.1
In June 1963 the Oak Creek watershedshown in Fig. 24.8 experienceda severe
over Subarea1. For the remainingelongatedwatershedareaA-H within the boldface

-
border,usethe Junestormto simulatehydrographsat eachof Points1 8 usinga single
run of HEC-I and comparepeak flows with recordedvalues at Points 3 and 8'
SCS runoff equationaand a basin-widecompositecurve number of 73 (see

Chapter4).
612 CHAPTER
24 SINGLE.EVENT
SIMULATION
MODELS
-o+fr;
rsog
paralso
KA\
\: \% , 1236
0 1 2 3 4 5
Scalein miles
;"'F4
d"fs; l
Rafmond Nebraska
I 190
\o
r--l
{
\ @
\8.
34
,,,G
I
'I-t
Miles 2 Net rain (in) dt\ -
4 t).
65
33.4 7.8
B 26.9 +.-)
C 27.3 4.1
D 9.2 2.8
E . 28.3 A A
F 17.0 t.7
G 5.0 t;7
H 28,0 1.0
f
82.9 N.A.
TOTAL 258.0
Figure 24.8 Oak Creek watershedsubareamap.anddata sheet,June 1963.

AGENCY
24.2 FEDERAL MODELS 613
SINGLE-EVENT
*
The computation logic to simulate runoff for this storm consistsof the
following22 steps:
L. Computethe hydrographfor AteaA at Point 1.
2. Routethe A hydrographfrom Point 1 to Point 2.
3. Computethe hydrographfor Area B atPoint 2.
4. Combine the two hydrographsatPoint 2.
5. Route the combinedhydrographto Point 3.
6. Computethe hydrographfor Area C-at Point 3.
7. Combine the two hydrographsat Point 3.
9. Computethe hydrographfor Atea D at Point 4.
10. Combinethe two hydrographsat Point 4. ;
1L. Routethe combinedhydrographto Point 5.
12. Computethe hydrographfor AreaE at Point 5.
13. Combinethe two hydrographsat Point 5.
14. Routethe combinedhydrographto Point 6.
1.5. Computethe hydrographfor Atea H at Point 6.
16. Combine the two hydrographsat Point 6'
18. Computethe hydrographfor Area F at Point 7'
19. Combine the two hydrographsat Point 7. ,
20. Route the combineAhyJrographto Point 8.
21. Computethe hydrographfor Area G at Point 8'
22. Combinethe two hydrographsat Point 8.
Runoff hydrographsfor subareasare simulatedby convoluting the net
storm hyetographwith unit hydrographssynthesizedby Clark's method using
Snyder'i coiffiiients (seeChapter I2). A Co vabteof 0.8 is applied for Oak
Crlek becauseof the moderately high retention capacity of the watershed.
Subareatime lag valuesfor eachsubareaare found from Eq. (11.5) usinga C'
valueof 2.0.
Hydrographstreamrouting is performedusing the Muskingumtechnique
(chapter 13) with x : 0.15 andK: the approximatereachtraveltime, using
length dividedby the avefagevelocity. A Ch6zy averagevelocity determinedas
100 times the squareroot of the averagereachslopeis used.If K exceedsthree
routing increments, the reach is further subdividedby HEC-1 into shorter
lengthsto ensurecomputationalresolution.
A sampleof the input and output for this job is shownasTable24.3.Each
of the 22 computationalstepsare separatedin sequence.Only Steps 1-5 are
includedin the sample.Note that the HEC-1 lossrate function was not usedso
that the end-of-perlod excessand rain depths are equal. Note also that hy-
drographrouting of the A hydrographfrom Point 1 to Point 2 was facilitated
(AMSKK) of l.2hr.
using - three equal reachlengthseachwith a K-value
A summary of HEC- 1 peak and time-averaged flow ratesfor eachof steps
l-22 is given in Table 24.4. Note that the simulated peak at Point 3 is 27,539
cfs, which agrees very well with the recorded val:ueof 27,500' The correspond-
-ing simulatedand observedpeak flows at Point 8 arc 22,453and 21,600cfs,
respectively. Il - - - -- -' - -
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7 z. z. z. z. z. z z z z z. z. z. z. z z z. z. z z z z z z. z. z
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r
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= N N N N - o r i o o o 6 o d s + + s + + + + + o
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g K F R R R K R K K K R K RiI+AR N K K R R R R K R
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o
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g g a s a E gs s s $ s s s s g B d r d
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5 { R R R R R R R N R R R R R R R R R R R R T S T S R
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d et ci d et cj ci ci d cj ci d ct o ci ct d ci d d d d ct d ci
= =
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R F R R B E S S $ s A b B g B s s a g S t D E g
zz.
==
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z.z z. z. z z z z z z -z -z - z= z z. z. z z z z 1 1 = = Z. Z Z.
= = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ?
R R K R R R K K K R R K R K K R K K R K R K R R R
== -
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ci
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z z
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77 z. z z. z. z. z. z. z z. z z z. = 1 1 1 1 z z = z. z. z z z
== =========================
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F 3E xtRNx*tF*fiR*ttttstKRKKRRR
f
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E E R N R R t E S g $ E E h S g g E $ e $ 5 s $ s e B +
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? 7 z. z z z. z. z. z z z. z z. z. 1 1 1 1 1 1 = z z z z. z z t
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u
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2 Vivx 33 xssNN*sNtsF*tK*NFsNstN*tF
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= z. z. z. z. z. z. z. z. z. z. z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z.
< - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t - a a a a - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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d ct d ct ct et + di qt ri qt ct qt et ct - - <t F dt d d ci ct st qt - ci et ct ri ct ct d
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z < - - - - - - - - - - a - a a ? - - - - a a a - - 1 a a - - - - - -
1 =
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a A N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N = n a E
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x
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J
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+
24.3 STORMSURGEMODELING 625
TABLE24.4 RUNOFFSUMMARY PEAKANDAVERAGE

OF SIMULATED FLOWS
AT POINTS
1 THROUGH8 FORTHEJUNE,1963STORM
Peak 6-hr 24-hr 72-hl Area
Hydrographat I 34475. 24048. 69'74. 3382. 33.40

Routed to 2 25622. 20848. 6974. 3382. 33.40
Hydrographat 2 17310. 11207. 3100. 1503. 26.90
2 Combined 2 30092. 26453. 10074. 4885. 60.30
Routed to 3 26759. 2406r. 10070. 4885. 60.30
Hydrographat 3 15400. 10503. 2995. 1452. zt.3v
2 Combined 3 27539. 25828. 13056. 6337. 87.60
Routedto 4 25912. 2455r. 13052. 8409. 87.60
Hydrographat A
3362. 2382. 689. 441. 9.20
2 Combined A 25925. 24606. 13702. 8850. 96.80
Routed to 5 23911. 22858. 13523. 8875. 96.80
Hydrograph at 5 7 100. 5604. 1816. 1162. 28.30
2 Combined 5 239tt. 22874. 14717. 10038. r25.10
Routedto 6 23911. 22874. 14717. 10039. l25.to
Hydrograph at 6 3349. 2478. 7s0. 480. 28.00
2 Combined 6 23911. 22874. 15268. 10518. 153.10
Routedto 7 22949. 22024. t4984. 10482. 1 5 3r.0
Hydrographat 7 4113. 2764. I tJ, 495. 17.00
2 Combined 7 22949. 22924. t5t12. rc977. 170.10
Routed to 8 22453. 21595. 14994. 10908. 170.10
Hydrographat 8 1684. 868. 228. 146. ' 5.00
2 Combined 8 22453. 21595. 14995. 11054. 1 7 5l .0
24.3 STORMSURGEMODELING
Coastalareasnot only experiencefloodsfrom single-eventstormsbut alsofrom storm

surges(short-termchangesin sealevel) normally causedby hurricanes.Severalcom-
puter models are availableto analyZehurriCane-producedstorm surges.l2Most are
deterministic,modelingthe physicalprocesses of momentumtransferfrom the atmos-
phereto the ocean.Parametersin thesemodelscan be adjustedto allow analysisof
actual or hypothetical storms such as the probable maximum hurricane (PMH) or
standardprojecthurricane(SPH).
Federal agencies,private consultants,and universitieshave developedsurge
models.Severalnonproprietary,open-coastsurgemodelsare listed inTable 24.5.
User's manualsare availablefor all the modelslisted.
Storm surgemodels simulatethe effects of wind momentum on ocean water
masses.This involvesprinciplesfrom meteorology,oceanography, and wavehydrody-
namics,which-all operatefrom assumptionsabout storm, geometry, and water-level
conditions.Tide levelsare includedin mostof the modelsbecause damage from surges
often dependsentirely on concurrencewith the peak surgelevel.
The equationssolvedby the first three models in Table 24.5 are two-dimen-
sionalversionsof Eq. 13.51and the equatiotrof continuity,Eq. 13.40.The fourth
model disregardsthe continuity equation and solvesEq. 13.51 through a seriesof
626 24 SINGLE.EVENT
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMULATION
TABLE24.5 STORMSURGEMODELS
Differentialequation
Programname User/agencf Data input solutionmethod Applicablecoasts
SPLASH NWS Atmosphericpressures,radius to Finite-difference Mildly curved,

maximum wind, storm speed Gulf and East
coasts
SSURGE coE Atmosphericpressures,radius to Finite-difference All coasts
maximum wind, storm speed
FIA model FIA Atmosphericpressures,radius'to Finite-difference Gulf and Atlantic
maximum wind, storm speed, coasts
maximum wind speed,depth
of shelf
BATHYSTROPHIC CERC Wind field, pressuredifferences, Finite-difference All coasts
radius to maximum wind,
forward speed
,NWS, National WeatherService;COE, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers;FIA, FederalInsuranceAdministration;CERC, Coastal
Engineering ResearchCenter, Corps of Engrneers.
assumptions. The modelsarenot truly dynamicbecausethey treat time asa succession

of steadystates.Output is a file of water depthsat the end of eachtime stepusedin
the simulation. Storms that can be simulatedinclude the SPH, PMH, or any pre-
scribedwind field.
r summary
By far the largestnumberof hydrologicmodel applicationsinvolvesthe useof single-
eventsimulationmodels,whetherthe generalversionsdescribedin this chapteror the
urban runoff models about to be presentedin Chapter 25. Data requirementsfor
single-eventmodelsare nominal-far lessthan for continuousmodelingstudies.In
the majority of cases,the data required for any subareaare easily obtained from
readily availabletopographicand soils maps.Given the basin area,slope,soil types,
land use,and location,estimatesof peak flow ratesand shapesof runoff hydrographs
ar severallocationsin the watershedcan be obtainedfor given stormswithin a few
hours' time usingthesemodels.They continueto be the primary tool usedby practic-
ing engineersin analysisand designof stormwaterhandling facilities.
PROBLEMS
24.1. Six numberedsubareasfor a river basin are as shownin the sketch.Preparea sche-
matic diagramfor a modelstudyusingboxesas subbasinrunoff components'connect-
ing lines as channel routing links, circles as hydrograph combination nodes, and
trianglesas reservoirrouting nodes.Then describethe computationsequencefor this
basinin the samemannershownin Fig.24.1. (Seesketchon nextpage).
24.2. Synthesizea unit hydrographfor a watershedin your locale using the HYMO model
equations.Comparewith correspondingunit hydrographsfrom Snyder'smethodand
the SCSmethodin Chapter12.
)
PROBLEMS 627
t-r'\t-;
Sketch for Problem 24.1
24.3. Usethe HYMO modelequationsto synthesizea unit hydrographfor the entire 258 sq.
mi Oak Creekwatershedin Fig. 24.8.
24.4. A watershedexperiencesa l2-hr rainstormhaving a uniform intensity of 0.1 in./hr.
Using E : 0.7, Ko : 0.6, C : 3.0, and AK : 0.0, calculatethe hourly lossratesl,
asdeterminedby the HEC- 1 event-simulationmodel.Determinethe total andpercent
lossesfor the storm.
24.5. RepeatProblem 24.4 wing CUML1 : 0.5 in.
24,6. Routethe inflow hydrographin Pr-oblem13.7to the outlet of the 30-mi reachusingthe
HEC- 1 straddle-staggermethod by lagging averagedpairs of flows two time incre-
ments (12 hr). Comparethe routed and measuredoutflow rates.
24.7, Routethe inflow hydrographin Problem 13.7through the reachby dividing the 30-mi
reach into three subreaches and treat the outflow from eachas inflow to the next in
line. Lag flows one time increment in eachsubreachand comparethe f,nal outflows
with the measuredvalues.
24,8. Study Table 24.3 andFig.24.8, and then definethe following terms from Table24.3:
AMSKK,X, TAREA, NP, STORM, TP, CP, TC, R, RAIN, ANdEXCESS' COMP Q.
24.9, Search the HEC-I printout in Table 24.3 to determinevalues (give units) of the
following:
a. The time incrementusedin the model run.
b. Snyder'sCe,Eq. 12.17input for SubareaB.
c. The pbak flow rate for the synthesizedSubarea-Aunit hydrograph.
d. The total runoff (in.) from SubareaA.
e. The peak outflow rate from SubareaA.
f. The peak-to-peaktime lag in routing the outflow hydrographfrom Point 1 to Point
2,Fig.24.8.
g. The percent attenuationcausedby the reachbetweenPoints,l and 2.
h. The Subarea-Bpeak outflow rate if SubareaA is neglected.
i. The simulatedSubarea-Bpeak outflow rate.
628 CHAPTER24 SINGLE-EVENT SIMULATION MODELS
*Refer questions:
24.10. to the HEC-1 output in Tables24.3 and24.4to answerthe following
"PRECIPITATION PATTERN" actual rainfall depths' or
a. Are the valueslabeled
Points 1 and 2 of Oak Creek.

of Branched
24.11. Describehow, for a given storm,you wciulddeterminethe effectiveness
flooding at Point 8. Answer^by enumer-
"as24.8 to reduce
oak reservoirat Point 9 in Fig. "runs"
You are allowed a maximum of two
ating your computationlogic illustrated.
as you describeyour
wlttr ilBc- t, und uny nui-rb", of subareasmay be usedas long
subareas.
24.12.AhydrologistwishestomodelawatershedusingthesCScurvenumbermethodfo
through a reservoir
determinenet rain, and to route the watershedrunoff hydrograph
usingthestorage-indicationmethod.BaseflowistobeincorporatedaSaconstant
model or modelswould
valuethroughoutthe storm duration.Which event-simulation
accomPlishthe task?
a hydrographusing the
24.13. The following data were preparedfor a Yl card for routing
straddle-staggermethodof UgC-t' The time incrementis 1'0 hr'
Field Field Value
0 A 0.0
I 5 0.0
2 6 0.0
3 7 _ I
the straddle-stagger
Usethis information to route the following inflow hydrographby
is zero. continue routing until outflow is zero again'
method. The initial outflow
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ' 7 8

Inflow (cfs) 0 0 3 0 6 0 r20 9 0 3 0 0 0
REFERENCES
t.
2.
J.
4.
Chapter25
UrbanRunoffSirnulation
Models
r Prologue
. Describenine of the most commonly usedcomputerpackagesfor simulation

of urban rainfall-runoff processes'
. Show that the modelsdo more than simulaterunoff; they allow the user to
systems'
analyzeand designcompleteurban stormwatermanagement
. Demonstratethe'models;capabilitiesand precisionby comparingresultsob-
tainedwhensimulatingtheSamewatershedwithdifferentmodels.
. provide a ,,shopper'sgiid"" to commercialandpublic domainurban stormwa-
ter software.
of runoff and also
urbanization generallyhasthe effectof increasingthe volume
of runoff. Early attempts to apply the
tendsto result in earlier ani greaterpeak rates
analysis and design were success-
single-eventmodelsof Chapter24 inurban system
rainfall-runoff analogs' decreasing total
iutiy u""o*plished by seleciingmore intense
zones from the total pervious area'
rainfaUabstiactions6y deductingthe impervious
channels,andby
increasingthe speedoi traveloverthe land surfacesand in improved
kinematic wave approximations of
adding componentsto the codes to allow for
in storm sewers and urban stormwater
overla=nd flow and hydrologicrouting of flow
retention or detentionPonds.
urban watershed
Discrepanciesbetweenthesemodels'predictionsand observed
whole class of single-event and contin-
responsehaveresulteJin the dwelopmentof a
processes operating in systems'
uous streamflow models of the oniq.t" -urbanized
process, but also allow the userto
Thesemodelsnot only simulatethe raintitt-runoff
stormwater management facilities or to
analyzeanexistingnetwork of interconnected
(underground storm sewers, detention ponds,
designnew componentsof the system
ditches.streetinlet sizesand locations,etc')'
! = X ^ a cloq n qq iq\oqv'l
U EY 8 : G l
-
O h s t F L - q ' l
<f, \n ca C..l t'-
ts
> E(! o - - \O C.t ca +
o =^ ' ral c.l O 0O<.\r)\Ocn
z
E
E - ^ d . ? ) O N c n
E E)N h O O e { -
* i
: = 5
z
o
> 5 = ^ ^ a.th o e{r) o\$cicio.
S E X s EoN dhd
1.O -
cd
\O
cJJ
+:+
r.ai-jio
cn6.aa{$
@
J
o
c)
o
o C ;O 6- \r) ol 3 00 a.l \o r) c'{ \o e^l
f - v
z
E
o
= t ^ ho o\ or) cqNcqol$
5 =' e
z
o o o o l )
H"o o
a o
tuq
:
R.9
9 { X
d 8E E==tr=
.999 .9
X X X ; i X
iBegs
r r A r ) n f ) n
-9 H Y -
Â r\
Y m- 5 Y F l
; m FA m
v H v
J
F n n cl o?n \qqqq
a Q
v -
6' O\* oo *
O i
F-it-oj*f
i n C { *
ul
T QE(u
F v o -
. = - Y
oo h t-- l-- O\
- b R o
IL
a
oi5- Eo ci t'-
s 5s HSRHX cn
-
.=^ q \ Y - v l Y - Y - -
>v \r m s * O O i O \ F - * i
o v - co o1 N ne{ cnr)'am\o
r!(E
R(U 6 q n
\ori ot--F-m\o
F Eo Vcn cn
v 6\O
i
OCIOl S
re.lcnt N
ca
o t,rJ
a
G F-O
-tr9 E o \o
[ l h
-7aaE + +
* n O
N6
hr
N<.r e..l\o
6lF-0Oe.l
(u d 61 6l C.) cn O 0O cq .o
r
tr !.! i i n
ulr
Fa1
.t)
S Z
s< a
clt) ';^ o
o|
IT d]
tr
V)
638 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
* 6 1.2
,
! A / : n R
),^ jlo
R / I ,t
o 9a . .U / 2
a a a o
a )- nd a
^ a
8 . / 3
t , ' Q t3 U .s&.'
U 'f1 4 9 .
a 7
{o4
t.2
2 4
peaks(cfs)
Observed
(a)
a 1.5
E
;p0
O r n
^0.12
r L ^ r / t \ A
Y o.os
'F 0.04
z 3 4 s 6 7 8 e 10 11
;
ttT,*'
Island'N9wYork'
Figure 25.3 RRL resultsfor WoodoakDrive basin'Long (After
and(c)thehydrographs'
stormof October19,1966r(a)peaks,(b)volumes,
Stall andTerstrieP.e)
ofthese
surfaces,gutters,pipes,and openchannels'Physicalunderstanding
present understanding of the many
flow phen-omena ii muctrgreaier than the
complexphenomenagov"erningrunofffromruralareassuchasantecedent
"infiltratilon,
moisture conditions, soil moisture movement, transpiration,
evaporation,and so forth.
provide a function for
5. A modification of the RRL method that would
grasSedareacontributionstorunoffcouldbedevelopedintoavaluable
possiblein spiteof the
iesign tdol for urban drainage.This is believedto be
flexibility could be by the
*unly "o*plexities involvei. Further ôffered
runoff through surface storage'
addiiional irovision for routing surface
on an urban basin
6. The input data r"qoir"m"nt' foi o'" of the RRL methods
of a basin for storm drainage
are reasonablefor the engineeringevaluation
complex or_elaborate than the data
design.The necessarydaia are no more
;;dlly compiled foi a traditional storm drainage design'
25.1 URBANSTORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 639
l.)
a 3 1
a
a
E zoo t
a
a 3!
h 1.0
o a 1
a
a
z oo" i.'
a a t 2
E a ,
$ roo
/ ot< + a
1l
o
'J
- ;'i^':ls
U ,,,' ,9riir.t,'ol
a
a
'
1a
"
8 Q
r-'f;3:'r
,"ni
100 200 300 0.5 1.0 1.5
Observed peaks (cfs) Observedrunoff (in.)
(a) (b)
150
o
bo
k 100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hr)
(c)
Figure25.4 RRLresultsfor EchoParkAvenue basin,LosAngeles,

California,
stormofApril 18,1965:(a)peaks,(b) volumes,
(c)thehydrogriphs.
(AfterStall
andTerstriep.e)
7. It appearsthat rainfall occursin greateramountsin the United Statesthan

in Great Britain. This may accountfor the fact that the RRL method is
successfuland widely used in Great Britain and yet suffers the above-
describedbreakdownsfor someof the basinsstudiedin the united States.
8. Better urban rainfall and runoff data are required for the proper testingof
all mathematicalmodels.Researchbasinsthat do not havehydraulic piob-
lems,suchasundersizeddrainsor inadequateinlets, shouldbe selectedand
instrumented.
lllinois UrbanDrainageArea Simulator,ILLUDAS

As mentioned, the RRL method only simulatesrunoff from paved areas of the
basin that are directly connectedto the storm drainagesystem.Grassedareasand
nonconnectedpavedareasare excludedfrom consideration.The ILLUDAS10model
640 CHAPTER 25 URBAN RUNOFF SIMULATION MODELS
but also
incorporaiesthe direct$ connectedpavedareatechniqueofthe RRL method
grassedand nolconnected paved areas'
,""oggrir", and incorporatesrunoff from ,
Computationof grassedareahydrogriphsfor the subbasins.is very similar to the
usedto
approachfbr pavedar-eahydrographs.Figuie 25.5 showsthe samesubbasin
shaded area is the contributing grassed
illustrate pavedarearunofi inFig. ZS.Z.ihe
area,which is largely the front yards ofresidences.Rain falling on any not-directly-
grassed
connectedpavedarea is assumedto run off instantly onto the surrounding
from back and side yards often
area,and grassedareahydrologytakes over. Runoff
then laterally to the nearest street'The
drainsgraluaily to a commonbick lot line and
such grassed areas from consideration
traveltime requiredfor this virtually eliminates
duringre1ative$shortintenseStormSnorma1lyusedfordrainagedesign.
can
After the contributinggrassedareahasbeenidentified,the curvein Fig' 25'5
grass strips are equivalent to the time of
be constructed.Travel times acrossthe
equilibrium from Izzatd's equation,2
t": 0.033KLq"o'67 (2s.r)
of4,, that is,
which is the time when the overlandflow dischragereaches97 percent
()\ )\
4" : 0.00002311L
(cfs/ft of width) at equilibrium
-i = dischargeof overlandflow
where 4,
: raii supplyrate (in./hr), assumedto be 1'0 in ILLUDAS
L : length of overlandflow (ft)
6:(0.00071 *c)S-o33 (2s.3)
and
where S : surfaceslope (ftlft)
c : coefficienthaving a value of 0.046 for bluegrassturf'
illustrated in
The time-area curve is assumedto be a straightline. The endpoint,as
Fig. 25.5representsthe traveltime from the farthestpoint on the contributinggrassed
atea,
varied'
In ILLUDAS, depressionstorageis normally set at 0.20 in. but can be
Infiltration is modeledusing Holtan's equation,lr
(2s.4)
f:a(s-F)'o+f"
where ,f : infiltration rate at time / (in'/hr)
a : avegetativefactor : 1'0 for bluegrassturf
S : storige availablein the soil mantle(in.) (storageat the soil porosity
minus storageat the wilting point)
F ; water alreaJy storedin the soil at time /, in excessof the wilting
point(in.)(amountaccumulatedfrominfiltrationpriortotimet)
s_F:Storagespaceremaininginthesoilmantleattime'(in')
(in./hr), generallyequivalentto the
f" : finallonstant infiltration rate
saturatedhydraulic conductivity (in./hr) of the tightesthorizon
Presentin the soil Profile
to computean
If physicalpropertiesof the soil are known, the equationcan be_used
general interrelation between the various
innttiation curve. Figure 25.6 showsthe
infiftratisn rates-andstoragefactorsinvolved'
25j URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 641
(a) Subbasln map (contributing (c) Rainfall
grassedarea shaded)
(d) Runoff from supplemental paved area
(e) Losses
o
(b) Time versus grassed area curve
n
92
cAoce't (f) Grassed area supply mte
a
GA:
al
GAz
GA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Travel time to inlet (min)
3 4 s 6 7 8 9 1 0
Time (min)
(g) Hydrograph
,?
Qr= GAt (GASRT)
Qz= GAz(GASR1) + GAI(GASRI)
o
u Qz= GAz(GASRI) + GA2(GASR)+ GA1(GASR3)
F Qn=GAn(GASnr) + "'+ GA1(GASR,)
I
0 2 4 6 8 10121416
Time from start of rainfall (min)
hydrographs.(After Terstriepand
Figure 25.5 Elementsin the developmentof grassed-area
Stall.lo)
Infiltrat lon curve
ial
foinilial
infiltration
rate S = Area cross-hatchedbelow
curve equals total storage
in soil (in.)
!.1
E
\%
s-r'
Available
smragem
soil (in.)
Final, constant -;
"
infiltration rate
o Time(hr)
Figure 25.6 Diagram of inflltration^relations used in ILLUDAS,
Eq. 25.4. (After Terstriepand Stall.'u)
_
TabIe 25.4 provides an example computation of an infiltration curve for blue-
grass on a silt loam soil in which soil moisture S of 6.95 in. is available. The equation is
r r 55 )
f:r(6.9s-F)t++0.50
Standardinfiltration curveshavebeen devisedfor use in ILLUDAS for soils having
SCS hydrologicgroupsA, B, C, and D (Chapter4). Thesecurveswere synthesized
OFINFILTRATION
TABLE25,4 COMPUTATION FORSILTLOAM
CURVE
Available Water lnfiltrationrate Time
srorage, stored,
s-F A F F t 'avg Lt' t
(in.) (in.) (in.) (S- D'+ (in./hr) (in./hr) (hr) (h0
6.95 0 15.0 15.5 0

6.00 0.9s 0.95 12.3 12.8 t+.1 0.07 0.07
5.0 "1.0 1.95 9.5 10.0 I 1.4 0.09 0.16
4.0 1.0 2.95 7.0 7.5 8.7 0.11 0.27
3.0 1.0 3.95 4.65 5 .l 5 6.3 0.16 0.43
2.0 1.0 4.95 2.64 3.r4 A 1 0.24 0.67
1.0 1.0 5.95 1.0 1.50 2.3 0.43 1.10
0 1.0 6.95 0 0.50 o.'l r.43 2.53
"Incremental rime, Lt : A'F/f*".

Source: Tersftiep and Stall.ro
SYSTEMMODELS 643
25.1 URBANSTORMWATER
from the Horton equation

f: f"+ (fo- f,)e-k,
(2s.6)
where /o : initial infiltration rate (in'lhr)
,f" : ultimate infiltration rate
e: baseof natural logarithms
k : a shapefactor selectedas k : 2
/ : time from start of rainfall
This equationis solvedin ILLUDAS by the Newton-Raphsontechnique.The curves
are showninFig.25.7.
To accountfor wet versus dry conditions, II-LUDAS divides the antecedent
moisturecondition (AMC) into four user-selectedranges'shownin Table 25'5'Each
is based on the total 5-day precipitation prior to the storm day. Infiltration from
F;q.25.6 is varied, dependingon the AMC value specified'
ILLUDAS allows the user to operatein two modes,analysisand design.For
designmode,the modelgenerateshydrographsandprovidesnominal stormsewerpipe
diameters thatare adequate,without surcharge,to passthe peak flows. In analysis
mode,the modelg"n".ul"t hydrographsthroughoutthe basinnodesandlinks andthen
alerts the user if iny input pipe diametersare too small' It also sumsthe volume of
runoff water backed up ai inlets becauseit could not be accommodatedby the
undersizedstorm sewers.
Time(hr)
Figure 25.7 Standardinfiltration curvesfor bluegrassturf on
four SCS soil types used in ILLUDAS. (After Terstriep and
Stall.lo)
644 MODELS
25 URBANRUNOFFSIMULATION
CHAPTER
CONDITIONS
MOISTURE
TABLE25.F ANTECEDENT
LAWNS
FORBLUEGRASS
Total rainfallduring
AMC 5 days precedingstorm
number Description (in.)
I Bone dry 0
2 Rather dry 0-0.s
J Rather wet 0 . 5 -I
A
Saturated Over1
Source: Terstriep and Stall. lo
The ILLUDAS model requires estimationof severalinput parameters.Other

studies12'13,14
evaluatedthe sensitivityof ILLUDAS to variationsin parameters.The
study in Ref. 13 concludes:
L. The sensitivityof the peak flows to changesin AMC increasesas the soil
group changesfrom D to A.
2. The rangesof sensitivityto the soil groupsand AMC are approximatelythe
3. XT;;rr" in the AMC from2to 3 and a changein the soil group from B to
C are critical for large designreturn periods, and from C to D for small
designreturn periods.
4. The ti'me to peak for various combinationsof soil group and AMC, for
different return periods,remainsthe same.
5. The peak flow and runoff volume increaseas the AMC changesfrom 1 to
4. This increaseis particularly important betweenAMC 2 and 3 in general
and betweenAMC 3 and 4 for soil group A. The peak flow and the runoff
volumeincreaseas the soil group changesfrom A to D for constantAMC.
This increaseis particularly important between soil groups B and C in
generaland soil groupsC and D for AMC 1.
6. The peak flows decreasemarkedly for time inerementslarger than 5 min,
and the pipe diametersdecreasesignificantly for time incrementslarger
than 10 min.
7. The time increment should not substantiallyexceedthe paved area inlet
time.
Storage,Treatment,Ovefflow Runoff Model (STORM)

STORM is the Corps of Engineerscontinuoussimulationmodel of the quantity and
quality of urban Stormwater resulting from single eventsor continuousdaily rain-
fall.ls It also simulatesdry weatherflow from domestic,commercial, or industrial
discharges.Wet weather hydrographs,simulated from intermittent or continuous
hourly rainfall, can be used for a variety of hydrologicstudy purposes.
Wet weatherpollutographs(hydrographsthat alsoprovidewaterquality charac-
teristics) can be predicted for individual historical or synthetic eventsand used in
assessments of impactsof runoff on receiving streams.The pollutographsconsistof
hourly runoff rates,amountsof pollutants,and pollutant concentrations.
SYSTEMMODELS 645
25.1 URBANSTORMWATER
RainfalVsnowmelt
Treatment
Figure25.8ConceptualviewofurbansystemasusedinSTORM.(AfterU'S.Army
CorPsof Engineers'")
by the degree-
The model is conceptualizedin Fig. 25.8. Snowmeltis simulated
inlormation is output to aid in the selectionof
day method (Chapter 14). Statistical
desiredcontrol of storm
sbrage "upu"iti., und treatment rates required to achieve
annualerosion' aver-
*ut". rurr&f. Statistics,suchas averageannualrunoff, avefage
and average annual pollutant overflowfrom
ageannualoverflowvolumefrom storige,
storage,are all Provided' (to signal
The model simulatesthe interactionof precipitation,air temperature
erosion, dry weather flow'
snowfall), runoff, pollutant accumulation,land Jurface
or treatment system'The
storage,treatmentiates, and overflowsfrom the storage
prograncomputescontinuousorsingle-.event.runofffromrainfall'
rainfall and depres-
nunotf is computedas a fractio-nof the differencebetween
depends on land use. Runoff in excessof the
,ion ,torug". The fiaction selected
treatment'Runoff
speciteOiTeatmentcapacityis divertedinto storagefor subsequent
becomesoverflow and is
in excessof both the treatment rate and stofagecapacity
diverted directly into the receiving waters'
SCSTechnicalReleaseNo. 55 GR'55)
The SCS TR-55 Proceduresfor an
urbanizedareaswere describedin
theseProceduresrecommendsmat
Procedures,severalvendorshave1
them avai{ablethrough a numberof outlets.A public domainversionis availablefrom

the U.S. National TechnicalInformation Service.l6
Usersof the vendor-developed renditionsof TR-55 should-performinitial stud-
ies usinghand-checksto verify the code.An ideal TR-55 program would be one that
usesSCS sourcecode or has SCS endorsement,statesall assumptionsused,notifies
the user of range violations, and incorporatesoptions for making adjustmentsto
accountfor all or most of the following:
1. Changesin the 484 coefficient of Eq. 12.22 for steep, avefage,or flat
watersheds.
2. Per centimperviousness.
3. Percentof channelthat is improved.
4. Pondingarea.
5. Subarealength over width ratios that fall outsidethe assumedrange.
6. Slope.
7. Antecedentmoisture conditions'
8. Different storm distributions'
9. Proper lag time equation.
10. Recognitionof the SCS recommendationthat the duration for the derived
unit hydrographbe about 13 percentof the subareatime of concentration'
11. Allowance for watershedsthat have initial abstractions,1,, greater than
20 percentof the potential maximum retention, S.
Whether by manual or computer operations,the SCS cautions that TR-55

hydrograph methods should not be used to perform final design if an error of
ZS peicettt,inpredictedvolumecannotbe tolerated.Their adviceis to useTR-20, after
-aking appropriateparameteradjustments,if the urban wathershedis very complex
or if a higher degreeof accuracyis required.lTOther precautionsregardingthe useof
the graphical and tabular methodsare identified in Section 15.2'
SCS Urban Time Relationships The relationshipsamong time parametersin

SCShydrologicmethodshavenot beencompletelyreconciledwith observedphenom-
ena or time relationshipsin other modelsof urban rainfall-runoff processes.Several
formulations for lag time, with miscellaneousadjustmentsfor urban effects, are
mentioned in Section ll.7 and elsewherein SCS literature, and have substantial
impact on the shape of the hydrographs.The rational formula (Chapter 15), to
illustrate, assumesthat the time of concentration,deflnedas the time for rain falling
at the most remote location to reachthe outlet, equalsthe time to peak of the urban
hydrograph.lzzwd found this to hold approximatelytrue in observingrunoff hydro-
graphsfrom pavedareas.2
The greatestdiscrepancyfound when comparing SCS and known urban time
relationshipsis the prolongedtime basethat resultswhen SCSunit hydrographmeth-
odsin Chapter 12 areapplied.The hydrographshapeis basedon observedrunoff from
undeveloped,rural watersheds,As shownin Fig. 12.13,the time basefor the dimen-
sionlessunit hydrographis about 5.0 times the time to peak. It was shownin Chap-
ter I}thatlinear superpositionof unit hydrographsrequiresthat the releasetime must
equal the time baseof the IUH, which in turn is the time of concentration,/"' Recall
25j URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 647
TABLE 25.6 * COMPARISONOF TIME RELATIONSHIPSFOR A D-HR UNIT

HYDROGRAPHBY SCS AND URBAN RUNOFFMETHODS
Rational/lzzardllUHModels of Urban Runoff UnitHydrograph

SCSDimensionless
Given:
D: t" D : O.2 X time to peak
Time to peak: t, Time to peak : Iag time + D/2
Releasetime : tc Lag time : 0.6 t" (Mockus Equation)
Time base = 5.0 X time to peak
Solving:
D:t" D : 0.133 t"
Time to peak = t Time of peak : 0.666 r.
Releasetime : tc Time base: 3.33 t,
Timebase:D+t,:2t, Releasetime : Time base - D : 3.20 t,
that the excess-rainfallreleasetime, t,, was definedin Chapter 11 as the time from
end of excessrain to end of direct runoff. As shownin the Table 25.6, time relation-
shipsfor the SCS dimensionlessunit hydrographof Fig. 12.13 giveprolongedrunoff
durationscomparedto other urban runoff models.Only the time to peak is approxi-
mately equivalentin this comparison.Urban runoff modelsbasedon SCSdimdnsion-
less unit Mrograph proceduresmay result in longer time basesand hydrograph
recessionsthan other methods.
USGSDistributedRoutingRainfall-RunoffModel(DR3M)
The U.S. GeologicalSurvey simulationmodel for urban rainfall-runoff applications
originatedin tgZg as a lumped parametersingle-eventtnodel for small watersheds
(deicribed in Chapter 24) and subsequentlywas expandedto distributedparameter
status,intendedprimarily for urban applicability.lsAlso, a soil moistureroutine was
addedallowing quasicontinuoussimulation.
The modelian be appliedto watershedsfrom a few acresto severalsquaremiles
in size (an upper limit ol10 mi2 is recommended).It doesnot simulatesubsurfaceor
interflow coniributionsto streamflow,and thesemust be externally addedif consid-
ered imPortant to the simulation.
Routing of rainfall to channelsis by unsteadyoverland flow hydraulics,and
routing hydrographsthrough channel reachesis accomplishedby kinematic-wave
methods(."t"ito Ctrupter13). The differential routing equationsare solvedby one of
three optional numericalmethods.The usermay specify an explicit or implicit finite-
differencealgorithm, or the method of characteristics'
Time may be discretizedby the user in as small as l-min increments.The
smallesttime increment is used by the program during any dayshaving short-time
interval rainfall, calledunit days. Otherdaysare simulatedas24-hr intervals.Move-
ment of surfacewater is simulatedonly during unit days.For the rain-free intervals,
daily rainfall is input and usedto modify the soil moisturebalanceleadinginto the
nextunit day(s).The formatforrain datais compatiblewith that of the U.S. Geological
Survey systlm, WATSTORE(Water Data Storageand Retrieval System).Input data
can also be obtainedfrom any local National WeatherServiceoffice.
practically any basincanbe studiedby breakingit into severalsetsof four types
of model ,"g*"ntr. Theseinclude overland flow segments(must be approximately
648 CHAPTER25 URBANRUNOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
Legend:
Overland flow boundary

Stream channel
oF1 Overland flow segment I
R-ESIReservoir1
CH1 Channel1
Segment Lateral inflow Upstream inflow
oF1 Rahfall.excess
oF2 Rainfall excess
cHl oF1, OFz
RES cH1
oF3 Rainfall excess
oF4 Rainfall excess
CHz oF3, OF4 RESl
Watemhed outlet
for DR3M'
of watershed
Figure25.9 Segmentation
rectangular),detentionstoragefacilities, channels,and nodes.This is illustrated in

fig.2i.9. Eachsegmentin the flgure may haveinflow from either lateral or upstream
sources(or both, as occurs for segmentCHz).
Rainfall is uniformly distributedover the overlandflow rectangles'Each has a
given length, slope,roughness,and percentimperviousness. Laminar flow is assumed
Ioo".or&.rtheiesegrnents.Thevalues of bandmforEqs. 13.28and13'56arefound
fromm: 3 and
' 88So (t\ 1\
- : K-
n u
where56is the slope,r: is the kinematic viscosityof water, equalto 0.0000141ftlsec

(for 50"i water), and K is a coefficientrelating the Reynold's numberN. to Darcy's
frictionfactorfbyK: fN,.FlowoverroughsurfacesislaminarifK)24.Thevalue
K is related to rainfall intensity by
K: Ko+ 101 (25.8)
where K6 is fouhd from Table 25.7, andl is the rainfall intensity (in./hr).
Channelsin Fig. 25.9 representeither natural or artificial gutters or storm
sewers(either op"n .hunntls oi nonpressurepipes are allowed). Inflow to channels
comesfrom otherchannels,overlandflow (aslateral inflow), or nodes.Nodesare used
whenmore than three Segments contributeto a channelor reservoi-r,or whenthe user
wishesto specify an input or baseflow hydrograph.
Channel routing is by kinematic-wavetechniques,describedin Section 13'3'
Input is the channei length, slope, and routing parametersb and m. These arc
)
25.1 URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 649
TABLE 25.7 ROUGHNESSCOEFFICIENTS
FOR
OVERLANDAND CHANNELSEGMENTS
Laminarflow Turbulentflow
Sudacetype Ko Manning'sn
Concreteasphalt 24-r08 0.01-0.013

Bare sand 30-120 0.01-0.016
Graveledsurface 90-400 0.012-0.03
Bare clay-loam soil (eroded) 100-500 0.012-0.033
Spatsevegetation 1,000-4,000 0.053-0.13
Short grassprairie 3,000-10,000 0.10-0.20
Bluegrasssod 7,000-40,000 0.17-0.48
Source: Alley and Smith.r8
developedfrom the Manning equation and slope of the channel,respectively.The

equationsare m : 1.67 and
, l.4gsto/z
D : - (25.e)
n
where ruis obtainedfrom Table 25.7 or similar information. The model adjustsboth
b and m for various shapes,including circular and triangular (seeTable 13.1 for
severalru values).If overbankflow is possible,a secondsetof b andmparameterscan
be input for all flows in excessof the channelcapacity.
Reservoirinflow hydrographsare routed by either of two storagerouting meth-
ods. If a linear reservoir model is appropriate,the storagecoefflcient K, relating
outflow to storageby O : KS,is input. If the modifiedPuls methodis desired,a table
of outflows and correspondingstoragelevels must be input. The model assumesan
initial reservoirlevel equal to that correspondingto an outflow of 0.0 cfs.
Pondingbehind culverts can be modeledas a reservoir if an S-O relation is
input. This should include data points correspondingto roadway overflow to allow
simulation of this common phenomenon.
Excessrainfall (runoff) from perviousareasis developedfrom the precipitation
input, minus severalabstractions.Infiltration is simulatedby
r:r(' .{of) (2s.10)
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, P is the averagesuction head acrossthe

capillary zone, andmo andm are the soil moisturecontentsbeforeand after wetting.
The term SMS i$the soil moisture storase.The rate of excessrain is found from
r : ir1<s Qs.rr)
*
and , : r - ti f 1 > , s (2s.1,2)
where1 is the rate of rain suppliedto infiltration.

Runoff from impervious areasdependson whetherthe areasare directly con-

nected to the drainagesystem.Those not directly connectedare assumedto flow
immediatelyonto perviousareas,wherethey are addedaslateral inflow. One third of
the rain on direcdy connectedareasis abstracted,and the rest is lateral inflow to the
gutter or channel.
Soil moisture is accountedfor in a two-layer hypothetical storagezone. The
amount in storageaffects the infiltration rate and allows continuoussoil moisture
accountingbetweenrain events.During unit days(dayswith short-durationrain input)
all infiltraied moisturefrom Eq. 25.10 is addbdto the upper storagezone. Between
unit days, a user-specifiedproportion of the daily rain is added to SMS. During
rainlessdays,evapotranspirationoccursfrom SMS, usinginput pan evaporationrates
multiplied by a coefficient.ttris processcontinuesuntil the next rhin event,at which
time infiltration is governedby the amount of soil moisture;
Applications of On:U havebeen documentedacrossthe continentalU.S. and
in Alaska and Hawaii.leCalibration of computedand measuredrunoff for almost
400 storms over 37 watershedsreveal a median error in peak flow estimatesand
volume of 21 and 24 percent,respectively,with the best results obtainedfor highly
imperviouswatershedi.Indicationsfrom verificationstudiesto datearethat the model
may overestimatethe peak flow ratesfor simulatedfloodsfrom stormshavingmagni-
tudesin the designrangeof flood control facilities, and give better resultsfor smaller
stormstypically used in runoff quality studies.
FHWAStorm SewerDesignModel (HYDRA)

As part of a packageof integrateddesigncomputerprogramscalledHYDRAIN,2othe
U.S. Federal Highway Administration developedthe HYDRA storm drain design
model for useby federaland other engineers.The model is distributedundercontract
with the FHWA through Milrans SoftwareCenterat the Civil EngineeringDepart-
ment of the Universityof Florida at Gainesville.HYDRA hasbeenlinked by commer-
cial vendorsto an integratedCAD/GIS system.The program'sprimary useis analyz-
ing adequacyof existing storm drains or designingnew storm drains and inlets by
the rational merhod dJscribedin Chapter 15 or by a modified rational method
which representsthe hydrographas a Eapezoidhaving a volume equal to the calcu-
lated net rain.
Cornmercialversionsof HYDRA allow designby the modifiedrational method,
SCS methods,or revised Santa Barbara hydrographmethods.2lHYDRA has one
advantageover other storm sewerdesignmodelsin that hydraulic gradelines through
the systerncan be checkedby hydraulic backwatercomputationsto determinetotal
systemlossesandwhetherinlets,manholes,or junction boxesare surcharged.Another
usefulfeatureis'that streetand gutter flowsthat exceedthe inlet capacityofthe storm
sewersare routed by HYDRA to the next downstreamlocation and added to the
hYdrograPhat that Point'
Storm Water ManagementModel (SWMM)

A very widely acceptedand appliedstormrunoff simulationmodel wasjointly devel-
oped by Meicalf und Eddy, Inc., the University of Florida, and Water Resources
Engineers22for useby the U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency (EPA). This model
25.1 URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEM MODELS 651
is designei to simulatethe runoff of a drainagebasin for any predescribedrainfall

pattern. The total watershedis broken into.a finite number of smaller units or sub-
catchmentsthat can readily be describedby their hydraulic or geometricproperties.
A flowchart for the processis shownin Fig. 25.10.
The SWMM model hasthe capability of determining,for short-durationstorms
of given intensity,the locationsand magnitudesof local floodsaswell asthe quantity
and quality of storm water runoff at severallocationsboth in the systemand in the
receiving waters. The original SWMM was an event-simulationmodel, and later
versionsitkeep track of long-term water budgets.
The fine detail in the designon the model allows the simulation of both water
quantity and quality aspectsassociatedwith urban runoff and combinedsewersys-
tems.Only the water quantity aspectsare describedhere.Information obtainedfrom
SWMM would be usedto designstorm sewersystemsfor storm waterrunoff control,
Use of the model is limited to relatively small urban watershedsin regions where
seasonaldifferencesin the quality aspectsof water are adequatelydocumented.
Subcatchments
Gutterflow
F 1. Overlandinput
2. Gutterinput
3. Flow (Manning's)
4. Depth(continuity)
Figure 25.10 Flowchart for SWMM Runoff Block hydrographiccompu-

-tation.({fter Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.22)
652 CHAPTER25 URBAN RUNiOFFSIMULATIONMODELS
fhe simulation is facilitated by five main subroutineblocks. Each block has a

specificfunction, and the resultsof eachblock are enteredonlworkingstoragedevices
to be usedas part of the input to other blocks.
The main calling programof the modelis calledthe ExecutiveBlock. This block
is the first and last to be usedand performs all the necessaryinterfacingamongthe
other blocks.
The Runoff Block usesManning's equationto route the uniform rainfall inten-
sity over the overlandflow surfaces,through the small guttersand pipesof the sewer
systeminto the main sewerpipes,and out of the sewerpipesinto the receivingstreams.
This block also providestime-dependentpollutional graphs(pollutographs).
A third packageof subroutines,the TransportBlock, determinesthe quality and
quantity of dry weather flow, calculatesthe systeminfiltration, and calculatesthe
water quality of the flows in the system.
A usefulpackageof subroutinesfor water quality determinationis containedin
the StorageBlock. The StorageBlock allows the user to specify or have the model
selectsizesof severaltreatmentprocessesin an optional wastewatertreatmentfacility
that receivesa user-selected percentageof the peak flow. If used,this block simulates
the changesin the hydrographsand pollutographsof the sewageas the sewagepasses
through the selectedsequenceof unit processes.
The earlier version22allowed simulationof any reservoirfor which the outflow
could be approximatedaseither a weir or orifice, or if the waterwaspumpedfrom the
reservoir. The newer,version23allows input of 11 points of any storage-outflow
relation and routes hydrographsthrough natural or artiflcial reservoirs,including
backwaterareas behind culverts. Routing is by the modified Puls method, which
assumesthat the reservoiris small enoughthat the water surfaceis alwayslevel.
Evaporationfrom reservoirsis simulatedby a monthly coefficient(suppliedby
the user) multiplied by the surfacearea.
The Extran Block2acompletesthe hydraulic calculationsfor overlandflows, in
channels,and in pipes and culverts.It solvesthe completehydrodynamicequations,
assesses surcharging,performsdynarnicrouting, and providesall the depth,velocity,
and energygradeline information requested.
Subcatchmentareas,slopes,widths, and linkagesmustbe specifiedby the user.
Manning's roughnesscoefficientscan be suppliedfor perviousand imperviousparts
of eachsubcatchment.
As indicated in Table 24.1, SWMM is the only event-simulationmodel listed
that usesHorton's equationfor calculatingwatershedinfiltration losses.If parameters
for Horton's equationareunavailable,the usercan specifyASCE standardinfiltration
capacitycurves.Infiltration amountsthusdeterminedfor eachtime stepare compared
with instantanEousamountsof water existingon the subcatchmentsurfaceplus any
rainfall that occurredduring the time step,and if the infiltration lossis larger,it is set
equalto the amountavailable.Input for Horton's equationconsistsof the maximal and
minimal infiltration ratesand the recessionconstantk in Eq. 4.1. The Green-Ampt
equationis also usedin SWMM.
Urban storm drainagecomponentsare modeledusing,Manning'sequationand
the continuity equation.The hydraulic radius of the trapezoidalguttersand circular
pipesis calculatedfrom componentdimensionsand flow depths.A pipe surchargesif
25j URBAN
STORMWATER MODELS 653
SYSTEM
it is full;provided that the inflow is greaterthan the outflow capacity.In this case,the
surchargedamountwill be computedand storedin the Runoff and TransportBlocks
at the head end of the pipe. The pipe will remain full until the stored water is
completelydrained.Alternatively,the Extran Block canbe usedto conducta dynamic
simulation of the systemunder pressure-flowconditions.
Necessaryinputs in the model are the surfacearea, width of subcatchment,
ground slope,Manning's roughnesscoefficient,infiltration rate, and detentiondepth.
Channel descriptionsare the length, Manning's roughnesscoefficient,invert slope,
diameter for pipes, or cross-sectionaldimensions.General data requirementsare
summarizedin Table25.8. A step-by-stepprocessaccountsfor all inflow, infiltration
losses,and flow from upstreamsubcatchmentareas,providing a calculateddischarge
hydrographat the drainagebasin outlet. The following descriptionof the simulation
processincorporatedin early versionsof SWMM will aid in understandingthe logic
of the model.2s
to the specifiedhyetograph:
1. Rainfall is addedto the subcatchment'according
Dt: D,+ &Lt (25.1,3)
where D, : the water depth after rainfall
D, = the water depth of the subcatchmentat time /
R, : the intensity of rainfall in time interval At
2. Infiltration 1, is computed by Horton's exponential function, I, =
*
f" + (fo f")e-o', and subtractedfrom the water depth existing on the
subcatchment
Dz: D, - I, A,t (2s.r4)
where f",fr, k : coefficientsin Horton's equation(Eq. 4.1)
Dt: the intermediate water depth after accounting for
infiltration
TABLE 25.8 GENERALDATA REQUIREMENTSFOR STORMWATER

MANAGEMENTMODEL (SWMM)
Item 7. Define the StudyArea. Land use, topography,population distribution, censustract data,
aerial photos,and area boundaries.
Item 2. Define the System.Plans of the collection systemto definebranching,sizes,and slopes;
types and generallocationsof inlet structures.
Item3. Define the SystemSpecialties.Flow diversions,regulators,and storagebasins.
Item 4. Define the SystemMaintenance.Street sweeping(descriptionand frequency),catchbasin
cleaning;ffouble spots (flooding).
Item 5. Define the BaseFIow (DWF). Measureddirectly or through seweragefacility operatingdata;
hourly variation and weekdayversusweekend;the DWF characteristics(compositedBOD
and SS results);industrial flows (locations,averagequantities,and quality).
Item 6. Define the Storm Flow. Duly rainfall totals over an extendedperiod (6 months or longer)
encompassingthe study events;continuousrainfall hyetographs,continuousrunoff
hydrographs,and combinedflow quality measurements(BOD and SS) for the study
events;discreteor compositedsamplesas available(describefully when and how taken).
3. If the resultingwater depth of subcatchmentD, is larger than the specified

detentiondepthDr, an butflow rateis computedusinga modifiedManning's
equation.
tf
Y
-
_
!Ep, - Do),/,s,r, (2s.rs)
n
and Q-: vw(D2 - Dd) (2s.16)
where V:thevelocity
n : Manning's coefficibnt
S : the ground slope
IV : the width
Q. : the outflow rate
4. The continuity equationis solvedto determinewater depthof the subcatch-
ments resulting from rainfall, infiltration, and outflow' Thus
o.. (2s.r7)
D,.L,:Dz-ftLt
whereA is the surfaceareaof the subcatchment.
5. Steps I-4 arerepeateduntil computationsfor all subcatchments are com-

pleted.
6. inflow (OJ to a gutter is computedas a summationof outflow from tribu-
tary subcatchments(Q..,) and flow rate of immediate upstream gutters
(Qr,)
Q^:2Q-.,t2Qr., ( 2s .18)
7. Theinflow is addedto raisethe existingwater depth of the gutter according

to its geometry.Thus
O',
Y.:Y,+7M Q5.19)
where Yr, Y, : the water depth of the gutter

A, : the mean water surfaceareabetweenY, and Y,
8. The outflow is calculatedfor the gutter using Manning's equation:
1' ' A
l - O'
y : Pz/t51/z (2s.20)
fL
and* Qr: VA" (2s.2r)

where R : the hydraulic radius
S; : the invert sloPe
A" : lhe cross-sectionalarcaaI Y1
9. The continuity equationis solvedto determinethe waterdepth of the gutter
resultine from the inflow and outflow. Thus
Yt+^t: Y, t (Qr^- oJf, (25.22)
)
25,1 URBAN STORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 655
t.0. Steps6-9 are repeateduntil all the gutters are finished.
11.The flows reachingthe point concernedare addedto producea hydrograph
coordinatealongthe time axis.
12. Theprocesses
from 1 to 11 arerepeatedin succeeding
time periodsuntil the
completehydrographis computed.
Three general types of output are provided by SWMM. If waste treatment

processesare simulatedor proposed,the capital,land, and operationand mainte-
nance costs are printed. Plots of water quality constituentsversustime form the
secondtype of output. Thesepollutographsare producedfor severallocationsin the
systemand in the receiving waters.Quality constituentshandledby SWMM include
suspendedsolids,settleablesolids,BOD, nitrogen,phosphorus,and grease.The third
type of outputis hydrologic.Hydrographsat any point, for example,the end of a gutter
or inlet, are printed for designatedtime periods. The StatisticsBlock will provide
frequencyanalysisof storm eventsfrom a continuoussimulation.
Universityof CincinnatiUrbanRunoffModel(UCURM)
The University of cincinnati urban runoff model (ucuRM) was developedby the
Division of WaterResources,the Departmentof Civil Engineering,of the University
of Cincinnati.26A flowchartis reproducedin Fig. 25.11.The programconsistsof three
sections:(l) MAlN-infiltration and depressionstorage,and two subroutines,
(2) GUTFL-gutter flow, and (3) PIROU-pipe rouring.It is similar to the EpA
model and divides the drainagebasin into subcatchmentswhose flows are routed
overland into gutters and sewerpipes. The rainfall is read in as a hyetograph.The
infiltration and depressionstorageare summedand subtractedfrom the rainfall to
give overlandflow. This is routed through the gutter systemto storm water inlets and
the pipe network. Starting at the upstreaminlet, the flows are calculatedin successive
segmentsof the sewersystem,including dischargesfrom inlets, to producethe total
outflow.
The drainage areais divided into small subcatchmentswith closely matched
characteristics.The rainfall data are introduced and the infiltration is computedfor
eachsubcatchment.Principal elementsof the modelingprocessfollow:
1. It is assumedthat runoff begins wheneverthe rainfall rate equals the

infiltration rate and the mass of precipitation balancesinfiltration. The
equationsrepresentingtheseconditionsare
t. I
/ : - k r n 1I Qs.zt1
|
and
t*.'#0 - e k): mi(r)

+ + + r) - ,rrlr]-1
{;trr ffiliv
(2s.24)
7
MODELS
25 URBANRUNOFFSIMUI-ATION
CHAPTER
,/ Read Data
'1.
RainfallintensitY
2. Infiltration constant
5. rj"p.o.ion storage caPacitidr
Infiltration
(Horton'sequation)
Depression,
storagesupply
t
/
/-----ffi Data
1 Slop
2. Roughness
J. Lenl ;th
| 4. Widrh
Overlanil flow
1. Detention
2. Dis:harge
ReadData
1. Layout
2. Length
Gutter flow
1. Overlandinput
2. Gutterin..put
3. Dischargo (continuitY)
Gutters
'@
1. SloPe
2. Roughness
3. Diarieterorheight
4. Length
Flow routlng
1. Gutter input
2. Average velocitY (Manning's)
3. Time offset
4. AddoffsethYdrograPh
and new qutter input
Pipes
Print hydrograPh
--1-
6A Figure 25.11 UCURM model flowchart'
\ -,/ (ATterPapadakisand Preul'26)
25j URBANSTORMWATERSYSTEMMODELS 657
* where mi(I) : the massprecipitateduntil time r (in.)

i(1) : the ordinatesof rainfall intensity curve
k : the decayrate of infiltration (units/min)
"fo: the initial infiltration capacity(in./hr)
f": the ultimateinfiltration capacity(in./hr)
DT : the time incrementof rainfall intensity curve
t : the time to intersectionof rainfall curve and infiltration
curve
x : arrincreinent of DT
The infiltration curve is computedfrom the equationsand t, I, andx arc
stored.
2. Surfaceretentionis relatedto depressionstorageby an equationderivedby
Linsleyet al..2s
s : (t _ f)e-@-F)/sd (25.25)
where 57 : the total depressionstorage(in.)
P : the accumulatedrainfall in storage(in.)
F : the accumulatedinfiltratioh (in.)
i : the rainfall intensity (in./hr)
f : the infiltration (in./hr)
s: the surfaceretention (in./hr)
The infiltration and surfaceretentionare subtractedfrom the rainfall
intensity to yield the runoff.
3. The hydrographof the overlandflow is derivedby solving
- T+?: ,/,Dinlt. *ry

ou(#)'f'''
(2s.26)
where D" : (0.009'79n'o'6ro6lo'6)fso'3 (25.27)
Dr.z : the detention storageat the beginning and end of time
interval I (in./unit area)
:
rr, rz the overlandflow supplyat the beginningand end of time
interval t (cfs/min)
n : Manning's coefficient
l: the lengthofoverland flow
s : the slope (ftlft)
4 : discharge(in./hr per unit area)
4. For the initial time increment, q1 : 0 and Dr : 0 are substituted,D, is
calculated,and q, is found from
q: yfnl ,,,,p,,,1r
* o.o(S)'l',' es.z8)
L \D"/ )
where the symbolsare as previously defined.The determinedD" and q,
becomeDt and qt. The overlandflow hydrographis derivedby repeating
this cycle.
I
L
658 25 UEBANRUNOFF
CHAPTER MODELS
SIMULATION
5.Thegutterflowiscomputedusingthecontinuityequation
60 q, (2s.2e)
*6!7:
6x At
where Z is the width of the water surface'

Thetelm(ayla|risneglectedbecausethechangeinthedepthofthe
gutterflow is very small with respectto time. After integration,the equation
becomes
(25.30)
Q: q"L * Qo
where Qs : upstreamgutter contributions
L : the length of the gutter (ft)
q": the overlandflow from the hydrograph
Q: the flow from the gutter system
METHODS
TABLE 25.9 COMPARISONOF URBAN RUNOFFMODELSAND
Degree of Degree of Flexibilityof

sophistication sophistication Accurate modeling of
of surface of pipe flow modelingof storm draln
Surfaoe Pipe flow Quality
flow routing routing surcharging components
Model routing routing routing
Low Low No Low

Ratiorlal Peak Peak flows No
method flows only
only
Moderate NA NA NA
Chicago Yes No No
Low No Low
Unit hydrograph Yes In combina- No
tion with :"*
surface
Low Low Low
STORM Yes In combina- Yes
tion with
surface
Moderate Low- No Low
RRL Yes Yes No
moderate
NA NA NA
MIT Yes No No High
Moderate Yes High

EPA-SWMM Yes Ye$ Yes High
Low No Low
Cincinnati Yes Yes Yes High
(ucuRM) No Low
Yes Yes Yes Moderate Moderate
HSPF
High No Low
ILLUDAS Yes No Modetate
Sour ce;,}/ialifred.sftef I,age13nd Smit!'-8

25.2 URBAN RUNOFFMODELSCOMPARED 659
25.2 URBANRUNOFFMODELSCOMPARED
Severalquantitative comparisonsof the RRL, SWMM, UCURM, ILLUDAS, and

STORM models have been reported in the literature. A qualitative comparisonof
severalwas preparedby Lager and Smiths and is shownas Table 25.9. Table 25.10
provides a bullit matrix showing componentsof most of the same models. Other
comparisonsinvolve quantitative analysisof results of the models when applied to
actual guagedstorm events.One of the first was an applicationby Heepsand Mein6
of three modelsto two urban catchmentsin Australia for a total of 20 storm events.
A similar statisticalcomparisonof the samethree modelsapplied to 12 stormsover
eachof three urban watershedswas performedby Marsaleket al.7Significantresults
from theseindependentevaluationsare summarizedhere.Another quantitativecom-
parisonis providedby Huber.27
The Heepsand Mein conclusionsof model performanceare:6
1. The degreeof subdivisionof the catchmenthasa significantinfluenceon the

peak dischargepredicted by each of the models.The RRL and SWMM
methodsgive lower peaks and the UCURM gives higher peaks for finer
subdivision.
t The UCURM containsseveraldeficiencies.The major ones,the effectsof
which canbe seenin the predictedhydrographs,arelhat depressionstorages
Explicit
modeling Degree of
of in- Receiving calibration/
system Treatmenl model verification Simulation Data
storage modeling available required period Availability Documentation requirements
No NA No Usually Individual Nonproprietary Good Low

not verified storms
NA NA No Moderate Individual Nonproprietary Fair Moderate

storms
No NA No High Individual Nonproprietary Fair Moderate
storms
No Yes No Low Long term Nonproprietary Good Moderate
No NA No Moderate Individual Nonproprietary Good Moderate

storms
NA NA No Moderate Individual Proprietary Fair Moderate
storms
Yes Yes Yes Moderate Individual or Nonproprietary Good Extensive
conttnuous
storms
No No No Moderate Individual Nonproprietary Fair Extensive
storms
No No Yes High Individual Nonproprietary Fair Extensive
storms or
long-term
Moderate Individual Nonproprietary Good Extensive
storms
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RUNOFF
25.2 URBAN COMPARED 661
MODELS
are assignedfull when the rainfall intensity falls below the infiltration
capacity,and that depressionstoragesare not depletedby infiltration. The
useof instantaneousvaluesof the rainfall intensity(difficult to obtain from
' recordercharts)can causevolume errors.
3. The SWMM was the model with the best overall performancebut at the
' expenseof large computerstorageand time requirements.
4. The RRL model predictedpoorly for stormsin which perviousrunoff was
significantbut performedreasonaf;lywell for many other types of storms.
The results,in general,supportthoseof Stall and Terstriep'e
5 . A major problem with using noncontinuousmodels is the prediction of
antecedeniconditions. This problem is further aggravatedby use of the
Horton infiltration equationfor which prediction of the parametersis virtu-
ally impossible.
The Marsalek study results,Tusingthe samethree modelsfor three watersheds
in Illinois, Ontario, and Maryland, indicated that the SWMM model performed
slightly better than the RRL model and both thesemodelswere more accuratethan
the UCURM model for the small watershedsstudied.
TabIe25.11providesdescriptionsof the urban watershedsusedby Marsalekin
the runoff modelevaluation.Typical comparisonsof observedand calculatedtimesto
peak,peak flows,and runoff volumesfor the three modelsare providedinFig.25.12
for the Calvin Park watershedin Kingston, Ontario.
Marsaleket al. usedthe information describedto developthe qualitative com-
parisonin Table 25.12 and,arrived at the following conclusions:7
1. Uncalibrateddeterministicmodelsfor urbanrunoff, suchasRRL, SWMM,

and UCURM, yielded a fairly good agreementbetweenthe simulatedand
measuredrunoff eventson typical urban catchmentsof small size.
2. Onthe average,about 60 percentof the simulatedpeak flows were within
20 percentof the measuredvalues.About the samescatterwasfound for the
simulatedtimes to peak and runoff volumes.The agreementbetweenthe
measuredand simulatedvaluescould be further improvedby modelcalibra-
tion.
3. Wherr comparing the entire simulated and measuredhydrographsusing
statisticalmeasuies,the agreementwasfound goodfor SWMM, goodto fair
in the caseof RRL, and fat in the caseof UCURM'
TABLE25.11DESCR|PT|oNoFTESTURBANWATERSHEDSUSEDFoRTHE
EVALUATIONOF URBAN RUNOFFMODELS
Testurban
drainage Area
basin Location (acres) lmoerviousness Land use
Oakdale Chicago, 13.0 4f .6 Residential

IL
Calvin Park Kingston, 89.4 27 Residentialand institutional
Ontario
Gray Haven Baltimore, zt,J 52 Residential
MD
PART SIX
STATIST]CAL
METHODS
Chapter26
Probabilityand Statistics
r Prologue
. Introducethe basictenetsof probability theory as appliedto random,hydro-

logic variables,with particular emphasison the relativefrequency definition
of probability-a conceptthat is foundationalto the frequencyanalysispro-
cedurespresentedin Chapter27 andthroughoutmany other chaptersof this
text.
. Describecommonprobability distributionsand showhow they are appliedto
hydrologicphenomena.
. Relate the fundamentalsof probabitity theory to hydrologic designcriteria
describedin Chapter16, Section16.3.
. Acquaint the readerwith the theory behind linear regressionand show how
this powerful techniqueis usedin hydrologyto predict how a study watershed
will respondto somechangeby examiningresponsesof the watershedto past
inputs or by statisticallyscrutinizingresponsesof other similar watershedsin
order to developa predictive equationfor the subjectwatershed.
' Show how to transform many hydrologicvariablesthat havenonlinear rela-
tionships into new variatesthat can then be analyzedby performing linear
regressionon the transformedvariates.
. Providethe theoreticaland practical foundationnecessaryto fully capitalize
on the hydrologicdesignprinciplesdiscussedin Chapter16 andthe time-series
analysis*andmodelingproceduresdescribedin Chapter22.
commonly, the study of hydrologyis undertakenby readerswho lack the pre-

requisite backgroundin principles of statistics,probability theory, and frequency
analysis.As a consequence, most hydrologycoursesreview thesesubjectsearly in the
schedule.Practically all hydrology texts include chapterson ;tatistical methodsto
summarizethe basic principlesof statistics,probability theory, probability distribu-
tions, bivariate and multiple linear correlation and regression,time-seriesanalysis,
and frequencyanalysis.Thus,despitethe placementof this material at the end of this
text, the authorsassumethat the readerhasthis backgroundor will studythe material
672 CHAPTER ANDSTATISTICS
26 PROBABILIry
in Part Sif, prior to beginninga study of Part Three. Readerswith an understanding
of statisticalmethods,regressionanalysis,and the basicsof probability distribution
functions may wish to turn directly to Chaptet27.
ANALYSIS
26.1 RANDOMVARIABLESAND STATISTICAL
A random variable is one that demonstrates.variabilitythat isn't sufflciently ex-
plained by physicalprocesses.Many hydrologicphenomenahavethis tendency,ap-
pearing at times to be fully subjectto chancethemselves,or driven by some other
closelyrelated factor. In practice,hydrologistsoften analyzeproblemsas systemsof
connectedrandom and deterministicprocesses.For example,precipitation is often
evaluatedstatisticallyas a randomvariablebecauseof the complexityof understand-
ing and modelingthe atmosphericprocessesthat are known to drive the precipitation
system.Runoff that results from the precipitation, on the other hand, is viewed
deterministically,usingthe rainfall-runoff analogsthat arethe nucleusof the majority
of this textbook.
Hydrology relies heavily on principles from probability theory, statistics,and
information analysis.Whole texts on frequencyanalysismethods,stochasticgenera-
tion of data, regressionand analysisof variance,and regional analysesare available
containingthorough descriptionsof the principles.l'2Many hydrologicprocessesare
so complexthat they can be interpretedand explainedonly in a probabilislic sense.
Hydrologic eventsappear as uncertaintiesof nature and are the result, it must be
assumed,of an underlyingprocesswith randomor stochasticcomponents.The infor-
mation to investigatetheseprocessesis containedin recordsof hydrologicobserva-
tions.Methods of statistical analysisprovidewaysto reduceand summarizeobserved
data, to presentinformation in preciseand meaningfulform, to determinethe under-
lying characteristicsof the observedphenomena,and to makepredictionsconcerning
future behavior.Statisticalanalysisdealswith methodsfor drawinginferencesabout
the population basedon examinationof samplevaluesfrom the population. These
inferencesincludeinformation aboutthe central tendency,range,distributionwithin
the range, variability around the central tendency,degreeof uncertainty, and fre-
quencyof occurrenceof values.
Statistical analysisinvolves two basic sets of problems, one descriptive, the
otherinferentiat. The former is a straightforwardapplicationof statisticalmethods,
requiringfew decisionsand representinglittle risk. The inferential problem,however,
entails decisionsbearing some risk, and requires an understandingof the methods
employedand the dangersinvolvedin predicting and estimating.The most common
inferential problem is to describethe whole classof possibleoccurrenceswhen only
a portion of themhasbeenobserved.The wholeclassis thepopulation andthe portion
observedis the sample.
The randomvariablesin the processunderstudyare continuousif they may take
on all values in the range of occurrence,including figures differing only by an
infinitesimal amount; they are discreteif they are restrictedto specific,incremental
values.Distribution of the variablesover the rangeof occurrenceis definedin terms
of the frequencyor probabitity with which different valueshave occurredor might
occur'"
26.2 coNcEPTSOF PROBABILITY 673
OF PROBABILITY
26.2 CONCEPTS
The laws ofprobability underlieany study ofthe statisticalnature ofrepeatedobser-
vations or trials. The probability of a singleevent, say Et, is definedas the relative
number of occurrencesof the event after a long seriesof trials. Thus P(E ), the
probability of eventEr, is nrfN for n, occurrencesof the sameeventin N trials if N
is sufficiently large. The number of occurrencesn, is thefrequency. and nr/N the
relatiw freQuenffobabilities
and the rules governingtheir manipurationare known
intuitively or from experience.In the familiar coin-tossingexperiment,P(heads) :
P(tails) : |. Eachoutcomeof a singletoss(a trial) has a finite probability, and the
sumof the probabilitiesof all possibleoutcomesis 1. Also, the outcomesaremutually
exclusive;that is, if one occurs,saya head,then a tail cannotoccur.In two successive
tests,there are four possibleoutcomes-HH, TT, HT, TH-each with a probability
of|. In this case,becauseeachtrial is independentofthe other one, probabilitiesfor
eachoutcomeare foundby P(first trial) X P(secondtrial) : L,x L : j. Again, the
sum of the probabilities of the possibleoutcomesis 1. Note that the probability of
gettingexactlyoneheadand one tail duringthe experiment(without any regardto the
order)is P(HT) + P(TH) : *.
Summarizingthe rules of probability indicated by coin tossing,we find the
following:
1. The probability of an event is nonnegative and never exceeds 1.

0<P(E)<1 ( 26.r )
2. The sum of the probabilitiesof all possibleoutcomesin a singletrial is 1.
s
.1J P(8,) : 1 (26.2)
I
3. The probability of a numberof independentandmutually exclusiaeevents

is the sum of the probabilitiesof the separateevents.
P ( 4 U E 2 ) : P ( E y )+ P ( E 2 ) (26.3)
The probability statement,P(Et U Et), signifies the probability of the
"the probability of Et ot Er."
union of two eventsand is read
4. The probability of two independenteventsoccurring simultaneouslyor in
successionis the product of the individual probabilities.
P(q ) E,) : P(E) x P(E) (26'4)
P(& a E ) is called probability of the intersectionof two eventsor ioint

probability and is read "the probability of El and Er."
Considerthe following exampleof eventsthat are not independentor mutually

exclusive:An urban drainagecanal reachesflood stageeach summer with relative
freqlrencyof 0.10; power failuresin industriesalongthe canal occur with probability
674 CHAPTER26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
of 0.20; experienceshowsthat whenthereis a flood the ch'ancesof a powerfailure for

whateverreasonare raisedto 0.40. The probability statementsare
P ( f l o o d ) :P ( F ) : 0 ' 1 0 P(power failure) : P(P) : 0'20
P(no flood) : P(F) : 0'90 P(no powerfailure) : P(P) : 0'80
P(power failure given that a flood occurs) : 0'40
The last statementis called a conditionalprobability. It signifiesthejoint occurrence
of events and is usually written P(P I F).. Rules 3 and 4 no longer are strictly
: 0.3. If the eventsre-
applicable.If Rule 3 applied,P(F u P) : P(F) + P(P)
maineOindependent,theionditional probability P(P I F) would gqualthe marginal
probability f (p). T'nor the eventsare independentif the probability of either is not
i'conditionedby" or changedby knowledgethat the other has occurred'For indepen-
dent events,the joint probabilitieswould be
P(F)P):0.1 x0.2:0'02
P(FaF):o.tXo.8:0.08
P(FnP):0.9X0.2:0.18
P(FaF):o.gxo.8:0.72
The probability of a flood or a power failure during the summerwould be the sum of
the flrst three joint probabilitiesabove.
P(FUP):P(F nP)+ P(F.P)+p(F lP):e'23
The eventsare dependent,however,from the statementof conditionalprobabil-
ity: When a flood o""u,. with P(F) : 0'1, a powerfailure will occurwith probability
: 0'1 x 0'4 : 0'04 :
0".4, and true joint probability is P(F') x P(P I F)
: P(F) + P(P) -
P(F a P). The proUaUitityof the union is then P(F U P)
P(F ) P) : 0.1 + 0.2 - 0.04 : 0.26' Note the contrast:
P(F U P) : 0'30 for mutually exclusiveevents
P(r U P) : 0'28 for joint but independentevents
P(F u P) : 0.26 otherwise
The new, more generalrule for the union of probabilitiesis
-
s. P(& u E,) : P(81) + P(E,) P(h . E2) (26.s)
and a sixth rule shouldbe addedfor conditional probabilities:
" ' P ( E , , l E P(Er

6_ r ) : -nwE2) {26.6)
)
26.2 CONCEPTSOF PROBABILITY 675
be exceeded.Becausethe probability of any single, exact value of a continuous

"occur" can also mean the level will be reachedor exceeded.In the
variableis 0.0,
long run, the levelwould be reachedor exceededon the averageoncein 10 years'lhus
the averagereturn period* Z in yearsis definedas
1 (26.7)
T :
P(Ft:
and the following generalprobability relation.hold:
1. The probability that F will be equalledor exceededin any year
P@):+ (26.8)
2. The probability that F will not be exceededin any year
P(F):l-P(F):l-+ (26.e)
3. The probability that F will not be equalledor exceededin any of n succes-

slveyears
/ l\n
p,(F)x &(Fl x . . . x P,(F): P(F)': ( t - ;l (26.10)
\ T l
4. The probability R, called risk, that F will be equalledor exceededat least

once in n successiveyears
R : 1 - ( r - + l : 1- I P ( F ) F (26.rr)
Table 26.1showsreturn periods associatedwith variouslevelsof risk.
TABLE 26,1 RETURNPERIODSASSOCIATEDWITH VARIOUSDEGREES

OF RISKAND EXPECTEDDESIGNLIFE
Expecteddesignlife (Years)
Risk
100
e/.) 10 15
75 2.00 4.O2 6.69 11.0 14.9 18.0 35.6 72.7

50 3.43 7.74 t4.9 22,t 29.4 36.6 72.6 144.8
40 4.44 10.3 20.1 29.9 39.7 49.5 98.4 196.3
30 6.12 14.5 28.5 42.6 56.5 70.6 140.7 28r
25 7.46 " 17.9 35.3 52.6 70.0 87.4 174.3 348
20 9.47 22.9 45.3 6'7.7 90.1 1r2.5 224.6 449
15 12.8 31.3 62.0 90.8 t23.6 154.3 308 616
10 19.5 4 8 I. 95.4 r42.9 190.3 238 475 950
5 39.5 98.0 195.s 292.9 390 488 976 1949
2 99.5 248 496 743 990 t238 2475 : 4950
I 198.4 498 996 1492 1992 2488 4975 9953
* The terms return period arldrecurrenceinterval are usedinterchangeablyto denotethe recipro-

cal of-the.annualprobability of exceedence.
676 CHAPTER
26 PRoBABILITANDSTATISTICS
EXAMPLE 26.1
If Zis the recurence interval for a flood with magnitudeQ*findtbe probability (risk)
that the peak flow rate will equalor exceedQ" atleastoncein two consecutiveyears.
Assumethe eventsare i4dependent.
Solution. The solutionis easilyobtainedby substitutioninto Eq. 26.11.To
assistin understapdingthe equations,an alternativederivation follows.
The four possibleoutcomesfor the tyo years are:
a.' nonexceedance in both years
b.' exceedancein the first year only
c.' exceedancein the secondyear only
d: exceedance in both years
Becausethesefour representall possibleoutcomes,the probability of the union

o f a , b , c , a n d d i s1 . 0 , o r f r o m E q . 2 6 . 2 , P ( a U
b U c U d): l.0.Exceedanceinat
least one year is satisfiedby b, c, or d, but not a. Thus the risk of at least one
exceedanceis P(b U c U d), which is the total less the probability of a. From
Eqs.26.2and26.3,we find that
'
z - y e a r r i s :k P ( b U c U d ) : 1 - P(a)
From Eq. 26.3, we find that
P(a) : P(Q < Q"inYear I) x P(Q I Q"inYear 2)
:(t-l-)ft-1-)
\ r/\ r/
and R i s k :r - P ( a ) - 1 - ( t - 1 - ) ' rr
\ .r./
EXAMPLE 26.2
What return period must a highway engineeruse in designinga critical underpass
drain to accept only a 10 percent risk that flooding will occur in the next 5 years?
Solution
R : 1 - (' -;)"
.10: 1- ('-i)'
Z : 48.1years IT
26.3 PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
Randomvariables,either discreteor continuous,are characteizedby the distribution

of probabilitiesattachedto the specificvaluesthat the variablemay assume.A random
variablethroughoutits rangeof occurrenceis generallydesignatedby a capital letter,
and a specificvalueor outcomeof the randomprocessis designatedby a small letter.
26.3 PROBABILIry DISTRIBUTIONS 677
^ P(0)= 0.0s P(4)= s.15

P(1=) s.15 P(s)= s.1s
b 0.2 P(2)= 0.2s P(6) = 9.63
5 P(3)= g.2s P(7) = s.s2
^
o.l
Number of cloudY daYsPer week, x
Figure26.L Probabilitydistributionof cloudydaysper week'
For example, P(X : x,) is the probability that random variableX takeson the value
x,. A shoiter version is p(x,). Figur" 26.1 showsthe probability distribution of the
number of cloudy daysin a weet. ft is a discretedistributionbecausethe number of
daysis exact;in ihe rlcord from which the relative frequencieswere taken, a day had
to-be describedas cloudy or not. Observethat eachof the seveneventshas a finite
probability and the sum is 1; that is,
) r(-t,) = t
Another important property of random variablesis the cumulativedistribution

in X is lessthan or equal
function, CDF, definedur ttr" ptotubility that any outcome
to a stated,limiting value x. The cumulative diitribution function is denotedF(;r).
Thus
F(x):P(X=x) (26.12)
andthe function increasesmonotonicallyfrom a lower limit of zeroto an upperbound

of unity. Figure 26.2 isthe CDF of the numberof cloudy daysin a week derivedfrom
fig. Z6JUy taking cumulativeprobabilities.The function showsthat the probability
is gOqothai the numberof cloudy daysin the week will be 5 or less.Conversely,there
is a 10 percentprobability that it will be cloudy for 6 or ! days.This complementary
cumula-tiveprolability is sometimescalled G(x), where3
G(x):1- r(x) = P(X> x) Q6'13)
continuous variables present a slightly different picture. Figure 26.3 is the
histogramof an 85-yearr""oid of annualstreamflows.The observationswere grouped
into nine intervalsranging from 0 to 900 cfs and the number falling in eachinterval
plot the
was plotted as frequeniy on the left ordinate.A convenientalternativeis to
relative frequencyas shown by the right ordinate. The cDF for the streamflow record
is shownin Fig. 26.4.As the number of observations increase, the continuous distri-
bution will be developedby reducing the sizeof the intervals.In the limit, the broken
curvesof Figs. 26.3 and'26.4 wilt appearas thosein Fig' 26'5'
There ls a difference between the ordinates of Figs. 26'3 and 26.5a. Since
relative frequencyis synonymouswith probability, it is convenientto reconstitutethe
.7'
CHAPTER 26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
vl
3 o.a
II P(x)
^
-' 0 0.05 0.05
.F o.o 1 0.15 0.20
2 0.25 0.45
3 0.20 0.65
o 4 0.15 0.80
.l 0.4 5 0.10 0.90
6 0.08 0.98
U 7 0.02 1.00
o.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Numberof cloudy daysper week,.r
Figure 26.2 Cumulative distribution of cloudy days per week.
RIR
b
il lt a
q
I
o
'5
d
o.top
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean annualflow, -r (100 cfs)
Figure 26.3 Frequency distribution of mean annual flows.
26.9 PROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 679
' Q . o- ' "r

Y
o
q
d
e 0.6
o
I
o
> 04
(J
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Meanannualflow, x (100cfs)
Figure 26.4 Cumulative frequency distribution of mean

annual flows.
Figure 26.5, Csntinuousprobabilitydis-

r tributions:(a) probabilitydensityfunction
and(b) cumulativedistributionfunction.
histograrfrso that the area in each interval representsprobability; the total area
containedis thus unity. To do this, the ordinatein eachinterval, sayn/N for relative
frequencyor probability, is divided by the interval width, Ax.-The ratio nfN Lx rs
literally the probability per unit length in the interval and thereforerepresentsthe
average densityof probability.The probability n/N inthe interval is fepresentedon the
CDF (beforethelimitingprocess) as AF(x), or F(x + Lxlz) - F(x - L'xl2).We
then can define
.. --;-AF(x) dF(x)
l\x) : liln (26.r4)
Ax-o Ax dx
which is called the probability densityfunction, PDF.3This function is the density

(or intensity) of probability at any point; f(x) dx is describedas the differential
probability.
For continuousvariables,f(r) > 0, sincenegativeprobabilitieshaveno mean-
ing. Also, the function has the property that
1 ()61\\
f(x) dx:
which again is the requirement that the probabilities of all outcomessum to 1.

Furthermore,the probability that x will fall betweenthe limits a and b is written
p(a-x-b):lu,r*,o* (26.16)
Note that the probability that x takeson a particular value,saya, is zero;that is,
fo
ft-l dx : o (26.17)
J
which emphasizesthat nnite proUalilities are definedonly as areasunder the PDF
betweenflnite limits.
The CDF can now be deflnedin terms of the PDF as
t'
P(-* < X < x) : P(X= x) : F(x) : I f(u) du (26.18)
J_*
whereu is usedas a dummy variableto avoidconfusionwith the limit of integration.

The area under the CDF has no meaning,only the ordinates,or the difference in
ordinates.For example,P(*r3 X = x2),which is equivalentto Eq. 26.16, can be
evaluated as.F(x) - F(xt).
that cannotbe summarizedin integral form, there are
For discrete.distributions
analogousarithmetic statementscorrespondingto the propertiesgiven in Eqs. 26.15,
26.16, and26.18.In particular, the distributionof sampleddatetaken from a contin-
uousdistributionis a specialcaseof discretedistributionsand canbe givenin the form
of arithmeticsummations.s Thus
),f(',): t (26.re)
x1= b
P(a-X<b): ).f(r) (26.20)

r 7 -
26.4 MOMENTSOF DISTRIBUTIONS 681
k
P(x<d:2fQ,) (26.2r)
For a finite numberof observationsin the sample,/(x) is the probability of xr for each
outcomein the samplespaceand thereforeP(x,) : P(xr) : P(xt) : . . . : I /N.
Hence/(x) can be replacedwith P(x,) in Eqs.26.19,26.20,and26.21.
DXAMPLE26.3
Table B.1 containsthe areabeneatha "standardnormal" bell-shapedPDF.Because
the distributionis symmetrical,areasare providedonly on one sideof the center.Use
the distribution to determinethe valuesof
1 . P ( 0< z ' 2 ) .
2.P(-2=z=2).
3. P(z > 2\.
4. P(z< -1)
Solution
1. P ( 0 = z < 2 ) : . 4 7 7 2 .
) F r o m s y m m e t r y ,P ( - 2 - z < 0 ) : P ( 03 2 3 2 ) : . 4 7 7 2 . Since
P(-Z = z < 2) : P(-2 3 z 30) + P(0 3 z 3 2), thenP(=2 = 7 <
2) : .4772+ .4772: .9544.
3. This is the areaunderthe curvein the right tail beyondz : 2.0. Becausethe
area right of center (z : 0) is .5000, P(z = 2) : P(z > 0) - P(0 =
z = 2 ) ,o r P ( z > 2 ) : . 5 0 0 0 - . 4 7 7 2 : . 0 2 2 8 .
4 . F r o m t h es o l u t i o n t(o3 ) ,P ( z = - 1 ) : P ( z = 0 ) - P ( - l = z < 0 ) ' B y
s y m m e t r y , P ( - 1= z = 0 ) - P ( 0 3 z s ! ) : . 3 4 1 3 , a n d P (=z - 1 ) :
.5000- .3413: .1587. rr
16.4MOMENTS
OF DISTRIBUTIONS
The propertiesof many random variablescan be definedin terms of the momentsof
the distribution. The moments representparametersthat usually have physical or
geometripalsignificance.Readersshould recognizethe analogybetweenstatistical
momentsand the momentsof'areasstudiedin solid mechanics.
The rth moment of a distribution about the oriein is definedaso
tri : x'f(x) dx (26.22)
p::
2*,rr,r:12,,, (26.23)
The first moment aboutthe origin is the mean,or as it is commonly known, the
average.It determinesthe distancefrom the origin to the centroid ofthe distribution
frequencyfunction. The prime is normally usedto signify momentstaken about the
origin, but the mean is often written as p insteadof y'.
Moments can be definedabout axesother than the origin; the axis usedexten-
sively in deflninghigher momentsis lhe mean or, as given above,the first moment
about the origin. Thus
I
p,: | (x - rd'f\xl dx (26.24\
I
1< - p)' (26.25)

or tr,: ;)-G,
Wheneverp', or p', are defined for r =l 1, . , the distribution/(x) is com-
pletd defined.It seldomis necessaryto computemore than the first three rnoments;
ieveral important distributionsrequire only two. The momentsare usedto specifythe
parametersand descriptivecharacteristicsof distributions that follow in the next
section.Becausevarious characteristicsof distributionsare describedby combina-
tions of the momentsaboutthe meanand origin, the following relationsare occasion-
ally helpfull'a:
Ft: 0 (26.26)
-p' (26.27)
Pz: FL
ttt
: - 3plr, * 2p'
tJ"'z
(26.28)
CHARACTERISTICS
26.5 DISTRIBUTION
Characteristicsof statisticaldistributionsare describedby the parametersof probabil-
,' ity functions, which in turn are expressedin terms of the moments.The principal
characteristicsare centraltendency,the groupingofobservationsorprobability about
a central value;variability, the dispersionof the variate or observations;and skew-
ness,thedegreeof asymmetryof the distribution.The theoreticalfunctions shownin
Fig.26.6 exhibit approximatelythe samegrouping about a central value,but/2 has
much greatervariability thanfl, andf possesses a pronouncedright-skewwhilefi is
symmetrical.
Symbol Gonvention
In introducingthe parametersof distributions,the usual sequenceof statisticalprob-
lemswill be followed-that is, parametersare derivedfrom the distributionof sample
data and usedas estimatesof the parametersof the population distribution' Summa-
Figure 26.6 Symmetrical and skewed

probability distribution for continuousvari-
ables.
26.5 DISTRIBUTIONCHARACTERISTICS 683
tion forms of integralsare usedto computemomentsfor samples.For example,the

meanof sampledatais designatedTandit is usedasthe bestestimateof the population
mean.By convention,Greek letters are usedto denotepopulation parameters.
CentralTendency
The familiar arithmetic average,the mean, is the most used measureof central
tendency.It is the first moment about the origin and is designated
r:lf*, n i=t
(26.2e)
of the population mean p.

'Meansx is the best estimate
The statistic
other than the arithmetic mean-for example, the geometric mean
T : (x624 . . . or
x,)1/" harmonic meani : ,l> (Ilx,)-are alsoused.Two addi-
tional measuresof central tendency are the median,which is the middle value of the
observeddata and divides the distribution into equal areas,and the mode, which in
discretevariablesis the value occurring most frequently and in continuousvariables
is the peak value of probability density. A11 three are illustrated in Fig. 26.6.
Variability
Dispersioncan be representedby the total rangeof valuesor by the averagedeviation
aboutthe mean;however,the parameterof statisticalimportanceis the meansquared
deviation as measuredby the secondmoment about the mean. The parameteris
termed the varianceand is designatedby
c r : rn f
i=l
G , -p ) ' (26.30)
But the population mean /-{,is not known precisely and therefore it is necessaryto
computeinstead
n
.
s-:
\ r
Z\xt-xf (26.3r)
- 1 in place of n in
As the best estimateof o2, the quantity s2 is found using n
Eq. 26.30.The reasoningfor this substitutioninvolves the lossof a degreeof freedom
by using 7 insteadof p, but a proof is beyondthe scope of this text.
The squareroot of the varianceis a statisticknown as the standard deviation
(o or s), in which form variability is measuredin the sameunits asthe variateand the
mean,and henceis easierto interpretand manipulate.The coefficientof variation C",
definedas cf p, or sfi, is an expressionuseful in comparingrelative variability.
Skewness
A fully symmetricaldistribution would exhibit the property that all odd moments
equalLero.A skeweddistribution,however,would haveexcessive weightto either side
of the centerand the odd momentswould exist. The third moment a is
o : ! n2 @ , - p ) ' (26.32)
i:l
The best-estimateof the third moment is computedby

n
u - s
Z-J \xi- x)' (26.33)
(n-r)(n-2)
The cofficient of skewnessis the ratio afc3 and is estimatedby
-- Q---;
n
(-- (26.34)
J
For syfnmetricaldistributions,the third moment is zero and C" : 0; for right skew-
ness(i.e.,thelongtailtotherightside)C">0,andforleftskewnessC"<0.ThePDF
forfi shownin Fig. 26.6has a right or positive skew.The property of skewnessis of
questionablestatisticalvaluewhenit mustbe estimatddfrom lessthan 50 sampledata
points.
EXAMPLE 26.4
Determinethe distributionparametersand comparethe distributionsof annualrain-
fall for the records shown inTable 26.2.
TABLE 26,2 ANNUAL RAINFALLFOR SELECTEDCITIES
Annual rainfall(in.)
Anniston, LosAngeles, Richinond,

Year AL CA VA.
t928 48 9 43
r927 49 lo 44
t926 )) t9 38
t925 98 9 31
r924 43 8 47
1923 53 6 49
1922 56 15 52
t92l 47 20 31
1920 69 11 51
1919 57 o 40
1918 61 18 4l
t9t7 64 8 43
1916 99 23 3 t
1915 54 t7 36
t914 40. 23 J+
t913 47 17 38
t9t2 58 10 36
1 9 1I 44 18 37
1910 44 5 43
1909 64 )4 34
1908 44 l9 JJ
1907 51 l5 49
1906 21 47
26.7 CONTINUOUSPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 685
Solution
Parameter Anniston LosAngeles Richmond
Mean, ;r 57.2 in. 14.9 in. 41.5in.

Standarddeviation,s 15.5in. 5.9 in. 6.7in.
Coefficientof variation,C, : s/V 0.27 0.40 0.16
1.69 -0.16 0.16
Coefficient of skewness,C": a/s3
Comments.(1) Anniston's record shows a high annual averageand a fair$ large

variability. In particular,Anniston'sdistributionhas a pronouncedright skew,caused
principally by two very large observedvaluesin this short period of record. (2) Los
Angeleshasa small annualaveragebut a very largevariability and a slightly negative
skewness.(3) Richmondhasthe mostuniform distribution:a relativelysmall variabil-
ity and only a slight positive skewness. I I
FUNCTIONS
DISTRIBUTION
26.6 TYPESOF PROBABILITY
Many standardtheoreticalprobability distributionshavebeenusedto describehydro-
logic processes.It should be emphasizedthat any theoretical distribution is not an
exactrepresentationof the natural processbut only a descriptionthat approximates
the under$ing phenomenonand has proved usefui in describingthe observeddata.
Table26.3summarizes{he commondistributions,giving the PDF,mean,andvariance
of the functions. The distributions presentedin the table have experiencedwide
applicationand are derivedand discussedin many standardtextbookson statistics.In
r the material to follow, only aspectsof the most usbd distributionsare given.
The usesof binomial and Poissondiscreteprobability distributionsinTabIe26.3
arerestrictedgenerallyto thoserandomeventsin which the outcomecanbe described
either as a successor failure. Furthermore,the successive trials are independentand
the probability of success remains constant from trial to trial.3'a In a sense,the
common discrete distributionsare counting or enumerating techniques'
The binomial distributionis frequentlyusedto approximateother distributions,
and vice versa.For example,with discretevalues,when n is large andp small (such
thal np ( 5 preferably),the binomial approachesthe Poissondistribution.This is a
single-parameterdistribution (i : np) and is very useful in describringarrivals in
queueingtheory. When p approachesI and n grows large, the binomial becomes
indistinguishablefrom the normal distribution describedin the next section.
FUNCTIONS
PROBABILIryDISTRIBUTION
26.7 CONTINUOUS
Most hydrologicvariablesare assumedto be continuousrandom processes,and the
commoncontinuousdistributionsare usedto fit historical sequences, as in frequency
analysis,for example(Chapter 27). Other applicationsare also important for contin-
uous distributions.The elementary uniform distribution is the basis for computing
7
686 CHAPTER 26 PROBABILITYAND STATISTICS
^ ,-",
i l {
N
H
+
n '\-..7
, d
a , L t ,
C)N
g b
G \ l
B l r l i
+
, q ^
I
.i l \ x
.gb I
o B -'i.l Nl'\a
F t.x -:
(UN d d t v
> o * J l
co. bl T
tl
b
H
,
tl
h
x
el dlJa +
r- , N I
+' N t x
a f f i - l x- J
rnl CO-
tx
o
s sr
1 +
\,
f
B
-il
+
+
o d l l s l l
{ a
-{.-
o s : " o 8 8
vl
^r
-\? vl
o
,? ,9, "'
J o \/" \/t vr
''
\/l
o vr :' ^
. k x ' '
Ir (!
x " ' x R
; M u ;
o tr rir x \/r
"'
\,r
vt
Vl
I v -r 8 /\r
., d
I
6
l\t
^
z
o
ut
a
U) IL
z o
o
tr
l
dl
o
fr o
r
a
o
z
o E
U'
0)
o
o
o E
E
lt
o (!
tu
J
I
o IL
s
F
a?
(o
6|
UJ
@
EE
E ;F
=
.E
E E6 a. f
'.
d -E
= i ' 5E
E
r
E
"
E6iE
E
F[
3
E !
E S
EZ B i ' oO eF E
26.7 CONTINUOUSPROBABILIW DISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 687
randomnumberssoimportant in simulationstudies.The wholebody of materialin the

area of reliability and estimatingdependson derived distributionslike Student'sl,
chi-squared,and the F distribution. The explanationsthat follow concernthe more
common distributionsappliedin fitting hydrologicsequences. The readeris referred
to standardtexts for more detailedtreatment.3-6
NormalDistribution
The normal distributionis a symmetrical,be,ll-shaped frequencyfunction, alsoknown
as the Gaussiandistributionor the natural law of errors. It describesmany processes
that are subjectto random and independentvariations.The whole basisfor a large
body of statisticsinvolving testing and quality control is the normal distribution.
Although it often does not perfectly fit sequencesof hydrologic data, it has wide
application, for example, in dealing with transformed data that do follow the
normal distributionand in estimatingsamplereliability by virture of the central limit
theorem.
The normal distribution has two parameters,the mean p, and the standard
deviationa, for which 7 and s, derivedfrom sampledata, aresubstituted.By a simple
transformation,the distribution can be written as a single-parameterfunction only.
Definingz : \x - t-i/o, dx : o dz,the PDF becomes
(26.3s)
and the CDF becomes
F\z) : -r*l- e-"2/2du (26.36)
The variablez is called the standardnormal variate; it is normally distributed

with zero mean and unit standard deviation. Tables of areas under the standard
normal curve, as given in Appendix B, TableB.1, serveall normal distributionsafter
standardizationof the variables.Given a cumulativeprobability,the deviatez is found
in the table of areasand x is found from the inversetransform:
x:p+za or x:7lzs (26.37)
EXAMPLE 26.5
Assumethat the Richmond,Virginia, annualrainfall in Table 26.2 follows a noimal
distribution.Usethe standardnormal transformationto find the rain depththat would
havea recurrqnceinterval of 100 years.
Solution. From example26.4,the meanis 41.5 in. and the standarddeviation
is 6.7 in. This gives
x: 4L5 + z(6.7)
Equation 26.18 showsthat the areaunder the PDF to the right of z is the exceedence
probability of the event.For the 100-yrevent,F;q.26.7 givesthe exceedence probabil-
ity Pk): llT,: tlI00:0.01. From the figure accompanying Table 8.1 in
688 CHAPTER26 PROBABILIry AND STATISTICS
Appendix B, F(z) : 0.5 - p(z) : 0.49, and z : 2.326 by interpolating the table'
The expected100-yr rain depth is therefore
x : 4t.5 + O.32O X 6.7 :57.1 in:
The 100-yr event for a normal distribution is 2.326 standarddeviationsabove the
mean. rt
Log-NormalDistribution
Many hydrologicvariablesexhibit a markedright skewness, partly dueto the influence
of natural phenomena having values greater than zero, or some other lower limit, and
beingunconstrained, theoreiically, in the upper range. In such cases,frequencieswill
not follow the normal distribution,but their logarithms may follow a normal distribu-
tion.7The PDF shown in Table 26.3 for the log-normal comes from substituting y :
ln x in the normal. With p, andcy as the mean and standarddeviation,respectively,
the following relations have been found to hold betweenthe characteristicsof the
untransformid variatex and the transformedvariatey:r'7
p:exp(p'y+412) (26.38)
oz:p,2lexp(d)_11 (26.3e)
a : lexp(3fi) - 3 exp(fi) + 2lC3 (26.40)
C,:lexp(dr) - r1t'' (26.4r)
C,:3C" * Cl (26.42)
Also p, : lfl M, whereM is the median value and the geometricmean of the x's.
The log-normal is especiallyusefulbecausethe,transformationopensthe exten-
sive body oI theoreticaland applied usesof the normal distribution. Since both the
normal and log-normal are two-parameterdistributions,it is necessaryonly to com-
pute the mean-andvarianceof the untransformedvariatex and solveEqs. 26.38 and
26.39 simultaneously.Information on three-parameteror truncatedlog-normal dis-
tributionscan be found in the literature.r'7
Gamma(and PearsonTYPelll)
The gammadistributionhaswide applicationin mathematicalstatisticsandhas been
usedincreasinglyin hydrologicstudiesnow that computingfacilities make_iteasyto
evaluate the gimma functioi insteadof relying on the painstakingmethod of using
tablesof the incompletegammafunction that lead to the CDF, P(X < x). In greater
useis a specialcaseof gamma: tbePearsonType/1L This distributionhasbeenwidely
adoptedas the standardmethodfor flood frequencyanalysisin a form known as the
log-pearson /11 in which the transform y :1og x is used to reduce skewness.8-r0
Aithough all three momentsare requiredto fit the distribution,it is extremelyflexible
in that a zeroskewwill reducethe log-PearsonIII distribution to a log-normal and
the pearsonType III to a normal. Tablesof the cumulativefunction are availableand
A very important property of gamm-avariates
will be explainedin a later section.lo'11
aswell asnormal variates(includingtransformednormals)is that the sumof two such
variablesretains the samedistribution. This feature is important in generatingsyn-
- -thefie hy-drologic
sequences.l''''
26J CONTINUOUSPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONFUNCTIONS 689
Gumbel'sExtremalDistribution
The theory of extreme valuesconsidersthe distribution of -the largest(qr smallest)
observationsoccurringin eachgroup of repeatedsamples.The distribution of the nt
extreme values taken from n, samples,with each samplehaving n2 observations,
dependson the distribution of the nrn, total observations.Gumbel was the first to
employ extremevalue theory for analysisof flood frequencies.laChow has demon-
stratedthat the Gumbel distribution is essentiallya log-normal with constantskew-
ness.tsThe CDF of the densityfunction given in Table 26.3 is
P(X - x) : F(x) : exp{-expl-o(, - u)l} (26.43)
a convenientform to evaluatethe function. Parametersa andu are given asfunctions
of the meanand standarddeviationin Table26.3.Tablesof the doubleexponentialare
usually in terms of the reducedvariate,y - a(x - u).tuGumbel also has proposed
anotherextremevaluedistributionthat appearsto fit instantaneous(minimumannual)
droughtflows.17'18
CDFsin Hydrology
Normal and Pearsondistributionscan often be usedto describehydrologicvariables
if the variableis the sum or mean of severalother random variables.The sum of a
numberof independentrandom variablesis approximatelynormally distributed.For
example,the annualrainfall is the sumof the daily rain totals,eachof which is viewed
as a random variable. Other examplesinclude annual lake evaporation, annual
pumpagefrom a well, annual flow in a stream,and mean monthly temperature.
The log-normal CDF hasbeen successfullyusedin approximatingthe distribu-
tion of variablesthat are the product of powersof many other randomvariables.The
logarithm of the variableis approximatelynormally distributedbecausethe logarithm
of productsis a sum of transformedvariables.
Examplesof variablesthat havebeenknown to follow a log-normal distribution
include:
1. Annual seriesof peak flow rates.

2. Daily precipitationdepthsand stremflowvolumes(alsomonthly, seasonal,
and annual).
3. Daily peak dischargerates.
4. Annual precipitation and runoff (primarily in the westernUnited States).
5. Earthquakemagnitudgs,
6. Intervalsbetweenearthquakes.
7. Yield stressin steel.
8. Sediment sizes in streamswhere fracturing and breakageof larger into
smaller sizesis involved.
The PearsonType III (a form of gamma) has been applied to a number of

variablessuch as precipitation depths in the easternUnited Statesand cumulative
watershedrunoff at any point in time during a given storm event.The transformed
log-PearsonType III is most usedto approximatethe CDF for annualflood peaks.If
the skew coefficient C" of the variable is zero, the CDF reverts to a log-normal.
26 PROBABILIry
It hasalso.beenusedwith monthly precipitationdepthandyield strengthsof concrete
members.
A useful CDF for values of annual extremeis the Gurnbel or extreme value
distribution.The meanof the distributionhas a theoreticalexceedance probability of
0.43 and a recurrence interval T of 2.33 years. Flood peaks in natural streamshave
exhibited strong conformance to this disffibution, including means with 2.33-year
recurrenceintervals. Graph paper that produces a ptraight-linefit for Gumbel vari-
ables is a availableand useful for graphical tests of annual extremes. A sample is
27
shownin Fig. .2. The CDF has been applie! to peak annual discharge rates,peak
wind velocities,drought magnitudesand intervals, maximum rainfall intensitiesof
given durations,and other hydrologicextremesthat are independentevents.
AND CORRELATION
LINEARREGRESSION
26.8 BIVARIATE
Correlation and regressionproceduresare widely used in hydrology and other sci-

ences.teThe premiseof the methodsis that one variableis often conditionedby the
value of another,or of severalothers,or the distribution of one may be conditioned
by the value of another. Just as there are probability density functions (PDFs) for
evaluatingthemarginal probability of a variable(seeSection26.2), so also are there
PDFsforlhe conditional probabilities (also describedin Section 26.2) of variables.
The conceptis illustrated in Fig. 26.7. For two variables,the bivariatedensityfunc-
tion,/(y li,), ptottedin the vertical on the frgure,changesfor eachvalueof x' The one
shownappliesonly to variationsin y whenx : xr. Different distributionsmight occur
for other valuesof x.
A measureof the degreeof linear correlationbetweentwo variablesx and y is
thelinear correlation cofficient, P*,y. Avalue of p',, : 0.0 indicatesa lack of linear
Pylr regressionline
Figure 26.7 Bivariate regressionwith conditional probability

function.
LINEAR
26.8 BIVARIATE ANDCORRELATION691
REGRESSION
correlation andp,,, : + 1.0 meansperfect correlation.The correlationcoefficientis
found from
cov(x, y) cr.v
u - , , :
- (26.44)
(l*ay aroy
where o, ando, are the variancesof eachvariable,respectively,(seeEq. 26.30), and

cov(x, y) is the covariancesharedby the two variables,definedas
y) : c,.,:
cov(.r, p)(y - p,)f(x,v)dvdx (26'4s)
f _f _Q'-
The samplecorrelationcoefficient,r : s,.rfs*s* is usedto estimatep',r. The sample
covarianceis found from the squareroot of
s?,,: (26.46)
The regressionline shown on Fig. 26.7 is derived to passthrough the mean

valuesof the distributions,so that for any given value of x, the mean value of y I x
(read"y givenx ") can be estimatedby the regressionline. The standarderror of the
estimateof y I x is depictedby the line drawnthrough the conditional distributionsat
a distanceof one standarddeviationfrom the mean.If the conditionaldistributionsat
all x-valuesare normal,it canbe shownthat the meanvalue,&y1,,of the conditional
distribution is related to the meansof .r and H or
a -
& , 1 , : l t ', * ( p 2,( * tr,) t26.47)
and the variance is
4t. : #['" - , @- p)'1

d l
(26.48)
where
a?: 40 - p') (26.4e)
which is the variance of the residualsof the regression.Just as the mean of the
distribution requiressubstitutionof the given value of x into Eq. 26.47, so also does
thevariance,Eq.26.48. Whenthe valueof x in Fig. 26.7is setiequalto A the standard
error of the meanis
ae
O-t=:
-----7 (26.s0)
VN
Equation 25.47 is linear and expressesthe linear dependencebetweeny and .r as
slrownin Fig. 26J.The meanvalue of y can be computedfor fixed valuesof x' Also,
if the correlationbetweenthem is significant,one can predict the valuesof y with less
error than the marginal distribution of y alone.In fact, from Eq. 26.49, the fraction
of the original varianceexplainedor accountedby the regressionis
o":t-* (26.5r)
It can be seenalso from Eq. (26.47) that the slopeof the regressionline is
cy -
tl,yl, lLy
PA: (26.s2)
r - rr^
or, ifx andy are standardized,then p itself is the slope,where
- p,r)/a,
}rnt. (26.s3)
p =
(x - t*)/o,
The bivariatecasecan be expandedto coverhigher-order,multivariatedistributions.
EQUATIONS
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSION
ing value of x. The line to be fitted is

Y,: a
-l
Bx; (26.s4)
N
6
I
Jackson Cowpasture
Year River River
, ? ;
xbo A1 58
J . F
61
/1 92 81
! Q
43 65 70
3[i 44 72 63
e o 82 68
46 67 58
47 74 74
F r 48 t 18 105
; h
49 t24 134
50 r08 108
51 65 93
d 52 88- 85
B
U Mean = 84.7 83.1
60 80 100 120 r40 Standard
Lowest annualflow for 1 day (cfs) deviation = 21.7 23.2
JacksonRiver at FallingSprings,Virginia, 1941-1952
: : 0.86.
Figure 26.8 Cross-correlationof low floWs.Regressionline: Iz 4.94 + 0.923X; r
EQUATIONS 693
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSION
The best estimates of o and B are sought. Thus to minimize
-
) 0, - f), : ) ly, (o + px,)1,-
(26.ss)
wherey, are the observedvalues and!,ate the estimatedvaluesfrom Eq. 26.54,take

partial derivativesas follows:
- (q+ n')r} (26.s6)

*{> b,
tv,- (o* B';l'} (26.s7)
#{>
After carrying out the differentiationsand summations,two equationsresultin a and
B, callednormal equations.
- n d- B ) " , : o (26.s8)
)y,
(26.se)
2*,y,-")xt-F2*?:o
SolvingEqs. 26,58 and 26.59 simultaneouslyyields
2 v , F 2 ^' i : y - B T (26.60)
e:--
n n
(26.6r)
P: =7 - (>;y[
Recall the slopeis p(arf o), or as estimatedfrom sampledata
rt; (26.62)
B:
Also, the unexplainedvariancein the regressionequationis

(26.63)
4:4Q-p')
and is
the squareroot of which is the standarddeviationof residuals(seeFig' 26'8)
cailed the standard error of estimate.Thesecan be estimatedfrom
*-: 4 ns -l (z r - r , ) (26.64)
s2": 2(y,-il' (26.6s)
wherey, and i, are as definedpreviously(seeEq' 26'55)'

ivtanynyarotogicvariablesare linearly related,and after estimatingthe regres-
rangeof
sion coeffici"ntr, p."di"tion of y can be madefor any value of x within the
is often performed but should be
observedx values.Extrapolationoutsidethe range
7
done wfth caution.Equation 26.48 showsthat the variancein the estimateof y for a
givenx valuebecomeslargewhenx is severalstandarddeviationsaboveor belowthe
mean.
EXAMPLE 26.6
The lowestannualflows for a l2-yr period on the Jacksonand CowpastureRivers are
tabulatedin Fig. 26.8. The stationsare upstramof the confluenceof the two rivers
that form the JamesRiver. Find the regressionequationand the correlationbetween
low flows.
Solution
The basicstatisticsare2 x : 1016;) y : 997;2 x2 : 9 1 , 2 1 6 ; 2 :
l "
88,777;and2 xy : 89,209.
t For the two-variableregressiona and B are found from Eqs.26;60and
26.61,.
-
_ [ ( 8 9 , 2 0 e ) ( l 0 t 6 x e e 7 ) / ( 1 2 ) ] :o Q o ?
(9r,216)- (tor6)' 102)
ee7 (0.e23x1016)
: 4'9r
o:
i
The regressionis y : 4.91 + 0.923x.
3. The correlation coefficientfrom Eq.26.62 is
(0.e23)(2r.7)
: 0:86
23.2
4. From F;q.26.64the standarderror of estimate,s,, is 11.7,which is plotted
line in Fig. 26.8. rl
as limits aroundthe regression
Coefficientof Determinationfor the Regression

A regressionequationreplaces(and extends)the data used in its development.Be-
causeit cannot reproduceall the basedata, the processresults in the loss of some
information. This not only includeslossof information aboutparticular pairs of data,
but alsoaboutthe variability of the data.The variancesf is a statisticalmeasureof the
variability of the measuredvaluesof y. The greaterthe valueof sl, the wider the spread
of points aroundthe mean.The percentageof information aboutthe variancein y that
is retained,or explainedby, the regrdssionequationis called the cofficient of deter-
mination, Cr. To determineits value,the residualsor departures(differencesbetween
actual and estimatedy values)haveknown variance4, which representsthe unac-
countedvariance in the regressionequation.The explainedvariance would be the
difference, 4 - o2, and the percentageretained (coefficient of determination)is
(26.66)
26.9 FITTINGREGRESSIONEQUATIONS 695
Comparisonwith Eq. 26.49 revealsthat

Co= Pz , (26.67)
Thus the squareofthe correlationcoefficientp is the percentageof d, explained
by the regression.For any sample of data the coefficient of determinationr2 is
estimatedas sl,rlslsl . A large r2 indicatesa goodfit of the regressionequationto the
databecausethe equationaccountsfor or is able to explaina large percentageof the
variation in the data.
EXAMPLE 26.7
Determinethe coefficientof determinationfor the regressionin Example26.6.
Solution, From Eq. 26.67,the coefficientof determination,r2, is 0.7396.
"accountsfor" about 74
Thus, the regressionequationadequatelyexplainsor
pefcent of the original information abouty containedin the raw data. Twenty-
six percentof the information is lost. I r
For exam-
The bivariateexamplecan be extendedto multiple linear r'bgressions.
ple, the linear model in three variables,with y the dependentvariable andx1 andx2
the independentvariables,has the form
y:a*F$t*Fzxz (26.68)
The normal equationsare
) y : an-r Br) t' * FrZ *, (26.6e)
)y"': ") xtt FrZ*?+ Fr2*,*, (26.70)
2 yr r : * ) xzI Fr 2 *r *, + F"2 *7 (26.7r)
The squareof the standarderror of estimateis
s7: 2(y,-r,)' (26.72)
where y, are the observedvaluesand y-,are predictedby Eq. (26.68). The multiple
correlation coefficient is
+)
^2\ | /2
n : ( t - (26.73)
s;/
in Hydrology
LinearTransformations
Strongnonlinearbivariateand multivariatecorrelationsare also commonin hydrol-
ogy, ind various mathematical models have been used to describethe relations.
Piiabolic, exponential, hyperbolic, power, and other forms have provided better
graphicalfits than straight lines. Becauseof difficulties in the derivation of normal

equationsusing least squaresfor thesemodels,many can be transformedto linear
forms. The most familiar transformationis a linearizationof mtiltiplicative nonlinear
relationsby using logarithms.For example,the equation
Y : g,xft1$z (26.74)
becomes linear when logarithms are taken, or
log y : log * + Bllo$ x1 -f B"Iog x2 (26.7s)
The log transformationprocedureresultsin a linear form when the logarithms
of one or both setsof measurements are substitutedin Eqs. 26.60 and 26.61.For
example,if a bivariateparabolicform I : qXb is suggestedby the data, logarithms
allow use of the linear form log Y : log a -t b log X. The normal equationscan be
usedby redefiningy : log Y,x : logX, e : log a, andF : b,thereby transforming
the equationto y : a * Bx. The regressioncannow be performedon the logarithms,
valuesof a and B determined,and the estimateof a is found by taking the antilog of
a. This transformationis possiblefor severalother nonlinearmodels,someof which
are shown in Table 26.4. The variablesx and y must be nonnegative,with values
preferably greaterthan 1.0 to avoid problemswith the log transformation.
OF NONLINEARFORMS
TABLE 26,4 LINEARTRANSFORMATIONS
Equation Abscissa Ordinate Eouationin linearform
Y=A+BX X I
lY): A + B[x]
Y = BeAx log Y tbc rl : locB + A(1oge)[x]
Y:AXB log X log Y tbc rl : bc A + B[tocX]
Y:ABx X log Y lloCrl : loCA + (loCB)[X]
Note.'Variables in brackets are the regressionvariates.
EXAMPLE 26.8
In the following exhibit (Table 26.5) preparedby Beard,20the regionalcorrelationis
soughtof the standarddeviationof flow logarithmswith the logarithmsof the drainage
areasize'andthe numberof rainy daysper year;X, is setequalto ( 1 t log s) to avoid
negativevalues.Find the regressionequationand the multiple correlationcoefflcient.
Solution
1. From Eqs.26.69,26.70, and26.7l, the parametersare

a : 1.34; Fr : -0.013; -0.49
Fz:
and the regressionequationis
Xt : 1.34- 0.0I3X2- 0.49X3
or log s : 0.34 - 0.013log(DA) - 0.49 log(days)
2. The multiple correlation coefficient from Eqs' 26.72 and 26.73 is R :
0.56. ll
APPLICATIONS
AND CORRELATION
26.10 REGRESSION 697
TABLE 26.5 LOGARITHMICDATA FOR 50 GAUGINGSTATIONS
Xr:1 + logs Xz: logDA & : log numberof rainY-daYs

Per Year
Station Station
x3 x1 numDer x2 xs x1
number X2
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7\ (8)
(1) (2)
2.11 0.29 33 1.94 1.87 0.20

I 1.61
2.12 0.18 34 z.tJ t.36 0.58
2 2.89
2.ll o.l7 35 3.63 1.81 0.64
3 4.38
2.04 0.44 36 1.91 1.58 0.37
4 3.20
2.07 0.38 37 2.26 1.48 o.27
5 3.92
2.04 0.3'7 38 2.97 1.89 0.54
o 1.61
2.09 0.30 39 0.70 r.32 0.63
7 3.2r
8 3.65 1.99 0.35 40 0.30 1.54 0.78
4I 3.38 1.62 0.46
q
3.23 z.rs 0.16
0.44
4.33 2.08 0.11 42 2.87 2.03
t0
0.32 43 2.42 2.26 0.24
11 1.60 2.09 -0.03
t2 2.82 2.00 0.34 44 4.53 1.93
2.00 0.25 3.04 1.78 0.30
I J 2.40
2.09 0.43 46 4.13 2.00 0.17
t4 3.69
0.2'l 4'7 |.49 2.Or 0.14
15 2.18 2.19
0.25 48 5.37 1.95 0.10
16 2.09 2.17
|.91 0.52 49 1.36 2.tl 0.27
17 4.48
1.9s 0.18 50 2.31 2.23 0.18
18 4.95
19 2.21. r.97 0.39
2.08 0.40 >X r4'7.55 96.24 17.89
20 3.4r
0.25 x 2.951 1.925 0.358
21 4.82 l 88
r.93 0.23 2 XX, 503.7779 285.5627 51.1527
22 r.78
L.74 0.54 2 X2 X2/n 435.4200 284.0042 52.7934
LJ 4.39 -r.640' 7
3.23 2.01 0.51 68.3579 1.5585
24
25 3.58 2.04 0.45
0.63 2 XX, r8'7.59r2 33.2598
26 1.64 1.78
1 . 76 0.45 2 X2 X,ln 185.2428 34.4347
27 4.58 -r.r749
3.26 1.93 0.59 1.5585 2.3484
28
29 4.29 1.81 0.46
0.32 8.1635
30 1.23 1.89
1.48 0.96 2X2X'ln 6.4010
3l 3.44 -1.6407
|.97 0.12 2 xx1 L7625
32 2.lt
Note: x = X - X. (AfterBeard.2o)
2 6 ' I o R E GR E S S |o N A N D C o RRELAT|oNAPPL|CAT|oNS
698 26 PROBABILIry
CHAPTER ANDSTATISTICS
desiredJtatisticalparameteras dependentvariable,and the appropriatephysicaland
climatic variableswithin the basinor regionas the independenlvariables. The proce-
dures are signiflcantly better than using relatively short historical sequencesand
point-frequencyanalysis.Not only doesthe methodreducethe inherently large sam-
pling errors but it furnishesa meansto estimateparametersat ungaugedlocations.
There are limitations to the techniquesof Section 26.9. First, the analyst as-
sumesthe form of the model that can expressonly linear, or logarithmically linear,
dependence.Second,the independentvariablesto be includedin the regressionanal-
ysis are selected.And, third, the theory assumesthat the independentvariablesare
indeedindependentand are observedor determinedwithout error. Advancedstatisti-
cal methodsthat are beyondthe scopeof this text offer meansto overcomesomeof
theselimitations but in practiceit may be impossibleto satisfy them. Therefore,care
must be exercisedin selectingthe model and in interpretingresults.
Accidental or casualcorrelationmay existbetweenvariablesthat are not func-
tionally correlated.For this reason,correlationshouldbe determinedbetweenhydro-
logic variablesonly when a physicalrelation can be presumed.Becauseof the natural
dependencebetween many factors treated as independentvariables in hydrologic
studies,the correlationbetweenthe dependentvariableand eachof the independent
variablesis different from the relative effect of the sameindependentvariableswhen
analyzedtogetherin a multivariatemodel. One way to guard againstthis effect is by
screeningthe variablesinitially by graphical methods.Another is to examine the
results of the final regressionequationto determinephysicalrelevance.
Alternatively,regressiontechniquesthemselvesaid in screeningsignificantvari-
ables.When electroniccomputationis available,a procedurecanbe followedin which
successive independentvariableSare addedto the multiple regressionmodel, and the
relative effect of eachis judged by the increasein the multiple correlationcoefficient.
Although statisticaltestscan be employedto judge significance,it is useful otherwise
to specify that any variable remain in the regressionequation if it contributesor
explains,say,1 or 5 percentofthe total variance,or ofR2. A frequentlyusedrqethod
is to computethe partial correlation cofficients for each variable.This statistic
representsthe relative decreasein the varianceremaining( 1 - R') by the addition of
the variablein question.If the varianceremainingwith the variableincludedin the
regression is (I - Rz) : pz and the variance remaining after removal is
(l - R'') : D'', then the partial regression correlation coefficient is
\D'' - D')lD''.
Most PC spreadsheetsoftware packageshave statistical routines for all the
analysesdescribedhere and many more. Most are extremelyflexible,requiringmini-
mal instructions-andinput data other than raw data. Specialmanipulationscan effect
an interchangeol dependentand independentvariables,bring one variableat a time
into the regression equation, rearrange the independent variables in order of
significance,and perform various statisticaltests.
ExtendingHydrologicRecords
Regressiontechniquesfrequently can be used to extend short records if significant
correlation existsbetweenthe station of short record and a nearby station with a
- lorigerreeord.Iq Example26.6,if the JacksonRiver recordswerecompletefromI94l
PROBLEMS 699
to datebut the Cowpasturerecordswere incompleteafter 1952,the cross-correlation
could be usedto estimatethe missingyearsby solvingthe regressionequationfor I
from 1953 on usingthe X flows as observed.The reliability of suchmethodsdepends
on the correlationcoefficientand the length ofthe concurrentrecords.Ifthe concur-
rent record is too short or the correlation weak, the standarderror of the parameter
to be estimatedcan be increasedand nothing is gained.The limiting value of cross-
correlation for estimatingmeansis approximatelyp : l/\/ n, where n is the length
of the concurrentrecord.21Thus any correlation above0.3 would improve the Cow-
pasturerecords.Estirnatesof other parameterswith larger standarderrors require
highercross-correlationfor significantimprovement.Extendingor filling in deficient
recordsoften is necessaryfor regional studiesin which every record usedshould be
adjustedto the samelength.
HydrologicVariables
Regionalized
Predicting.
Cruff and Rantzz2studiedvariousmethodsof regional flood analysisand found the
multiple regressiontechniquea better predictor than either the index-floodmethod
(Chapter27) or the fitting of theoreticalfrequencydistributionsto individual histori-
cal records.They flrst usedregressiontechniquesto extendall recordsto a common
base length. Next they extrapolatedby various methods to estimate the 50- and
100-yearflood events and with multiple correlation examined several dependent
variables including the drainage areaA, the basin-shapefactor (the ratio of the
diameterof a circle of sizeA to the length of the basin measuredparallel to the main
channel)Sa,channelslopeS, the annualprecipitationP, and others.They found only
A and S, to be significant, which resulted in prediction equations of the form
Q, : cAS!,. These equationswere superior to those of the other techniques.The
multiple correlation coefficientwas as high as 0.954.It is interestingthat regression
techniqueswereemployedin still a third way,that is, to estimateregionalvaluesof the
mean and standarddeviation after adjustingthe record length. Example26.8 illus-
' trated the applicationof regressionanalysisto regionalizethe standarddeviationof
annual maximum flow logarithms as a function of the drainage area size and the
number of rainy dayseachyear.
r summary
Statisticsis a diversesubject,and the treatmentin this chapterhasbeennothing more
than an introduction. Seriousstudentsand practitionersmust return againand again
to the theory in standardworks.23They will find that evaluatingnew developments
of statis-
and techniquesmust claim a large shareof their time. Only certain aspects,
tical hydrologyhave been presented,principally the common distributionsand the
methodsfor analyzingfrequency of eventsobservedat a single point. In the next
chapterthis information is extendedto common applicationsin hydrology.
PROBLEMS
26.1. The probabilitiesof eventsE1 andE2 arc each.3. What is the probability that E1 or
E2 will occur when (a) the eventsare independentbut not mutually exclusive,and
- (b) whenthe probabilityof Et, given E2is .l?
700 CHAPTER26 ANDSTATISTICS
PROBABILITY
26.2. EventsA and B are independenteventshaving marginal probabilities of.4 and .5,
respectively.Determine for a single trial (a) the probability that both A and B will
occur simultaneously,and (b) the probability that neither occurs.
26.3. The conditional probability, P(E, I E,r),of a power failure (given that a flood occurs)
is .9, and the conditionalprobability,P(Ez I E), of a flood (given that a powerfailure
occurs)is .2. If the joint probability, P (\ andE), of a power failure and a flood is
.1, determinethe marginal probabilities,P(E) and P(E).
26.4. Describetwo random eventsthat are (a) mutually exclusive,(b) dependent,(c) both
mutually exclusiveand dependent,and (d)"neithermutually exclusivenor dependent.
26.5. A temporar;1cofferdamis to be built to protect the 5-yearconstructionactivity for a
major crossvalley dam. If the cofferdam is designedto withstand the 20-yearflood,
what is the probability that the structurewill be overtopped(a) in the flrst year, (b) in
the third year exactly,(c) at leastonce in the 5-yearconstrucfionperiod, and (d) not
at all during the 5-yearperiod?
26.6. A 33-yearrecord of peak annualflow rateswas subjectedto a frequencyanalysis.The
median value is defined as the midvalue in the table of rank-ordered magnitudes.
Estimatethe following probabilities.
, a. The probability that the annualpeak will equalor exceedthe medianvaluein any
singleyear.
b. The averageretlrrn period of the median value.
c. The probability that the annual peak in 1993 will equal or exceedthe median
value.
d. The probability that the peak flow rate next year will be less than the median
value.
e. The probability that the peak flow rate in all of the next 10 successive yearswill
be lessthan the median value.
f. The probability that the peak flow rate will equal or exceedthe median value at
leastoncein l0 successive years.
g. The probability that the peak flow rates in both of two consecutiveyears will
equal or exceedthe median value.
h. The probability that, for a2-yearperiod, the peak flow rate will equal or exceed
the median value in the secondyear but not in the first'
26.7. What return period must an engineeruse in his or her designof a bridge openingif
there is to be only a 50 percent risk that flooding will occur at least once in two
successiveyears?Repeatfor a risk of 100 percent.
26.8. A temporary flood wall has been constructedto protect several homes in the
floodplain. The wall was built to withstand any dischargeup to the 20-year flood
magnitude.The,wall will be removed at the end of the 3-year period after all the
homeshavebeen relocated.Determinethe probabilities of the following events:
a. The wall will be overtoppedin any year.
b. The wall will not be overtoppedduring the relocation operation.
c. The wall will be overtoppedat leastonce before all the homesare relocated.
d. The wall will be overtoppedexactly once before all the homesare relocated.
e. The wall will be adequatefor the flrst 2 years and then overtoppedin the third
year.
26.9. Waveheightsand their respectivereturn periods(shownon the next page)are known
for a 40-mi long reservoir.Ownersof a downstreamcampsitewill accepta 25 percent
risk that a proiective wall will be overtoppedby wavesat least once in a 2}-yeat
period. Determinethe minimum height of the protective wall.
PROBLEMS 701
Waveheight Returnperiod
(ft) (years)
10.0 100
8.5 50
7.4 30
5.0 10
3.5 5
26.10. Assumethat the channel capacityof 12,000cfs near a private home was equaledor
exceededin 3 of the past 60 years.Find the following:
a. The frequencyof the 12,000-cfsvalue.
b. The probability that the home will be floodednext year.
c. The return period of the 12,000-cfsvalue.
d. The probability that the home will not be floodednext year.
e. The probability of two consecutive,safeyears.
f. The probability of a flood at leastonce in the next 20 years.
g. The probability of a flood in the second,but not the first, of two consecutiveyears.
h. The 20-yearflood risk.
26,11, The distribution of mean annual rainfall at 35 stations in the JamesRiver Basin,
Virginia, is given in the following summary:
Interval(2-in. groupings) 36 or 37 in. 38 or 39 in. 40 or 41 in. 42 or 43 in. l

Numberof observations Z 4 j
Interval (2-in. groupings) 44 or 45 in. 46 or 47 in. 48 or 49 in. 50 or 51 in.

Numberofobservations 5 4 2 2
Computethe relative frequencies(seeChapter27) andplot the frequencydistribution

andthe cumulativedistribution.Estimatethe probability that the meanannualrainfall
(a) will exceed40 in., (b) will exceed50 in., and (c) will be betweenthesevalues.
26.12. Write a simpleprogram to READin N data points and compute the mean, standard
deviation,and skewnesscoefficient.
26.13. A normally distributedrandom variablehas a mean of 4.0 and a standarddeviation
of 2.0. Determinethe value of
f@
I
dx
- "8 I f(x)
26.14. For a standardnormal densitv
' function. use Table B.1 to determinethe value of
fr+'o
I fG) dx
J*-ro
26.15. A normal variableX has a meanof 5.0 and a standarddeviationof 1.0.Determinethe
value of X that has a cumulativeprobability of 0.330.
26.16. If the mode of a PDF is considerablylarger than the median, would the skew most
likely be positive or negative?
702 ANDSTATISTICS
26 PROBABILIW
CHAPTER
26.17. tomplete the following mathematicalstatementsabout the properties of a PDF by
insertingin the boxeson the left the correct item numberfrom the right. Assumethat
X is a seriesof annual occuffencesfrom a normal distributibn.
I
a. I f(x) dx: J r.Zerc
t "
:
b.
f'_ro,dx r 2.Unity
dx: '34
l-.o 'o'
3. Valuewith 5 percentchanceofexceedanceeachyear
d. dx:r 4. 0.68
f,o"
dx: .5 5. Valueexpectedevery 50 r"urc on the average
f-to,
f(x) dx : Z 6. P(X < mr)
I rt, dx: .02

'X'*r)
7.P(m1
8 . P ( m 1- X = m z )
l. 9. Median
10. Standarddeviation
26.18, The mean monthly temperaturefor Septemberat a weather station is found to be

normally distributed.The mean is 65.5" F, the varianceis 39.3'F2, and the record is
completefor 63 years.With the aid of TableB.1, find (a) the midrangewithin which
two thirds of all future mean monthly valuesare expectedto fall, (b) the midrange
within which 95 percentof all future valuesare expected,(c) the limit below which
80 percentof all future valuesare expected,and (d) the valuesthat are expectedto be
exceededwith a frequencyof oncein l0 yearsand oncein 100years.Verify the results
by plotting the cumulativedistribution on normal probability paper.
26.L9. The total annualrunoff from a small drainagebasinis determinedto be approximately
normal with a mean of 14.0 in. and a varianceof 9.0 in.2.Determinethe probability
that the annualrunoff from the basinwill be lessthan I 1.0 in. in all three of the next
three consecutiveyears.
26.20. In the past60 years,a dischargeof 30,000cfs at a streamgaugingstationwasequaled
or exceededonly three times. Determine the averagereturn period (years) of this
value.
26.21. EventsA and B are independentand havemarginal probabilitiesof .4 and .5, respec-
tively. Determine the following for a single trial:
a. The probability that both A and B occur.
b. The probability that neither occurs.
c. The probability that B, but notA, occurs.
?6il, Existingrecordsrevealthe following information aboutEventsA and 4 whereA = a
IongMerch'warmspellandB 1q :!94!$99!.
PROBLEMS 703
Year 1n
A : warm March? No No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

B : April flood? Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No
On the basisof the 10-yearrecord, answerthe following:

a. Are variablesA and B independent?Prove.
b. Are variablesA andB mutually exolusive?Prove.
c. Determinethe marginal probability of an April flood.
d. Determinethe probability of having a cold March next year.
e. Determinethe probability (onevalue)of havingboth a cold March and a flood-
free April next year.
f. If a long March warm spell hasjust endedtoday,what is the best estimateof the
probability of a flood in April?
26.23. Two dependenteventsarc A : a flood will occur in Omaha next year and B : an
ice-jam will form near Omahain the Missouri River next year. Useyour judgment to
rank from largestto smallestthe following probabilities:P(A), P(A andB), P (A or B),
P(A I B).
26.24. The probability of having a specifiedreturn period, [, is definedas:
P(annualvaluewill be equaledor exceeded I
: /, - \'-'
exactlyoncein a periodof r : I years) \' T,f
Also,
p (annualvalue will be equaledor exceeded
_ pn_r(l _ p)r
exactly r times in a period of n years)
a. According to the descriptionsin parentheses, the secondprobability shouldequal

the first when n and r are equal to what values?
b. Showthat both equationsresultin the sameprobability for an annualvaluewhose
frequencyis 33{ percentand the return period is Z.: /:3 years.Discusss.
26.25. For the function describedbelow, find (a) the number b that will make the function
a probability densityfunction, and (b) the probability that a singlemeasurementof x
will be lessthanl.
forx ( 0
.l \^)
-
{i",,' for0<x=b
forxlb
26.26. The random variabler representsdepth of precipitation in July. Betweenvaluesof

-r : 0 and x : 30, the probability densityfunction has the equation/(-r) : x/40p',.
In the past, the averageJuly precipitation p,, was 30 in.
a. Determine the probability that next July's precipitation will not exceed20 in.
b. Determinethe singleprobability that the July precipitatjon will equal or exceed
30 in. in all of five consecutiveyears.
26.27. The random variable-r representsdepth of precipitation in July. Betweenvaluesof
x : 0 and .r : 30, the probability densityfunction has the equation/(.x) : x/1200.
a. Determine the probability that next July's precipitation will not exceed20 in.
b. Determinethe probability that next July's precipitationwill equalor exceed30 in.
l---
26 PROBABILITY
26.28.
26.29.
26.30.
26.31..
26.32.
26.33.
26.34.
discharge
Measured recharge
Estimated
(1000acre-ft) (1000acre-ft)
12.2 t2.o
10.4 9.8
10.6 I 1.0
1.2.6 t3.z
14.2 14.6
13.0 14.0
14.0 14.0
t2.0 I z,+
10.4 10.4
tl.4 11.6
26.35. F i t a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n t o t h e d a t a i n P r o b l e m 2 6 ' 3 4 , t r e a t i l g d i s c h a r g e a s t h e
dependentvariable.computethestandarderrorofestimate.Estimatetheexpeoted
be the estimateof dischargeif no
dischargewhen recharg"ir 13 Kti what would
is the relative improvementprovided
information were availatie on recharge?what
by the regressionestimate?
linear regression'The program
26.36. prepare a computerprogramfor simple,two-variable,
X' (b) computethe means'variances'
should(a) read in N pain oioUt"tuuiions, Y and
Y andX, and (c) find the regressionconstants'the
and standarddeviationsoiUott'
coefficient. verify with the data in
standarderror of estimal-, u"J,ir" correlation
Problem26.34.
of the mean annual rainfall with the
26.37. From the following observations of variation How
altitude of the gauge,d";;;;; iinea, predi.tion equationfor the catchment.
well correlatedare rainfall and altitude?
)
i
PROBLEMS 705
Gauge Mean annual Altitudeof

number rainfall(in.) gauge (1000ft)
A A
1 22
2 28 4.4
1 <
3 25
< A
4 31
5 JZ 5.6
6 J I 5.6
7 36 5.8
8 35 6.0
9 36 6.6
10 46 6.6
1l 4l 6.8
12 4I 7.0
26.38. Estimatethe expectedrainfall in Problem 26.31 for a gaugeto be installed at an

altitude of 5500 ft.
26.39. The least-squares estimatesof A and B in the bivariateregressionequationY : A +
BXarcA: 2.0 andB : 3.0,whereYis atransformation definedaslogro)andXis
defined as 1o916;r.Ify and r are relatedby y : axb, determinethe valuesof a and b.
26.40. The time of rise of flood hydrographs(Z), deflnedasthe time a streamto rise from
for
low waterto maximum depthfollowing a storm,is relatedto the streamlength (L) and
the averageslope(S). From the information given below for 11 watershedsin Texas,
New Mexico, and Oklahoma, derive a functional relation of the form T,: aLbS'.
Watershed Ir L D
number (min) (1000ft) (fv10oo
ft)
I 150 18.5 7.93
2 90 14.2 19.0
3 60 25.3 t2.a
A 60 tt.7 13.3
5 100 9.7 11.0
6 75 8.1 15.0
7 90 21.'7 16.7
8 30 3.9 146.0
9 30 1.2 20.0
l0 45 J.J 64.0
11 50 J.) 33.0
26.4r, Repeat the exercise in Problem 26'40 by fitting the relation T,: dF", whete
F : L/{S with t in mi and S in ftimi. Plot the results on log-log paper.
26.42. The squareof the linear correlationcoefficientis calledthe proportion of the variance
that is "explainedby the regression."Describethe meaningof this phraseby evaluat-
ing the equationsgivenin the text.What varianceis explained,and what doesthe term
"explained" mean?
26.43. Twenty measuredpairs of valuesof normally distributedvariablesX and Y are ana-

lyzed, yielding valuesof X : 3O,V : 20, s' = 20, ands, : 0. Determinethe values
706 CHAPTER26 PROBABILITY
ANDSTATISTICS
d a andb and the standarddeviationof residualsfor a least-squares
fit usingthe linear
equationY:a+bX.
26.44. The least-squares equationy : A +
estimatesof A and B in the bivariateregres*sion
BXareA:2.OandB : I.0, whereyis atransformation definedaslog1eLIf Iand
X are relatedby Y : a(.b)',determinethe valuesof a and b.
26.45. Given a table of ten valuesof mean annual floods and correspondingdrainageareas
for a numberofdrainagebasins,statehow linear regressiontechniqueswould be used
to determinethe coefficientand exponent(p and 4) in the equation Qzzz : pAq.
26.46. What choiceof transformedvariablesI and X would provide a linear transformation
for y : a/(x3 + b)? Also, if a regressionon these transformed variables yields
I : 100 + 10X determinethe correspondingvaluesof a and b. Would the linear
transformationbe applicableto all possiblepairs and valuesofx and y?
26.47. Which measureof variation in a regressionY : a * bX is generallylargerin magni-
tude, the standarddeviation of I or the standarddeviation of residuals?For what
condition would the two valuesbe equal?
REFERENCES
1. Ven T. Chow, "Statisticaland ProbabilityAnalysisof HydrologicData," Sec. 8-1, in

Handbookof Applied Hydrology (V. T. Chow, ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
2. M. B. Fiering, "Information Analysis," in Water Supply and Waste Water Removal
(G. M. Fair, J. C. Geyer,and D. A. Okun, eds.).New York: Wiley, 1966,Chap.4.
3. J. R. Benjamin and C. Cornell, Probability, Statisticsand Decisionfor Civil Engineers.
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1969.
4. A. M. Mood and F. A. Graybill, Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, 2nd ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill. 1963.
5. A. J. Duncan,Quality Control and Statistics.Homewood,IL: RichardD. Irwin, Inc.,
1959.
6. P. G. HoeI, Introduction to MathematicalStatistics,3rd ed. New York: Wiley, 1962.
7. J. Aitchison and J. A. C. Brown, The Log-Normal Distributlon. New York: Cambridge
UniversityPress,1957.
8. H. A. Foster,"TheoreticalFrequencyCurves,"Trans.ASCE 87,142-203(1924).
9. L. R. Beatd, Statistical Methods in Hydrology, Civil Works Investigations,U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers,SacramentoDistrict, 1962.
10. "A Uniform Techniquefor DeterminingFlood Flow Frequencies,"Bull. No. 178, U.S.
GeologicalSurvey,1989.
11. "New Tablesof PercentagePoints of the PearsonType III Distribution," Tech. Release
No. 38, CentralTechnicalUnit, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture,1968.
12. M. B. Fiering, StreamflowSynthesis.Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press,1967.
13. F. E. Perkins,SimulationLecture Notes,SummerInstitute, "Applied MathematicalPro-
gramming in WaterResources,"University of Nebraska,1970.
14. E. J. Gumbel, "The Return Period of Flood Flows," Ann. Math. Statist. l2(2), L63-
190(June1941).
15. Ven T. Chow, "The Log-Probability and Its EngineeringApplication," Proc. ASCE 80,
1-25(Nov. 1954).
16. "Probability Tables and Other Analysis of Extreme Value Data," Series22, National
Bureauof StandardsApplied Mathematics,1953.
17. E. J. Gumbel, Statisticsof Extremes.New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,1958.
Chapter27
FrequencyAnalysis
r Prologue
. Presentmethodsused in hydrology to evaluatethe recurrenceof particular

magnitudesand durationsof random hydrologicvariables.
. Elaborateon the definitionsof freqUency,reiurrence interval, return period,
and risk analysisintroducedin Chapter10, Section10.4.
. Illustrate the diverseapplicationsof frequencyanalysisin hydrology.
. Teachseveralmethodsfor conductingfrequencyanalyses,includingthe useof
frequencyfactors that allow estimationof recurrenceintervals for variables
that follow conventionalprobability distribution functions.
. Introduce methods of point and regional frequency analysis and describe
regional USGSregressionequationsthat have been 4doptedthroughoutthe
U.S. for estimating flood flows for use in structure design and floodplain
analysis.
. Establishhow to estimatethe reliability of estimatesderived from point or
regional frequencyanalyses.
Explainthe widelyusedBulletin No. 17BLog-PearsonType III proceduresfor
performing uniform flood flow frequencyanalyses.
Describehow variousfederal agenciesapply frequencymethodsin designor
analysisof water resourcessystems.
In Chapter 26, probability and statistical characteristicsof random variables

were introduced,alongwith common distributionfunctions and principlesof regres-
sion and correlatiqn.The presentchapterprovidesapplicationsof theseprinciplesto
common hydrologicvariables.
27.1 FREQUENCY
ANALYSIS
The statisticalmethodspresentedin Chapter26 areusedmostfrequentlyin describing

hydrologicdata suchas rainfall depthsand intensities,peak annual discharge,flood
flows, low-flow durations,and the like. Frequencyanalysiswas introduced in Sec-
ANALYSIS 709
FREQUENCY
27.2 GRAPHICAL
tion 10.4 and is defined as the inve

recurrencAor probabilitiesof magnit
wise, the frequencYof a hYdrologic
discretevariablewill occur or some'
exceededin anY given Year'The lat
probability or exceedance freq-uenc
ir"qo"n"Y is a ProbabilitYand has
ceedancsfrequencY,as shownbYEc
Two methods of frequencYa
plotting techniqueto obtain the cum
iu"to.t. The cumulativedistribution
the probability of an eventequal to
is used to obtain recurrencerntervz
tioned whenworking with recordssl
ofexpectedhydrologiceventsgreaterthantwicetherecordlength.
ANALYSIS
FREQUENCY
27.2 GRAPHICAL
The frequencYof an event can be
When annualmaximum valuesare
imated as the meantime in Years'\
exceededonceon the average'The t
be shownto be
m
tuf,lj
(21.r)
x:
where 7 = the mean number of exceedances

N = the number of future trials
n : -oi of values
the number
to I
m: therunt descendingvalues,with largestequal
If the mean number of exceedances t : 1' N : T' and
4 - -
n ) l (21.2)
I _
m
indicatingthattherecurfenceintervalisequaltothenumberofyearsofrecordplus
1, divided bY the rank of the event'
They give different results as
Severalpictting p*liion formulas are available'l for 10 yearsof record
notedin Table2'7' .1,.The rangein recurrencerntervalsoutained
plotting position formulasdo not account
is illustratedin the right-hani column.Most
formula ihat doesaccountfor samplesize
for the samplesizeor length of record. One
generalform
wa, giuen by Gringorten' and has the
.r1 - n * l - 2 a (27.3)
r -
m - a
710 CHAPTER2TFREQUENCYANALYSIS
TABLE 27.1 PLOTTINGPOSITIONFORMULAS
Form:1
andn=10
Method Solve for P (X > x\ P
m
California .10 l0
n
2m-l
Hazen .05 20
Beard 1 - (0.5)'/' .067 14.9

fn
Weibull .091 11
n * l
m-0.3
Chegadayev .06'l 14.9
n+0.4
Blom ,m-i .061 t6.4

n+i
3m-l
Tukey .065 15.5
3n*l
where n : the number of yearsof record

the rank
a parameterdependingon n as follows:
n 10 20 30 40 50
a 0.448 0.443 0.442 0.441 0.440
n 60 70 80 90 100
a 0.440 0.440 0.440 0.439 0.439
In general,a : 0.4 is recommendedin the Gringortenequation.If the distribu-

tion is approximatelynormal, , : fi is used.A value of a : 0.44 is usedif the data
follows a Gumbel distribution.
The techniquein all casesis to arrangethe datain increasingor decreasingorder
of magnitudeand to assignorder number m to the ranked values.The most efficient
formula for computingplotting positionsfor unspecifieddistributions,l and the one
now commonly usedfor most sampledata, is the Weibull equation
m
P _ (27.4)
n-fI
Whenm is rankedfrom lowestto highest,P is an estimateof the probability of values

being equalto or lessthan the rankedvalue,that is, P(X < x); whenthe rank is from
highestto lowest,P is P(X > x). For probabilitiesexpressedin percentages,
the value
is IA\ml@ + 1). The probability that X: .x is zero for any continuousvariable.
27.4 REGIONALFREQUENCYANALYSIS 721
regiond'lstudies.Methodsof "smoothing" and averagingregionalvaluesof skewness

havealsobeenproposed.ro'15
Many techniquesused in the past for generalizingregi6nal characteristicsdid
not rely on statisticalconsiderations.The so-calledstation-yearmethodof extending
rainfall recordshasprovedhelpful but has questionablestatisticalvalidity, especially
if applied to dependentseriesor to stationsin nonhomogeneous areas.The method
has been used to combine, say,two 25-yearrecords to obtain a single 50-year se-
quence. In practice, the analyst may have to use imagination and ingenuity to
summarizeregional characteristics,while remaining awareof actual and theoretical
considerations,
lndex Flood Method

The index-floodmethodusedin the pastby the U.S. GeologicalSurveyis an example
of summarizingregional characteristicssuccessfully.t''tuThe method usesstatistical
databut combinesthem in graphicalsummaries.It canbe supplemented andgenerally
improved by using statisticalmethods,employing,for example,the regressiontech-
niquesexplainedin Chapter26.The index method,as illustrated in Fig. 27.4, canbe
outlined as follows.
1. Preparesingle-stationflood-frequencycurves for each station within the

homogeneous region (Fig. 27.4a).
2. Compute the ratio of flood dischargestaken from the curves at various
frequenciesto the mean annual flood for the samestation.
3. Compileratios for all stationsand find the medianratio for eachfrequency
(Fi5.27.4b).
4. Plot the median ratios againstrecurrenceinterval to produce a regional
frequencycurve (Fig. 27.4c).
Two statistical considerationsinvolved are (1) a homogeneitytest to justify

definitionof a region, and(2) a methodfor extendingshortrecordsto placeall stations
on the samebaseperiod. A somewhatsimilar techniquewas developedby Potterfor
the Bureau of Public Roads.rTIt relies on the graphical correlation of floods with
physical and climatic variables and is thus a techniquethat refers in part to the
discussion in Chapter26 (seealso Chapter16).
U.S.G.S.RegionalRegressionEquations
Early in the 1950s,the U.S. Geologicalsurvey institutedaprocessof correlatingflood
flow magnitudqsand frequencieswith drainagebasin characteristics.Setsof regres-
sionequationsfor the 2-,5-, l0-,25-,50-, and 100-yearfloodshavebeendeveloped
for practically everyhydrologicallyhomogeneous regionin every state.The work was
largely inauguratedto developmethodsfor estimatingpeak flow rates for designof
highway structuresat ungaugedbasins.Data from gaugedsites was evaluatedby
regional analysisto provide the best fit of regressionmodelsto the data.
Continuouswater stagerecordersand crest-stagegaugedata were consultedto
developfrequencycurvesfor all gaugedwatersheds.Given the frequencycurves,a
6000
5000
o
4000
a
I
o 3000
po I
ts
2000 c")
c..l I
I
1000
0
i' 50 100
1.01 1.1 2 5 1 0 2 0
interval(Yr)
Recurrence
(al
Recurrenceintervals (Yr)
station 1.1 1.5 5 10 20 50
1 ^ ALt n ?< 1 AA 1 q? ).55 3.03
(b)
3.0
2.8
I
2.2
6 2.0
o 1.8
l.o ' :
I
7.4
o
t.2
po
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
1.01 1.1 t.52 10 5 50 100
interval(Yr)
Recurrence
(cl
Figure27.4 Index-floodmethod of regional flood frequency

an-alysis:(a) single-stationflood frequencycurve, (b) ratios Q'
to Qr.rrfor 15 stations,and (c) regional flood frequencycurve'
ANALYSIS 723
FREQUENCY
27.4 REGIONAL
numberof correlationtestswere madeusingmultiple linear regressionto predict the
peak flows from various easily obtained independentparameterssuch as drainage
area,basinslope,watershedaspect,elevation,meantemperatureduringthe snowmelt
season,and hundredsof other variables'
Each study was reportedby state.The open file or water resourceinvestigation
reports are availablefrom the USGS and include discussionsof the equations,com-
1n"ntron rangeof applicability,information on the reliability of the equations,copies
of all the gaugedbasin frequencycurves,and.setsof equationsfor estimatingfloods
in ungaugid watersheds. Equationsfor all stateshavebeen compiledby the U.S.
Ceotogicit Survey into a PC software packagecalled NFF (National Flood Fre-
qu"n"y;,
- availablefrom tJreusGS (or FHWA as part of their package,HYDRAIN)'
Figure 27.5 showsthe six regionsfor the stateof Texas.Regionalregressionwas
conductedindependentlyby regionusingavailablegaugedstationdata.As in many of
the reports, the Texasmanual revealsthat different independentvariableswere se-
lectedfor eachregion.18The equationsdevelopedfgr Region2 are:
Q,
: 216 Aos74So'12s (27.r2)
Qs
: 322 Ao62oso
184 (27.r3)
Qro
:
389 Ao6a6So'2ta (27.r4)
Qr,
236
= 485 Ao 668510 (27.rs)
: 555 Ao 6825'0'250 ' (27.16)
Qro
Qrco
: 628 Ao 6e4s0261 (27.r7)
where g : peak dischargefor given frequency,cfs
A : drainagearea,squaremiles
S : averageslopeof the streambedbetweenpoints 10 and 85 percentof the
distancealons the main streamchannelfrom the mouth to the basin
divide, feet per mile
EXAMPLE 27.6
Develop estimates of flood peaks for a 200-square-mile rural watershed near Dallas.
The mean slope between the 10 and 85 percent points is 3.4 ft per mile.
Solution. Dallas is in Region 2. Equations 2712-27.17 give:
Qr: 2 1 6 A o s 1 a s o l 2:s 5 , 2 7 0 c f s
- :
O s : 3 2 2 4 0 6 2 0 5 0 1 8 o 1 0 , 7 7 0c f s
:
Q r o : 3 8 9 A o ' 6 a 6 s o ' 2 1 a1 5 ' 4 9 0c f s
:22'300 cfs
Q r r : 4 8 5A 0 6 6 8 5 0 2 3 6
:
Q r o : 5 5 5 A o 6 8 2 s o 2 5 o 2 7 , 8 0 0c f s
: ll
Qrco : 628 Ao6e4so261 34,170 cfs
724 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSTS
UNDEFINED
Pacoa
,'7-
I
N D
R E
Figure 27.5 Hydrologicregionsin Texasfor 1976USGSregional regressionequations.(From

Ref. 18.).
NationalFlood Frequency(NFD Program
Since1973,regression equationslike Eqs.27.I2 through27:t7 for estimatingflood-
peak dischargesfor rural, unregulatedwatershedshavebeenpublished,at leastonce,
for every stateand the Commonwealthof PuertoRico. In 1993the USGS,in cooper-
ation with the FederalHighwayAdministration and the FederalEmergencyManage-
ment Agency,compiled all of the current statewideand metropolitanarearegression
equationsinto a microcomputerprogramtitled the National Flood Frequency(NFF)
Program.reThis program summarizesregressionequationsfor estimatingflood-peak
techniquesfor estimatinga typical flood
dischargesfor all52 states.It also addresses
hydrographfor a given recurrenceinterval or exceedence probability peak discharge
for unregulatedrural and urban watersheds.The prograr4 lists statewideregression
equationsfor rural watershedsand providesmuch of the reference information and
input data neededto run the computerprogram.Regression equations for estimating
urban flood-peak dischargesfor severalmetropolitan areas in at least 13 statesare
also available.
Information on computerspecificationsand the computerprogramare given.rT
Instructionsfor installing NFF on a personalcomputerand a descriptionof the NFF
program and the associateddata base of regressionstatistics are also given. The
program is available as part of the Federal Highway Administration package,
HYDRAIN, or by itself. Thoughthe USGSand FHWA do not distributeor servicethe
software,information about vendorswho provide softwaresalesand servicecan be
obtainedby contactingthe agencies.
Flood Frequencyfrom ChannelGeometry

Stream channelsin alluvial systemsdeveloptheir width, depth, slope, and other
hydraulicgeometrycharacteristicsfrom the compositehydrographsthat flow through
their valleys. It has been demonstratedthat the shapeof some streamchannels,if
properly evaluatedby trained hydrologists,can be correlatedwith the mean annual
flow, peak annual flow, bank-full flow, and the dominant, or channel=forming,dis-
. charge.Regressionequations,similar to Eqs. 27.12-27.I7, havebeen successfully
derivedfor many perennialstreamswith very reasonablestandarderrors of estimate.
Measurementsfor these studiesare normally obtained during low flow. The
channelof interestis that channelbeing maintainedby the current flow regime.It is
characterized by the activechannel,limited laterally by the point barsand mostrecent
geologicfloodplaindeposits.It is felt that theserepresentthe most recentdepositions,
and are thereforeindicative of the width neededby the current flow and sediment
transport regipe. Figure 27.6 rll:ustratesthe principle in determining the active,
floodplain-buildingchannel,established'forthe exampleas the width A-A .
Suchstudieshavebeenconductedin Nevadd,California, Kansas,Colorado,and
elsewhere.A USGSinvestigationof 53 gaugedstreamsin mountainregionsof Colo-
rado resultedin the following equations.2o
Qz = 0.666 Wr'eoaD*o (27.r8)
Q, : 1.53 W1.682D-o2stAo'017 (27.r9)
Qr6
: 2.38 W1
53o
D-o
2se
A.o
t43 (27.20)
Referenceline
Low-flow water level
Distance, in feet
Figure27.6 Typical streamcross-section,illustrating active channeldimensions'(From

Ref. 20.)
Q25
: 3.70 Wr'372D-o263Ao2rs (27.2r)
Qro
: 4.93 W127aD-02s6Ao'257 (27.22)
where Q : peakflow for the given frequency,cfs
W = iop width of streamat bank-full condition, ft
D : mean depth for bank-full flow, ft
A : cross-sectionareaat bank-full flow, sq ft
The multiple correlation coefficientsfor theseequationsranged from 0-80 for the
50-yrflow to 0.89 for the2-yr event.Standarderrors,respectively, ranged_from 42' 1
percentto 32.2percent. These types of investigationsoffer yet another tool for usein
estimating p"uk flo*r, and allow the hydrologist to evaluate floods by site-specific
conditionsversusmore uncertain regionalparameters'
RegionalRainfallCharacteristics
The variation of rainfall frequencieswith duration was introduced in Chapter 2'
Regressionanalysiscan be usedto I
thoseshownin ChaPter15, and the
Many formulashavebeenusedin t
a form with intensity(i) inverselypt
of the form i : AIQ + B) to fit
constantsA andB thereforeserveascharacteristicfeaturesof both the rainfall region
and the frequencyof occurrencein eacharea'
728 CHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 27.7
Fit the following rainfall datato determinethe 10-yearintensity-duration-frequency
curve.
r : duration (min) 5 r0 15 30 60 t20

i : intensity (in./hr) 7.r 5.9 5.1 3.8 z-) 1 A
Ui o.t4 o.l7 0.20 0.26 0.43 0.71,
Solution
1.. A model of the form i : AIG * B) can be expressedin linear form as

lli:tlA+BlA.
,,
The regressionof l.li versust yields l/i : 0.005t + 0'12, from which
A : 2 0 0 a n d B: 2 4 .
3. Thus the rainfall formula is i : 200/(t + 24). The correlation coefficient
is -0.997. ll
Maximum averagerainfall depths have been publishedby the U.S. Weather

for durationsbetween30 min and24hr and for recurrenceintervalsbetween
Bureau22
depthrelation showninFig.27.7.
c 100
N
o
F
o
24ft
'a 9u
6hr
\\ 3hr
t 8 0
F
e 'ro lhr
mln
q
\
* 6 0
b - "
50
150 350 400
Area(mi2)
Figare 27,7 Area-depth curves for use with duration frequency
values.(U.S. WeatherBureau.)
FREQUENCY
27.4 REGIONAL ANALYSIS 729
The accuracyof arearainfall data dependshedvily on the densityand location
of gaugesthroughoutthe areaconsidered.The simpleaveragingof the accumulation
in all gaugesgivesno considerationof the effectiveareaaround eachgaugeor to the
stormpattern.Two methodsare availablein calculatingthe weightedaverageof gauge
records, the Thiessen polygon method and the isohyetal method. The Thiessen
methodassumesa linear variation of rainfall betweeneachpair of gauges.Perpendic-
ular bisectorsof the connectinglines form polygonsaround each gauge(or partial
polygonswithin the areaboundary).If a sufficientnumberof gaugesare availableto
constructcontoursof rainfall depth (isohy.ets),the weightingprocesscan be carried
out by using the averagedepth betweenisohyetsand the area includedbetweenthe
isohyetsand the areaboundaries.Figure 27.8 showsboth schemes.
An exampleof the effect of gaugelocation and density is shown inFig.27.9.
Figure 27.9ashowsthe increasein variability betweenThiessen-weighted stormrain-
falls and rainfall at a singlegaugeas the distanceof singlegaugesfrom the watershed
centerincreases.Figure 27.9b showsthe effect of gaugedensityand total areaon the
standarderror of the mean.Completestudiesof precipitationpatternsoverlargeareas
requiredetailedanalysisof depth-area-duration datathat dependon the masscurves
of accumulationfrom a network of gauges.The methodis describedin detail in other
references.23-25. Figure 27.I0 depictsthe depth-area relation for the 24-hr storm
shownin Fig. 27.8.It also required observationstaken at variousdurationsand the
successivedeterminationof averagedepthsby the isohyetalmethod.
(a) (b)
Figure 27.8 Methods of determiningrainfall averages:(a) Thiessennetwork (24-hr total;
averagebasin precipitation = 2.54 in.) and (b) isohyetal map (24-hr total; averagebasin
precipitation = 2.50 in.), The arithmetic averageover the basin = 39.10/15 * 2.61 in.
730 OHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
H U.+
>.=
O F
(n
n
Distance from rain gauge to watershed center (mi)

(a)
H
6
6
b 9
g R
500
(mi2)
Areapergauge
(b)
Figure27.9 (a) Relationbetweenthe standarddeviationof the watershed
ill"lH"rffi a4tlt,ililliT,i',l:##-:":::
:1111i:ifli'ffi
cipitation as a function of the network density and drainageare for the
Muskingumbasin.(U.S. WeatherBureau')
STUDIES
27.5 RELIABILIWOF FREQUENCY
A significantdevelopmentof theoretical statisticsis the central limit theorem.As a
.on*-rqu"n"" of the law of large numbers,the central limit theorem statesthat for a
populationwith finite varianceoz anda meanp, the distributionof samplemeans-
itrut ir, a numberof equally good meansfrom repeatedsamples-will be distributed
themselvesas a normal disiribution with meanp, anda varianceequalto a2fn, where
or is the population standard deviation. This theorem does not limit the type of
under$ing population distributionbut saysthat the distribution of the sampl" *9-uts
will approacha normal distribution as the samplesizeincreases.The statisticalY n
is the siandarddeviationof the distributionof meansand is called lhe standarderror
27.5 RELIABILIWOF FREQUENCYSTUDIES 731
9 z
o
00
< 1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 Figure27.10 Depth-area-duration curves

Area (mi2) for24-hr stormofFig.27'8. (FromRef' 23')
their
of the mean. Listed in Table 27.6 are severalparametersof distributionsand
and therefore reliability, are
standard errors. It is apparent that standard errors,
almost completelya function of the samplesize'
ConfidenceLimits
based
It is possibleto placeconfidencelimits on the measurementof a samplemean
of the underlying population'
on the normal distribution of all meansand regardless
variate
As mentionedearlier,approximatelytwo thirds of the observationsof a normal
- deviation' Therefore,two thirds
shouldfall betweentheiimits of + i and 1 standard
limits +olfi. The 95 percent
of all sample means should occur between the
confidencelimits for the mean are
ment requires knowledgeof the u
only s2insteadof o2 is known and
confidencelimits for a samPlemeat
For more
the use of samplingdistributionsthat are beyond the scope of this text.
hypothesis testing and
information in ine neta of inferential statistics-in particular,
statisticaldecisiontheory-the readermust turn to other sources.
Approximateerror limits or control cufvescan be placedon freqlency curves.
curve
metdd proposedby Beardsinvolvesplacinglines aboveand below the fitted
TABLE27.6
Measure error
Standard
Mean "/{!_
Standarddeviation a/\/2n
Coefficientof variation c,\/r + zcl/vzn
x6t" - D/tn + l)(n - 2\(n + 3)
Coefficient of skewness
732 CHAPTER2T FREQUENCYANALYSIS
TABLE27.7 ERROR LIMITSFOR FLOOD FREQUENCYCURVES
Yearsof Exceedancefrequency (7o,at 5ololevel)

record
(n) 99.9 99 50 10 0.1
5 r.22 1.00 0.76 0.95 2.12 3.4r 4.41

10 o.94 0.76 0.57 0.58 1.07 1.65 2.11
I.) 0.80 0.65 0.48 0.46 0.79 1.19 1.52
20 0.71 0.58 0.42 0.39 Q.64 0.97 t.23
30 0.60 0.49 0.35 0.31 0.50 0.74 0.93
40 0.53 0.43 0.31 0.27 0.42 0.61 0.77
50 0.49 0.39 0.28 0.24 0.36 0.54 0.67
'70 0.30 0.44 0.s5
0.42 0.34 0.24 0.20
100 0.37 0.29 o.2l 0,17 0.25 0.36 0.45
0.1 10 50 90 99 99.9
Exceedancefrequency (%, at 95% level)
Nate: Tabular valuesare multiples ofthe standarddeviation of the variate. Five percent error limits are addedto the
flood value from the fitted curve at the sameexceedancefrequency and the sum plotted. Ninety-five percent limits
are subtractedfrom the flood value at the sameexceedancefrequency. Log values are added or subtractedbefore
antilogging and plotting.
to form a reliability band. Table27.7 showsthe factorsby which the standarddevia-

tions of the variatemust be multiplied to mark off a 90 percentreliability band above
and below the frequencycurve. The 5 percentlevel, for example,meansthat only 5
percentof future valuesshouldfall higherthan the limit, and,similarly,only 5 percent
shouldfall under the 95 percentlimit. Nine of ten should fall within the band.
EXAMPLE 27.8
The maximum annual instantaneousflows from the Maury River near Lexington,
Virginia, for a26-yearperiod are listed in Table 27.8.
Plot the log-PearsonIII curve of best fit and determinethe magnitudeof the
flood to be equaledor exceededonce in 5, 10, 50, and 100 years.Using Table 27.7,
also plot the upper and lower confidencelimits.
Water Discharge Water Discharge

(year) (cfs) (year) (cfs)
1926 6,730. 1935 13,800 1944 6,680

1927 9,150 t936 40,000 1945 6,540
1928 6,310 1937 10,200 1946 5,560
1,929 10,000 1938 13,400 t947 7,700
1930 15,000 1939 8,950 1948 8,630
t93l 2,950 1940 11,900 1949 14,500
1932 8,650 t941 5,840 1950 23,700
1933 I 1,100 1942 20:t00 1951 15,100
1934 6,360 t943 12,300
STUDIES 733
OFFREQUENCY
27.5 RELIABILITY
Solution
1. The statisticalcalculationsare summarizedas follows:
Arithmetic Log
Mean 7 11,606 4.001

Variances2 53.87 x 106 0.051b
Skew coefficient C" 2.4 " 0.38
2. After forming an array and computingplotting positions,the data are plot-

ted in Fig. 27.11.
3. Plottingdatafor log-PearsonIII (Table27.9) aredevelopedfrom TableB.2' ;
Confidencelimits are plotted in Fig. 27.II usingTable 27.7. r I
0.01
0.05
0.1
0.2
Log-Pearson
0.5 IIIFit
1
2
5
V
F t 0
g r o ',;/
d
I
-
bo 30
"
:l
t.,
? + o
d
5r)
'"
360
9" 70
d
t
6 a o a
o
o . 9 0 /-
a,
95
98
99
99.8
99.9
99.99
r 2 4 6 1 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 1 0 0
Annualmaximum (1000cfs)
discharge
Figure 27.11 Maximum instantaneous annual flows, Maury River,
Lexington,Virginia.
TABLE 27,9
(t: 4.001)
Chance / (c" = 0.38) (sy= 0'227)
('/") (vr) K y + Ksy: logQ
99 1.01 -2.044 3.537 1 44?
95 1.05 - 1.530 3.653 4,498

90 1.11 - \.zJ+ 3.721 < )6n
80 1.25 -0.855 3.760
50 2 -0,062 3.987 9,705
20 5 0.818 4.ft1 15,380
l0 l0 1.315 4.300 19,950
4 25 t.874 4.426 26,690
2 50 2.251, 4.512 32,5t0
I 100 2.60r 4.591, 39,030
0.5 200 2.930 4.666 46,360
SERIES
ANALYSISOF PARTIALDURATION
27.6 FREQUENCY
In earlier examplesof frequency analysis,only the seriesof annual maximum or
minimum occurrencesin the hydrologicrecord havebeen described.Theseextremes
constitutean annual series thal is consistentwith frequencyanalysisand the manip-
ulation of annualprobabilitiesof occurrence.All the observeddata-say, all floods
or all the daily streamflows-would constitutea completeseries.Any subsetof the
completeseriesis a partial series.In selectingthe maximumannualeventsfrom a
record, it often happensthat the secondgreatesteventin one year exceedsthe annual
maximum in some other year. Analysis of the annual seriesneglectssuch events.
Although they generally contain the same number of events,the extreme values
analyzedwithout regardfor the period (i.e., year)of occurrence,is usuallytermedthe
partial duration series.
In Table27.10 themaximumrainfall depthsthat occurredfor any 30-min period
duringexcessive rainfallsat Baltimore,Maryland,1.945-1954,areshownin the order
of occurrence. The 65 observations representa completeseries,The 11 maximum
annual eventsare underlined and represent the annual series.the greatest11 events
throughoutthe record are identifiedby an asteriskand representthe partial duration
series.
The larger numbersoccur in both series,and hencerecurrenceintervalsfor the
less-frequenteventsare the same.The theoreticaldifferencesin recurrenceintervals
based on annual and partial duration series of the same length are shown in
TabIe27.Il. The differencefor intervalsgreaterthan 10 years is negligible.The
following exampleis illustrative.
EXAMPLE 27.9
Performa frequencyanalysisof the 30-min Baltimore rainfall data in Table27.L0 as
an annual and apafiial duration seriesand plot the results.
Solution. SeeTable27.I2. The data are plottedin Fig' 27'1'2. r r
DURATION
OF PARTIAL
ANALYSIS
27.6 FREQUENCY SERIES 735
RAINFALL
TABLEi7.1O MMIMUM3O-MIN DEPTHS, MD,1945_1954
BALTIMORE,
RF RF
Storm depth Storm depth
Year num0er (in.) Year number (in.)
1945 1 0.38 1.33* 1953 1 0.40

z 0.47 0.65 z 0.45
J 0.39 0.47 J 0.53
I
0.76 0.84 A
2.50*
5 0.56 0.68 5 r.03
6 0.35 0.63 6 0.75
7 0.43 0.47 7 0.70
8 0.40 8 1.00*
9 0.36
0,52
0.49
1 0.62 1 0.42
2 0.55 2 0.70
J 0.88 0.55 3 0.85
4 0.47 0.63 4 0-30
5 0.36 0.69
6 1.15* t.27* 1955 1 0.70
7 0.75 1.10* 2 0.95
8 1.53* 3 t.o2
9 0.51 0.88 4 0.50
0.97 5 0.65
1947 I 0.88 0.59 6 0.55
'l 0.52
z 2.04* 0.46
J 0.76 0.50 8 0.45
A
0,97 0.55 9 0.54
5 0.71 0 0.60
6 1.07* t952 I , 0.47 I 0.80
7 0.94 2 1.20* 2 0.95
8 r.20* 3 0.93
4 0.70
5 0.57
6 0.46
7 0.48
8 1.30*
Nole: Underlineditems are the annual series.Asterisks identify the partial duration series.
TABLE27.1'I RELATIONBETWEEN
THE
PARTIAL
DURATION
SERIES
ANDTHEANNUALSERIES
Recurrenceinterval(yr)
Partialdurationseries Annualseries
0.5 t.2
1.0 1.6
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
5.0 5.5
10.0 10.5
TABLE27.12
Recurrence
Depth(in.)
interval
Annual series Partial series (n + 1)/m
1 2.50 2.50 12
z 2.04 2.04 6
A
J 1.53 1.53
i
1.33 1.33 J
5 1.30 1.30 A A
6 1.27 1.27 z
7 1.02 r.20 1.7

8 0.97 t.20 1.5
9 0.85 1.15 1.3
10 0.76 1.10 1.2
l1 0.52 t.o7 1.1
The preceding example leads to considerationof the frequency analysis of

rainfall depth or iniensity for various durations of rainfall. Design problems often
require the estimationof expectedintensitiesfor a critical time period. Frequency
analysisof the rainfall record for.periodsother than the 30-min duration-for exam-
ple, ihe maximum 5-, 10-, 20-, and 60-min occurrences-would yield a family of
.oru"r similar to thoseof Fig. 27.10. The usual methodof presentingthesedata is to
conveftdepthin inchesto an intensityin in. /hr andto summaize thedatain intensity-
duration-frequency curves as shown in Fig. 27.I3. Thesecurves are typical of the
point analysisof rainfall data.It shouldbe emphasizedthat the frequencycurves.join
-o""u.t"tt""t
that are not necessarilyfrom the samestorm; that is, they do not repre-
/^
2.5
.i
E t <
0)
E >-P
_x--
t 1.0
d
IzAnnta series
1.01 1.r1.21.1
3.5 2, 3 4 5 678910 20
Recunenceinterval (Yr)
Figune 27.12 Difference in annual and partial duration series

1 1-year record of maximum 30-min durations' Baltimore, Maryland'
PROBLEMS 741
27.t Expand the computerprogram of Problem 26.12 to include the computationof the
mean,standarddeviation;and skewnesscoefflcientofthe logarithmsofthe input data.
Also, include a routine to sort the data by placing them in descendingorder and
computethe correspondingplotting positions.verify, usiiig the datain Ptoblem27.4.
27.g, perform a completefrequencyanalysison one of the three 33-yearrecordsgiven in
the tablebelow.Fit a Pearsontype III or log-PearsonIII and comparewith the normal
or log-normal ofbest fit. Plot the dataand placecontrol curvesaroundthe theoretical
curve of best flt usins.Table27.7.
Trempeuleau River Blow River James River

Dodge,Wl Banff, Alberta, Canada Scottsville,VA
(DA : 643 mi') (DA = 858 mi' ) (DA : 4570 mi2)
Year Qp..r.(cfs) Opua,(cfs) Qp""r (cls)
t928 3,700 10,200 75,600

t929 1,700 7,590 44,700
1930 3,360 9,280 45,800
r93l 1,650 6,610 2t,roo
1932 3,600 9,850 31,400
11,000 5q 500
1933 11,000
1934 2,5'70 9,490 38,800
r935 4,490 6,940 93,400
1936 7,180 7,'720 126,000
193'7 1,780 5,210 62,200
r938 3,170 7;770 87,400
1939 6,400 6,270 68,400
1940 3,120 7,220 130,000
t94l 2,890 4,450 27,100
1942 5,680 5,850 80,600
1943 5,060 7,380 95,200
1944 2,040 5,590 133,000
1945 8,120 4,450 57,000
t946 4,570 7,2r0 41,200
1947 5,4r0 5,880 33,200
1948 4,840 r0,320 59,600
t949 1920 4 )qo 94,200
1950 3,600 10,080
1951 4,840 8,570 64900
5,460 54 snn
1952 6,950
1953 4,040 9,180 67,000
1954 5,710 10,120 62,900
1955 10,400 8,680 70,000
1956 r7,400 9,060 20,400
1957' 713 5 160 64,200
1958 r,r40 6,730 44,500
7,480 ,o ?no
1959 8,000
1960 1,480 6,440 64.200
742 CHAPTER
27 FREQUENCY
ANALYSIS
27.10. Compare results of Problem 27.9 wfih estimatesby Gumbel's extreme-valuedistribu'
tion for the 50- and 100-yearevents.
27.11. The pan-evaporationdata (in.) for the'month of July at a site4nMissouri are
9.7 lt.7 It.2 11.3 l 1.5

11.2 8.8 tt.4 I 1.8 8.9
9.3 9.2 9.3 9.3 10.4
9.8 8.7 I1.5 10.9 10.2
Determinethe mean, standarddeviation,and coefficient of variation. What are the

standarderrors of thesestatistics?Establishthe approximate95 percentconfldence
limits of the mean.
27.12. On which type of plotting paper(probability,log-probability, rectangularcoordinate,
log-log, semilog,extreme-value,none)would eachof the following plot as a straight
line?
a. Normal frequencydistribution.
b. Gumbel frequencydistribution.
c.Y=3X+4
d. Log-normal frequencydistribution.
e. PearsonType III with a skew of zero.
t' Q: 43Ao1'
g. Log-PearsonType III with a skew of logarithmsequal to zero.
h. PearsonType III with a skew of 3.0.
27.13. Determine the 50-yearpeak (cfs) for a log-PearsonType III distribution of annual
peaksfor a major river if the skew coefficient of logarithms (base 10) is -0.1, the
mean'oflogarithms(base10) is 3.0, and the standarddeviationof basel0logarithms
is 1.0.
27.14. A 4Oaear record of rainfall indicatesthat the mean monthly precipitation during
April is 3.85 in. with a standarddeviationof 0.92. The distribution is normal. With
95 percentconfidence,estimatethe limits within which (a) next April's precipitation
is expectedto fall, and (b) the mean April precipitation for the next 40 years is
expectedto fall.
27.15. Given a table of valuesof mean annual floods and correspondingdrainageareasfor
a number of basinsin a region, describehow regressionanalysiscould be used to
determinethe coefficientsp and q in the relation Qz.tz: pAq.
27.16. The 80-yearrecord of annualprecipitationat a midwesterngaugelocationhasa range
between14 in. in 1936and 42 in. in 1965.The recordha5a meanof 27.6 in. anda
standarddeviationof 6.06 in. Assuminga normal distribution, (a) plot the frequency
curve on probability paper,(b) determinethe probability of a droughtworsethan the
1936value,and (c) determinethe recurrenceinterval.ofthe 1965maximumdepthand
comparei&ith the apparentrecurrenceinterval.
27.17. A reservoirin the localeof Problem27.16 wlll overfill when the annualprecipitation
exceeds30 in. Determinethe probability that the reservoirwill overfill (a) next year,
(b) at leastonce in three successiveyears,and (c) in each of three successiveybars.
PROBLEMS 743
27.18. *Using Eqs. 26.38 and 26.39 and log-probability paper, solve Problems27.16 and
27.17 assumingthat the annual precipitation is log-normal.
27.19. Given the following valuesof peak flow ratesfor a small stre.am,determinethe return
period (years)for a flood of 100 cfs by flrst using annual peaksfor an annual series
and then using all the data for a partial duration series.
Year Peak (cfs) Year Date Peak (cfs)
1963 June I 90 1968 May 11 800

Aug.3 300 June 8 700
t964 June7 60 Sept.4 90
1965 July 2 80 1969 Aug. 8 400
1966 May 18 r00 r970 May 9 30
June 3 90 t97r Sept.8 700
1967 July 4 40 r972 May 4 80
27,20. Recordedmaximum depths (in.) of precipitation for a 30-min duration at a single

station are:
Year Date Depth(in.) Year Date Depth (in.)
1963 May 3 2.0 1968 Aug.8 4.O

June 3 1.0 1969 May 6 6.0
1964 June7 1.0 June 8 5.0
1965 June 2 1.0 Sept.4 1.0
1966 June 1 1.0 May 4 1.0
Aug. 3 3.0 Sept.8 5.0
1967 July 4 1.0 May 9 1.0
a. Determine the return period (years) for a depth of 2.0 in. using the california
method with an annual series.
b. RepeatPart (a) using a partial duration serles.
c. Determinefrom the partial duration seriesthe depth of 30-min rain expectbdto be
equaledor exceeded(on the average)once every 8 years.
27.21. For a 60-yearrecord of precipitation intensitiesand durations,a 30-min intensity of
2.50 in.lhr was equaledor exceededa total of 85 times. Al1 but 5 of the 60 years
experiencedone or more 30-min intensitiesequaling or exceedingthe 2.50-in./hr
value.Use the Weibull formula to determinethe return period of this intensity using
(a) a paltial seriesand (b) an annual series.
744 CHAPTER ANALYSIS
27 FREQUENCY
27,22. from the data given in the accompanyingtable of low flows, prepare a set of low-flow
frequency curves for the daily, weekly, and monthly durations.
LOWESTMEANDISCHARGE(cfs)FORTHE
FOLLOWINGNUMBEROFCONSECUTIVE
DAYS,MAURYRIVERNEARBUENAVISTA,
VIRGINIA
Year 1-day 7-day 3O-day
1939 100.0 103.0 r25.0

1940 167.0 171.0 t94.0
194l 22.0 59.4 69.1
1942 101.0 127.0 1'73.0
1943 86.0 93.9 103.0
t944 62.0 65.9 77.4
1945 78.0 80.7 90.3
1946 76.0 78.6 87.1
1947 97.0 102.0 123.0
t948 r54.0 176.0 215.0
1949 136.0 138.0 163.0
1950 113.0 125.0 139.0
195I 95.0 95.3 101.0
1952 115.0 116.0 r20.0
1953 85.0 86.1 90.8
1954 68.0 70.0 81.7
1955 83.0 96.1 99.9
t956 64.0 66.3 7r.7
1957 62.0 64.1 75.8
1958 88.0 92.6 107.0
1959 76.0 80.9 117.0
1960 83.0 91.7 103.0
1961 99.0 103.0 152.0
1962 90.0 95.0 105.0
1,963 60.0 60.6 70.8
1964 51.0 54.1 62.0
1965 64.0 68.7 76.2
27.23. For the 7-day low flows at Buena Vista given in Problem 27.22, attempt to fit a
straight-linefrequencycurve on log-normalor extreme-valueprobability paper' pro-
ceedingas follows:From the original plot of the data, estimatethe lowestflow (say;4)
- q:
at the high recurrenceintervals;subtractthis flow from all observedflows (Q
Qr); and rcplot Qr versusthe original recurrenceintervals.Repeatif necessary.The
best fittiBg curve will be a three-parameterfrequencydistribution.
PROBLEMS 745
27.24. The following table surirmarizesthe number of occurrencesof intensitiesof various

durationsfor a34-yearrecordof rainfall. Maximum intensitiesfor the given durations
were determinedfor all excessivestorms and a count made of the exceedances'
Interpolatefor the averagenumberof exceedances expectedon a 5-yearfrequencyand
plot the 5-yearintensity-duration-frequency curve'
Numbei of times stated ihtensitieswere equaledor exceeded
Intensity(in./hr)
Duration
(min) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
'73 48 2I o 2
5
10 68 51 26 l1 3 I
15 72 3s LJ 11 I
30 29 l7 7 3 I
60 1 5 6 2 1
120 8 l
27.25. The resultsof a multiple regressionanalysisof over 200 flood recordsin Virginia led
. to the following regional flood frequencyequations:
Qt'z'v': 9'l3AeoeS2e3
Qzzt-v':20'84861S30e
3oo
Qs'v,: 38'1A83oS
283
Qn', : 63'0A8o2S
: 104A71e5266
Qzs-v,
: l18A7esS21e
Qso'v'
whefe the flood dischargefor the given frequencyis in cfs, A is the drainageareain
mi2, and S is the channeislopein ftlmi (measuredbetweenthe points that are 10 and
g5 percent of the total rivei miles upstreamof the gauging station to the drainage
diviAe;. Devise a method for graphically portraying theseregional flood frequency
relations.(Note that there are four factors,Q, T, A' and S')
27.26. Using the regressionequationsin Problem 2'1.25, flnd the predicted floods for the
North Fork, shenandoa-h River, at cootes Store.Drainage atea : 215 mi2and chan-
:
nel slope 44.3 ftlmi.
27.27. Comparethe predictions from the regressionequationsin Problem 27 '25 with the
:
valuesestimatedby the frequencyanafsis inqxample27.8. Drainageatea 487 fii2
:
and channelsloPe 2I.l ftltrl'l.
21.28. Referringto Fig. 2.6b, comparethe averagestorm rainfall over the city of Baltimore
on SeptemberI0, Ig57, computedby the isohyetalmethod, with the simpleaverage
of total accumulationat the riin gaugeswithin the city. Neglectthe areato the south
of the 1.0-in.isohYet'
27,29. Fit the forrnula i : AIQ + B) to the data derived in Problem 21.24 for the 5-year
intensity-duration-frequency curve.
746 27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
CHAPTER
27.30. Deielop a regional flood index curve for the RappahannockRiver basin from the flood
frequency data given in the following table:
PEAK FLOOD FREQUENCYDISCHARGES(ft3/sec)FOR STATIONSlN THE

RAPPAHANNOCKRIVER BASIN
Returnperiodin years
Drainage Typeof 2.33
Station area(mi2) series (mean). 10 25
RappahannockRiver 192 Annual 4,150 8,350 9,000 14,000 19,250

near Warrenton, Partial 4,600 8,650 9,20A 14,000 19,250
VA
Rush River at 15.2 Annual 530 860 r,290 2,100 3,000
Washington,VA Partial 610 900 1,310 2,100 3,000
Thornton River near 142 Annual 5,900 11,500 19,900 34,000 48,000
Laurel Mills, VA Partial 7,200 12,500 20,500 34,000 48,000
Hazel River at 286 Annual 7300 11,800 17,200 25,000 41,000
fuxeyville, VA Partial 8,300 t2,400 18,000 25,500 41,000
at Remington,VA Partial 12,000 15,200 18,900 25,000 31,000
at Kellys Ford, VA Partial 14,000 20,000 27,500 42,000 57,500
'750 3,350 6,000 10,000
Mountain Run near 14.'7 Annual t,750
Culpeper,VA Partial 950 1,900 3,550 6,000 10,000
Rapidan River near 111 Annual 3,950 7,100 11,600 21,000 34,000
Ruckerwille, VA Partial 4,700 7,700 12,000 21,000 34,000
RobinsonRiver near 180 Annual 4,600 7,000 9,800 !5,400 2r,5oo
Locust Dale, VA Partial 5,150 7,300 10,100 15,800 21,500
Rapidan Rivet near 456 Annual 9,100 16,400 26,900 50,000 78,000
Culpeper,VA Partial 10,800 17,600 27,600 50,000 78,000
RappahannockRiver | sqg Annual 26,000 39,900 55,000 85,000 117,000
near Partial 29.300 42,000 57,500 85,000 117,000
Fredericksburg,
VA
27.31. From the information given in Problem 27.30, find the relation betweenthe mean
annual flow and the drainagearea.(Note that the functional expressionshouldbe of
the form Qz.zz: rA".)
27.32. Using the resultsof Problems27.30 and27.3l, estima{ethe 30-yearflood for an
ungaugedwatershedwith a drainagearcaof 540 mi2.
27.33. Annual flood recordsfor a lO-yearperiod are given by:
5 6 7 o 10
Year 1 2 3 4 6
Flood 300 700 200 400 1000 900 800 500 100 600
Mean : 550 cfs, median : 550 cfs, standarddeviation : 300 cfs. Use an annual
seriesand the definition offrequency in a frequencyanalysisto determinethe magni-
tude of the 4-yearflood. Comparethis historicalvaiuewith the analytical4-yearflood
obtained assuminsfloods follow a normal distribution.
PROBLEMS 747
27.34. For a 60-yearrecordof precipitationintensitiesanddurations,a 30-min intensityof 2.50

in.i hr wasequaledor exceededa total of 85 times.All but 5 of the 60 yearsexperienced
one or more 30-min intensitiesequalingor exceedingthe 2.50-in./hr value. Use the
Kimball formula to determine the return period of this intensity using (a) a partial
duration seriesand (b) an annualseries.
27.35. The total annualrunoff from a small drainagebasinis determinedto be approximately
normal with a mean of 14.0 in. and a standarddeviation of 3 in. Determine the
probabilitythat the annualrunofffrom the basinwill be lessthan 8.0 in. in the second
year only of the next three consecutiveyeafs.
27.36. Six yearsof peakrunoff ratesare given below.Assumethat the floodsfollow exactlya
normal distributionand determinethe magnitudeof the 5O-yearpeak.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6
Runoff (cfs) 200 800 500 600 400 500
21.37. Annual floodsfor a streamare normally distributedwith a mean of 30,000 cfs and a
varianceof I x 106cfs2.Determinethe average returnperiodT,of a32,000-cfsflood
in the stream.
27.38. Annual floodsfor a streamhavea normal frequencydistribution.The 2-yearflood is
40,000cfs and the l0-year flood is 52,820cfs.Determinethe magnitudeof the 25-year
flood.
27.39. The 80-yearrecord of annual precipitation at Linclon, Nebraska,yields a range of
valuesbetween10 and 50 in. with a meanannualvalueof 25.00 in. and a standard
deviationof 5.30 in. Becauseannualprecipitationrepresentsa sum of many random
variables(i.e., depth of precipitation for eachday of the year), assumethat annual
precipitation is normally distributed.
a. In 1936 the precipitation at Lincoln was a mere 14 in. Determinethe probability
that the annual precipitation will be 14 in. or lessnext year.
b. In 1965Lincoln received42 in. On the average,this amountwould be equaledor
exceededonce in how many years?
c. Comparethe theoreticaland apparentreturn periods of the record-highvalue of
50.00in.
27.40. Annual floods (cfs) at a particular site on a river follow a zero-skew log-Pearson
Type III distributions.If the mean of logarithms(base 10) of annual floods is 2.946
and the standarddeviationof base-10 logarithmsis 1.000,determinethe magnitude
of the 50-yearflood.
27,41,. Annual floods (cfs) at a particular site on a river follow a zero-skew log-Pearson
Type Illdistribution.Ifthemeanoflogarithms(base10)of annualfloodsis1.733and
the standarddeviationof base-l0logarithms is L.420,determinetfe magnitudeof the
10O-year flood.
27.42 The 100-yearrecord for a drainagebasin gives 10- and 5O-yearflood magnitudesof
12,500 and22,000 cfs. Determinethe magnitudeof the mean annual flood if (a) the
flood peaksfollow the index-flood curve of Fig. 27.4c atd (b) the flood peaksfollow
a Gumbel extreme-valuedistribution.
748 CHAPTER27 FREQUENCYANALYSIS
*The
27.43. following parameters were computed for a stream:
Period ofrecord : 1960-1984, inelusive.

Mean annual flood : 7000 cfs
Standarddeviationof annual floods : 1000 cfs
Skew coefficientof annual floods : 2.0
Mean qf logarithms(base l0) of annual floods : 3.52
Standarddeviationof logarithms : 0.50
Coefficientof skew of logarithms : -2I
Determine the magnitudeof the 25-yearflood by assumingthat the peaks follow a

(d) log-PearsonType III distribution, (b) Gumbel distribution, and (c) log-normal
distribution.
27.44. Peak annual dischargerates in the Elkhorn river at Waterloo,Nebraska,yield the
following statistics:
Period of record : 1930-1969, inclusive

Mean flood : 16,900cfs
Standarddeviation : 17,600cfs
Skew of annual floods : 0.8
Mean of logarithms(base 10) : 4.0923
Standarddeviationof logarithms : 0.3045
Skew of loearithms : 2.5
Determinethe 100-yearflood magnitudeusing the uniform techniqueadoptedby

the U.S. Water ResourcesCouncil for all federal evaluations.
b. Determinethe'100-yearflood magnitudeassumingthat the floods follow a two-
parametergamma distribution.
27.45. A PearsonType III variableX has a mean of 4.0, a standarddeviationof 2.0, and a
coefficientofskewof 0.0.Determinethevalue(foursignificantfigures)of I:f.(X)dX.
. 27.46, A timber railroad bridge in Hydrologic Region2 of Texasat Milepost 738.04 on the
railroad systemshownin the sketchis to be replacedwith a new concretestructure.
The 50- and 100-yearflood magnitudesare neededto establishthe low chord and
embankmentelevations,respectively.Determinethe designflow ratesusingthe USGS
RegressionEquations.The drainagearea is 0.43 sq. mi, and the streambedslopeis
62 ftoer mi.
REFERENCES
t . M. A. Benson,"Plotting Positionsand Economicsof EngineeringPlanning,"Proc. ASCE
J. Hyd. Div. 88057-71(Nov. 1962).
L I. Gringorten,"A Plotting Rule for ExtremeProbability Paper,"J. Geoplrys.Res'68(3),
8 1 3 - 8 1 4 ( F e b1. 9 6 3 ) .
ucENoftp.*
l l
* *l*
--)
.J$
^ " : 1- ' .
!
I
, ]
i
t \ I
Slrip
I I
\l
Sketch for Problem 27.46
3. VerfT. Chow, "A General Formula for Hydrologic FrequencyAnalysis," Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union 32, 231-237 (1951).
4. Water ResourcesCouncil, Hydrology Committee, "Guidelines:for Determining Flood
Frequency,"Bulletin 17B, (Revised)U.S. Water ResourcesCouncil, Washington,D.C.,
Sept.,1981.
5. L. R. Beard, Statistical Methods in Hydrology, Civil Works Investigations,U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers,SacramentoDistrict, 1962.
6. A. Hazen, Flood Flows. New York: Wiley, 1930.
7. V. T. Chow, "Statistical and Probability Analyqisof Hydrologic Data," in Handbookof
Applied Hydrology.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
8. P. Victorov, "Effect of Period of Record on Flood Prediction," Proc. ASCE J. Hyd. Div.
97(Nov.1971).
9. L. R. Beard, Statistical Methodsin Hydrology, Civil Works Investigations;Sacramento
District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,1962.
10. M. A. Benson and N.C. Matalas, "Synthetic Hydrology Based on Regional Statistical
Parameters, " Water Re
sources Res. 3(4)(1967).
11. N. C. Matalas,"MathematicalAssessment of SyntheticHydrology," WaterResourcesRes.
3(4)(re67).
12. Yet T. Chow, "Statistical and Probability Analysis of Hydrologic Data," Sec. 8-I, in
Handbookof Applied Hydrology (V. T. Chow, ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
13. T. Dalrymple, "Flood-FrequencyAnalysis,"Manual of Hydrology,Part 3, U.S. Geological
$urveyWater-SupplyPaper1543=A.Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
1960.
14. G. M. Fair,J. C. Geyer,andD. A. Okun,WaterandWasteWaterEngineerlng. New York:
Wiley, 1966.
15. "Monthly Stream Simulation," Hydrologic EngineeringCenter, ComputerProgram23-
C-L267, SacramentoDistrict, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,July 1967.
16. R.W.CruffandS.E.Rantz,"AComparisonofMethodsUsedinFloodFrequencyStudies
for CoastalBasinsin California," Flood Hydrology,U.S.G.S.Water Supply Paper 1580:
Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1965.
17. W. D. Potter, "Peak Ratesof Runoff from Small Watersheds,"Hydraulic Design Series
No. 2, Bureau of Public Roads,Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Offlce,
Apr. 1961.
18. U.S. GeologicalSurvey, "Technique for Estimating the Magnitude and Frequencyof
Floods in Texas," WaterResourcesInvestigationsReport 77 -110, 7977.
t9. M. E. Jennings,W. O. Thomas, Jr., and H. C. Riggs, "Nationwide Summary of U.S.
GeologicalSurvey's RegionalRegressionEquationsfor Estimating Magnitude and Fre-
quencyof Floodsat UngaugedSites,"U.S.G.S.WRI 93-1, Reston,VA, 1993.
20. U.S. Geological Survey, "Selected Streamflow Characteristicsas Related to Channel
Geometry of Perennial Streamsin Colorado," Open-File Report 12-160, Water Re-
sourcesDivision, Lakewood,Colorado,May 1972.
2 r . E. W. Steel,l{ater Supplyand Sewerage,4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.
22. D. M. Hershfield,"Rainfall FrequencyAtlas of the United States,"Tech.PaperNo. 40,
U.S. WeatherBureau.1961.
23. HydrologyHandbook, ASCE Manual of Practice,No. 28, 1949.
24. W. G. Knisel, Jr.,and R. W Baird, in Al?SPrecipitation Facilities and RelatedStudies.
Washington,D.C.: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Agricultural ResearchService,1971,
Chap.14,
, \ R. K. Linsley, Jr., M. A, Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus,Applied llydrology. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1949.
Appendixes
A
APPENDIX:
TABLEA.1 WATERPROPERTIES.
CONSTANTS. FACTORS
ANDCONVERSION
Gasconstants(R) Heat of vaporizationof water at 1-.0atm

R : 0.0821(atm)(liter)/(g-mol)(K) 540 callg: 970 Btu/Ib
R : 1.987g-ca1/(g-mol)(K)
R : 1.987Btu/(lb-mo1)('R)
Accelerationof gravity (standard) Specificheat of air
g : 32.17ftlsecz:980.6 cm/sec2 Cp : 0.238call(g)("C)
Heat of fusion of water Density of dry air at OoCand 760 mm Hg 0.001293g/cm3
19.7 callg: l44BtulIb
Conversionfactors
I second-foot-dayper squaremile : 0.03719 inch
1inchofrunofrpersquare
*t"
: 33:3:::::r1;?t-0"t,
: 2,323,200cubic feet
rootpersecond t3jL":'"i'ff1":* n'"'
I cubic
: ?
I horsepower
: 3Jr-f,f*:llld,p".,..ond
e = 2.71828
log e = 0.43429
ln 10 : 2.30259
Metricequivalents
foot : 0.3048 meter
mile : 1.609 kilometers
acre : 0.4047 hectare
4047 squaremeters
I squaremile (mi') : 259 hectares
2.59 squarekilometers (km2)
1 acre foot (acre-ft) : 1233 cubic meters
I million cubic feet (mcf ) : 28,320 cubic meters
I cubic foot per second(cfs) : 6.6rta, cubic metersper second
1.699 cubic metersPer minute
" I acre-in. per hour : 1.008cubic feet per second(cfs)
1 second-foolday (cfsd) = 2447 cubic meters
I million gallons (mg) = 3785 cubic meters
3.785 million liters
1 million gallons per day (mgd) = 694.4 gallons per minute (gpm)
2,629 cubic meters per :ninute
3785 cubic metersper day
752 APPENDIXA
TABLE A,2* PROPERTIESOF WATER

U.S.Units
Traditional
Unit Heat of Kinematic Vaporpressure
Temperature Specific weight vaporization viscositY
('F) gravity 0b/ft3) (Btu/lb) (ft'lsec) psl in.Hg
iz 0.99987 62.416 t073 1,.93x 10*5 6.11 0.09 0.18

40 0.99999 62.423 1066 L67 x 10-s 8.36 0.12 0.25
50 0.99975 62.408 1059 - 1.41 X 10-5 12.19 0.18 0.36
60 099907 62.366 r054 1.21x 105 17.51 0.26 0.52
70 0.99802 62.300 r049 1.06 x 10-s 24.79 0.36 0.74
80 0.99669 62.217 l044 0.929x l}-s 34.61 0.51 1.03
90 0.99510 62.11,8 1039 0.828x l0-5 47.68 0.70 1.42
100 0.99318 61.998 1033 0.741X 10-5 64.88 0.95 r.94
Sl Units
Heat of Kinematic Vaporpressure
Temperature Specific Density vaporization viscosity
fC) gravity (o/cm1 (cal/g) (cs) (mmHg) (mb) (g/cm')
0 0.99987 0.99984 597.3 1..790 4.58 6.11 6.23

5 0.99999 0.99996 594.5 .t.520 6.54 8.72 8.89
10 0.99973 0.99970 591.7 1.310 9.20 L:2.27 r2.s1
15 0.99913 0.99910 588.9 1.140 12.78 17.04 17.38
20 0.99824 0.9982r 586.0 1.000 17.53 23.37 23.83
25 0.99708 0.99705 583.2 0.893 23.76 31.67 32.30
JU 0.99568 0.99565 580.4 0.801 31.83 42.43 43.2.7
35 0.99407 0.99404 577.6 0.723 42.18 56.24 5'7.34
40 0.99225 0.99222 574.7 0.658 55.34 73.78 75.23
50 0.98807 0.98804 569.0 0.554 92.56 123.40 125.83
60 0.98323 0.98320 563.2 0,4'14 149.46 199.26 203.19
70 0.97780 0.97777 0.4r3 233.79 311.69 317.84
80 0.97182 0.97179 551.4 0.365 355.28 473.67 483.01
90 0.96534 0.96531 545.3 0.326 525.89 70r.13 714.95
100 0.95839 0.95836 539.1 0.294 760.00 1013.25 1033.23
B
APPENDIX 753
B
APPENDIX:
TABLE 8.1 AREAS UNDERTHE NORMALCURVE
,<,t=1,f:*"*'"t'a,
01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .o7 08 .09
0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0159 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .07t4 .0753
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .rr4r
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
0.4 .t554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .r772 .1808 .1844 .1879
0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .21,57 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2257 .2291, .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2518 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2704 .2734 .2'764 .2794 .2823 .2852
0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .33t5 .3340 .3365 .3389
r.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3s54 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
r.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .390'7 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
r.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4t3t .4147 .4162 .4177
r.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4430 .444r
r.6 .4452 .4463 .44't4 .4485 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
r.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .459r .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .467r .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4606
r.9 .4713 .4719 .4' 126 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4762 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .486r .4865 .4868 .487r .4875 .48"18 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
z-5 .4893 .4896 .4898 .490r .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936
2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959. .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .49' 72 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .49:15 .4976 .49'77 .4977 .49'78 .4979 .4980 .4980 .498r
2.9 .498t .4982 .4983 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986
3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
3.1 .4990 .4991 .4991 .499r .4992 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4993 .4993
J.Z .4993 .499? .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4995 .4995 .4995
5.5 .4995 .4995 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4997
3.4 .4997 .499't .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4998 .4998
4.0 .499968
(for
Source:AfrerC. E. Weatherburn,Mathematical Statistics.London: CambridgeUniversity Press,1957
z : 0 to z : 3,1); C. H. Richardson,An Intoduction to Statistical Analysis. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.1994(for z = 3.2to z: 3.4); A. H. Bowker and G. J. Lieberman,EngineeringStatistics.
EaglwooGCliffs,Nf: Prentice-Hall, 1959 (for z : 4.0 and 5.0)'
o o\ a.. cn c{ d r) $ N co cn F. o\ o o oo h -l r) 0\ n c..l co ar n q\ \o !! o \o
u? F - < xt - r) J Ri F cr, N \c) 6 ; N + \O r 6 O - c{ 6 q) \O r-- F.
o\ 6 F F- \o h n + a. o N i$ c) o\ o\ 6 r \o n + + - o.l - !.
Q
$
o \ \o n
t $ + * $ S + + r+ st sf $ * < o m,cn o o co o co o o cn cn c{ al al d cn
- o cO al O\ r) O cn h \O rn cO cr\ S cO O : t O\ F- N F- rr $ n I h 1t E.l Q \O
n r- J
- + - O (j
O n a\ + ri rr oo o F. -i + Sp N o\ N n \a l-.. Q N
! S =q
q e q oi * * * \ - q q "? n i q i q q -t q q q oq oq \ I 9 n n cl
* + cq o s o o o o cn .n ci o o o cn ca o o cQ o N ol N ot ol N N al N e.l
C.t $ st ci - 6 r c) N c-.1 i V) O s \Q \Q \O n or ci r- O\ * - - O. t' :f,

ri o ; oi r + d o\ F + : oo + J + O \o e{ oo * o\ h o r) d \o - n o'!a)
o J J * - O O O 6 O\ O\ O\ oO oO cO t-- F- t-- \O \O r) rn rf .+ + ca cO N Ci r i O
lf,
di ri d ; ; .d ; 6i 6i 6i 6i 6i c.i 6i 6i ..i $i 6i ci 6i Gi oi 6i ..i t..i c.i c.i 6i 6i .'i c'i
F- rl,ot t-. c.l \O oo O O o\ F- ca O\ o \O 0o l= \9.o !1 t> O, O Q O\ 0o r) *

F- t-- F- t-- \o \o r) $ + ci d O o\ F.. \o S c-t O !9 $ ! q\ I q] n S - \n
q q q q (\l c.l ol cl cl q q 6! - -': -': -1 -: .': c q q q q q q q oc q oq \ \
cN N ol at 6l cl 6l d N al N ol o.l 6l ol al N c.l a] ol N e.:l i i : : * * # r :
O n O + co O .i + + + c.l O S O\ m F o\ O -' O o\ @ cn oQ cQ tt- q\ n Cl a'l

o - oi = e.l 6 v) \o F.- co o\ o ; * N N co 6 o d S + o cn cn ei cl - Q Q o\
o - i cl cj q q c\ cl el cl Q c.l q e1 rl q q q q crl c.l q q dl q c.l c'l 6) a] cl q
: * * * i * d i i i i i * * i * d * ; i d * H *
o
c 0) O O O O\ O\ t'.. r) $ o] O\ Ft o O r) O r) O\ N u) oo q, a a Q 9p \O $ Q \O N
6l +\DF 6* cn rt F- o\o N d a'-o\ o* n!-{ !! A:t \o o sf r \o 0oo\QQ
G s n i n n v? v-1n n v? 9 9 9 9 9 q \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ t t ? T I T oq
e G
z 3 \O O * \O oo O - - O O. t-- t c{ oo $ O \a O !a O + oo N \O g\ 6 I O .i F-
o c)
5 d\ F \O ) r) * - - O O. \O n + c{ - O\ \O $ m - q\ -
o J(t, C9 I !o !!
F N O - - n "1 { { { "1 I q - q .t i c] ct q al -1 -1 -.: - -'1 -l q c q ? I c
) o (L
d)
r l r r l r r l l l l r l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
tf C) o
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(E (L
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6 n \E oo 5 - .i c.i ri \o F - 6\ O ;i N cn cn <- + r) A !A A !Q A !? !! !A $ t
o \o \O oo @ 0a oo 0o oo oo 0o 0o 0o oo oo m
3 ro
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U U U :U
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t*-
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I l l | | | I | | | | I | | I | | | l l | | | | l l I I I r l
lu
TL
r o i 6l $ r- - !n o\ s o\ n o r) o *
- -{ !. I F m F \o o Q \o - r) oo o
vl
cl
G oo O c.l + rr- O. ; + \o or' cat st t- O\ S \O O a.l S \O 0o O - c.l S F- 0Q
z q q - \ i \ \ "9 "q "e * q q q q q C q I -: - - - - ci c'l oi q cj cl q'
a r | | r I r I r | | | | | | | I | | | l ' l I I I | | | | |
CE
lrJ r) oo * \O cl O o\ O ol V O\ + O \O 6 - A \9 c! O l-- cn ci oo ! { !Q I \o rl
(L (o ro o6 * - \o 5 ;,h dj * + oo c-t n o\ co \o o d oo i rl 6 e'I !D q\ oI \n oo i S
(\l i - c.l a{ c.l o m cq $ t + n n n O
(f ro 6.O r- i< f.- F oo od - O\ O\ O\ c) O O
a o cj o o o o o o d o o -.j .i -j .j .i -i .j -j i .j .j ..i .i i ..j -'i -.i..i .j
IL I I | | I I I I t l I I I I | | I I I I I | | | | | l , l I
a
IJJ
l tt* O + O o\ O\ ol F- r) \O O at- (-'. O t\ \O 6 co q, Q 6 \Q O h q $ 9o or \O
\O 6 .i \o o\ aj b O + 6 o oo + O, r} $ co O !a C.l H * 6 \Q oo O t'- v) cl
q q \ i+ \ \ "c * q q q q g -1 -1 c'l dt dt n n n \? \ oq og q q a 1 q n
O C O O C O C C O O O - - - c ^ l c l o l c { o l
v | | I I t t | | | I I I | | | | | | | | | I | | | l l l l l
c!
o C
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lrl 6 .E... q q oq \ I n =q q ol - q q o9 \ 9 !.1 n (.l q -1 q q T \ 9 ! 1 I I : ?
J
o (: /E) o
V O O O C O O O C O O
d 6 i 6 i 6 i o l c t c . l a l e { 6 . . { q . . t -
ro
A A $ E q E X B $ $ F ng $i 5q3R5i E
X:.i :l:l " . iX
E3E5 E E ' '
-':'j: .'-i
-':'j -j -i -: -l J a
R = i t n E :F3E* f: iF I 3 E E i 5 E E E g E E E g E
: 1 . . 1 . ' lX : :
- -j: ': a -'
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|o EtA$[Fg3$$*ilx:s:ssi5353$5S5
; f : :': : :
-'
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r.c)
s a q E E r s: s: fE:l'iF ri l-' R
Y :
R= -sd Eo c;: c;8d 3o 5 n$gasFRri
ci o ci d
A,I
: : : : : ! i : i
RKlITE=:::==9===Iii35:A35ii=
* l * * i * i
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c) o s; &B;di Ul R
# #HdtFcbh
dt H i loqi "el r"C+e n
"e ob oq es \s \I E AFIpA$F=
\ \ \ I : : : X : :
3 d i o o i o c i c - 3 3 3 3 ; i i c d d b l c o o d o o i c
C)
J
t
o)
o N O
0)
o
(L
: E E E E a : l = g E 5 : A = n FnRqcXigd H
: 33 33: ; =; = = d:j:j : J ;i J J J J o o c;
o$oE
:cfi *di 8 f l r
o
0)
c) z
E
(r ro
(\
s3 : s: $3 3; dse si ; eFd F RPR r fH i re E E q q q q [ ! r r i $ 9 - { S
: b b b c ; o + +r +t ' ti -i To Ti t -t oI cI cI cI e| -|
o
r I r | | | | I r , ' T T T T T T
e
c -, 6 r 6 6 n e q e ' X R Rn N= E E
. i3
R g R = g g 3 3 3, , X d + ; ' si -Ei ;I dsi x
- i - . ,ii - _ i - i
n n: ' ;-'
-i
HX
, X
-i-
::'i::', f i J
| I I I | | I
I I | | | | I I r r T l ' r r I | | I I I I I |
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lo
$ e E F * E a a a E $ A q q l
iiiTTTTTTTiTiiiTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
E l 5 : n
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o
s ? $ * : F s s h $ 8 3$i q e fEi A
l n! 8 EEf rlS;1 F<
O
O)
+TtTTtTtTiiTiTTiiiTTTTTTTTTTTT
q
o
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=t : : : : : : 3 : I : : l : : : * t f ri l I : 3 R . .ir xi : 3
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? T T T Tr r I | | I | | I | | I I I I | |
=.9
o j o v q
755
759
Open channelflow, 131 Snow,265-305

Orographicprecipitation, 19 Snowmelt,271-284
Overland flow, 561 Snyder'smethod,207
Soil ConservationService(SCS)
Pan, classA, 129 runoff curve number,73
Parshallflume, 131 unit hydrographmethod,211
Partial duration series,734 Soil moisture,25,55, 165
Partially penetratingwells, 473 Specificyrelds,432
Peakflow,3lI-343 Standarddeviation,683
Penmanmethod"97 Standardproject storm (SPS),395
Permeability,438 Stanford WatershedModel IV
Piezometrichead,435 (swM-IV),550
Point precipitation, 27 Statisticalanalysis,67| -699, 7O8-739
Potentialevapotranspiration,101 Steadyflow routing, 252
Potentialtheory, 463 Stochastic.methods,508
Precipitablewater, 16 Storm drainage,402
Precipitation,7, 15-39, 164 Storm Water ManagementModel
Probability, 67I-699 (swMM), 604,650
Probablemaximum flood. 373 Streamflow, 111-118, l7 l, 574
Probablemaximum precipitation StreamflowSynthesisand Reservoir
(PMP), 34,392 RegulationModel (SSARR),
565
Rainfall. 281.727 Streamlines,446
Rain gauges,127 Surfaceof seepage, 448
Rationalmethod,312 Surfacerunoff. 177
Recession, 574 swMM,650
Regressionequation,692 Syntheticunit hydrographs,205-227,
Relativehumidity, 16 335
Remotesensing,135
Reservoirs,245 Temperatureindexes,291
Reynoldsnumber,437
Theis' nonequilibrium approach,467
Road ResearchLaboratory (RRL) Thiessenmethod. 30
Method,631
Thunderstorms,20
Routing,234-257
Time of concentration,182-185
Runoff, 153-169, 302 Time series,535-544
Runoff curve number,73
Transmissivity,444
Transpiration,95- 100
Saltwaterintrusion. 474
SCS:seeSoil ConservationService
SCSAtt-Kin Tr-20 Method,254 Unconfined aquifer, 443, 461
SCSmethod,73 Uniform flow field,463
SCSTR-55 Method, 320,445 Unit hydrographs,188-227
SCSTP-149Method,331 U.S. GeologicalSurvey Index-Flood
S-hydrograph,198-201 Method.336
Simulationmodels,548-59 1, U,S. GeologicalSurvey
594-628,630 Rainfall-Runoff Model, 597
University of Cincinnati Urban Water budget,86, 293, 5'l.I
Runoff Model (UCURM), Water equivalent,268
655-658 Water t'apor, 16 :
Unsteadyflow,442,467 WatershedHydrology Model
Unsteadyflow routing, 252 (usDAHL),563
Urban drainage,309 Watersheds, t53,570
Urban runoff models.309-351 Weirs,131
Wellfields,.465
Velocity measurement,114 Well function, 468
Velocity potential, 440 Wells,460-473

Introduction To Hydrology by Warren Viessman

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Introduction To Hydrology by Warren Viessman

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Contents

19.6 The Method of Images 466

Watermanagementis taking on new dimensions.New federalthrusts,the grow-

Water scientistsand engineersof tomorrow must be equipped to addressa

. Define hydrology. . earth

Greek aqueductson both conveyancecrosssectionand velocity.This

FiguresI'I,I.2, and 1.3 showa hydrologicbudgetfor the coterminousUnited

and vegetation '1.'

bgd = billion gallons per day

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic budgetof cotermiriousunited States.(U.S. Geologicalsurvey.)

Clouds and water vaPor Clouds and water vaPor

Figure 1.3 Distributionof precipitationinput'

water enteringthe ground may take severalpaths.Somemay be directly evap-

Level of plastic rock .

Figure 1.4 Regionalhydrologiccycle.

signifies groundwaterflow that is effluent to a surface streamoand E, represents

2. Hydrologicbudgetbelow the surface

3. Hydrologicbudgetfor the region (sum of Eqs' 1.2 and 1.3)

If the subscriptsare droppedfrom Eq. 1.3 sothat letterswithout subscriptsrefer

This is the basicequationof hydrology.For a simplifiedhydrologicsystemwhereterms

Equation 1.4 is applicableto exercisesof any degreeof complexity and is therefore

quantities of water evaporatedand transpired is also extremely difflcult under the

The term EZ is the unknown to be evaluatedand P and R are specifled.The

Streamandriver flowsare usuallyrecordedascubic metersper second(m3/sec),cubic

1.8 APPLICATIONOF HYDROLOGYTO ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS

Precipitation replenishessurfacewater bodies,rbnewssoil moisture for plants, and

Under most conditions of practical interest (modest ranges of pressureand

Figure 2.L Mean precipitablewater, in inches,to an elevationof 8 km. (U.S. WeatherBureau.)2

concentrationsgenerallydecreasingwith latitude, altitude, and distanceinland from

Convective Precipitation Convectiveprecipitationis typical of the tropicsand is

Orographic Precipitation Orographicprecipitationresultsfrom the mechanical

Cyclonic Precipitation Cyclonicprecipitationis associated with the movementof

Figure 2.2 Vertical cross-sectionthrough a frontal surface.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3 Cumulus,mature,and dissipatingstagesof a thunderstormcell. (Depart-

Figure 2.6 (a) Rainfall distribution in a convective storm June 1960,

Figure 2.7 The runoff process:(a) dispositionof precipitation, (b) componentsof

Figure 2.8 Typical intensity-duration-frequencycurves

Figure 2.9 Four quadrants surrounding

It is occasionallynecessaryto estimatepoint rainfall at a given location from

TABLE 2.1 DETERMINATIONOF POINT RAINFALLFROM DATA AT NEARBY

t1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Figure 2.L0 Errors resultingfrom useof a singlegaugeto estimatewatershedaverage

Storm rainfall at one gauge in inches Stormrainfall at one gaugein inches

to conform more closely

Figure 2.12 Construction of an isohyetalmap:(a)locateraingaugesand

the most important. when a precipitation gauging network is to be developed,

Figure 2.15 Thiessendiagram for Exam-

TABLE 2.2 DATA AND THIESSEN POLYGON

(1) (2) (3) (4)

GaugeNo. "/" Area Precip.-in (2) x (3)

Total 100 3.45

intensity.eAn earlierdesignationof "maximumpossibleprecipitation" is synonymous.

2.7 GROSSAND NETPRECIPITATION

The net (excess)precipitation that contributesdirectly to surfacerunoff is equivalent

where the lossesinclude all deductionsfrom the grossstorm input.

average,estimatethe amount of rainfall for gaugeX'

lsohyetalinterval(in.) Area (acres)

tem ForecastProcedures,"NOAA Tech. Mem. NWS HYDRO 14, National Weather

. Define interception and depressionstorqge.

Figure 1.3indicatesthe pathsthat precipitatedwatermay take asit reachesthe earth.

Part ofthe stormprecipitationthat occursisinterceptedby vegetationandotherforms

Weekly average precipitationcatch Percent interception

tl/9t65 0.24 0.33 0.39 38 l5

1tr2t66 0.36 0.55 0.61 4l 10

2t8t66 0.05 0.07 0.06 l7 t6