American Holocaust

Contents

0.1 American bison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

0.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.1.2 Range and population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.3 Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.1.4 As livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.1.5 Behavior and ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1.6 Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.1.7 Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.1.8 Bison trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.1.9 As a symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.2 Cyperaceae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.2.1 Selected genera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
0.2.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
0.3 Hyptis emoryi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.3.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.3.2 Distribution and habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.3.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.4 La Noche Triste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.4.1 Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.4.2 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.4.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.4.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
0.4.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.5 Tonatiuh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.5.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.5.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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0.5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.5.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.6 Wakan Tanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.6.1 Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
0.6.2 Cognate terms in other Siouan languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.6.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.6.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7 White Bualo Calf Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7.1 Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
0.7.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.8 Wind Cave bison herd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.8.2 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.8.3 Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.8.4 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
0.8.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
0.9 Yellowstone Park bison herd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
0.9.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
0.9.2 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
0.9.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.9.4 Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.9.5 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.9.6 Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
0.9.7 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.9.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.9.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1 Moctezuma 28
1.1 Agave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1.2 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1.3 Commonly grown species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.1.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.1.5 Images of species and cultivars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.1.6 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2 Aztec calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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1.2.1 Tonalpohualli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.2 Xiuhpohualli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.3 Reconstruction of the Solar Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3 Aztec clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.1 Everyday dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.2 Hairstyles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.3.3 Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.3.4 Battle costume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4 Aztec Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.3 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.4 Ideology and State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.5 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.6 Rulers of the Aztec Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.5 Aztec mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.5.1 Creation myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5.2 Pantheon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6 Aztec religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6.1 Teotl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6.2 Religion and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.6.3 Priests and temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.6.4 Cosmology and ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.6.5 Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.6.6 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.6.7 Human sacrice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.6.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
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1.6.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7 Coati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7.1 Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7.2 Habitat and range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.3 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.4 Lifespan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.5 Feeding habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.6 Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.7 Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.8 Natural predators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.9 Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.10 Coatis in captivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.11 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.8 Fall of Tenochtitlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.8.1 Early events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.8.2 Rapid deterioration of relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.8.3 Both sides attempt to recover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.8.4 Siege of Tenochtitlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.8.5 The surrender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.8.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.8.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.8.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.8.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.9 Hernn Corts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.9.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.9.2 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.9.3 Early career in the New World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.9.4 Conquest of Mexico (15191521) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.9.5 Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.9.6 Granted Coat of Arms by the King, 1525 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.9.7 Death of his First Wife and Remarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.9.8 Corts and the Spiritual Conquest of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.9.9 Expedition to Honduras and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.9.10 Later life and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.9.11 Disputed interpretation of his life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.9.12 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1.9.13 Ancestors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1.9.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
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1.9.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.9.16 Related reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.9.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.10 Lake Texcoco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.10.2 Tenochtitlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.10.3 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.10.4 Articial drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.11 Massacre in the Great Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.11.1 The Aztec account of the incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.11.2 The Spaniards account of the incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.11.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.11.4 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.12 Mictlantecuhtli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.12.1 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.12.2 Myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.12.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.12.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.12.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.13 Moctezuma II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.13.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.13.2 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.13.3 Depiction in early post-conquest literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.13.4 Contact with the Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.13.5 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.13.6 Descendants in Mexico and the Spanish nobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.13.7 Native American mythology and folklore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.13.8 Symbol of indigenous leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.13.9 Portrayals and cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.13.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.13.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.13.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.13.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.13.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.14 Opuntia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.14.1 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
vi CONTENTS

1.14.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

1.14.3 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.14.4 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.14.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.14.6 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.14.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.14.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.15 Quetzalcoatl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.15.1 Feathered serpent deity in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.15.2 In Aztec culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1.15.3 Myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.15.4 Belief in Corts as Quetzalcoatl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.15.5 Contemporary use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.15.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1.15.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1.15.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.16 Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.16.1 Sources for the history of the conquest of Central Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.16.2 Signicant events in the conquest of Central Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
1.16.3 Spanish arrival in Yucatn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1.16.4 Corts expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1.16.5 Integration into the Spanish Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.16.6 Later Wars of Conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.16.7 The Aztecs under Spanish rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.16.8 Cultural depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.16.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.16.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.16.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1.16.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.17 Tenochtitlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.17.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.17.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.17.3 City plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1.17.4 Social classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1.17.5 The History of The City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1.17.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.17.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.17.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.17.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.17.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
CONTENTS vii

1.18 Tezcatlipoca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

1.18.1 Representations of Tezcatlipoca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.18.2 Temples to Tezcatlipoca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.18.3 Priests of Tezcatlipoca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.18.4 Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.18.5 Aztec religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.18.6 Mythical stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.18.7 Aztec reverence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.18.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.18.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.18.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.18.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.19 Thirteen Heavens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.19.1 Aztec mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.19.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.19.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.19.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.20 Tlalocan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.20.1 Aztecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.20.2 Teotihuacan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.20.3 Contemporary Nahuas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.20.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.20.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.20.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.21 Tollan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.21.1 Tollan in Mesoamerican mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.21.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

2 Pierre-Jean De Smet 151

2.1 Pierre-Jean De Smet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1.2 Mission work in Iowa Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1.3 First missionary tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.1.4 1845-1846 Canadian Rockies expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.1.5 Later years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.1.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.1.7 Namesake places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
viii CONTENTS

3 Pocahantas 154
3.1 Indian massacre of 1622 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.1.2 Jamestown forewarned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.3 Destruction of other settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.4 Date of the attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.5 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.1.6 Indian poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.1.7 Indian decline and defeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2 Opchanacanough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.1 Powhatan warrior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.2.2 Powhatan chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.3 Connection with 'Don Luis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.4 Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.5 Representations in other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3 Allegheny Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.3.2 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.3.3 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.3.4 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.3.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.3.6 Photo gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.3.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.4 Pocahontas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.4.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.4.2 Interactions with the English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.4.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.4.4 Descendants and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.4.5 Cultural representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.4.6 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.4.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
CONTENTS ix

3.4.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

3.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.5 Eusebio Kino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.5.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.5.2 Mission in Baja California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.5.3 Missions in the Pimeria Alta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.5.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.5.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.5.6 Missions and visitas founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.5.7 Movie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.5.8 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.5.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.5.11 Related Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.5.12 Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.6 Jacques Marquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.6.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.6.2 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.6.3 Photo gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.6.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.6.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.7 Indian Head cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.7.1 Inception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.7.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.7.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.7.4 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.7.5 Collecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.7.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 197

4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
0.1. AMERICAN BISON 1

0.1 American bison

The American bison (Bison bison), also commonly
known as the American bualo or simply bualo, is a
North American species of bison that once roamed the
grasslands of North America in massive herds. They
became nearly extinct by a combination of commercial
hunting and slaughter in the 19th century and introduction
of bovine diseases from domestic cattle, and have made a
recent resurgence largely restricted to a few national parks
and reserves. Their historical range roughly comprised
a triangle between the Great Bear Lake in Canadas far
northwest, south to the Mexican states of Durango and Adult male (farther) and adult female (closer) with a background
Nuevo Len, and east to the Atlantic Seaboard of the of rich autumn colors, in Yellowstone National Park
United States (nearly to the Atlantic tidewater in some
areas) from New York to Georgia and per some sources
down to Florida. Bison were seen in North Carolina near range from 2 to 3.5 m (6.6 to 11.5 ft) long, the tail adding
Bualo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750.[2][3][4] 30 to 91 cm (12 to 36 in). Shoulder heights in the species
can range from 152 to 186 cm (60 to 73 in). Weights can
Two subspecies or ecotypes have been described: the
range from 318 to 1,000 kg (701 to 2,205 lb)[11][12] The
plains bison (B. b. bison), smaller in size and with a
heaviest wild bull ever recorded weighed 1,270 kg (2,800
more rounded hump, and the wood bison (B. b. athabas-
lb).[13] When raised in captivity and farmed for meat, the
cae)the larger of the two and having a taller, square
bison can grow unnaturally heavy and the largest semido-
hump.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Furthermore, the plains bison has
mestic bison weighed 1,724 kg (3,801 lb).[11] The heads
been suggested to consist of a northern (B. b. montanae)
and forequarters are massive, and both sexes have short,
and a southern subspecies, bringing the total to three.[8]
curved horns that can grow up to 2 ft (61 cm) long, which
However, this is generally not supported. The wood bi-
they use in ghting for status within the herd and for de-
son is one of the largest wild species of bovid in the world,
fense.
surpassed by only the Asian gaur and wild water bualo.
It is the largest extant land animal in the Americas.
The American bison is the national mammal of the
United States.

Calf

Bison are herbivores, grazing on the grasses and sedges

of the North American prairies. Their daily schedule
involves two-hour periods of grazing, resting, and cud
chewing, then moving to a new location to graze again.
Male plains bison in the Wichita Mountains of Oklahoma
Bison mate in August and September; gestation is 285
days. A single reddish-brown calf nurses until the next
calf is born. If the cow is not pregnant, a calf will nurse
0.1.1 Description for 18 months. At three years of age, bison cows are ma-
ture enough to produce a calf. Bison bulls of that age
A bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and may try to mate with cows, but if more mature bulls are
a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. As is typi- present, they may not be able to compete until they reach
cal in ungulates, the male bison is slightly larger than the ve years of age. Bison have a life expectancy around 15
female and, in some cases, can be considerably heavier. years in the wild and up to 25 years in captivity.
Plains bison are often in the smaller range of sizes, and For the rst two months of life, calves are lighter in color
wood bison in the larger range. Head-and-body lengths than mature bison. One very rare condition is the white
2 CONTENTS

bualo, in which the calf turns entirely white. Dierences from European bison

Although they are supercially similar, the American and

Name European bison exhibit a number of physical and be-
havioral dierences. Adult American bison are slightly
The term bualo is sometimes considered to be a heavier on average because of their less rangy build, and
misnomer for this animal, and could be confused with two have shorter legs, which render them slightly shorter at
true bualo, the Asian water bualo and the African the shoulder.[15] American bison tend to graze more, and
bualo. However, "bison" is a Greek word meaning ox- browse less than their European relatives, because their
like animal, while bualo originated with the French necks are set dierently. Compared to the nose of the
fur trappers who called these massive beasts bufs, mean- American bison, that of the European species is set far-
ing ox or bullockso both names, bison and bualo, ther forward than the forehead when the neck is in a neu-
have a similar meaning. The name bualo is listed in tral position. The body of the American bison is hairier,
many dictionaries as an acceptable name for American though its tail has less hair than that of the European
bualo or bison. In reference to this animal, the term bison. The horns of the European bison point forward
bualo dates to 1625 in North American usage when through the plane of its face, making it more adept at
the term was rst recorded for the American mammal.[14] ghting through the interlocking of horns in the same
It thus has a much longer history than the term bison, manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison
which was rst recorded in 1774. The American bison is which favors charging.[16] American bison are more eas-
very closely related to the wisent or European bison. ily tamed than the European, and breed more readily with
domestic cattle.[17]
In Plains Indian languages in general, male and female
bualoes are distinguished, with each having a dierent
designation rather than there being a single generic word Evolution
covering both sexes. Thus:
The bovine family (taurids and bisonids) diverged from
in Arapaho : bii (bualo cow), hencee (bualo the common ancestral line with water bualo [18]
and African
bull) bualo about 5 to 10 million years ago. Thereafter,
the family lineage of bison and taurine cattle does not
in Lakhota Sioux : pt (bualo cow), tatka appear to be a straightforward tree structure as is of-
(bualo bull) ten depicted in much evolution, because evidence ex-
ists of interbreeding and crossbreeding between dierent
species and members within this family, even many mil-
Such a distinction is not a general feature of the language lions of years after their ancestors separated into dierent
(for example, Arapaho possesses gender-neutral terms for species. This cross breeding was not sucient to conate
other large mammals such as elk, mule deer, etc), and so the dierent species back together, but it has resulted in
presumably is due to the special signicance of the bualo unexpected relationships between many members of this
in Plains Indian life and culture. group, such as yak being related to American bison, when
such relationships would otherwise not be apparent.
A 2003 study of mitochondrial DNA indicated four dis-
tinct maternal lineages in tribe Bovini:

1. Taurine cattle and zebu

2. Wisent (European bison)

3. American bison and yak[19]

4. Banteng, gaur, and gayal

However, Y chromosome analysis associated wisent and

Skulls of European bison (left) and American bison (right)
American bison.[20] An earlier study using amplied frag-
ment length polymorphism ngerprinting showed a close
association of wisent and American bison and proba-
bly with yak, but noted that the interbreeding of Bovini
species made determining relationships problematic.[21]
It is shown, however, the wisent may have emerged by
species divergence initiated by the introgression of bison
bulls in a separate ancestral species.[22]
0.1. AMERICAN BISON 3

some 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.[30][31] Some researchers

consider B. occidentalis to be a subspecies of B. an-
tiquus.[32]

Last of the Canadian Bisons, 1902, photograph: Steele and

Company

The steppe bison (Bison priscus) diverged from the lin-

eage that led to cattle (Bos taurus) about 2 to 5 million
years ago. The bison genus is clearly in the fossil record Pile of American bison skulls to be used for fertilizer in the mid-
by 2 million years ago.[23] The steppe bison spread across 1870s
Eurasia and was the bison that was pictured in the ancient
During the population bottleneck, after the great slaugh-
cave paintings of Spain and Southern France.
ter of American bison during the 1800s, the number of
The European bison arose from the steppe bison, with- bison remaining alive in North America declined to as
out fossil evidence of other ancestral species between the low as 541. During that period, a handful of ranchers
steppe bison and the European bison, though the Euro- gathered remnants of the existing herds to save the species
pean bison might have arisen from the lineage that led from extinction. These ranchers bred some of the bison
to American bison if that lineage backcrossed with the with cattle in an eort to produce cattlo.[33] Acciden-
steppe bison. Again, the web of relationships is confus- tal crossings were also known to occur. Generally, male
ing, but some evidence shows the European bison is de- domestic bulls were crossed with bualo cows, produc-
scended from bison that had migrated from Asia to North ing ospring of which only the females were fertile. The
America, and then back to Europe, where they crossbred crossbred animals did not demonstrate any form of hybrid
with existing steppe bison.[23] vigor, so the practice was abandoned. The proportion of
At one point, some steppe bison crossbred with the an- cattle DNA that has been measured in introgressed indi-
cestors of the modern yak. After that cross, a popula- viduals and bison herds[33][34]
today is typically quite low, rang-
tion of steppe bison (Bison priscus) crossed the Bering ing from 0.56 to 1.8%. In the United States, many
Land Bridge to North America. Evidence has been found ranchers are now using DNA testing to cull the residual
of multiple crossings of bison to and from Asia starting cattle genetics from their bison herds. The U.S. National
before 500,000 years ago and continuing until at least Bison Association has adopted a code of ethics which
220,000 years ago. The steppe bison spread through the prohibits its members from deliberately crossbreeding bi-
northern parts of North America and lived in Eurasia un- son with any other species.
til roughly 11,000 years ago[24] and North America until
4,000 to 8,000 years ago.[23]
0.1.2 Range and population
Bison latifrons (giant bison or longhorn bison) is thought
to have evolved in midcontinent North America from Despite being the closest relatives of domestic cattle na-
B. priscus, after the steppe bison crossed into North tive to North America, bison were never domesticated
America.[25][26][27] Giant bison (B. latifrons) appeared inby Native Americans. Later attempts of domestication
the fossil record around 500,000 years ago.[23] B. latifrons
by Europeans prior to the 20th century met with limited
was one of many species of North American megafauna success. Bison were described as having a wild and un-
which became extinct during the Quaternary extinction governable temper";[35] they can jump close to 6 ft (1.8
event. It is thought to have disappeared some 21,000 m) vertically,[36] and run 35-40 mph (5664 km/h) when
30,000 years ago, during the late Wisconsin glaciation.[28]agitated. This agility and speed, combined with their
The B. latifrons species was replaced by the smaller Bison great size and weight, makes bison herds dicult to con-
antiquus. B. antiquus appeared in the North American ne, as they can easily escape or destroy most fencing
fossil record approximately 250,000 years ago.[29] B. an- systems, including most razor wire.
tiquus, in turn, evolved into B. occidentalis, then into About 500,000 bison currently exist on private lands and
the yet smaller B. bisonthe modern American bison around 30,000 on public lands which includes environ-
4 CONTENTS
mental and government preserves.[37] According to the
IUCN, roughly 15,000 bison are considered wild, free-
range bison not primarily conned by fencing.[38]
0.1.3 Habitat
Bison herd grazing at the National Bison Range in Montana
See also: Great bison belt
American bison live in river valleys, and on prairies and
plains. Typical habitat is open or semiopen grasslands, as
well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands. Some
lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have
supported bison. Bison also graze in hilly or mountain-
ous areas where the slopes are not steep. Though not
particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the
Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at ele-
vations above 8,000 feet and the Henry Mountains bison
herd is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains,
Utah, as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Moun-
tains to an altitude of 10,000 feet.
0.1.4 As livestock
Bison are increasingly raised for meat and hides; the
majority of American bison in the world are raised for
human consumption. Bison meat is generally consid-
ered to taste very similar to beef, but is lower in fat and
cholesterol, yet higher in protein than beef,[39] which has
led to the development of beefalo, a fertile hybrid of bison
and domestic cattle. In 2005, about 35,000 bison were
processed for meat in the U.S., with the National Bison
Association and USDA providing a Certied American
Bualo program with birth-to-consumer tracking of bi-
son via RFID ear tags. A market even exists for kosher
bison meat; these bison are slaughtered at one of the few
kosher mammal slaughterhouses in the U.S., and the meat
is then distributed nationwide.
Bison are found in publicly and privately held herds.
Custer State Park in South Dakota is home to 1,500 bi-
son, one of the largest publicly held herds in the world, but
some question the genetic purity of the animals. Wildlife
Bison meat for sale
ocials believe that free roaming and genetically pure
herds on public lands in North America can be found only
in the Yellowstone Park bison herd,[40] the Henry Moun-
tains bison herd at the Book Clis and Henry Mountains
in Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota,
Fort Peck Indian Reservation in Montana, Mackenzie Bi-
son Sanctuary in the Northwest Territories, Elk Island
National Park and Wood Bualo National Park in Al-
berta, and Prince Albert National Park in Saskatchewan.
Another population, the Antelope Island bison herd on
Antelope Island in Utah, consisting of 550 to 700 bison,
is also one of the largest and oldest public herds in the
United States, but the bison in that herd are considered
to be only semifree roaming, since they are conned to
the Antelope Island. In addition, recent genetic stud-
ies indicate that, like most bison herds, the Antelope Is-
land bison herd has a small number of genes from do-
mestic cattle. In 2002, the United States government do-
nated some bison calves from South Dakota and Colorado
to the Mexican government. Their descendants live in
the Mexican nature reserves El Uno Ranch at Janos and
Santa Elena Canyon, Chihuahua, and Boquillas del Car-
men, Coahuila, located near the southern banks of the Rio
Grande, and around the grassland state line with Texas
and New Mexico.
Recent genetic studies of privately owned herds of bi-
son show that many of them include animals with genes
from domestic cattle.[40] For example, the herd on Santa
Catalina Island, California, isolated since 1924 after
being brought there for a movie shoot, were found to
have cattle introgression.[41] As few as 12,000 to 15,000
pure bison are estimated to remain in the world. The
numbers are uncertain because the tests used to date
mitochondrial DNA analysisindicate only if the mater-
nal line (back from mother to mother) ever included do-
mesticated bovines, thus say nothing about possible male
input in the process. Most hybrids were found to look ex-
0.1. AMERICAN BISON 5

actly like purebred bison; therefore, appearance is not a

good indicator of genetics.
The size of the Canadian domesticated herd (genetic
questions aside) grew dramatically through the 1990s and
2000s. The 2006 Census of Agriculture reported the
Canadian herd at 195,728 head, a 34.9% increase since
2001.[42] Of this total, over 95% was located in Western
Canada, and less than 5% in Eastern Canada. Alberta was
the province with the largest herd, accounting for 49.7%
of the herd and 45.8% of the farms. The next-largest
herds were in Saskatchewan (23.9%), Manitoba (10%), Grazing in winter, Yellowstone National Park: Bison use their
and British Columbia (6%). The main producing re- heads to clear out snow for the grass.
gions were in the northern parts of the Canadian prairies,
specically in the parkland belt, with the Peace River re-
gion (shared between Alberta and British Columbia) be-
ing the most important cluster, accounting for 14.4% of
the national herd.[42] Canada also exports bison meat, to-
taling 2,075,253 kilograms (4,575,150 lb) in 2006.[43]
A proposal known as Bualo Commons has been sug-
gested by a handful of academics and policymakers to
restore large parts of the drier portion of the Great Plains
to native prairie grazed by bison.[40] Proponents argue
that current agricultural use of the shortgrass prairie is
not sustainable, pointing to periodic disasters, including
the Dust Bowl, and continuing signicant human popu-
American bison galloping, photos by Eadweard Muybridge, rst
lation loss over the last 60 years. However, this plan is
published in 1887 in Animal Locomotion
opposed by some who live in the areas in question.

prairie, cool-season grasses, including some sedges, ap-

0.1.5 Behavior and ecology parently compose 7996% of their diet.[48] In montane
and northern areas, sedges are selected throughout the
year.[44] Bison also drink water or consume snow on a
daily basis.[46]

Social behavior and reproduction

Herd of bison in Yellowstone National Park

Bison are migratory and herd migrations can be direc-

tional as well as altitudinal in some areas.[44][45][46] Bison
have usual daily movements between foraging sites dur-
ing the summer. In a montane valley, bison have been
recorded traveling, on average, 3.2 km a day.[46] The
summer ranges of bison appear to be inuenced by sea-
sonal vegetation changes, interspersion and size of for-
aging sites, the rut, and the number of biting insects.[44]
The size of preserve and availability of water may also
be a factor.[46] Bison are largely grazers, eating primar-
ily grasses and sedges. On shortgrass pasture, bison pre-
dominately consume warm-season grasses.[47] On mixed
Bison ghting in Grand Teton National Park in Moose, Wyoming
Female bison live in maternal herds which include other
females and their ospring. Male ospring leave their
maternal herd when around three years old and either live
alone or join other males in bachelor herds. Male and fe-
male herds usually do not mingle until the breeding sea-
son, which can occur from July through September.[49]
6 CONTENTS

However, female herds may also contain a few older

males. During the breeding season, dominant bulls main-
tain a small harem of females for mating. Individual bulls
tend cows until allowed to mate, by following them
around and chasing away rival males. The tending bull
shields the females vision with his body so she will not
see any other challenging males. A challenging bull may
bellow or roar to get a females attention and the tending
bull has to bellow/roar back.[50] The most dominant bulls
mate in the rst 23 weeks of the season.[50] More sub-
ordinate bulls mate with any remaining estrous cow that
has not mated yet. Male bison play no part in raising the
young.
Bison herds have dominance hierarchies that exist for
both males and females. A bisons dominance is related
to its birth date.[51] Bison born earlier in the breeding American bison standing its ground against a wolf pack
season are more likely to be larger and more dominant
as adults.[51] Thus, bison are able to pass on their domi-
Predation
nance to their ospring as dominant bison breed earlier
in the season. In addition to dominance, the older bison
While often secure from predation because of their size
of a generation also have a higher fertility rate than the
and strength, in some areas, bison are regularly preyed
younger ones.[51] Cows nurse their calves for at least 7 or
upon by wolves. Wolf predation typically peaks in late
8 months, but most calves seem to be weaned before the
spring and early summer, with attacks usually being con-
end of their rst year.[46]
centrated on cows and calves. Wolves more actively tar-
Bison have been observed to display homosexual behav- get herds with calves than those without. The length of
iors, males much more so than females. In the case of a predation episode varies, ranging from a few minutes
males, it is unlikely to be related to dominance, but rather to over nine hours.[55][56] Bison display ve apparent de-
to social bonding or gaining sexual experience.[52] fense strategies in protecting calves from wolves: running
to a cow, running to a herd, running to the nearest bull,
running in the front or center of a stampeding herd, and
entering water bodies such as lakes or rivers. When ee-
Horning ing wolves in open areas, cows with young calves take the
lead, while bulls take to the rear of the herds, to guard
Bison mate in late spring and summer in more open plain the cows escape. Bison typically ignore wolves not dis-
areas. During fall and winter, bison tend to gather in playing hunting behavior.[57] Wolf packs specializing in
more wooded areas. During this time, bison partake in bison tend to have more males, because their larger size
horning behaviors. They rub their horns against trees, than females allows them to wrestle prey to the ground
young saplings, and even utility poles. Aromatic trees like more eectively.[58] Healthy, mature bulls in herds rarely
cedars and pine seem to be preferred. Horning appears to fall prey. Grizzly bears can also pose a threat to calves
be associated with insect defense, as it occurs most often and sometimes old, injured, or sick adult bison.
in the fall when the insect population is at its highest.[53]
Cedar and pines emit an aroma after bison horn them and
this seems to be used as a deterrent for insects.[53] Dangers to humans

Bison are among the most dangerous animals encoun-

tered by visitors to the various U.S. and Canadian national
Wallowing behavior parks and will attack humans if provoked. They appear
slow because of their lethargic movements, but can easily
A bison wallow is a shallow depression in the soil, which outrun humans; bison have been observed running as fast
bison use either wet or dry. Bison roll in these depres- as 40 mph (64 km/h).
sions, covering themselves with dust or mud. Past and Between 1980 and 1999, more than three times as many
current hypotheses to explain the purpose of wallowing people in Yellowstone National Park were injured by bi-
include grooming associated with shedding, male-male son than by bears. During this period, bison charged
interaction (typically rutting), social behavior for group and injured 79 people, with injuries ranging from gor-
cohesion, play, relief from skin irritation due to biting in- ing puncture wounds and broken bones to bruises and
sects, reduction of ectoparasite (tick and lice) load, and abrasions. Bears injured 24 people during the same time.
thermoregulation.[54] Three people died from the injuries inictedone per-
0.1. AMERICAN BISON
son by bison in 1983, and two people by bears in 1984
and 1986.[59]
0.1.6 Hunting
Main article: Bison hunting
Bualo hunting (hunting of the American bison) was
Map from 1889 by William T. Hornaday, illustrating the Exter-
mination of the American Bison
Bison hunt under the wolf-skin mask, 183233
an activity fundamental to the Midwestern Native Amer- cattle genes has increased. Though about 500,000 bison
icans, which was later adopted by American professional exist on private ranches and in public herds, perhaps only
hunters, leading to the near-extinction of the species 15,000 to 25,000 of these bison are pure and not actually
around 1890. It has since begun to recover.
7
Bison being chased o a cli as seen and painted by Alfred
Jacob Miller
0.1.7 Genetics
A major problem that bison face today is a lack of genetic
diversity due to the population bottleneck the species ex-
perienced during its near-extinction event. Another ge-
netic issue is the entry of genes from domestic cattle into
the bison population, through hybridization.[40]
Ocially, the American bualo is classied by the
United States government as a type of cattle, and the gov-
ernment allows private herds to be managed as such. This
is a reection of the characteristics that bison share with
cattle. Though the American bison is not only a sepa-
rate species, but also is usually regarded as being in a
separate genus from domestic cattle (Bos taurus), they
clearly have a lot of genetic compatibility and Ameri-
can bison can interbreed with cattle, although only the
female ospring are fertile in the rst generation. These
female hybrids can be bred back to either bison or domes-
tic bulls, resulting in either 1/4 or 3/4 bison young. Fe-
male ospring from this cross are also fertile, but males
are not reliably fertile unless they are either 7 8 bison or 7 8
domestic.[65] Moreover, when they do interbreed, cross-
breed animals in the rst generation tend to look very
much like purebred bison, so appearance is completely
unreliable as a means of determining what is a purebred
bison and what is a crossbred cow. Many ranchers have
deliberately crossbred their cattle with bison, and some
natural hybridization could be expected in areas where
cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle and
bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they
have often been in the same range together in the past,
and opportunity for crossbreeding may sometimes have
been common.
In recent decades, tests were developed to determine the
source of mitochondrial DNA in cattle and bison, and
most private bualo herds were actually crossbred with
cattle, and even most state and federal bualo herds had
some cattle DNA. With the advent of nuclear microsatel-
lite DNA testing, the number of herds known to contain
bison-cattle hybrids. DNA from domestic cattle (Bos
8 CONTENTS

taurus) has been detected in nearly all bison herds exam- inant genetic makeup was that of the expected wood
ined to date.[66] Signicant public bison herds that do bualo.[9] However, the Yellowstone Park bison herd
not appear to have hybridized domestic cattle genes are was pure plains bison, and not any of the other previously
the Yellowstone Park bison herd, the Henry Mountains suggested subspecies. Another nding was that the bison
bison herd, which was started with bison taken from Yel- in the Antelope Island herd in Utah appeared to be more
lowstone Park, the Wind Cave bison herd, and the Wood distantly related to other plains bison in general than any
Bualo National Park bison herd and subsidiary herds other plains bison group that was tested, though this might
started from it, in Canada. be due to genetic drift caused by the small size of only 12
individuals in the founder population. A side nding of
A landmark study of bison genetics performed by James
Derr of Texas A&M University corroborated this.[67] The this was that the Antelope Island bison herd appears to be
most closely related to the Wood Bualo National Park
Derr study was undertaken in an attempt to determine
what genetic problems bison might face as they repop- bison herd, though the Antelope Island bison are actually
plains bison.
ulate former areas, and it noted that bison seem to be
adapting successfully, despite their apparent genetic bot-
tleneck. One possible explanation for this might be the
small amount of domestic cattle genes that are now in 0.1.8 Bison trails
most bison populations, though this is not the only possi-
ble explanation for bison success. The rst thoroughfares of North America, except for the
time-obliterated paths of mastodon or muskox and the
routes of the mound builders, were the traces made by bi-
son and deer in seasonal migration and between feeding
grounds and salt licks. Many of these routes, hammered
by countless hoofs instinctively following watersheds and
the crests of ridges in avoidance of lower places summer
muck and winter snowdrifts, were followed by the aborig-
inal North Americans as courses to hunting grounds and
as warriors paths. They were invaluable to explorers and
were adopted by pioneers.
Bison traces were characteristically north and south, but
several key east-west trails were used later as railways.
Some of these include the Cumberland Gap through the
Blue Ridge Mountains to upper Kentucky. A heavily used
A wood bison around Coal River in Canada trace crossed the Ohio River at the Falls of the Ohio and
ran west, crossing the Wabash River near Vincennes, In-
In the study, cattle genes were also found in small amounts diana. In Senator Thomas Hart Benton's phrase saluting
throughout most national, state and private herds. The these sagacious path-makers, the bison paved the way for
hybridization experiments conducted by some of the the railroads to the Pacic.[68]
owners of the ve foundation herds of the late 1800s,
have left a legacy of a small amount of cattle genetics in
many of our existing bison herds. He also said, All of 0.1.9 As a symbol
the state owned bison herds tested (except for possibly
one) contain animals with domestic cattle mtDNA.[67] Native Americans
It appears that the one state herd that had no cattle genes
was the Henry Mountains bison herd; the Henry Moun- Among Native American tribes, especially the Plains In-
tain herd was started initially with transplanted animals dians, the bison is considered a sacred animal and re-
from Yellowstone Park. However, the extension of this ligious symbol. According to University of Montana
herd into the Book Clis of central Utah involved mixing anthropology and Native American studies professor S.
the founders with additional bison from another source, Neyooxet Greymorning, The creation stories of where
so it is not known if the Book Clis extension of the herd bualo came from put them in a very spiritual place
is also free of cattle hybridization. among many tribes. The bualo crossed many dier-
A separate study by Wilson and Strobeck, published in ent areas and functions, and it was utilized in many ways.
Genome, was done to dene the relationships between It was used in ceremonies, as well as to make tipi covers
dierent herds of bison in the United States and Canada, that provided homes for people, utensils, shields, weapons
and to determine whether the bison at Wood Bualo Na- and parts were used for sewing with the sinew.[69] The
tional Park in Canada and the Yellowstone Park bison Sioux consider the birth of a white bualo to be the return
herd were possibly separate subspecies. The Wood Buf- of White Bualo Calf Woman, their primary cultural
falo Park bison were determined to actually be cross- prophet and the bringer of their Seven Sacred Rites.
breeds between plains and wood bison, but their predom- Among the Mandan and Hidatsa, the White Bualo Cow
0.1. AMERICAN BISON
Society was the most sacred of societies for women.
United States and Canada
Wyoming uses a bison in its state ag.
The 1935 Bualo nickelthis style of coin featuring an Ameri-
can bison was produced from 1913 to 1938.
Series 1901 $10 legal tender depicting military explorers
Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and an American bison
The American bison is often used in North America in
ocial seals, ags, and logos. In 2016, the American bi-
son became the national mammal of the United States.[70]
The bison is a popular symbol in the Great Plains states:
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming have adopted the ani-
mal as their ocial state mammal, and many sports teams
9
First postage stamp with image of bison was issued US in 1898
4 Indian Hunting Bualo, part of the Trans-Mississippi Ex-
position commemorative series
have chosen the bison as their mascot. In Canada, the bi-
son is the ocial animal of the province of Manitoba and
appears on the Manitoba ag. It is also used in the ocial
coat of arms of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Several American coins feature the bison, most famously
on the reverse side of the "bualo nickel" from 1913 to
1938. In 2005, the United States Mint coined a nickel
with a new depiction of the bison as part of its Westward
Journey series. The Kansas and North Dakota state
quarters, part of the "50 State Quarter" series, each fea-
ture bison. The Kansas state quarter has only the bison
and does not feature any writing, while the North Dakota
state quarter has two bison. The Montana state quarter
prominently features a bison skull over a landscape. The
Yellowstone National Park quarter also features a bison
standing next to a geyser.
Other institutions which have adopted the bison as a sym-
bol or mascot include:
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bethany College (West Virginia)
Bucknell University and its athletic program, the
Bucknell Bison
Bualo, New York
Bualo Bills
Bualo Bisons
Bualo Grove High School
Bualo Sabres
University at Bualo, The State University of New
York and its athletic program, the Bualo Bulls
University of Colorado and its athletic program, the
Colorado Bualoes
Gallaudet University
10 CONTENTS

Harding University and its athletic program, the 0.1.11 References

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0.2. CYPERACEAE 13

0.1.12 Further reading Species prole: American bison by The Nature

Conservancy
Branch, E. Douglas. (1997) The Hunting of the Buf-
falo (1929, new ed. University of Nebraska Press,), Bison safety information at Yellowstone National
classic history Park from the National Park Service

Dary David A. The Bualo Book. (Chicago: Swal- The Extermination of the American Bison, by
low Press, 1974) William T. Hornaday from Project Gutenberg
Wild Bison Reference Project -Collaborative Bibli-
Flores Dan Louie (1991). Bison Ecology and Bi-
ography for the Conservation, Management and Ad-
son Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800 to
vocacy of Wild Bison
1850. Journal of American History. 78 (2): 465
85. doi:10.2307/2079530. JSTOR 2079530. American Prairie Foundation
Gard, Wayne. The Great Bualo Hunt (University Papers, 18711917 and undated, of bualo hunter
of Nebraska Press, 1954) John Wesley Mooar in the Southwest Collection,
Special Collections Libraries at Texas Tech Univer-
Isenberg, Andrew C. The Destruction of the Bison: sity
An Environmental History, 17501920 (Cambridge
University press, 2000) Watch the NFB documentary The Great Bualo
Saga
Lott, Dale F (2002). American Bison: A Natural
History. University of California Press. ISBN 0- Traditional use of Tatanka (bualo)
520-24062-6.
Smithsonian Institution North American Mam-
McHugh, Tom. The Time of the Bualo (University mals: Bison bison
of Nebraska Press, 1972). Bison skeletal structure and bones
Meagher, Margaret Mary. The Bison of Yellow- Public television series episode on history of Amer-
stone National Park. (Washington DC: Government ican Bison
Printing Oce, 1973)
Rister Carl Coke (1929). The Signicance of the
Destruction of the Bualo in the Southwest. South- 0.2 Cyperaceae
western Historical Quarterly. 33: 3449.
This article is about plants in the family Cyperaceae. For
Roe, Frank Gilbert. The North American Bualo:
other uses of sedge, see Sedge (disambiguation).
A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State (Uni-
versity of Toronto Press, 1951).
The Cyperaceae are a family of monocotyledonous
Shaw, James H. "How Many Bison Originally Pop- graminoid owering plants known as sedges, which su-
ulated Western Rangelands?" Rangelands, Vol. 17, percially resemble grasses and rushes. The family is
No. 5 (Oct., 1995), pp. 148150 large, with some 5,500 known species described in about
90 genera,[2][3] the largest being the Carex genus of true
Smits, David D. "The Frontier Army and the De-
sedges[4][5] with over 2,000 species.[6] These species
struction of the Bualo, 18651883," Western His-
are widely distributed, with the centers of diversity for
torical Quarterly 25 (1994): 31338 and 26 (1995)
the group occurring in tropical Asia and tropical South
203-8.
America. While sedges may be found growing in almost
Zontek Ken (1995). Hunt, Capture, Raise, In- all environments, many are associated with wetlands, or
crease: The People Who Saved the Bison. Great with poor soils. Ecological communities dominated by
Plains Quarterly. 15: 13349. sedges are known as sedgelands.
Features distinguishing members of the sedge family
from grasses or rushes are stems with triangular cross-
0.1.13 External links sections (with occasional exceptions) and leaves that are
spirally arranged in three ranks (grasses have alternate
Bison bison. Integrated Taxonomic Information
leaves forming two ranks).[7][8][9]
System. Retrieved March 18, 2006.
Some well-known sedges include the water chestnut
American Bison (Eleocharis dulcis) and the papyrus sedge (Cyperus pa-
National Bison Association pyrus), from which the Ancient Egyptian writing ma-
terial was made. This family also includes cotton-
Bualo Field Campaign grass (Eriophorum), spike-rush (Eleocharis), sawgrass
14 CONTENTS

(Cladium), nutsedge or nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus, a

common lawn weed), and white star sedge (Rhynchospora
colorata).

0.2.1 Selected genera

Cyperus rotundus, Kerala

Carex serotina

Amphiscirpus
Androtrichum
Arthrostylis
Ascolepis
Becquerelia
Baumea
Blysmus
Bolboschoenus
Bulbostylis
Broad-leaved cotton-grass (Eriophorum latifolium)
Carex

Abildgaardia Cladium

Actinoscirpus Coleochloa

Actinoschoenus Cymophyllus

Afrotrilepis Cyperus
Alinula Desmoschoenus
0.2. CYPERACEAE 15

Dulichium 0.2.2 References

Eleocharis [1] Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009). An update of the
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classication for the or-
Eleogiton
ders and families of owering plants: APG III (PDF).
Elyna Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 105
121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x. Retrieved
Eriophorum 2013-06-26.

Ficinia [2] Christenhusz, M. J. M.; Byng, J. W. (2016). The num-

ber of known plants species in the world and its annual
Fimbristylis increase. Phytotaxa. Magnolia Press. 261 (3): 201217.
doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
Fuirena
[3] R. Govaerts; D. A. Simpson; with J. Bruhl; T. Egorova;
Gahnia
P. Goetghebeur; K. Wilson (2007). Word Checklist of
Hypolytrum Cyperaceae: Sedges. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN
978-1-84246-199-0.
Isolepis
[4] Sedge family denition and more from the free
Kobresia Mirriam-Webster Dictionary. Mirriam-Webster. Re-
trieved 25 December 2013.
Kyllinga
[5] Milne, Lorus Johnson; Milne, Margery Joan Greene
Lagenocarpus (1975). Living plants of the world. Random House. p.
301.
Lepidosperma
[6] Hipp, Andrew L. (2007). Nonuniform processes
Lepironia
of chromosome evolution in sedges (Carex: Cyper-
Lipocarpha aceae)" (PDF). Evolution. 61 (9): 21752194.
doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00183.x. ISSN 0014-
Machaerina 3820.

Mapania [7] Grasslike non-grasses. Backyard Nature. Retrieved De-

cember 30, 2014.
Mariscus
[8] Peter W. Ball; A. A. Reznicek; David F. Murray. 210.
Mesomelaena Cyperaceae Jussieu. In Flora of North Americaial Com-
mittee. Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyper-
Morelotia
aceae. Flora of North America. 23. Oxford University
Oreobolus Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515207-4.

Oxycaryum [9] Brian R. Speer (September 29, 1995). Glumiorae:

More on Morphology. University of California, Berke-
Pycreus ley. Retrieved March 23, 2007.

Remirea
Rhynchospora 0.2.3 External links
Schoenoplectus Cyperaceae at The Plant List
Schoenoplectiella Cyperaceae at The Families of Flowering Plants
(DELTA)
Schoenus
Cyperaceae at the Encyclopedia of Life
Scirpodendron
Scirpoides Cyperaceae at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website

Scirpus Cyperaceae at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Scleria Cyperaceae at the online Flora of North America

Trichophorum Cyperaceae at the online Flora of Michigan

Uncinia Cyperaceae at the online Flora of Northern Ireland

Websteria Cyperaceae at the online Flora of Zimbabwe

16 CONTENTS

Cyperaceae at the online Flora of Western Australia

Cyperaceae at the online Flora of New South Wales
Cyperaceae at the online Flora of New Zealand

Cyperaceae at Flowers in Israel

0.3 Hyptis emoryi

0.3.3 References
Hyptis emoryi (desert lavender) is a large, multi- Jepson Manual Treatment
stemmed shrub species of owering plant in the
Lamiaceae. The genus Hyptis is commonly known as the USDA: NRCS: Plants Prole Hyptis emoryi;
bushmints. Arizona county range; California; Nevada
It is one of the favored plants of honeybees in early spring
in the southwest deserts of North America. Hyptis emoryi in the CalPhotos Photo Database,
University of California, Berkeley

0.3.1 Description - Lady Bird JohnsonWildower Center

Desert lavender is a medium to tall cold tender perennial

shrub found in the southwestern United States of Arizona, 0.3.4 External links
Nevada, California, and northwestern Mexico in Sonora
and Baja California. Photo-stems & owers; Article - desert-
It is a multi-stemmed shrub reaching 1518 ft in optimum tropicals.comDesert Tropicals
locations. It has violet-blue owers up to 1 in, in leaf
Photo: Rocky wash: w/Bebbia-(dried), Brittlebush-
axils. The owers are profuse along the main stem and
in yellow bloom, and Saguaro on plain; Article,
side branches and is an aromatic attractor of the honeybee
Synopsis, and photo gallery - delange.orgArizona
and other species. Leaves are oval and a whitish gray-
Wild Flowers
green-(in deserts), serrated margins, hairy, and 2-3 in. It
is found in dry washes, and on rocky slopes, up to 3000
ft (900 m). It is evergreen or cold deciduous, depending
on location. 0.4 La Noche Triste
La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows) on June 30,
0.3.2 Distribution and habitat
1520, was an important event during the Spanish con-
It occurs mostly in areas with a water source; in the south- quest of Mexico, wherein Hernn Corts and his army of
western USA deserts it is commonly in the dry washes, Spanish conquistadors and native allies fought their way
intermixed with other species. out of the Mexican capital at Tenochtitlan following the
death of the Aztec king Moctezuma II; who had been held
In the "Creosote Bush scrub Yuma Desert-(western hostage by the Spaniards.
Sonoran Desert) of southwest Arizona, it is found with
the palo verde, Bebbia, Encelia farinosa, desert ironwood
(Olneya tesota), Lycium andersonii (wolfberry or Ander- 0.4.1 Prologue
son thornbush), Psorothamnus spinosus (a type of smoke
tree), and Acacia greggii, as some common associated Corts expedition arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Mexica
species of the washes, elevation dependent. capital, on November 8, 1519, taking up residence in a
In Arizona, found from central to southwestern Arizona specially designated compound in the city. Soon there-
of the Sonoran Desert; in northwest Arizona found in re- after, suspecting treachery on the part of their hosts, the
gions of the Mojave Desert. In southern California and Spaniards took Moctezuma II, the king or Hueyi Tla-
Nevada, desert lavender is found in southern regions of toani of the Mexica, hostage. Though Moctezuma fol-
the Mojave Desert and the Colorado Desert of southeast lowed Corts instructions in continually assuring his sub-
California. jects that he had been ordered by the gods to move in
with the Spaniards and that he had done so willingly,
the Aztecs suspected otherwise. During the following 98
days, Corts and his native allies, the Tlaxcaltecas, were
increasingly unwelcome guests in the capital.
0.4. LA NOCHE TRISTE 17

Corts heads o Spanish punitive expedition

In June 1520, news from the Gulf coast reached Corts

that a much larger party of Spaniards had been sent by
Governor Velzquez of Cuba to arrest Corts for insub-
ordination. Leaving Tenochtitlan in the care of his trusted
lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado, Corts marched to the
coast, where he defeated the Cuban expedition led by
Pnlo de Narvez sent to capture him. When Corts
told the defeated soldiers about the riches of Tenochti-
tlan, they agreed to join him. Reinforced by Narvaezs
men, Corts headed back to Tenochtitlan.

Loss of control in Tenochtitlan

During Corts absence, Pedro de Alvarado in Tenochtit-

lan obtained information that the Aztecs were about to at-
tack him. In response, de Alvarado ordered a preemptive
slaughter of Aztec nobles and priests celebrating a fes-
tival in the citys main temple. In retaliation, the Aztecs
laid siege to the Spanish compound, in which Moctezuma
was still being held captive. By the time Corts returned
to Tenochtitlan in late June, the Aztecs had elected a new
Hueyi Tlatoani named Cuitlhuac.
Corts ordered Moctezuma to address his people from
a terrace in order to persuade them to stop ghting and
to allow the Spaniards to leave the city in peace. The
Aztecs, however, jeered at Moctezuma, and pelted him
with stones and darts. By Spanish accounts, he was killed
in this assault by the Mexica people, though they claim he
had been killed instead by the Spanish.[1]:294[2]:90
A map of Tenochtitlan and its causeways leading out of the cap-
With Moctezuma dead, Corts and Alvarado knew they ital.
were in a precarious position. Under constant attack, with
gunpowder and food and water in short supply, Corts
decided to break out of the city by night. In order to way. The causeway was apparently unguarded, and the
put the Aztecs o their guard, he sent messengers ask- Spaniards made their way out of their complex unnoticed,
ing for a one-week ceasere, at the end of which the winding their way through the sleeping city under the
Spaniards would return any treasure of which they were cover of a rainstorm. Before reaching the causeway, they
in possession and would be permitted to leave the city were noticed by Aztec warriors known as the Eagle War-
peacefully.[1]:296 riors, who sounded the alarm.[1]:298,305 First by a woman
Since the Aztecs had damaged bridges on four of the eight drawing water, and then by the priest of Huitzilopochtli
[2]:85
causeways into the island city, the Spaniards devised a from atop Templo Mayor.
portable bridge they could use in order to cross any un- The ghting was ferocious. As the Spaniards and their
spanned sections of water. Corts ordered that as much native allies reached the causeway, hundreds of canoes
of the accumulated gold and other booty as was feasible appeared in the waters alongside to harry them. The
be packed and carried away, and invited the Spanish sol- Spaniards fought their way across the causeway in the
diers to take and carry away as much as they wished of rain. Weighed down by gold and equipment, some of the
the remainder. This invitation would lead to the demise soldiers lost their footing, fell into the lake, and drowned.
of many soldiers who, overburdened with treasure, found Amid a vanguard of horsemen, Corts pressed ahead and
it impossible to navigate the causeways and other obsta- reached dry land at Tacuba, leaving the rest of the expedi-
cles encountered on the way out of the city.[1]:297,306 tion to fend for itself in the treacherous crossing.[1]:299300
Seeing the wounded survivors straggle into the village,
The Spanish head for the causeway out Corts and his horsemen turned back to the causeway,
where they encountered Pedro de Alvarado, unhorsed
On the night of 01 July 1520,[3] his large army left their and badly wounded, in the company of a handful of
compound and headed west, toward the Tlacopan cause- Spaniards and Tlaxcaltecas. According to Bernal Daz
18 CONTENTS

del Castillo, it was at this point that tears came to Corts Gonzalo de Sandoval
eyes, as he realized the extent of the debacle.[1]:300
Dona Marina
Corts, Alvarado and the strongest and most skilled of the
men had managed to ght their way out of Tenochtitlan,
although they were all bloodied and exhausted. Corts 0.4.4 Footnotes
himself had been injured in the ghting. All of the ar-
tillery had been lost, as had most of the horses.[1]:302 [1] Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London:
Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
The sources are not in agreement as to the total num-
ber of casualties suered by the expedition. Corts him- [2] Len-Portilla, M. 1992, 'The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon
self claimed that 154 Spaniards were lost along with over
Press, ISBN 978-0807055014
2,000 native allies. Thoan Cano, another eyewitness to
the event, said that 1170 Spaniards died, but this num- [3] Various sources give dates ranging from June 30 to July
ber probably exceeds the total number of Spaniards who 4, a problem further confounded by the use of the Julian
took part in the expedition.[4] Francisco Lpez de G- calendar in Europe at this time, which had diverged from
mara, who was not himself an eyewitness, estimated that the true (solar) date by almost 12 days.
450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies died.[5] [4] Prescott, Appendix.
Montezumas son, Chimalpopoca (Moctezuma) was [5] Prescott, Book 5, Chapter 3.
killed and the Tepanec prince Tlaltecatzin.[2]:87 King
Cacamatzin, his three sisters and two brothers were also
killed.[2]:90 0.4.5 References
Diaz states the Spaniards suered 860 soldiers killed,
which included those from the later Battle of Otumba. Primary sources
The Tlaxcaltecas lost a thousand. The noncombatants at-
Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva
tached to the expedition suered terribly, 72 casualties,
Espaa (True History of the Conquest of New
including ve Spanish women. The few women who sur-
Spain) by Bernal Daz del Castillo. Bernal Daz del
vived included La Malinche the interpreter, Dona Luisa,
Castillo served as a rodelero, or soldier armed with
and Mara Estrada.[1]:302,305306 The event was named La
sword and buckler, in Corts expedition, and per-
Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows) on account of the
sonally participated in the nocturnal battle known as
sorrow that Corts and his surviving followers felt and ex-
La noche triste. His Chapter CXXVIII (How we
pressed at the loss of life and treasure incurred in the es-
agreed to ee from Mexico, and what we did about
cape from Tenochtitlan.
it) is an account of the event.
La Historia general de las Indias (General History
0.4.2 Aftermath of the Indies) by Gonzalo Fernndez de Oviedo y
Valds. See Parsons (below), Volume III, p. 296-
Further battles awaited the Spaniards and their allies 292. Oviedo, not himself a witness to La Noche
as they fought their way around the north end of Lake Triste, claimed to have interviewed Thoan Cano, a
Zumpango. Two weeks later, at the Battle of Otumba, member of Pnlo Narvez' expedition who joined
not far from Teotihuacan, they turned to ght the pur- Corts in his return to Mexico and who survived the
suing Aztec, decisively defeating them according to escape from the city.
Corts, because he slew the Aztec commander and
giving the Spaniards a small respite that allowed them to
reach Tlaxcala.[1]:303305 Secondary sources

It was there in Tlaxcala that Corts plotted the siege of Conquest: Corts, and the Fall of Old Mexico by
Tenochtitlan and the eventual destruction of the Aztec Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0-671-51104-1.
Empire.
Corts and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon
Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0-7867-0271-0.
0.4.3 See also History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H.
Prescott ISBN 0-375-75803-8. Available online at
History of the Aztecs www.questia.com.
History of Mexico The Rain God cries over Mexico by Lszl Passuth.

Juan Velazquez de Leon Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew

Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-
Cristobal de Olid 516077-0.
0.6. WAKAN TANKA 19

The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov Tonatiuhs era. According to the Aztec creation myth,
(1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1. the god demanded human sacrice as tribute and with-
out it would refuse to move through the sky. It is said
The Conquistadors by Michael Wood (2002) PBS. that 20,000 people were sacriced each year to Tonatiuh
and other gods, though this number is thought to be in-
0.4.6 External links ated either by the Aztecs, who wanted to inspire fear in
their enemies, or the Spaniards, who wanted to vilify the
Pgina de relacin Aztecs. The Aztecs were fascinated by the sun and care-
fully observed it, and had a solar calendar similar to that
Hernando Cortes on the Web with thumbnail gal- of the Maya. Many of todays remaining Aztec monu-
leries ments have structures aligned with the sun.
Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) In the Aztec calendar, Tonatiuh is the lord of the thirteen
days from 1 Death to 13 Flint. The preceding thirteen
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood 2001 PBS days are ruled over by Chalchiuhtlicue, and the following
documentary thirteen by Tlaloc.
Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented
online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Col-
lections Center. 0.5.2 See also
Aztec calendar stone
0.5 Tonatiuh
0.5.3 References
This article is about the god. For the conquistador, see
Pedro de Alvarado. For the star, see HD 104985. [1] Bingham, Ann (2004). South and Meso-American mythol-
In Aztec mythology, Tonatiuh (Nahuatl: llin T- ogy A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 112. ISBN 0-8160-
4889-4.

0.5.4 External links

Windows to The Universe page on Tonatiuh

0.6 Wakan Tanka

In the Lakota way of life, Wakan Tanka[1][2] (Standard
Lakota Orthography: Wak Tka) is the term for
the sacred or the divine. This is usually trans-
lated as "The Great Spirit". However, according to
Russell Means, its meaning is closer to Great Mys-
tery as Lakota spirituality is not henotheistic.[3] Before
their attempted conversion to Christianity, the Sioux used
Wak Tka to refer to an organization of sacred
entities whose ways were mysterious: thus, The Great
Mystery.[4]
Tonatiuh Codex Borgia

natiuh [olin tonati] Movement of the Sun) was the 0.6.1 Interpretations
sun god.[1] The Aztec people considered him the leader
of Tollan, heaven. He was also known as the fth sun, It is interpreted as the power or the sacredness that resides
because the Aztecs believed that he was the sun that took in everything, resembling some animistic and pantheistic
over when the fourth sun was expelled from the sky. beliefs. This term describes every creature and object as
wak (holy) or having aspects that are wak.[3]
0.5.1 Description Wakan Tanka was supposed to have placed the stones and
minerals in the ground; Also, supposed to change the sea-
Aztec theology held that each sun was a god with its sons and weather, and plants were supposed to have come
own cosmic era, the Aztecs believed they were still in out of the ground by hands.
20 CONTENTS

0.6.2 Cognate terms in other Siouan lan- skin. She had dark hair, skin and eyes. One of the men
guages was lled with lust for the woman. He approached her,
telling his companion he would attempt to claim her as a
Wakan Tanka or Wakan is also known as Wakanda in wife. His companion warned him that she appeared to be
the Omaha-Ponca, Ioway-Otoe-Missouri, Kansa and Os- a sacred woman, and to do anything sacrilegious would be
age languages; and Wakatakeh in Quapaw. In addition, dangerous and disrespectful. The man ignored the others
there is Ho-Chunk Mahanah, Mandan Omahank, and advice.
Tutelo Mahomny. The second man watched as the rst approached and em-
braced the woman, during which time a white cloud en-
veloped the pair. When the cloud disappeared, only the
0.6.3 See also mysterious woman and a pile of bones remained. The
Sioux language bones were the remains of the man. The remaining man
was frightened, and began to draw his bow, but the holy
Mysterium Magnum woman beckoned him forward, telling him that no harm
would come to him as she could see into his heart and he
did not have the motives the rst man had. As the woman
0.6.4 Further reading spoke Lakota, the young man decided she was one of his
people, and came forward.
The Holy Bible, in the language of the Dakotas:
translated out of the original tongues. 1883. At this time, the woman explained that she was wakan
(holy). She further explained that if he did as she in-
structed, his people would rise again. The scout promised
0.6.5 References to do what she instructed, and was told to return to his
encampment, call the Council and prepare a feast for her
[1] The Indians Book. Edited by Natalie Curtis Burlin. arrival. She taught the Lakota seven sacred ceremonies
p3840 and gave them the chanunpa, the sacred ceremonial pipe.
[2] Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Volume 4.
After teaching the people and giving them her gifts, Pte
Smithsonian Institution, 1852. p302 Ska Win left them, promising that one day she would re-
turn.
[3] Rice, Julian (1998). Before the great spirit: the many faces
of Sioux spirituality. University of New Mexico Press.
ISBN 0-8263-1868-1. 0.7.2 See also
[4] Helen Wheeler Bassett, Frederick Starr. The International
Folk-lore Congress of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, White Bualo Cow Society
Chicago, July, 1893. Charles H. Sergel Company, 1898.
p221226 Dignity (statue)

0.7 White Bualo Calf Woman 0.7.3 References

[1] Schilling, Vincent (2014-10-28). Our Brothers and Sis-
White Bualo Calf Woman (Laktiyapi: Pte Ska Win
ters: 5 Sacred Animals and What They Mean in Native
/ Pteskawin / Ptesanwi) is a sacred woman of supernatural Cultures. Indian Country Today Media Network.com.
origin, central to the Lakota religion as the primary cul- Retrieved 2016-02-27.
tural prophet. Oral traditions relate that she brought the
Seven Sacred Rites to the Lakota people.
Bualo are considered sacred to many of the Plains 0.7.4 Sources
nations, who often consider them linked to creation,
medicine and bringers of sacred messages from the Walker, James R.: Lakota Belief and Ritual (Uni-
ancestors.[1] versity of Nebraska Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8032-
2551-2 ; Bison Books, 1991 ISBN 0-8032-9731-9)

0.7.1 Story Powers, William K.: Ogalala Religion (University of

The traditional story is that, long ago, there was a time of
famine. The chief of the Lakota sent out two scouts to
hunt for food. While the young men travelled they saw
a gure in the distance and as they approached, they saw
that it was a beautiful young Indian woman in white buck
Nebraska Press, 1975,1977; ISBN 0-8032-8706-2)
Pickering, Robert B. : Seeing the White Bualo.
(Denver Museum of Natural History & Johnson
Books), 1997; ISBN 1-55566-181-5 & 1-55566-
182-3.
0.8. WIND CAVE BISON HERD 21

0.7.5 External links 0.8.2 Ecology

White Bualo Calf Woman Society Wind Cave National Park has large areas of grassland
prairie and this provides a nearly optimum environment
Chief Arvol Looking Horse (Lakota) tells the White for American bison.
Bualo Calf Woman Story Bison are large herd animals that defend their young vig-
orously. American bison can run up to 35 miles (56 km)
per hour and are surprisingly agile, in addition to their no-
0.8 Wind Cave bison herd table strength and irritable temperament. However, there
are limited numbers of potential apex predators of these
bison. Signicant apex predators that could help control
the bison population would include brown bear, grizzly
bear, and wolves, and these are currently absent from the
area. Wind Cave National Park by itself, at 28,000 acres
(11,000 ha), might not be large enough for a viable pop-
ulation of predators; however it is part of a much larger
area of extended grassland prairie. Other large mammals
found in the area include elk, coyotes, bobcats, deer, and
pronghorn. Competitive pressure from the other large
grazing mammals in Wind Cave National Park might also
help limit the number of bison in the herd, but this is not
considered to have a signicant eect on bison numbers.

0.8.3 Genetics
Part of the Wind Cave bison herd photographed in 2003.
The Wind Cave bison herd is considered to be geneti-
cally pure, meaning that there is no evidence of signi-
The Wind Cave bison herd is a herd of 250400
cant hybridization between these bison and cattle. Most
American bison in Wind Cave National Park, South
private and public bison herds in the United States are not
Dakota, USA. It is believed to be one of only four
genetically pure. Genetic testing shows that there now
free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands
appear to be some cattle genes present in approximately
in North America. The other three herds are the
95% of the bison surveyed in other areas.[4]
Yellowstone Park bison herd, the Henry Mountains bison
herd in Central Utah, and at Elk Island National Park in Though the American bison (Species: Bison bison) is
Alberta, Canada. The Wind Cave herd are of the Plains not only a separate species, but a member of a sepa-
bison subspecies (Bison bison bison). rate genus from domestic cattle (Bos primigenius), they
are genetically compatibile and American bison can in-
terbreed freely with cattle. Crossbreeds tend to look very
0.8.1 History much like purebred bison, so appearance is unreliable as
a means of determining what is a purebred bison and what
The American bison (Bison bison) once numbered in the is a crossbred cow. Many ranchers deliberately crossbred
millions, perhaps between 25 million and 60 million by their bison with cattle, and it would also be expected that
some estimates, and they were possibly the most numer- there could be some natural hybridization in areas where
ous large land animal on earth. However, they were cattle and bison occur in the same range. Since cattle
hunted to near extinction throughout North America by and bison eat similar food and tolerate similar conditions,
the late 1880s. The Wind Cave bison herd was started they have often been in the same range together in the
with 14 bison from the New York Zoological Society and past, and opportunity for cross breeding may have been
with six animals transplanted from the Yellowstone Park common. Most bison today are descendants of ve herds
bison herd.[1] In addition, in the 1960s, one single bull that were conserved during the near-extinction event of
bison was received from Theodore Roosevelt National the late 19th century. These herds were subject to cattle
Park.[2] The Yellowstone Park bison herd was the last crossbreeding experiments and as a result cattle genes are
free-ranging bison herd in the United States and the only found throughout most bison populations.
place where they did not go locally extinct, so they have In recent decades tests were developed to determine the
become at least part of the foundation stock for many source of mitochondrial DNA in cattle and bison, and
other herds, including the Wind Cave bison herd. The it was found that most private 'bualo' herds were ac-
Wind Cave population has, in turn, served as the founda- tually crossbred with cattle, and even most state and fed-
tion stock for the Tallgrass Prairie bison herd in Kansas.[3] eral bualo herds had some cattle DNA. With the ad-
22
vent of nuclear microsatellite DNA testing, the number of
herds that contained cattle genes has increased. Though
approximately 500,000 bison exist on private ranches
and in public herds, perhaps only 15,000 to 25,000 of
these bison are pure and are not actually bison-cattle
hybrids.[5] Signicant public bison herds that do not ap-
pear to have hybridized domestic cattle genes are the
Yellowstone Park bison herd, the Henry Mountains bi-
son herd, which was started with bison taken from Yel-
lowstone Park, the Wind Cave bison herd, and the Wood Bison grazing on prairie grasses
Bualo National Park bison herd in Canada and herds
derived from it.
A landmark study of bison genetics was undertaken by
James Derr of Texas A&M University[4] in an attempt to
determine what genetic problems bison might face as they
repopulate former areas. It concluded that bison seem to
be doing quite well, despite their apparent genetic bottle-
neck. All of the state-owned bison herds tested contained
animals with domestic cattle mitochondrial DNA,[4] with
the possible exception of the Henry Mountains bison herd
of Utah. Most national herds, except Wind Cave and Yel-
lowstone, also appear to be hybridized. As genetic testing
improves, it may be discovered that almost all bison have
some genetic inheritance from domestic cattle.
A separate study by Wilson and Strobeck, published in
Genome, was done to dene the relationships between
dierent herds of bison in the United States and Canada,
and to determine whether the bison at Wood Bualo Na-
tional Park in Canada and the Yellowstone Park bison
herd were possibly separate subspecies, and not plains
bison. Some people had suggested that the Yellowstone
Park bison were actually either of the 'athabascae' (wood
bualo) subspecies, or else that they were of an unspec-
ied 'mountain' subspecies. In the study, it was deter-
mined that the Wood Bualo Park bison were actually
cross breeds between plains bison and wood bison, but
that their predominant genetic makeup was truly that of
the expected wood bualo (Bison bison athabascae).[6]
However, the Yellowstone Park bison herd were pure
plains bison (Bison bison bison), and not any of the other
previously suggested subspecies. This is signicant for
the Wind Cave bison herd, since this herd was founded,
in part, with animals from the Yellowstone Park bison
herd. The bison in Wind Cave National park were also
plains bison, as expected.
0.8.4 Future
American bison became extinct over almost their entire
former range by 1890, with only the Yellowstone Na-
tional Park bison remaining free and in their natural en-
vironment, in the United States. Even that herd was re-
duced to only a few dozen individuals, so concerns about
a genetic bottleneck are signicant. Now bison number
approximately 500,000, but most of these are bison-cattle
hybrids, and are contained in private herds, for ranch-
ing and meat purposes, rather than roaming the plains by
CONTENTS
the millions, as they did previously. Some herds, such
as the Wind Cave bison herd are free, but their range is
restricted and the re-establishment of large bison popu-
lations is not assured. Considering these factors, there
remain various questions and concerns regarding future
management of the Wind Cave Bison Herd.
With their genetic purity and the healthy condition of the
Wind Cave bison, they should have a signicant role to
play in the re-establishment of bison populations. Pri-
vate groups, as well as governmental entities in the United
States and Canada, are making eorts to return Bison to
much of their previous natural range.[7][8][9] In moving bi-
son to new locations, great care should be taken to main-
tain their genetic diversity, to ensure that valuable genes
are not irrevocably lost. Care should also be taken when
dealing with any already existing herd, to try to minimize
the introduction of domestic cattle genes, which appear
to be carried by many bison, into herds where such genes
are not currently present. The Wind Cave bison could
contribute to this process.
However, a special risk to the Wind Cave bison herd is
the potential for the loss of their genetic purity. The
herd is one of the few bison herds in the nation that
does not seem to contain hybridized genes from domes-
tic cattle. Unfortunately, the bison herd at Custer State
Park, only a few miles away, does include herd mem-
bers that have hybridized cattle genes. Furthermore, bi-
son from Custer State Park have been found wandering
within Wind Cave National Park. No evidence of cross
breeding with these bison has yet been found, but many
biologists feel that extra care should be taken with these
animals in the future.[5]
Unlike the Yellowstone Park bison herd, the Wind Cave
bison herd is currently brucellosis-free. Though brucel-
losis doesn't seem to cause signicant problems for bison
populations, it is used as a reason for keeping bison inside
the Yellowstone National Park and one of the reasons the
state of Montana allows hunting of the Yellowstone Bison
if they leave the park. Since the Wind Cave herd does not
have brucellosis, there is less reason to conne them to the
park and less reason to hunt them. Therefore, it should
be easier to allow them to increase their population and
their range, if other, nearby land areas become available
for bison.
0.9. YELLOWSTONE PARK BISON HERD
0.8.5 References
[1] Pisarowicz, Jim (2006-04-29). Wildlife Management at ued to exist in the wild and were not re-introduced, as
Wind Cave National Park. National Park Service.
[2] Uhler, John William. Wind Cave National Park Animal
and Plant Page.
[3] http://www.nps.gov/tapr/naturescience/upload/
TAPRBisonFact2012.pdf
[4] http://www.buffalofieldcampaign.org/habitat/
documents2/Derr_American%20Bison%20-%20The%
20Ultimate%20Genetic%20Survivor.pdf
[5] Halbert, Natalie; James Derr (2007-09-30). Remove
Threats to Irreplaceable Bison Herd at Wind Cave Na-
tional Park (PDF).
[6] http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/
g98-147
[7] National Bison Range. U.S. Department of the Interior.
010-01-08. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[8] American Bison Society.
[9] Samuels, David (MarApr 2011). Where the Bualo
Roam. Mother Jones.
Coordinates: 433439N 1032830W / 43.5776N
103.475W
0.9 Yellowstone Park bison herd
Bison near a hot spring in Yellowstone
The Yellowstone Park bison herd in Yellowstone Na-
tional Park is probably the oldest and largest public bison
herd in the United States. Yellowstone is known for its
geothermal activity and large mammals, especially elk,
wolves, American bison, bears, pronghorns, moose and
bighorn sheep. The Yellowstone Park bison herd was
estimated in 2015 to be 4,900 bison[1] [2] The bison in
the Yellowstone Park bison herd are American bison of
the Plains bison subspecies. Yellowstone National Park
23
may be the only location in the United States where free-
ranging bison were never extirpated, since they contin-
has been done in most other bison herd areas. Other
large free-ranging, publicly controlled herds of bison in
the United States include the Wind Cave bison herd (ap-
proximately 350 animals), the Antelope Island bison herd
(approximately 550 to 700 animals), the Henry Moun-
tains bison herd in Utah (400 to 500 animals), and the
National Bison Range herd near Flathead Lake, Montana
(400 animals).
0.9.1 Location
Bison at Black Dragon Caldron
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is divided into two
sub-herds that are mostly isolated from each other.
The Northern Range herd which numbers approximately
2300 individuals ranges from the northern park entrance
near Gardiner, Montana through the Blacktail Plateau
and into the Lamar Valley. The Central Interior herd,
which numbers approximately 1400 individuals, ranges
from the Madison River valley into the Hayden Valley and
Upper and Lower Geyser Basins.[2]
0.9.2 Name
Bison in Yellowstone Park are perhaps more frequently
called bualo by park visitors. The term bualo is
sometimes considered to be a misnomer for this animal,
as it is only distantly related to either of the two true
bualo, the Asian water bualo and the African bualo.
However, "bison" is a Greek word meaning ox-like ani-
mal, while bualo originated with the French fur trap-
pers who called these massive beasts bufs, meaning ox
or bullockso both names, bison and bualo, have
a similar meaning. Though the name Bison might be
considered to be more scientically correct, as a result
of standard usage the name bualo is also considered
correct and is listed in many dictionaries as an acceptable
name for American Bualo or bison. In reference to this
24 CONTENTS

animal, the term bualo, dates to 1635 in North Amer-

ican usage when the term was rst recorded for the Amer-
ican mammal. It thus has a much longer history than the
term bison, which was rst recorded in 1774.[3] The
American bison is very closely related to the wisent or
European bison.

0.9.3 History
American Bison once numbered in the millions, perhaps
between 25 million and 60 million by some estimates,
and they were possibly the most numerous large land an-
imal on earth. However, by the late 1880s, they had been
hunted to near extinction throughout North America. It
appears that the Yellowstone Park bison herd was the
last free-ranging bison herd in the United States and the
only place where bison were not extirpated in the United
States.[4] The Yellowstone Park bison herd is descended
from a remnant population of 23 individual bison that sur-
vived the mass slaughter of the 19th century by hiding out
in the Pelican Valley of Yellowstone Park. In 1902, a cap-
tive herd of 21 Goodnight plains bison was introduced to
the park and then moved to the Lamar Valley and man-
aged as livestock until the 1960s, when a policy of natural
regulation was adopted by the park.[5]

0.9.4 Habitat Bison herd grazing in Yellowstone

0.9.5 Ecology

Yellowstone National Park has large areas of alpine

Bull bison in Mud Volcano area
American bison live in river valleys, and on prairies and
plains. Their typical habitat is open or semi-open grass-
lands, as well as sagebrush, semi-arid lands and scrub-
lands. Some lightly wooded areas are also known his-
torically to have supported bison. Bison will also graze
in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not
steep. Though bison are not particularly known as high
altitude animals, members of the Yellowstone Park bi-
son herd are frequently found at elevations above 8,000
feet and a herd started with founder animals from Yellow-
stone, the Henry Mountains bison herd, is found on the
plains around the Henry Mountains, Utah, as well as in
mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude
of 10,000 feet.
meadows and grass prairie and this provides a nearly op-
timum environment for American bison.
Bison are large herd animals that defend their young vig-
orously. American bison can run up to 35 miles per
hour and are surprising agile, in addition to their notable
strength and irritable temperament. Signicant apex
predators that are found in Yellowstone National Park
and may threaten bison include American black bears,
Grizzly bears and wolves. Other large mammals found in
Yellowstone include elk, moose, coyotes, bobcats, deer,
pronghorn, and bighorn sheep. Wolves and bears are
clearly successful predators of bison, but bison meat is
not a major component of their diet. Competitive pres-
sure from the other large grazing mammals in Yellow-
stone Park may also help limit the number of bison in
the herd, but this is not considered to have had a signi-
cant eect on bison numbers. Disease, including various
viruses, parasites and brucellosis, have a greater eect on
bison population. However, a common cause of death
for these bison continues to be hunting by human beings.
This occurs when many of the bison leave the park during
the winter, heading up into Montana, especially through
the Lamar Valley. At such times, the State of Montana
has authorized large bualo hunts to eliminate the ani-
mals, because of concerns about spreading brucellosis to
0.9. YELLOWSTONE PARK BISON HERD 25

local domestic cattle.

Brucellosis

Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonosis caused by

ingestion of unpasteurized milk or undercooked meat
from infected animals, or close contact with their
secretions.[6][7][8] Brucellosis occurs naturally in the Yel-
lowstone Bison Herd and the normal winter migrations of
bison outside the park have raised concerns that Brucel-
losis infected Bison may infect cattle. The United States
government has programs to eradicate brucellosis in do-
mestic livestock. Since 1934, an estimated $3.5 billion in
federal, state, and private funds has been spent on brucel-
losis eradication in domestic livestock.[9] Over the years, Baby bison in Yellowstone
the National Park Service and states bordering the park
have implemented various plans to limit exposure of Yel-
lowstone Bison to cattle herds outside the park. Eorts cattle. Though the American bison (Bison bison) is not
have including hunting, hazing Bison back into the park, only a separate species, but actually in a separate genus
vaccinations and exporting excess Bison to other loca- from domestic cattle (Bos primigenius), it clearly has a
tions. The most current eects are being considered by lot of genetic compatibility with the latter, and Ameri-
the Interagency Bison Management Plana cooperative, can bison can interbreed freely with cattle. Moreover,
multi-agency eort that guides the management of bi- when they do interbreed, the crossbreeds tend to look
son and brucellosis in and around Yellowstone National very much like purebred bison, so appearance is com-
Park.[10] The National Park Service, USDA-Forest Ser- pletely unreliable as a means of determining what is a
vice, USDA-Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service, purebred bison and what is crossbred with cattle. Many
Montana Department of Livestock and Montana Fish ranchers have deliberately crossbred their cattle with bi-
Wildlife & Parks adopted the rst plan in 2000. Since son, and it would also be expected that there could be
2009, the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, the some natural hybridization in areas where cattle and bi-
Inter Tribal Bualo Council,[11] and the Nez Perce Tribe son occur in the same range. Since cattle and bison eat
have participated in the planning. The plan is aimed at: similar food and tolerate similar conditions, they have of-
ten been in the same range together in the past, and op-
Maintain a wild, free-ranging bison population; portunity for cross breeding may sometimes have been
common.
Reduce the risk of brucellosis transmission from bi-
In recent decades, tests were developed to determine the
son to cattle;
source of mitochondrial DNA in cattle and bison, and
Manage bison that leave Yellowstone National Park it was found that most private 'bualo' herds were actu-
and enter the State of Montana; ally crossbred with cattle, and even most state and fed-
eral bualo herds had some cattle DNA. With the ad-
Maintain Montanas brucellosis-free status for do- vent of nuclear microsatellite DNA testing, the number
mestic livestock. of herds that identied to contain cattle genes has in-
creased. Though approximately 500,000 bison exist on
The most current planning is focused on keeping the Yel- private ranches and in public herds, some people esti-
lowstone Bison population at levels that limit migration mate that perhaps only 15,000 to 25,000 of these bison
outside the park. Methods include slaughter and export are pure rather than bison-cattle hybrids. DNA from do-
of excess bison to other suitable habitats.[12] mestic cattle (Bos taurus) has been detected in nearly all
bison herds examined to date.[13] Signicant public bi-
son herds that do not appear to have hybridized domes-
0.9.6 Genetics tic cattle genes are the Yellowstone Park bison herd, the
Henry Mountains bison herd (which was started with bi-
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is considered to be ge- son taken from Yellowstone Park), the Wind Cave bison
netically pure, meaning that there is no evidence of sig- herd and the Wood Bualo National Park bison herd and
nicant hybridization between these bison and cattle. subsidiary herds descended from it, in Canada.
Ocially, the American Bualo is classied by the A landmark study of bison genetics that was performed
United States Government as a type of cattle, and the gov- by James Derr of the Texas A&M University corrobo-
ernment allows private herds to be managed as such. This rated this.[14] The Derr study was undertaken in an at-
is a reection of the characteristics that bison share with tempt to determine what genetic problems bison might
26
face as they repopulate former areas, and it noted that bi-
son were faring well, despite their apparent genetic bot-
tleneck. One possible explanation for this might be the
small amount of domestic cattle genes that are now in
most bison populations, though this is not the only possi-
ble explanation for bison success.
In the study, cattle genes were also found in small amounts
throughout most herds. The hybridization experiments
conducted by some of the owners of the ve foundation
herds of the late 1800s, have left a legacy of a small
amount of cattle genetics in many of our existing bison
herds. He also said, All of the state owned bison herds
tested (except for possibly one) contain animals with do-
mestic cattle mtDNA.[14] It appears that the one state
herd that had no cattle genes was the Henry Mountains
bison herd in the Henry Mountains of Utah, which were
descended from transplanted animals from Yellowstone
Park. It is unknown if the Book Clis extension of this
herd in Central Utah is also free of hybridization; the ex-
tension involved mixing the founders with additional bi-
son from another source.
Bualo bison pair
There is currently no evidence of hybridization in the Yel-
lowstone herd, however, some geneticists speculate that
as genetic testing improves, it may be discovered that al- 0.9.9 References
most all bison have some genetic inheritance from domes-
tic cattle.
A separate study by Wilson and Strobeck, published in
Genome, was done to dene the relationships between
dierent herds of bison in the United States and Canada,
and to determine whether the bison at Wood Bualo Na-
tional Park in Canada and the Yellowstone Park bison
herd were possibly separate subspecies, and not Plains
bison. Some people had suggested that the Yellowstone
Park bison were actually either of the B. b. athabascae
(wood bualo) subspecies, or else that they were of an
unspecied 'mountain' subspecies. In the study, it was de-
termined that the wood bualo park bison were actually
cross breeds between plains bison and wood bison, but
that their predominant genetic makeup was in fact that of
the expected wood bualo (B. b. athabascae).[15] How-
CONTENTS
ever, the Yellowstone Park bison herd were pure plains
bison (B. b. bison), and not any of the other previously
suggested subspecies.
0.9.7 Future
The bison at Yellowstone National Park have become the
foundation animals for many other bison herds through-
out the United States, such as the Henry Mountains bi-
son herd and (partially) the Wind Cave bison herd, and
many groups in the United States and Canada are making
eorts to return bison to much of their previous natural
range. If there are large tracts of open range and nat-
ural habitat that become available for bison, then some
private groups have actually purchased these lands and
some lands are in the process of being prepared for bison
introduction. Currently, some state and national parks
have habitat for bison, but most of these already have bi-
son present.[16][17][18]
0.9.8 See also
American bison (Bison bison)
American Bison Society
Animals of Yellowstone
Bison hunting
European bison
Henry Mountains bison herd
List of Yellowstone National Park-related articles
Wood bison
Yellowstone-Teton Clean Energy Coalition
[1] 15 Facts About Our National Mammal: The American
Bison Department of the Interior 5/9/2016
[2] Yellowstone bison population estimated to be smaller
than last years. Bozeman Chronicle. Retrieved 2011-
08-29.
[3] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage, Fourth Edition
[4] National Park Service
[5] Texas Parks and Wildlife Magazine
[6] Brucellosis. American Heritage Dictionary.
[7] Maltese Fever. wrongdiagnosis.com. February 25,
2009.
0.9. YELLOWSTONE PARK BISON HERD 27

[8] Diagnosis and Management of Acute Brucellosis in Pri-

mary Care (PDF). Brucella Subgroup of the Northern
Ireland Regional Zoonoses Group. August 2004.

[9] Cheville, Norman (1998). Brucellosis in the Greater Yel-

lowstone Area. Washington D.C.: National Academy
Press.

[10] Interagency Bison Management Plan. Retrieved April

20, 2016.

[11] Inter Tribal Bualo Council-Who We Are. Retrieved

April 20, 2016.

[12] 2016 Winter Operating Plan IBMP (PDF). Interagency

Bison Management Plan Members. December 14, 2015.
Retrieved April 20, 2016.

[13] http://snr.unl.edu/gpcesu/PDFs/WICA%20Bison.pdf

[14] http://www.buffalofieldcampaign.org/habitat/
documents2/Derr_American%20Bison%20-%20The%
20Ultimate%20Genetic%20Survivor.pdf

[15] http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/
g98-147

[16] http://recovery.doi.gov/press/bureaus/
us-fish-and-wildlife-service/national-bison-range/

[17] http://www.americanbisonsocietyonline.org/

[18] http://motherjones.com/environment/2011/04/
buffalo-commons-american-prairie-foundation
Chapter 1

Moctezuma

1.1 Agave ers. After development of fruit, the original plant dies,
but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the
For the queen of Greek mythology, see Agave (mythol- stem, which become new plants.
ogy). For the ethnic group in Ghana, see Agave people. It is a common misconception that agaves are cacti. They
are not related to cacti, nor are they closely related to Aloe
Agave (US: /vi/, [1]
UK: /evi/,[2]
Anglo- whose leaves are similar in appearance.
Hispanic: /ve/[3] ) is a genus of monocots native to Agave species are used as food plants by the larvae of
the hot and arid regions of Mexico and the Southwestern some Lepidoptera (buttery and moth) species, includ-
United States. Some agave species are also native ing Batrachedra striolata, which has been recorded on A.
to tropical areas of South America. The plants are shawii.
perennial, but each rosette owers once and then dies
(see semelparity). Some species are known by the name
century plant.[4] Adaptations

Agave tequilana, agave azul or blue agave, is used in the
production of tequila. Agave nectar, also called agave
syrup, a sweetener derived from Agave sap, is used as
an alternative to sugar in cooking, and can be added to
breakfast cereals as a binding agent.
1.1.1 Description
Agaves are succulents with a large rosette of thick, eshy
leaves, with most species ending in a sharp terminal spine.
The stout stem is usually short, the leaves apparently
springing from the root. Along with plants from the
related genus Yucca, various Agave species are popular
ornamental plants in hot, dry climates, as they require
very little water to survive.
The agave root system, consisting of a network of shallow
rhizomes, is designed to help the agave eciently cap-
ture moisture from rain, condensation and dew. In addi-
tion to growing from seeds, most agaves produce 'pups
young plants from runners. Agave vilmoriniana (the
octopus agave) produces hundreds of pups on its bloom
stalk. Agave leaves store the plants water and are cru-
cial to its continued existence. The coated leaf surface
prevents evaporation. The leaves also have sharp, spiked
edges. The spikes discourage predators from eating the
plant or using it as a source of water and are so tough that
ancient peoples used them for sewing needles. The sap
is acidic. Agaves bloom at a height up to 30 ft (9 m) so
that they are far out of reach to animals that might attack
them. Smaller species, such as Agave lechuguilla, have
smaller bloom stalks.

Agave harvesting in Java
Each rosette is monocarpic and grows slowly to ower
only once. During owering, a tall stem or mast
(quiote in Mexico) grows from the center of the leaf
rosette and bears a large number of short, tubular ow-
1.1.2 Taxonomy
In the APG III system, the genus is placed in the
subfamily Agavoideae of the broadly circumscribed
family Asparagaceae.[5] Some authors prefer to place it
in the segregate family Agavaceae. Traditionally, it was
circumscribed to be composed of about 166 species, but
it is now usually understood to have about 208 species.[6]
In the Cronquist system and others, Agave was placed
in the family Liliaceae, but phylogenetic analyses of
DNA sequences later showed it did not belong there.[7]
In the APG II system, Agave was placed in the fam-
ily Agavaceae. When this system was superseded by

28
1.1. AGAVE 29

the APG III system in 2009, the Agavaceae were sub- One of the most familiar species is Agave americana, a
sumed into the expanded family Asparagaceae, and native of tropical America. Common names include cen-
Agave was treated as one of 18 genera in the subfamily tury plant, maguey (in Mexico), or American aloe (not re-
Agavoideae.[5] lated to the genus Aloe). The name century plant refers
Agave had long been treated as a genus of about 166 to the long time the plant takes to ower. The number of
species, but this concept of Agave is now known to be years before owering occurs depends on the vigor of the
paraphyletic over the genera Manfreda, Polianthes, and individual plant, the richness of the soil, and the climate;
Prochnyanthes. These genera are now combined with during these years the plant is storing in its eshy leaves
the nourishment required for the eort of owering.
Agave as Agave sensu lato, which contains about 208
species. In some of the older classications, Agave was Agave americana, century plant, was introduced into
divided into two subgenera, Agave and Littaea, based on southern Europe about the middle of the 16th century,
the form of the inorescence. These two subgenera are and is now widely cultivated as an ornamental, as it is
probably not monophyletic.[7] in the Americas. In the variegated forms, the leaf has
Agaves have long presented special diculties for a white or yellow marginal or central stripe. As the
taxonomy; variations within a species may be consider- leaves unfold from the center of the rosette, the impres-
able, and a number of named species are of unknown sion of the marginal spines is conspicuous on the still erect
origin and may just be variants of original wild species. younger leaves. The plants require protection from frost.
They mature very slowly and die after owering, but are
Spanish and Portuguese explorers probably brought agave easily propagated by the osets from the base of the stem.
plants back to Europe, but the plants became popular in
Europe during the 19th century, when many types were Blue A. americana occurs in abundance in the Karoo, and
imported by collectors. Some have been continuously arid highland regions of South Africa. Introduced by the
British settlers in 1820, the plant was originally cultivated
propagated by oset since then, and do not consistently
resemble any species known in the wild, although this and used as emergency feed for livestock. Today it is used
mainly for the production of syrup and sugar.
may simply be due to the dierences in growing condi-
tions in Europe.
Agave attenuata
1.1.3 Commonly grown species Main article: Agave attenuata
The most commonly grown species include Agave ameri-
cana, Agave angustifolia, Agave tequilana, Agave attenu- A. attenuata is a native of central Mexico and is uncom-
ata, Agave parviora, Agave murpheyi, Agave vilmorini- mon in its natural habitat. Unlike most species of agave,
ana, Agave palmeri, Agave parryi and Agave victoriae- A. attenuata has a curved ower spike from which it de-
reginae. rives one of its numerous common names - the foxtail
agave. A. attenuata is also commonly grown as a garden
plant. Unlike many agaves, A. attenuata has no teeth or
terminal spines, making it an ideal plant for areas adja-
cent to footpaths. Like all agaves, A. attenuata is a succu-
lent and requires little water or maintenance once estab-
lished.

Agave tequilana

Main article: Agave tequilana

Agave azul (blue agave) is used in the production of

tequila.

A row of Agaves in bloom in the Karoo region of South Africa.

The inorescence of the plants are clearly visible. 1.1.4 Uses

The ethnobotany of the agave was described by William

Agave americana H. Prescott in 1843:[8]

Main article: Agave americana But the miracle of nature was the great
Mexican aloe, or maguey, whose clustering
30 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

its tough and twisted bers; pins and needles

were made from the thorns at the extremity of
its leaves; and the root, when properly cooked,
was converted into a palatable and nutritious
food. The agave, in short, was meat, drink,
clothing, and writing materials for the Aztec!
Surely, never did Nature enclose in so compact
a form so many of the elements of human com-
fort and civilization!

There are four major parts of the agave that are edible:
the owers, the leaves, the stalks or basal rosettes, and the
sap (in Spanish: aguamiel, meaning honey water).[9]
Each agave plant will produce several pounds of edible
owers during its nal season. The stalks, which are ready
during the summer, before the blossom, weigh several
pounds each. Roasted, they are sweet and can be chewed
to extract the aguamiel, like sugarcane. When dried out,
the stalks can be used to make didgeridoos. The leaves
may be collected in winter and spring, when the plants are
rich in sap, for eating. The leaves of several species also
yield ber: for instance, Agave rigida var. sisalana, sisal
hemp, Agave decipiens, false sisal hemp. Agave ameri-
cana is the source of pita ber, and is used as a ber plant
in Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe.
During the development of the inorescence, sap rushes
to the base of the young ower stalk. Agave nectar (also
called agave syrup), a sweetener derived from the sap,
is used as an alternative to sugar in cooking, and can be
added to breakfast cereals as a binding agent.[10] The sap
of A. americana and other species is used in Mexico and
Mesoamerica to produce pulque, an alcoholic beverage.
The ower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and sub-
sequently fermented. By distillation, a spirit called mezcal
is prepared; one of the best-known forms of mezcal is
tequila. In 2001, the Mexican Government and European
Union agreed upon the classication of tequila and its cat-
egories. All 100% blue agave tequila must be made from
the Weber blue agave plant, to rigorous specications and
only in certain Mexican states. Another spirit called Sotol
is made from wild agave varietals found in the region of
Chihuahua.
The large ower spike of Agave chiapensis

pyramids of owers, towering above their dark

coronals of leaves, were seen sprinkled over
many a broad acre of the table-land. As we
have already noticed its bruised leaves aorded
a paste from which paper was manufactured,
its juice was fermented into an intoxicating
beverage, pulque, of which the natives, to this
day, are extremely fond; its leaves further sup-
plied an impenetrable thatch for the more hum-
ble dwellings; thread, of which coarse stus
were made, and strong cords, were drawn from Fibers inside a huachuca agave leaf (Agave parryi)
1.1. AGAVE 31

When dried and cut in slices, the owering stem forms Agave schidigera cv. 'Durango Delight'
natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves
will lather in water like soap. The natives of Mexico used Agave shawii
the agave to make pens, nails, and needles, as well as Agave sisalana (sisal)
string to sew and make weavings. Leaf tea or tincture
taken orally is used to treat constipation and excess gas. Agave sisalana
It is also used as a diuretic. Root tea or tincture is taken
orally to treat arthritic joints.[11] Several agave species Agave stricta
are also considered to have potential as eective bioen- Agave tequilana (tequila agave)
ergy crops.[12] Agaves ability to grow in naturally water-
limited environments could help to reduce the food vs. Agave utahensis
fuel trade-o.[13]
Agave victoriae-reginae
The agave, especially Agave murpheyi, was a major
food source for the prehistoric indigenous people of the Agave vilmoriniana
Southwestern United States. The Hohokam of southern
Arizona cultivated large areas of agave.[14] Agave weberi

The Navajo similarly found many uses for the agave plant. Agave wislizeni (syn. Agave parrasana)
A beverage is squeezed from the baked bers, and the
Agave xylonacantha
heads can be baked or boiled, pounded into at sheets,
sun dried, and stored for future use. The baked, dried Agave ferox
heads are also boiled and made into an edible paste, eaten
whole, or made into soup. The leaves are eaten boiled,
and the young, tender owering stalks and shoots are 1.1.6 Species
roasted and eaten as well. The bers are used to make
rope, the leaves are used to line baking pits, and the sharp See List of Agave species.
pointed leaf tips are used to make basketry awls.[15]

1.1.7 See also

1.1.5 Images of species and cultivars
Agave nectar
Agave americana var. americana
Sisal
Agave americana 'Marginata'

Agave americana cv. 'Mediopicta Alba' 1.1.8 References

Agave angustifolia 'Marginata' [1] Agave - Denition of agave by Merriam-Webster.
merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
Agave angustifolia
[2] agave - denition of agave in English from the Oxford
Agave attenuata dictionary. oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 12 July
2015.
Agave bracteosa (spider agave)
[3] An Anglo-Hispanic pronunciation. Sunset Western Gar-
Agave deserti den Book, 1995:606607.
Agave salmiana var. ferox [4] Bailey, L.H.; Bailey, E.Z.; the sta of the Liberty Hyde
Bailey Hortorium. 1976. Hortus third: A concise dictio-
Agave lifera nary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada.
Macmillan, New York.
Agave horrida
[5] Mark W. Chase, James L. Reveal, and Michael F. Fay.
Agave inaequidens ssp. barrancensis
2009. A subfamilial classication for the expanded as-
Agave lechuguilla paragalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae, and
Xanthorrhoeaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean So-
Agave palmeri ciety 161(2):132-136.

Agave parryi [6] Sara V. Good-Avila, Valeria Souza, Brandon S. Gaut, and
Luis E. Eguiarte. 2006. Timing and rate of specia-
Agave potatorum tion in Agave (Agavaceae)". PNAS (Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, USA) 103(24):9124-9129.
Agave potatorum cv. 'Kichiokan' doi:10.1073/pnas.0603312103
32 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

[7] David J. Bogler, J. Chris Pires, and Javier Francisco- 1.2 Aztec calendar
Ortega. 2006. Phylogeny of Agavaceae based on ndhF,
rbcL, and ITS sequences: Implications of molecular data
for classication. Aliso 22(Monocots: Comparative Bi-
ology and Evolution):313-328.

[8] William H. Prescott,1843 (1979 reprint). History of the

Conquest of Mexico and the Conquest of Peru, Modern Li-
brary, pp. 79-80

[9] Davidson, Alan (1999). The Oxford Companion to Food.

Oxford: Oxford University press. pp. xx + 892. ISBN
0-19-211579-0.

[10] Chomka, Stefan (30 July 2007). Dorset Cereals. The

Grocer. Crawley, England: William Reed Business Me-
dia. Retrieved 16 January 2011.

[11] Botany in a Day, Thomas J Elpel, Hops Press LLc, p. 190

[12] Davis, S. C.; Griths, H.; Holtum, J.; Saavedra, A.
L.; Long, S. P. (2011). The Evaluation of Feedstocks
in GCBB Continues with a Special Issue on Agave for
Bioenergy. GCB Bioenergy. 3: 1. doi:10.1111/j.1757-
1707.2010.01085.x. free summary: Wiley - Black-
well (2011, January 26). Agave fuels excitement as a
bioenergy crop. ScienceDaily. Retrieved January 26,
2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/
01/110126121102.htm
[13] Yan, X.; Tan, D. K. Y.; Inderwildi, O. R.; Smith, J. A. C.;
King, D. A. (2011). Life cycle energy and greenhouse
gas analysis for agave-derived bioethanol. Energy & En-
vironmental Science. doi:10.1039/C1EE01107C.
[14] Fish, Suzanne K., Fish, Paul R., and Madsen, John H. Ev-
idence for Large-scaleAgave Cultivation in the Marana
Community. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/
fishchapter7.htm, accessed 1 Jun 2012
[15] results of search. umich.edu. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
Bibliography
Howard Scott Gentry, Agaves of Continental North
America (University of Arizona Press, 1982), the
standard work, with accounts of 136 species.
Alwin Berger, Die Agaven (Jena, 1915).
IPNI : The International Plant Name Index.
Native Plant Information Network More informa-
tion on species in the Agave genus.
Xeric World An online community dedicated to the
study of Xeric plant species with a focus on the fam-
ily Agavaceae.
The Aztec Sun Stone, also called the Aztec Calendar Stone, on
display at the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
The Aztec calendar is the calendar system that was used
by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of
central Mexico. It is one of the Mesoamerican calendars,
sharing the basic structure of calendars from throughout
ancient Mesoamerica.
The calendar consisted of a 365-day calendar cycle called
xiuhpohualli (year count) and a 260-day ritual cycle
called tonalpohualli (day count). These two cycles to-
gether formed a 52-year century, sometimes called the
"calendar round". The xiuhpohualli is considered to be
the agricultural calendar, since it is based on the sun, and
the tonalpohualli is considered to be the sacred calendar.
1.2.1 Tonalpohualli
The tonalpohualli (day count) consists of a cycle of 260
days, each day signied by a combination of a number
from 1 to 13, and one of the twenty day signs. With each
new day, both the number and day sign would be incre-
mented: 1 Crocodile is followed by 2 Wind, 3 House,
4 Lizard, and so forth up to 13 Reed, after which the
cycle of numbers would restart (though the twenty day
signs had not yet been exhausted) resulting in 1 Jaguar, 2
Eagle, and so on, as the days immediately following 13
Reed. This cycle of number and day signs would con-
tinue similarly until the 20th week, which would start on
1 Rabbit, and end on 13 Flower. It would take a full 260
days (1320) for the two cycles (of twenty day signs, and
thirteen numbers) to realign and repeat the sequence back
on 1 Crocodile.

Kolendo, Jan. The Agave Pages. Day signs

Davidson, Alan (1999). The Oxford Companion to The set of day signs used in central Mexico is identical
Food. Oxford: Oxford University press. pp. xx + to that used by Mixtecs, and to a lesser degree similar
892. ISBN 0-19-211579-0. to those of other Mesoamerican calendars. Each of the
1.2. AZTEC CALENDAR 33

day signs also bears an association with one of the four cedes the observations of Diego Durn by several decades
cardinal directions. and is believed to be more recent to the surrender. Both
There is some variation in the way the day signs were are shown to emphasize the fact that the beginning of the
drawn or carved. Those here were taken from the Codex Native new year became non-uniform as a result of an
Magliabechiano. absence of the unifying force of Tenochtitlan after the
Mexica defeat.
Wind and Rain are represented by images of their asso-
ciated gods, Ehecatl and Tlaloc (respectively).
Other marks on the stone showed the current world and
1.2.3 Reconstruction of the Solar Calen-
also the worlds before this one. Each world was called a dar
sun, and each sun had its own species of inhabitants. The
For many centuries scholars had tried to reconstruct the
Aztecs believed that they were in the fth sun and like all
of the suns before them they would also eventually perish Calendar. The latest and more accepted version was pro-
due to their own imperfections. Every fty two years was posed by professor Rafael Tena (INAH),[1] based on the
marked out because they believed that fty two years was studies of Sahagn and Alfonso Caso (UNAM). His cor-
relation conrms that the rst day of the mexica year was
a life cycle and at the end of any given life cycle the gods
could take away all that they have and destroy the world. February 13 of the old Julian calendar or February 23 of
the current Gregorian calendar. Using the same count, it
has been veried the date of the birth of Huitzilopochtli,
Trecenas the end of the year and a cycle or Tie of the Years, and
the New Fire Ceremony, day-sign 1 Tecpatl of the year
[2]
The 260 days of the sacred calendar were grouped into 2 Acatl, corresponding to the date February 22nd.
twenty periods of thirteen days each. Scholars usu-
ally refer to these thirteen-day weeks as trecenas, us-
ing a Spanish term derived from trece thirteen (just as
1.2.4 See also
the Spanish term docena dozen is derived from doce
Maya calendar
twelve). The original Nahuatl term is not known.
Each trecena is named according to the calendar date of Mesoamerican calendars
the rst day of the thirteen days in that trecena. In addi- Aztec New Year
tion, each of the twenty trecenas in the 260-day cycle had
its own tutelary deity: Muisca calendar

1.2.2 Xiuhpohualli 1.2.5 Notes

[1] The Mexica Calendar and the Cronography, Rafael Tena.
Veintena (twenty); metzli (moon) INAH-CONACULTA. 2008

In ancient times the year was composed of eighteen [2] Crnica Mexicayotl, Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc p 36
months, and thus it was observed by the native people.
Since their months were made of no more than twenty
days, these were all the days contained in a month, be- 1.2.6 References
cause they were not guided by the moon but by the days;
therefore, the year had eighteen months. The days of the
year were counted twenty by twenty. Diego Durn
Xiuhpohualli is the Aztec year (xihuitl) count (pohualli).
One year consists of 360 named days and 5 nameless
(nemontemi). These 'extra' days are thought to be un-
lucky. The year was broken into 18 periods of twenty
days each, sometimes compared to the Julian month. The
Aztec word for moon is metztli but whatever name was
used for these periods is unknown. Through Spanish us-
age, the 20-day period of the Aztec calendar has become
commonly known as a veintena.
Each 20-day period started on Cipactli (Crocodile) for
which a festival was held. The eighteen veintena are listed
below. The dates are from early eyewitnesses. Each
wrote what they saw. Bernardino de Sahagn's date pre-
Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (n.d.).
Aztec Art (PDF). Aztec Art and
Architecture. Foundation for the
Advancement of Mesoamerican
Studies, Inc. (FAMSI). Retrieved
2008-05-14.
Andrews, J. Richard (2003). In-
troduction to Classical Nahuatl (re-
vised ed.). Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-
3452-6. OCLC 50090230.
Aveni, Anthony F. (2000). Empires
of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and
Cultures (reprint of 1990 original
ed.). London: Tauris Parke. ISBN
1-86064-602-6. OCLC 45144264.
34
Boone, Elizabeth Hill (1998).
Pictorial Documents and Visual
Thinking in Postconquest Mexico
(PDF Reprint). In Elizabeth Hill
Boone and Tom Cubbins (Eds.).
Native Traditions in the Postcon-
quest World, A Symposium at
Dumbarton Oaks 2nd through 4th
October 1992. Washington D.C.:
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library
and Collection. pp. 149199.
ISBN 0-88402-239-0. OCLC
34354931.
Boone, Elizabeth Hill (2000). Sto-
ries in Red and Black: Pictorial
Histories of the Aztec and Mixtec.
Austin: University of Texas Press.
ISBN 0-292-70876-9. OCLC
40939882.
Boone, Elizabeth Hill (2007). Cy-
cles of Time and Meaning in the
Mexican Books of Fate. Joe R. and
Teresa Lozano Long series in Latin
American and Latino art and cul-
ture. Austin: University of Texas
Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71263-8.
OCLC 71632174.
Clavigero, Francesco Saverio
(1807) [1787]. The history of
Mexico. Collected from Spanish
and Mexican historians, from
manuscripts, and ancient paintings
of the Indians. Illustrated by charts,
and other copper plates. To which
are added, critical dissertations on
the land, the animals, and inhabi-
tants of Mexico, 2 vols. Translated
from the original Italian, by Charles
Cullen, Esq. (2nd ed.). London: J.
Johnson. OCLC 54014738.
Coe, Michael D. (1994) [1962].
Mexico: from the Olmecs to the
Aztecs (4th edition, Revised and
Enlarged ed.). London and New
York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-
500-27722-2. OCLC 29708907.
Hassig, Ross (2001). Time, His-
tory, and Belief in Aztec and Colo-
nial Mexico. Austin: University of
Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73139-6.
OCLC 44167649.
Hernndez de Len-Portilla,
Ascencin (2004). Lenguas
y escrituras mesoamericanas.
Arqueologa mexicana (in Span-
ish). Mxico, D.F.: Instituto
Nacional de Antropologa e
Historia, Editorial Races. 12
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
(70): 2025. ISSN 0188-8218.
Archived from the original on 15
May 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-14.
Klein, Cecelia F. (2002). La
iconografa y el arte mesoamer-
icano (PDF). Arqueologa mexi-
cana (in Spanish). Mxico, D.F.:
Instituto Nacional de Antropologa
e Historia, Editorial Races. 10
(55): 2835. ISSN 0188-8218.
Archived from the original (PDF)
on 2006-01-03.
Len-Portilla, Miguel (1963).
Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study
of the Ancient Nhuatl Mind. Civ-
ilization of the American Indian
series, no. 67. Jack Emory Davis
(trans.). Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press. OCLC 181727.
Malmstrm, Vincent H. (1973-09-
17). Origin of the Mesoamer-
ican 260-Day Calendar (PDF
Reprinted). Science. Lan-
caster, PA: American Association
for the Advancement of Sci-
ence. 181 (4103): 939941.
Bibcode:1973Sci...181..939M.
doi:10.1126/science.181.4103.939.
PMID 17835843. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 28 May 2008.
Retrieved 2008-05-14.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993).
The Gods and Symbols of Ancient
Mexico and the Maya: An Illus-
trated Dictionary of Mesoamerican
Religion. London: Thames & Hud-
son. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC
27667317.
Prem, Hanns J. (2008). Man-
ual de la antigua cronologa Mexi-
cana. Mexico: Centro de Investi-
gaciones y Estudios Superiores en
Antropologa Social. ISBN 978-
968-496-694-9.
Read, Kay Almere (1998). Time
and Sacrice in the Aztec Cos-
mos. Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-253-33400-
4. OCLC 37909790.
Sahagn, Bernardino de (195082)
[ca. 154085]. Florentine Codex:
General History of the Things of
New Spain, 13 vols. in 12. vols. I-
XII. Charles E. Dibble and Arthur
J.O. Anderson (eds., trans., notes
and illus.) (translation of Historia
General de las Cosas de la Nueva
1.3. AZTEC CLOTHING 35

Espaa ed.). Santa Fe, NM and

Salt Lake City: School of Ameri-
can Research and the University of
Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-082-X.
OCLC 276351.
Smith, Michael E. (2003). The
Aztecs (2nd edn. ed.). Malden,
MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN
0-631-23015-7. OCLC 48579073.
Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The
Aztecs (2nd edition, revised ed.).
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN
0-500-28132-7. OCLC 43337963.
Wimmer, Alexis (2006).
Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl
classique (online version, in-
corporating reproductions from
Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl
ou mexicaine [1885], by Rmi
Simon). (French) (Nahuatl)
Zantwijk,Rudolph van (1985). The
Aztec Arrangement: The Social
History of Pre-Spanish Mexico.
Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press. ISBN 0-8061-1677-3.
OCLC 11261299.

1.2.7 External links

(Spanish) Detailed description of the temalacatl
from Mexicos Museo Nacional de Antropologa

Daily Aztec Calendar

1.3 Aztec clothing

Aztec clothing is the clothing that was worn by the This woman is wearing a skirt, a blouse and an ear plug.
Aztecs, as well as other pre-Columbian peoples of cen-
tral Mexico who shared similar cultures.
skirt[2] called cuitl [keit]
(referred to as enredo
in modern times). Women kept their skirt on them
1.3.1 Everyday dress with a sash[1] called a cihua necuitlalpiloni [siwa
[3]
nekitapiluni]. In the Classical Nahuatl language,
The basic garment and braw for males was called maxt- the couplet cuitl huplli skirt [and] blouse was used
latl[1] [matat
] in Nahuatl. The maxtlatl would often metaphorically to mean woman.

be worn under a cloak or cape called tilmahtli [tilmati]; The Aztecs wore dierent clothing depending on their
also called tilma in Spanish and English). Various styles age.[4] Children younger than three wore no clothes.[4]
of tilmatli existed which served to indicate the status of From age three and up, girls wore blouses and boys wore
the wearer.[2] capes.[4] From age four and up, girls additionally wore
a: young wearing only a maxtlatl; b: common people short skirts.[4] From age ve and up, the girls short skirts
(Macehualtin) dress; c: noble (Pipiltin) or high ranking was replaced with a longer skirts.[4] At age 13, boys nally
warrior dress; d: ruling classes and the clergy; e: less started wearing loin cloths.[4]
common way to wear the tilmatli; f: war dress. were a sign of status. They
Sandals, called cactli [kakti],
Aztec women wore a blouse called huplli[1] [wipii]; were largely restricted to noble males. Those who entered
also called huipil in Spanish and English) and a long temples or appeared before the emperor were required to
36 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Nezahualpilli, ruler of Texcoco, depicted in the Codex Ixtlilxochitl

wearing xiuhtilmatli (blue cape), maxtlatl, and cactli.

This man is wearing a cape, a loincloth and an ear plug.

be barefoot.
a b c d e f

1.3.2 Hairstyles
Varieties of clothing worn by Aztec men, before the Spanish con-
Aztec women wore hair in two braids that projected quest.
in the front like horns[1] and this hairstyle was called
neaxtlhualli [netwi].[1]

1.3.3 Jewelry
The Aztec (women and men) would tend to always dec-
orate themselves with gold bangles, necklaces, chokers,
etc. Such jewelry was worn to show how wealthy one
was; a poor or unwealthy Aztec would tend to wear less
jewelry than an Aztec of higher placing and wealth.
Basic dress of an Aztec woman before the Spanish conquest.
The jewelry worn by the Mayan, Aztec, and Inca peo-
ple was rich in variety and quite beautiful. Without
metalworking skills, Mayans made jewelry from many bracelets, anklets, and headgear were made with jaguar
other materials. Mayan men wore nose ornaments, and crocodile teeth, jaguar claws, and feathers. Mayan
earplugs, and lip plugs made of bone, wood, shells, and women and children wore less elaborate necklaces and
stones, including jade, topaz, and obsidian. Necklaces, earrings of similar materials.
1.3. AZTEC CLOTHING
Aztecs and Incas perfected metalworking to a great art.
Gold and silver jewelry was worn alongside ornaments
made of feathers, shells, leather, and stones. Among the
Aztecs, laws about which ornaments could be worn were
strictly enforced. Only royalty could wear headdresses
with gold and quetzal (a bird with brilliant blue-green
feathers that reach three feet in length) feathers, for ex-
ample. The weaving tradition, so important to Incas,
helped create beautiful woven headdresses. Inca emper-
ors wore woven hats trimmed with gold and wool tassels
or topped with plumes, or showy feathers. Incas also cre-
ated elaborate feather decorations for men: headbands
made into crowns of feathers, collars around the neck,
and chest coverings. In addition, wealthy Inca men wore
large gold and silver pendants hung on their chests, disks
attached to their hair and shoes, and bands around their
arms and wrists. Inca women adorned themselves sim-
ply with a metal fastening for their cloak called a tupu.
The head of their tupu was decorated with paint or silver,
gold, or copper bells.
1.3.4 Battle costume
Aztec warriors and priests as depicted in the Codex Mendoza,
wearing battle suits and tilmahtli tunics.
All warriors wore loincloths, and basic military armor
called ichcahuipilli. When they were recognized by the
state for their bravery in battle, their status increased (re-
gardless of original class) and they were rewarded with
shell and glass beaded jewelry. If the warrior was more
honored or a higher rank, they would wear battle suits
37
called Tlahuiztli, these suits were distinctively decorated
for prestigious warriors and members of warrior soci-
eties. They served as a way to identify warriors according
to their achievements in battle as well as rank, alliance,
and social status like priesthood or nobility. Usually made
to work as a single piece of clothing with an opening in
the back, they covered the entire torso and most of the
extremities of a warrior, and oered added protection to
the wearer. The tlahuiztli was made with elements of ani-
mal hide, leather, and cotton. Warriors were also allowed
to wear sandals as they progressed through the ranks.
Page from the Codex Mendoza depicting warriors wearing ichc-
ahuipilli armor and Tlahuiztli suits.
1.3.5 See also
Aztec
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1.3.6 References
[1] Mursell, I. What did the Aztecs wear?. (n.d.). Mexicalore.
Retrieved August 31, 2012, from link
[2] Ancient Aztec clothing. (2012). Aztec-History. The
Aztecs used many dierent types of feathers in their cloth-
ing. Retrieved August 30, 2012, from link
[3] Nahuatl Dictionary. (1997). Wired Humanities Project.
University of Oregon. Retrieved August 31, 2012, from
link
38 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

[4] Mursell, I. Aztec childrens clothes. (n.d.). Mexicalore. 1.4.1 Etymology

Retrieved August 31, 2012, from link
1.4 Aztec Empire
This article is about the Aztec Empire as a political
entity. For Aztec society and culture, see Aztec.
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with unknown parameter context (this message is
shown only in preview).
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with unknown parameter country (this message is
shown only in preview).
The word "Aztec" in modern usage would not have been
used by the people themselves. It has variously been
used to refer to the Triple Alliance empire, the Nahuatl-
speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Span-
ish conquest, or specically the Mexica ethnicity of the
Nahuatl-speaking peoples.[5] The name comes from a
Nahuatl word meaning people from Aztlan, reecting
the mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples.[6] For the
purpose of this article, Aztec refers only to those cities
that constituted or were subject to the Triple Alliance.
For the broader use of the term, see the article on Aztec
civilization.

The Aztec Empire, or the Triple Alliance (Nahuatl: x- 1.4.2 History

cn Tlahtlyn,[2] [jkan tatoljan
]), began as
an alliance of three Nahua "altepetl" city-states: Mexico- Before the Aztec Empire
Tenochtitlan, Mexico-Texcoco, and Mexico-Tlacopan.
These three city-states ruled the area in and around the Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples who
Valley of Mexico from 1428 until they were defeated by migrated to central Mexico from the north in the early
the combined forces of the Spanish conquistadores and 13th century.[7] According to the pictographic codices in
their native allies under Hernn Corts in 1521. which the Aztecs recorded their history, the place of ori-
The Triple Alliance was formed from the victorious fac- gin was called Aztln. Early migrants settled the Basin
tion in a civil war fought between the city of Azcapotzalco of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a se-
and its former tributary provinces.[1] Despite the initial ries of independent city-states. These early Nahua cities
conception of the empire as an alliance of three self- were ruled by petty kings called tlahtohqueh (singular, tla-
governed city-states, Tenochtitlan quickly became domi- toni). Most of the existing settlements, which had been
nant militarily.[3] By the time the Spanish arrived in 1520, established by other indigenous peoples before the Nahua
the lands of the Alliance were eectively ruled from migration, were assimilated into Nahua culture.[8]
Tenochtitlan, while the other partners in the alliance had These early city-states fought various small-scale wars
taken subsidiary roles. with each other, but due to shifting alliances, no individ-
[9]
The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded ual city gained dominance. The Mexica were the last
rapidly after its formation. At its height, the alliance of Aztlan migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They
controlled most of central Mexico as well as some entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250 AD,
and by then most of the good agricultural land had al-
more distant territories within Mesoamerica, such as the [10]
Xoconochco province, an Aztec exclave near the present- ready been claimed. The Mexica persuaded the king
of Culhuacan to allow them to settle in a relatively in-
day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been described
by scholars as hegemonic or indirect.[4] The Aztec fertile patch of land called Chapultepec (Chapoltepc, in
the hill of grasshoppers). The Mexica served as hired
left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they [11]
agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the Alliance, as well mercenaries for Culhuacan.
as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war After they served Culhuacan in battle, the king appointed
eorts. In return, the imperial authority oered protec- one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. According
tion and political stability, and facilitated an integrated to mythological native accounts, the Mexica instead sacri-
economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had ced her by aying her skin, on the command of their god
signicant local autonomy. Huitzilopochtli.[12] When the king of Culhuacan learned
The state religion of the empire was polytheistic, wor- of this, he attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica
shiping a diverse pantheon that included dozens of deities. from Tizaapan by force. The Mexica moved to an island
Many had ocially recognized cults large enough so that in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where an eagle nested
the deity was represented in the central temple precinct on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign
of the capital Tenochtitlan. The imperial cult, speci- from their god and founded their new city, Tenochtitlan,
cally, was that of Huitzilopochtli, the distinctive warlike on this island in the year me calli, or Two House (1325
patron god of the Mexica Aztecs. Peoples in conquered AD).[1]
provinces were allowed to retain and freely continue their The new Mexica city allied with the city of Azcapotzalco
own religious traditions, so long as they added the impe- and paid tribute to its king, Tezozomoc.[13] With Mex-
rial god Huitzilopochtli to their local pantheons. ica assistance, Azcopotzalco began to expand into a small
1.4. AZTEC EMPIRE 39

tributary empire. Until this point, the Mexica ruler was of "Cihuacoatl", equivalent to something between Prime
not recognized as a legitimate king. Mexica leaders suc- Minister and Viceroy.[16][18]
cessfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to pro-
vide a daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their
son, Acamapichtli, was enthroned as the rst tlatoani of Imperial Reforms
Tenochtitlan in the year 1372.[14]
While the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their
kingdom with help from the Mexica, the Acolhua city of
Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake
basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states,
and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Tex-
coco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city
and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanec by receiv-
ing Texcoco as a tributary province.[15]

The Tepanec War and the Triple Alliance

In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died, and the re-

sulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between
potential successors.[15] The Mexica supported Tezo-
zomocs preferred heir, Tayahauh, who was initially en-
throned as king. But his son, Maxtla, soon usurped the
throne and turned against factions that opposed him, in-
cluding the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died
shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla.[10]
The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla;
he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased trib-
ute payments.[16] Maxtla similarly turned against the
Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl, ed
into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from
the king of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the sup-
port of a dissident Tepanec city, Tlacopan. In 1427,
Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went
to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in
1428.[16]
After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and the three re-
maining cities formed a treaty known today as the Triple
Alliance.[16] The Tepanec lands were carved up among
the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in fu-
ture wars of conquest. Land acquired from these con-
quests was to be held by the three cities together. Tribute
was to be divided so that two-fths each went to Tenochti-
tlan and Texcoco, and one-fth went to Tlacopan. Each
of the three kings of the alliance in turn assumed the title
huetlatoani (Elder Speaker, often translated as Em- perial tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors
peror). In this role, each temporarily held a de jure po-
sition above the rulers of other city-states (tlatoani).[17]
In the next 100 years, the Triple Alliance of Tenochtit-
lan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan came to dominate the Val-
ley of Mexico and extend its power to the shores of the
Gulf of Mexico and the Pacic. Tenochtitlan gradually
became the dominant power in the alliance. Two of the
primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers
Tlacaelel and Moctezuma, nephews of Itzcoatl. Motecu-
zoma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica huetla- Moctezuma issued new laws that further separated no-
toani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created title bles from commoners and instituted the death penalty
Jaguar Warrior, from the Codex Magliabechiano.
Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itz-
coatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the
Aztec state and religion. It has been alleged that Tla-
caelel ordered the burning of some or most of the ex-
tant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and
that it was not wise that all the people should know the
paintings.[19] Even if he did order such book-burnings,
it was probably limited primarily to documents contain-
ing political propaganda from previous regimes; he there-
after rewrote the history of the Aztecs, naturally placing
the Mexica in a more central role.
After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica em-
peror, more reforms were instigated to maintain control
over conquered cities.[20] Uncooperative kings were re-
placed with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new im-
that taxed the population directly, bypassing the authority
of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy
in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary
holdings in lands far from their capitals.[21] This was done
to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire;
if a citys king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received
from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced
by calpixqueh, or appointed governors rather than dynas-
tic rulers.[21]
40 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

for adultery and other oenses.[22] By royal de- agricultural goods.

cree, a religiously-supervised school was built in ev-
ery neighborhood.[22] Commoner neighborhoods had a
school called a telpochcalli where they received ba-
sic religious instruction and military training.[23] A sec-
ond, more prestigious type of school called a calme-
cac served to teach the nobility, as well as commoners
of high standing seeking to become priests or artisans.
Moctezuma also created a new title called quauhpilli
that could be conferred on commoners.[20] This title was
a form of non-hereditary lesser nobility awarded for out-
standing military or civil service (similar to the English
knight). In some rare cases, commoners that received this
title married into royal families and became kings.[21]
One component of this reform was the creation of
an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower
Wars. Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized by
a strong preference for capturing live prisoners as op-
posed to slaughtering the enemy on the battleeld, which
was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars
are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare.
These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy
supply of experienced Aztec warriors as well as a steady,
healthy supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrice to
the gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by ocials on
both sides and conducted specically for the purpose of
each polity collecting prisoners for sacrice.[24] Accord-
ing to native historical accounts, these wars were insti-
gated by Tlacaelel as a means of appeasing the gods in
response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of
Mexico from 1450-1454.[25] The ower wars were mostly
waged between the Aztec Empire and the neighboring
cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala.
Early Years of Expansion
On the death of Itzcoatl, Motecuzoma I was enthroned as
the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire
was briey halted by a major four-year drought that hit
the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in More-
los had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided.[28]
Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand
the empire east towards the Gulf of Mexico and south into
Oaxaca. In 1468, Motecuzoma I died and was succeeded
by his son, Axayacatl. Most of Axayacatls thirteen-year-
reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under
his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had
expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled.[10]
At the same time as the Aztec Empire was expanding
and consolidating power, the Purpecha Empire in West
Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purpecha
under their king Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca
Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecu-
zoma and Itzcoatl.[29] In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered
the region and successfully defended it from Purpecha
attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched
a major invasion of the Purpecha Empire with 32,000
Aztec soldiers.[29] The Purpecha met them just across
the border with 50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding
victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army.
Axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle, retreated to
Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purpecha in battle
again.[30]
In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died and his son Nezahualpilli
was enthroned as the new huetlatoani of Texcoco.[31] This
was followed by the death of Axayacatl in 1481.[30] Ax-
ayacatl was replaced by his brother Tizoc. Tizocs reign
was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineectual and
did not signicantly expand the empire. Apparently due
to his incompetence, Tizoc was likely assassinated by his
own nobles ve years into his rule.[30]

Later Years of Expansion

Chichimques Oxtlipa
Huaxtques
Axocopan

Xilotepec Atotonilco
Hueypoxtla
Tziuhcoac
Tochpan Citlaltepec
Metztitlan Me (Tuxpan) Xocotitlan Cuauhtitlan
tzt
itla Golfe du Cuauhuacan Acolman
n Tetzapotitlan (Cahuacan) Petlacalco Texcoco
Atotonilco Mexique Tlacopan
Tlapacoyan
(Tacuba)
Mexico -
Tlatlauhquitepec Toluca Tenochtitlan
Tlaxcala
Tarasques Tlaxc Chalco-
Texcoco altques Ocuilan Atenco
Huexotzinco
Tlacopan Cuauhnahuac
Tzintzuntzan Mexico-Tenochtitlan Cuauhtochco (Cuernavaca)
(Huatusco) Huaxtepec Tollan-Chollollan
Tlaxcala (Oaxtepec) (Cholula)
Malinalco

Tepeyacac Cuetlaxtlan
Tlachco
(Tepeaca)
Oztoman (Taxco) Xicallancas
(Oztuma) Tochtepec
Teotitlan (San Juan
Tepecoacuilco
Bautista

Map of the expansion of the empire, showing the areas conquered Yohualtepec Teotitlan
Tuxtepec)
(Yoaltepec)
Tlalcozauhtitlan Coixtlahuacan
Quiyauhteopan Mixes
by the Aztec rulers.[26] Cihuatlan
Yopitzinco
Tlapan
Tlachquiauhco
(Tlaxiaco)

Coyolapan
Zapotques
Mixtques Tehuantepec

After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahual-

Cuauhtemallan
coyotl rapidly consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico
Ocan Pacifique
and began to expand beyond its borders. The rst tar- Xoconochco
(Soconusco)

gets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Provinces dpendant de la triple alliance
Membres de la triple alliance
Chef-lieu de province tributaire
Mixes tat ou peuple indpendant
Chef-lieu d'tat indpendant

Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern

Mexican state of Morelos.[27] These conquests provided The maximal extent of the Aztec Empire, according to Mara del
the new empire with a large inux of tribute, especially Carmen Solanes Carraro and Enrique Vela Ramrez.
1.4. AZTEC EMPIRE 41

Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. NW NE

The basin of Mexico
circa 1519
Like his predecessors, the rst part of Ahuitzotls reign
W E

SW SE
at the arrival of the Spanish
was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace S
Lake
Zumpango

due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule.[30] Ahuitzotl then Xaltocan

began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Val- Cuautitlan

Lake
ley and the Soconusco Coast. Due to increased border Xaltocan
Teotihuacan

skirmishes with the Purpechas, Ahuitzotl conquered the

Chiconautla
border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a mil- Alcoman

itary outpost.[32] The population of Otzoma was either

killed or dispersed in the process.[29] The Purpecha sub- Ecatepec
Texcoco

sequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Tenayuca

Sierra of Guadalupe Ixhuatepec

Aztec expansion.[29] Ahuitzotl responded by expanding Tepeyacac Atzacoalco

Coatlinchan

further west to the Pacic Coast of Guerrero. Azcapotzalco

Mexico-
1
Lake
Tlacopan
Tlatelolco
2
Texcoco Huexotla

By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and Mexico-
Dike of
Sierra
Nevada
Chapultepec Tenochtitlan
most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance.[33] 3
Nezahualcoyotl
Chimalhuacan-Atenco
Mixcoac
Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the Coyoacan
Iztapalapa
Mexicaltzingo Aztahuacan
course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use the title Tizapan
Culhuacan
Star
's H
ill
Iztapal
apa Ixtapaluca

huehuetlatoani (Eldest Speaker) to distinguish him- Penins

ula

self from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan.[30] Even Lake

Xochimilco
Tlhuac
Island

though the alliance still technically ran the empire, the Lake
Chalco
Chalco
Xochimilco
Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual se- Sierra of
the crosses

niority. 1 Tepeycac causeway

2 Tlacopan causeway
(km)
3 Iztapalapa causeway 0 25

Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his brother Motecuzoma II in

0 (mi) 15

1502. Motecuzoma II spent most of his reign consolidat-

ing power in lands conquered by his predecessors.[32] In
1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general
Tlahuicole invaded the Purpecha Empire once again.[34]
The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was
mostly restricted to raiding. The Purpechas defeated
them and the army withdrew.
Motecuzoma II instituted more imperial reforms.[32] Af-
ter the death of Nezahualcoyotl, the Mexica Emperors
had become the de facto rulers of the alliance. Motecu-
zoma II used his reign to attempt to consolidate power
more closely with the Mexica Emperor.[35] He removed
many of Ahuitzotls advisors and had several of them
executed.[32] He also abolished the quauhpilli class, de-
stroying the chance for commoners to advance to the no-
bility. His reform eorts were cut short by the Spanish
Conquest in 1519.
Spanish Conquest
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Spanish expedition leader Hernn Corts landed in Yu-
catn in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed
with only a sword and shield). Corts had actually
been removed as the expeditions commander by the
governor of Cuba, Diego Velsquez, but had stolen the
boats and left without permission.[36] At the island of
Cozumel, Corts encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard
named Gernimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition
and translated between Spanish and Mayan. The expedi-
tion then sailed west to Campeche, where after a brief The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to
battle with the local army, Corts was able to negoti- seek the latters alliance against the Aztecs. However,
ate peace through his interpreter, Aguilar. The King of the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed
The Valley of Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest.
Campeche gave Corts a second translator, a bililngual
Nahua-Maya slave woman named Malintzin. Aguilar
translated from Spanish to Mayan and Malintzin trans-
lated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Once Malinche learned
Spanish, she became Cortss translator for both language
and culture, and was a key gure in interactions with
Nahua rulers. An important article, Rethinking Mal-
inche by Frances Karttunen examines her role in the con-
quest and beyond.[37]
Corts then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a trib-
utary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he
founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambas-
sadors from the reigning Mexica emperor, Motecuzoma
II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan,
Corts went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac
leaders. After the Totonac ruler told Corts of his vari-
ous grievances against the Mexica, Corts convinced the
Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector.[38]
Corts subsequently released the tribute collector after
persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonacs
idea and that he had no knowledge of it. Having eec-
tively declared war on the Aztecs, the Totonacs provided
Corts with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to
Tlaxcala.[39] At this time several of Cortss soldiers at-
tempted to mutiny. When Corts discovered the plot, he
had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to re-
move any possibility of escaping to Cuba.[40]
42
Codex Azcatitlan depicting the Spanish army, with Cortez and
Malinche in front
them to be hostile, and attacked. After ghting several
close battles, Corts eventually convinced the leaders of
Tlaxcala to order their general to stand down. Corts then
secured an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala, and trav-
eled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller
company of 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs,
in addition to the Spanish soldiers.[40] During his stay
in the city of Cholula, Corts claims he received word
of a planned ambush against the Spanish.[40] In a pre-
emptive response, Corts directed his troops attack and
kill a large number of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the
main square of the city.
Following the massacre at Cholula, Hernan Corts and
the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they
were greeted as guests and given quarters in the palace
of former emperor Axayacatl.[41] After staying in the city
for six weeks, two Spaniards from the group left behind in
Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord
named Quetzalpopoca. Corts claims that he used this
incident as an excuse to take Motecuzoma prisoner un-
der threat of force.[40] For several months, Motecuzoma
continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Hernan
Corts. Then, in 1520, a second, larger Spanish expedi-
tion arrived under the command of Pnlo de Narvez
sent by Diego Velsquez with the goal of arresting Corts
for treason. Before confronting Narvez, Corts secretly
persuaded Narvezs lieutenants to betray him and join
Corts.[40]
While Corts was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with
Narvez, his second in command Pedro de Alvarado mas-
sacred a group of Aztec nobility in response to a ritual of
human sacrice honoring Huitzilopochtli.[40] The Aztecs
retaliated by attacking the palace where the Spanish were
quartered. Corts returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his
way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the
roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. How-
ever, by this point the ruling council of Tenochtitlan had
voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother
Cuitlahuac as the new emperor.[41] One of the Aztec sol-
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
diers struck Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone,
and he died several days later although the exact de-
tails of his death, particularly who was responsible, are
unclear.[41]
Cristbal de Olid led Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the
conquests of Jalisco and Colima of West Mexico.
The Spaniards and their allies, realizing they were vul-
nerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following
Moctezumas death, attempted to retreat without detec-
tion in what is known as the Sad Night or La Noche
Triste. Spaniards and their Indian allies were discov-
ered clandestinely retreating, and then were forced to
ght their way out of the city, with heavy loss of life.
Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded
down with gold.[42] They retreated to Tlacopan (now
Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala, where they re-
covered and prepared for the second, successful assault
on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak
hit Tenochtitlan. As the indigenous of the New World
had no previous exposure to smallpox, this outbreak alone
killed more than 50% of the regions population, includ-
ing the emperor, Cuitlahuac.[43] While the new emperor
Cuauhtmoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, Corts
raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and
others discontent with Aztec rule. With a combined army
of up to 100,000 warriors,[40] the overwhelming major-
ity of which were indigenous rather than Spanish, Corts
marched back into the Basin of Mexico. Through numer-
ous subsequent battles and skirmishes, he captured the
various indigenous city-states or altepetl around the lake
shore and surrounding mountains, including the other
capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco.
Texcoco in fact had already become rm allies of the
Spaniards and the city-state, and subsequently petitioned
the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the
conquest, just as Tlaxcala had done.[44]
Using boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged
from the scuttled ships, Corts blockaded and laid siege
to Tenochtitlan for a period of several months.[40] Even-
tually, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both by
1.4. AZTEC EMPIRE 43

boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to

the mainland. Although the attackers took heavy ca-
sualties, the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city
of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process.
Cuauhtmoc was captured as he attempted to ee the city.
Corts kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of
several years before nally executing him in 1525.[45]

1.4.3 Government

The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled

by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was
ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European em-
pires, it was more of a system of tribute than a single
unitary of government. In the theoretical framework of
imperial systems posited by Alexander J. Motyl[46] the
Aztec empire was an informal empire in that the Al-
liance did not claim supreme authority over the tribu-
tary provinces; it merely expected tributes to be paid. It
was also a discontinuous empire because not all domi-
nated territories were connected, for example the south-
ern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immedi-
ate contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the
Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local
rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state
was conquered and the Aztecs did not interfere in local
aairs as long as the tribute payments were made.[47]
Although the form of government is often referred to as
an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were or- A tlacochcalcatl pictured in the Codex Mendoza
ganized as city-states (known as an altepetl in Nahuatl,
the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities
ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally speaker, plural tla- Central administration
toque) from a dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time
of growth and competition among altepeme. Even af- Before the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (14291472), the
ter the empire was formed (1428) and began its program Aztec empire operated as a confederation along tradi-
of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the tional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led
dominant form of organization at the local level. The ef- by tlatoani (lit., speakers), who supervised village head-
cient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was men, who in turn supervised groups of households. A
largely responsible for the success of the empires hege- typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey Tla-
monic form of control.[48] toani (lit., great speaker) at the head of several tlatoani.
It should be remembered that the term Aztec empire is Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a
a modern one, not one used by the Aztec themselves. The somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently
Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl- conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming
speaking city states in the densely-populated Valley of replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting
Mexico. Over time, asymmetries of power elevated one tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply
of those city states, Tenochtitlan, above the other two. replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same
The Triple Alliance came to establish hegemony over set of local nobility.[49]
much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was
linguistic and cultural diversity. Administration of the the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with the ex-
empire was performed through largely traditional, indi- ternal issues of empire; the management of tribute, war,
rect means. However, over time something of a nascent diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of
bureaucracy may have been beginning to form insofar as the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the Cihuacoatl to
the state organization became increasingly centralized. govern the city of Tenochtitlan itself. The Cihuacoatl was
44
always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for
example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title
Cihuacoatl, which means female snake (it is the name the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan,
of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat
analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Minister, re-
ect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither
the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani
were priestly, yet both did have important ritual tasks.
Those of the former were associated with the female
wet season, those of the latter with the male dry sea-
son. While the position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in
Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position also existed
the nearby altepetl of Atzcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and
Tenochtitlans ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser
status of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both in-
uential and powerful, as in the case of Tlacaelel.[50][51]
Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed
a four-member military and advisory Council which as-
sisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tla-
cochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl;[52] and the
tlillancalqui. This design not only provided advise for the
ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of
the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be
selected from the Council. Moreover, the actions of any
one member of the Council could easily be blocked by the
other three, providing a simple system of checks on the
ambition higher ocials. These four Council members
were also generals, members of various military societies. Schematic of hierarchy
The ranks of the members were not equal, with the tla-
cochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than Provincial Structure
the others. These two Councillors were members of the
two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique
(shorn ones) and the otontin ("Otomies").[53][54]
Provincial administration
Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by
hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system
evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced by other
ocials. As has already been mentioned, directly-
appointed stewards (singular calpixqui, plural calpixque)
were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the selec-
tion of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani.
At the height of empire, the organization of the state into
tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of
this system. The 38 tributary provinces fell under the
supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque, whose au-
thority extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These
calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of
the provincial tribute system which was overseen and co-
ordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not
by the huetlatoani, but rather by a separate position al-
together: the petlacalcatl. On the occasion that a re-
cently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive,
a military governor, or cuauhtlatoani, was placed at the
head of provincial supervision.[55] During the reign of
Moctezuma I, the calpixque system was elaborated, with
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
two calpixque assigned per tributary province. One was
stationed in the province itself, perhaps for supervising
perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Tribute was
drawn from commoners, the macehualtin, and distributed
to the nobility, be they 'kings (tlatoque), lesser rulers
(teteuctin), or provincial nobility (pipiltin).[56]
Tribute collection was supervised by the above ocials
and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec military,
but also upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local
nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient
to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known
as pochteca. These pochteca had various gradations of
ranks which granted them certain trading rights and so
were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played
an important role in both the growth and administration
of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The power,
political and economic, of the pochteca was strongly tied
to the political and military power of the Aztec nobility
and state. In addition to serving as diplomats (teucne-
nenque, or travelers of the lord) and spies in the pre-
lude to conquest, higher-ranking pochteca also served as
judges in market plazas and were to certain degree au-
tonomous corporate groups, having administrative duties
within their own estate.[57][58]
Territorial Organization of the Aztec Empire 1519
Originally, the Aztec empire was loose alliance between
three cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the most ju-
nior partner, Tlacopan. As such, they were known as
the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very com-
mon in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were
ever uctuating. However, overtime it was Tenochtitlan
which assumed paramount authority in the alliance, and
although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights
to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed
by their own Huetlatoani, it was Tenochtitlan which be-
came the largest, most powerful, and most inuential of
the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged
center of empire.[59]
1.4. AZTEC EMPIRE 45

Though they were not described by the Aztec this way, to ght wars and capture enemy soldiers for sacrice.
there were essentially two types of provinces: Tributary Though blood sacrice was common in Mesoamerica, the
and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially sub- scale of human sacrice under the Aztecs was likely un-
ordinate client states which provided tribute or aid to the precedented in the region.[64]
Aztec state under mutual consent. Tributary provinces,
on the other hand, provided regular tribute to the em-
pire; obligations on the part of Tributary provinces were 1.4.5 Law
mandatory rather than consensual.[60][61]
[60][61] A code of law seems to have been established under the
reign of Moctezuma I. These laws served to establish and
govern relations between the state, classes, and individ-
1.4.4 Ideology and State uals. Punishment was to be meted out solely by state
authorities. Nahua mores were enshrined in these laws,
See also: Aztec religion criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness,
Rulers, be they local teteuctin or tlatoani, or central and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions
against theft, murder, and property damage. As stated be-
fore, pochteca could serve as judges, often exercising ju-
dicial oversight of their own members. Likewise, military
courts dealt with both cases within the military and with-
out during wartime. There was an appeal process, with
appellate courts standing between local, typically market-
place courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court
and two special higher appellate courts at Tenochtitlan.
One of those two special courts dealt with cases arising
within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from
outside the capital. The ultimate judicial authority laid in
hands of the Huetlatoani, who had the right to appoint
lesser judges.[65]

This page from the Codex Tovar depicts a scene of gladiatorial

1.4.6 Rulers of the Aztec Empire
sacricial rite, celebrated on the festival of Tlacaxipehualiztli.

Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and See also: Aztec emperors family tree
therefore ruled by divine right. Tlatocayotl, or the prin-
ciple of rulership, established that this divine right was [66][67][68]
inherited by descent. Political order was therefore also a
cosmic order, and to kill a tlatoani was to transgress that
order. For that reason, whenever a tlatoani was killed 1.4.7 See also
or otherwise removed from their station, a relative and
member of the same bloodline was typically placed in Flower war
their stead. The establishment of the oce of Huetla-
toani understood through the creation of another level of Aztec philosophy
rulership, hueitlatocayotl, standing in superior contrast to Mesoamerica
the lesser tlatocayotl principle.[62]
Expansion of the empire was guided by a militaristic List of Tenochtitlan rulers
interpretation of Nahua religion, specically a devout List of rulers of Texcoco
veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli. Militaristic
state rituals were performed throughout the year accord- List of Tlatelolco rulers
ing to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock
battles.[63] The time period they lived in was understood
as the Ollintonatiuh, or Sun of Movement, which was be- 1.4.8 References
lieved to be the nal age after which humanity would be
destroyed. It was under Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli as- [1] Smith 2009
sumed his elevated role in the state pantheon and who
[2] y(i)+kn tlaht+l+yn (3+lugar
argued that it was through blood sacrice that the Sun
hablar+pasiva+lugar.usual) '[los] tres lugares en los
would be maintained and thereby stave o the end of the que se parlamenta' [source needs translation]
world. It was under this new, militaristic interpretation
of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged [3] Hassig 1988
46 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

[4] Smith 2001 [37] Frances Karttunen, Rethinking Malinche in Indian

Women of Early Mexico, Susan Schroeder, et al. eds. Uni-
[5] Smith 2009 pp. 34 versity of Oklahoma Press 1997.
[6] Smith 1984 [38] Diaz del Castillo 2003, pp. 9294
[7] Davies 1973, pp. 322 [39] Diaz del Castillo 2003, p. 120

[8] Smith 2009 p. 37 [40] Hernn Corts, 1843. The Dispatches of Hernando
Corts, The Conqueror of Mexico, addressed to the Em-
[9] Calnek 1978 peror Charles V, written during the conquest, and con-
taining a narrative of its events. New York: Wiley and
[10] Davies 1973
Putnam
[11] Alvarado Tezozomoc 1975 pp. 4951
[41] Smith 2009 p. 275
[12] Alvarado Tezozomoc (1975), pp. 5260 [42] The Early History of Greater Mexico, chapter 3 Conquest
and Colonization, Ida Altman, S.L. (Sarah) Cline, and
[13] Smith 2009 p. 44
Javier Pescador. Pearson, 2003.
[14] Alvarado Tezozomoc 1975
[43] Smith 2009, p. 279
[15] Smith 2009 p. 46
[44] Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Ally of Corts: Account 13
[16] Smith 2009 p. 47 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of Evan-
gelical Law. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El Paso:
[17] Evans 2008, p. 460 Texas Western Press, 1969.

[18] The term cihuctl literally means woman-snake or [45] Restall, Matthew (2004). Seven Myths of the Spanish
female snake, and the origin of this designation is Conquest (1st pbk edition ed.). Oxford and New York:
not well understood. The position was certainly not re- Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517611-1. p. 148
served for women, although the title may perhaps suggest
[46] Motyl, Alexander J. (2001). Imperial Ends: The Decay,
a metaphoric dichotomy between the masculine Tlah-
Collapse, and Revival of Empires. New York: Columbia
toni dealing with external imperial aairs and the fem-
University Press. pp. 13, 1921, 3236. ISBN 0-231-
inine Cihuctl managing the domestic aairs.
12110-5.
[19] Leon-Portilla 1963 p. 155
[47] Berdan, et al. (1996), Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumb-
[20] Smith 2009 p. 48 arton Oaks, Washington, DC

[21] Evans 2008 p. 462 [48] Smith, Michael E. (2000), Aztec City-States. In A Com-
parative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures, edited by
[22] Duran 1994, pp. 209210 Mogens Herman Hansen, pp. 581595. The Royal Dan-
ish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Copenhagen.
[23] Evans 2008 pp. 456457
[49] Evans, Susan T. (2004). Ancient Mexico & Central
[24] Evans 2008, p. 451 America: Archaeology and Culture History. Thames &
Hudson: New York, pp. 443446, 449451
[25] Duran 1994
[50] Coe, Michael D. (1984). Mexico, 3rd Ed. Thames &
[26] Based on Hassig 1988. Hudson: New York, p. 156
[27] Smith 2009 pp. 4748 [51] Townshend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs. Revised Ed.
Thames & Hudson: London, pp. 200202.
[28] Smith 2009 p. 49
[52] Berdan, Francis F. and Patricia Rie Anawalt. 1992. The
[29] Pollard 1993, p. 169 Codex Mendoza Vol. 1. University of California Press, p.
196
[30] Smith 2009 p. 51
[53] Brumel, Elizabeth M. (1983). Aztec State Making:
[31] Evans 2008, p. 450
Ecology, Structure, and the Origin of the State. Amer-
[32] Smith 2009 p. 54 ican Anthropologist, New Series (85)2, p. 273

[33] Smith 2009 pp. 5051 [54] Townshend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs. Revised Ed.
Thames & Hudson: London, p. 204.
[34] Pollard 1993 pp. 169170
[55] Calnek, Edward E. (1982). Patterns of Empire Formation
[35] Davies 1973 p. 216 in the Valley of Mexico, in The Inca and Aztec States:
14001800. Collier, Rosaldo & Wirth (Eds.) Academic
[36] Diaz del Castillo 2003, pp. 3540 Press: New York, pp. 5659
1.5. AZTEC MYTHOLOGY 47

[56] Smith, Michael E. (1986). Social Stratication in the
Aztec Empire: A View from the Provinces, in American
Anthropologist, (88)1, p. 74
[57] Kurtz, Donald V. (1984). Strategies of Legitimation and
the Aztec State, in Ethnology, 23(4), pp. 308309
[58] Almazn, Marco A. (1999). The Aztec States-Society:
The Roots of Civil Society and Social Capital, in Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
Vol. 565, p. 170.
Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Ex-
pansion and Political Control. University of Okla-
homa Press. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1.
Leon-Portilla, Miguel (1963). Aztec Thought and
Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nhuatl Mind. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press.
Pollard, H. P. (1993). Tariacuris Legacy. Univer-
sity of Oklahoma Press.

[59] Brumel, Elizabeth M. (2001). Religion and state in the
Aztec Empire, in Empires (Alcock et al, Eds). Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge, p. 284
[60] Evans, pp. 470471
[61] Smith, Michael E. (1996). The Strategic Provinces, in
Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumbarton Oaks: Washing-
ton, D.C., pp. 12
[62] Almazn, pp. 165166
[63] Brumel (2001), pp. 287, 288301
[64] Len-Portilla, Miguel. (1963). Aztec Thought and Cul-
ture: A Study of the ANcient Nahuatl Mind. Davis, Jack
E., Trans. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, pp. 6,
161162
Smith, Michael (1984). The Aztec Migrations of
Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?". Ethnohis-
tory. 31 (3): 153168. doi:10.2307/482619.
Smith, Michael (2009). The Aztecs, 2nd Edition.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-
23015-7.
Smith, M. E. (2001). The Archaeological Study
of Empires and Imperialism in Pre-Hispanic Central
Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.
20: 245284. doi:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372.
1.4.10 External links

[65] Kurtz, p. 307 1.5 Aztec mythology

[66] Coe, p. 170

[67] Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin. (1997). Codex Chimal-

pahin, Vol. 1. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman.

[68] Tlacopan. Updated March, 20120. Retrieved

from http://members.iinet.net.au/~{}royalty/states/
southamerica/tlacopan.html.

1.4.9 Bibliography
Alvarado Tezozomoc, Hernando de (1975). Crnica
Mexicana. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
Mexico, Mexico City.
Calnek, Edward (1978). R. P. Schaedel; J. E.
Hardoy; N. S. Kinzer, eds. Urbanization of the
Americas from its Beginnings to the Present. pp.
463470.
Davies, Nigel (1973). The Aztecs: A History. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Mictlantecuhtli (left), god of death, the lord of the Underworld
and Quetzalcoatl (right), god of wisdom, life, knowledge, morn-
Diaz del Castillo, Bernal (2003). The Discovery ing star, patron of the winds and light, the lord of the West. To-
and Conquest of Mexico. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo gether they symbolize life and death.
Press. ISBN 0-306-81319-X.
Duran, Diego (1992). History of the Indies of New Aztec mythology is the body or collection [1]
of myths
Spain. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. of Aztec civilization of Central Mexico. The Aztecs
were Nahuatl-speaking groups living in central Mexico
Evans, Susan T. (2008). Ancient Mexico and Cen- and much of their mythology is similar to that of other
tral America: Archaeology and Culture History, 2nd Mesoamerican cultures. According to legend, the vari-
edition. Thames & Hudson, New York. ISBN 978- ous groups who were to become the Aztecs arrived from
0-500-28714-9. the north into the Anahuac valley around Lake Texcoco.
48
The location of this valley and lake of destination is clear
it is the heart of modern Mexico City but little can
be known with certainty about the origin of the Aztec.
There are dierent accounts of their origin. In the myth
the ancestors of the Mexica/Aztec came from a place
in the north called Aztlan, the last of seven nahuatlacas
(Nahuatl-speaking tribes, from tlaca, man) to make the
journey southward, hence their name Azteca. Other ac-
counts cite their origin in Chicomoztoc, the place of the
seven caves, or at Tamoanchan (the legendary origin of
all civilizations).
The Mexica/Aztec were said to be guided by their god
Huitzilopochtli, meaning Left-handed Hummingbird"
or Hummingbird from the South. At an island in Lake
Texcoco, they saw an eagle holding a rattlesnake in its
talons, perched on a nopal cactus. This vision fullled
a prophecy telling them that they should found their
new home on that spot. The Aztecs built their city of
Tenochtitlan on that site, building a great articial island,
which today is in the center of Mexico City. This leg-
endary vision is pictured on the Coat of Arms of Mexico.
1.5.1 Creation myth
Huitzilopochtli is raising up the skies of the South, one of the four
directions of the world, surrounded by their respective trees, tem-
ples, patterns and divination symbols.
According to legend, when the Mexicas arrived in the
Anahuac valley around Lake Texcoco, they were con-
sidered by the other groups as the least civilized of all,
but the Mexica/Aztec decided to learn, and they took
all they could from other people, especially from the an-
cient Toltec (whom they seem to have partially confused
with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan). To
the Aztec, the Toltec were the originators of all culture;
Toltecayotl was a synonym for culture. Aztec legends
identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
legendary city of Tollan, which they also identied with
the more ancient Teotihuacan.
Because the Aztec adopted and combined several tradi-
tions with their own earlier traditions, they had several
creation myths. One of these, the Five Suns describes
four great ages preceding the present world, each of
which ended in a catastrophe, and were named in func-
tion of the force or divine element that violently put an
end to each one of them.[2] Coatlicue was the mother of
Centzon Huitznahua (Four Hundred Southerners), her
sons, and Coyolxauhqui, her daughter. She found a ball
lled with feathers and placed it in her waistband, becom-
ing pregnant with Huitzilopochtli. Her other children be-
came suspicious as to the identity of the father and vowed
to kill their mother. She gave birth on Mount Coatepec,
pursued by her children, but the newborn Huitzilopochtli
defeated most of his brothers, who became the stars. He
also killed his half-sister Coyolxauhqui by tearing out her
heart using a Xiuhcoatl (a blue snake) and throwing her
body down the mountain. This was said to inspire the
Aztecs to rip the hearts out of their victims and throw
their bodies down the sides of the temple dedicated to
Huitzilopochtli, who represents the sun chasing away the
stars at dawn.
Our age (Nahui-Ollin), the fth age, or fth creation, be-
gan in the ancient city of Teotihuacan. According to the
myth, all the gods had gathered to sacrice themselves
and create a new age. Although the world and the sun had
already been created, it would only be through their sacri-
ce that the sun would be set into motion and time as well
as history could begin. The handsomest and strongest of
the gods, Tecuciztecatl, was supposed to sacrice him-
self but when it came time to self-immolate, he could
not jump into the re. Instead, Nanahuatl the smallest
and humblest of the gods, who was also covered in boils,
sacriced himself rst and jumped into the ames. The
sun was set into motion with his sacrice and time be-
gan. Humiliated by Nanahuatls sacrice, Tecuciztecatl
too leaped into the re and became the moon.[3]
1.5.2 Pantheon
Main article: List of Aztec deities
Water deities
Tlaloc, rain god
Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of water, lakes,
rivers, seas, streams, horizontal waters,
storms, and baptism.
Huixtocihuatl, goddess of salt
Opochtli, god of shing
Fire deities
Xiuhtecuhtli, god of re and time
1.5. AZTEC MYTHOLOGY 49

Embodied spirits; Tonalleque (1), Cihuateteo (2). Patterns of Merchants; (1a) Huehuecoyotl, (1b) Zacatzontli, (2a)
Yacatecuhtli, (2b) Tlacotzontli, (3a) Tlazolteotl, (3b) Tonatiuh.

Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, the darkness

and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the
North.
Xipe-Totec, god of force, lord of the seasons
and rebirth, ruler of the East.
Quetzalcoatl, god of the life, the light and wis-
dom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of
the West.
Huitzilopochtli, god of the war, lord of the sun
and re, ruler of the South.
Xolotl, god of death, the evening star, and twin
brother of Quetzalcoatl.
Ehecatl, god of wind
Tlaloc, rain god
Coyolxauhqui, goddess of moon
Patterns of War; (1a) Tlaloc, (1b) Xiuhtecuhtli, (2a) Mixcoatl,
(2b) Xipe-Totec. Meztli, goddess of moon
Tonatiuh, god of sun

Xantico, goddess of rebox Centzonmimixcoa, 400 gods of the northern

stars
Xolotl, god of death, the evening star, and twin
Centzonhuitznahua, 400 gods of the southern
brother of Quetzalcoatl
stars
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, god of the morning star
Death deities
(Venus)
Mictlantecuhtli, god of the dead, ruler of the
Underworld Lords of the Night
Mictecacihuatl, goddess of the dead, ruler of Xiuhtecuhtli, god of re and time
the Underworld
Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, the darkness
Xolotl, god of death, the evening star, and twin and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the
brother of Quetzalcoatl North.
Piltzintecuhtli, god of the temporals, the rising
Sky deities sun and healing
50
Centeotl, god of maize 1.5.3 See also
Mictlantecuhtli, god of the Underworld
Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of water, lakes,
rivers, seas, streams, horizontal waters, storms
and baptism
Tlazolteotl, goddess of lust, carnality, sexual
misdeeds
Tepeyollotl, god of the mountains
Tlaloc, rain god
Lords of the Day
Xiuhtecuhtli, god of re and time
Tlaltecuhtli, god of the earth
Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of water, lakes,
rivers, seas, streams, horizontal waters, storms
and baptism
Tonatiuh, god of the Sun
Tlazolteotl, goddess of lust, carnality, sexual
misdeeds
Mictlantecuhtli, god of the Underworld
Centeotl, god of maize
Tlaloc, rain god
Quetzalcoatl, god of the life, the light and wis-
dom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of
the West.
Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, the darkness
and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the
North.
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, god of dawn
Citlalicue, goddess of female stars (Milky
Way)
Earth deities
Xipe-Totec, god of force, lord of the seasons
and rebirth, ruler of the East.
Tonacatecuhtli, god of sustenance
Tonacacihuatl, goddess of sustenance
Tlaltecuhtli, god of the earth
Chicomecoatl, goddess of agriculture
Centeotl, god of the maize
Matron goddesses
Coatlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death and
rebirth
Chimalma, goddess of fertility, life, death and
rebirth
Xochitlicue, goddess of fertility, life, death
and rebirth
Itzpapalotl, obsidian buttery, leader of the
Tzitzimitl
Toci, goddess of health
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Thirteen Heavens
Aztec mythology in popular culture
1.5.4 Bibliography
Grisel Gmez Cano (2011). Xlibris Corporation,
ed. El Regreso a Coatlicue: Diosas y Guerreras en
el Folklore Mexicano (in Spanish). Mxico. p. 296.
ISBN 1456860216.
Primo Feliciano Velzquez (1975). Instituto de In-
vestigaciones Histricas, ed. Cdice Chimalpopoca.
Anales de Cuauhtitln y Leyenda de los Soles (in
Spanish). Mxico. p. 161. ISBN 968-36-2747-1.
Adela Fernndez (1998). Panorama Editorial, ed.
Dioses Prehispnicos de Mxico (in Spanish). Mx-
ico. p. 162. ISBN 968-38-0306-7.
Cecilio Agustn Robelo (1905). Biblioteca Por-
ra. Imprenta del Museo Nacional de Arqueologa,
Historia y Etnologa, ed. Diccionario de Mitologa
Nahua (in Spanish). Mxico. p. 851. ISBN 978-
9684327955.
Otilia Meza (1981). Editorial Universo Mxico, ed.
El Mundo Mgico de los Dioses del Anhuac (in
Spanish). Mxico. p. 153. ISBN 968-35-0093-5.
Patricia Turner and Charles Russell Coulter (2001).
Oxford University Press, ed. Dictionary of Ancient
Deities. United States. p. 608. ISBN 0-19-514504-
6.
Michael Jordan (2004). Library of Congress, ed.
Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses. United States.
p. 402. ISBN 0-8160-5923-3.
Nowotny, Karl Anton (2005). Norman : University
of Oklahoma Press, c2005, ed. Tlacuilolli: Style and
Contents of the Mexican Pictorial Manuscripts with a
Catalog of the Borgia Group. p. 402. ISBN 978-
0806136530.
Franois-Marie Bertrand (1881). Migne, ed. Dic-
tionnaire universel, historique et comparatif, de
toutes les religions du monde : comprenant le ju-
daisme, le christianisme, le paganisme, le sabisme,
le magisme, le druidisme, le brahmanisme, le boud-
dhism, le chamisme, l'islamisme, le ftichisme; Vol-
umen 1,2,3,4 (in French). France. p. 602.
Douglas, David (2009). The Altlas of Lost Cults and
mystery religions. Godseld Press. pp. 3435.
Boone, Elizabeth H. (Ed.) (1982). The Art and
Iconography of Late Post-Classic Central Mexico.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-
88402-110-6.
1.6. AZTEC RELIGION 51

Boone, Elizabeth Hill (2013). Cycles of Time and theology, the religion recognized a large and ever increas-
Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate. University ing pantheon of gods and goddesses; the Aztecs would
of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75656-4. often incorporate deities whose cults came from other
geographic regions or peoples into their own religious
Brinton, Daniel G. (Ed.) (1890). Rig Veda Amer- practice. Aztec cosmology divides the world into thir-
icanus. Library of Aboriginal American Literature. teen heavens and nine earthly layers or netherworlds (the
No. VIII. Project Gutenberg reproduction.(English) rst heaven overlapping with the rst terrestrial layer,
(Nahuatl) heaven and earth meeting at the surface of the Earth)
Leon-Portilla, Miguel (1990) [1963]. Aztec Thought each level associated with a specic set of deities and
and Culture. Davis, J.E. (trans). Norman, Okla- astronomical objects. The most important celestial en-
homa: Oklahoma University Press. ISBN 0-8061- tities in Aztec religion were the Sun, the Moon, and
2295-1. the planet Venus (both as morning star and evening
star)all of these bearing dierent symbolic and reli-
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and gious meanings as well as associations with certain deities
Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: and geographical placeswhose worship was rooted in a
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. signicant reverence for the Sun and Moon, whose nat-
ural functions are not untruly of immense importance to
James Lewis Thomas Chalmbers Spence, The Myths
life on Earth.
of Mexico and Peru: Aztec, Maya and Inca, 1913
Many leading deities of the Aztec pantheon were wor-
Miguel Len Portilla, Native Mesoamerican Spiritu- shipped by previous Mesoamerican civilizations, gods
ality, Paulist Press, 1980 such as Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, who were
venerated by dierent names in most cultures through-
out the history of Mesoamerica. For the Aztecs espe-
1.5.5 Sources cially important deities were the rain god Tlaloc, the
[1] Kirk, p. 8; myth, Encyclopdia Britannica god Huitzilopochtlipatron of the Mexica tribeas well
as Quetzalcoatl the feathered serpent, wind god, culture
[2] Portilla, Miguel Len (1980). Native Mesoamerican Spiri- hero, and god of civilization and order, and elusive
tuality: Ancient Myths, Discourses, Stories, Hymns, Poems, Tezcatlipoca, the shrewd god of destiny and fortune, con-
from the Aztec,Yucatec, Quiche-Maya, and other sacred nected with war and sorcery. Each of these gods had their
traditions. New Jersey: Paulist Press. p. 40. ISBN 0- own shrine, side-by-side at the top of the largest pyramid
8091-2231-6.
in the Aztec capital Mexico-TenochtitlanTlaloc and
[3] Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishers, Huitzilopochtli were both worshipped here at this dual
2002. temple, while a third monument in the plaza before the
Templo Mayor was devoted to the wind god Ehecatl.[1]

1.5.6 External links

1.6.1 Teotl

Main article: Teotl
Rig Veda Americanus at Project Gutenberg, Daniel
Brinton (Ed); late 19th-century compendium of
some Aztec mythological texts and poems appear- The concept of Teotl is central to the Aztec. The term
ing in one manuscript version of Sahaguns 16th- is often translated as "god", but may have held more ab-
century codices. stract aspects of divinity or supernatural energy akin to
the Polynesian concept of Mana.[2]
Aztec history, culture and religion Bernal Daz del
The nature of Teotl is a key element in the understanding
Castillo, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (tr.
of the fall of the Aztec empire, because it seems that the
by A. P. Maudsley, 1928, repr. 1965)
Aztec ruler Moctezuma II and the Aztecs in general re-
Portal Aztec Mythology (in Spanish) ferred to Corts and the conquistadors as Teotlit has
been widely believed that this means that they believed
them to be gods, but a better understanding of Teotl
1.6 Aztec religion might suggest that they were merely seen as mysterious
and inexplicable.[3]
The Aztec religion is the Mesoamerican religion of the
Aztecs. Like other Mesoamerican religions, it had el- Pantheon
ements of human sacrice in connection with a large
number of religious festivals which were held accord- Further information: Aztec mythology
ing to patterns of the Aztec calendar. Polytheistic in its
52 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

The many gods of the Aztecs can be grouped into com- Mixcoatl means Cloud Serpent, the tribal God of
plexes related to dierent themes. The Aztecs would of- many of the Nahua people such as the Tlaxcalteca,
ten adopt gods from dierent cultures and allow them to god of war, sacrice and hunting
be worshiped as part of their pantheon the fertility god,
Xipe Totec, for example, was originally a god of the Yopi Huitzilopochtli means Left-handed Humming-
(The Nahuatl name of the Tlapanec people) but became bird, the tribal God of the Mexica of Tenochtitlan,
an integrated part of the Aztec belief system; sometimes the patron god aka the sun
foreign gods would be identied with an already existing
god. Other deities, for example Tezcatlipoca and Quet- 'Nature gods
zalcoatl, had roots in earlier civilizations of Mesoamer-
ica and were worshiped by many cultures and by many Metztli The Moon
names. Some gods embodied aspects of nature. A large
group of gods were related to pulque, drunkenness, ex- Tlaltecuhtli means Earth Lord, Goddess of the
cess, fun and games. Other gods were associated with Earth
specic trades. Many gods had multiple aspects with Chalchiuhtlicue means Jade Her Skirt, goddess
dierent names, where each name highlighted a specic of springs
function or trait of the god. Occasionally, two distinct
gods were conated into one, and quite often deities trans- Centzon Huitznahua means The 400 Southern-
formed into one another within a single story. Aztec im- ers, Gods of the stars
ages sometimes combined attributes of several divinities.
Ehecatl - the Wind, often conated with Quetzal-
H. B. Nicholson (1971) classed the gods into three coatl and called Quetzalcoatl-Ehecatl
groups according to their conceptual meaning in general
Mesoamerican religion. The rst group he calls the Ce-
lestial creativity Divine Paternalism group, the sec-
ond, the earth-mother gods, the Pulque gods and Xipe
Totec. The third group, the War-Sacrice-Sanguinary
Nourishment group contained such gods as Ome Tochtli,
Huitzilopochtli, Mictlantecutli and Mixcoatl. Instead of
Nicholsons subtle classication in the following a more
impressionist classication is presented.

Xipe Totec Our ayed lord wearing a human skin depicted in

Tezcatlipoca depicted in the Codex Borgia. the Codex Borgia.

Gods of creation
Cultural Gods

Tezcatlipoca means Smoking Mirror, a pan-
mesoamerican shaman God, omnipotent universal
power
Quetzalcoatl means Feathered Serpent, a pan-
mesoamerican god of life, the wind and the morning
star
Tlaloc a panmesoamerican god of rainstorm, water
and thunder or any storm
Ometeotl/Ometecutli/Omecihuatl/Tonacatecutli/Tonacacihuatl
The double-gendered creator god
Huehueteotl/Xiuhtecutli means Old God and
Turquoise Lord, god of origin, time, re and old
age
Coatlicue/Toci/Teteo Innan/Tonantzin female
progenitor goddesses
Gods of Pulque and excess
1.6. AZTEC RELIGION 53

Macuilmalinalli
Centzon Totochtin the 400 Rabbits, god of in-
toxication
Ometochtli means Two Rabbit, leader of
the Centzon Totochtin, god of fertility, and in-
toxication

Gods of maize and fertility

Xipe Totec means Our Flayed Lord, Fertility

Xochipilli wearing a deerskin as depicted in the Codex Borgia.
god associated with spring, patron god of goldsmiths
Cinteotl God of maize
Xilonen/Chicomecoatl Goddess of tender maize
Xochipilli - means Flower Prince, god of happi-
ness, owers, pleasure and fertility

Gods of death and the underworld

Mictlantecutli Lord of the underworld

Mictlancihuatl Queen of the underworld
Xolotl - The Animal, Lord of the Evening Star

Trade gods

Yacatecutli means Nose Lord, god of merchants

Patecatl god of doctors and medicine

1.6.2 Religion and society

Religion was part of all levels of Aztec society. On the
state level, religion was controlled by the Tlatoani and the
high priests governing the main temples in the ceremo-
nial precinct of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. This
level involved the large monthly festivals and a number
of specic rituals centered around the ruler dynasty and
Xolotl depicted in the Codex Borgia. attempting to stabilize both the political and cosmic sys-
tems, these rituals were the ones that involved sacrice
of humans. For example, on the feast of Huey Tozoztli,
Tlazolteotl Goddess of lth and guilt and of cleans-
the ruler himself ascended Mt. Tlaloc and engaged in au-
ing
tosacrice in order to petition the rains. Throughout soci-
Tepoztecatl God of Pulque worshipped at ety, each level had their own rituals and deities and played
Tepoztlan their part in the larger rituals of the community. For ex-
ample, the class of Pochteca merchants were involved in
Xochiquetzal Goddess of pleasure and indulgence, the feast Tlaxochimaco where the merchant deity would
and sex be celebrated and slaves bought on specic slave markets
by long distance traders would be sacriced. On the feast
Mayahuel Goddess of Pulque and Maguey of Ochpaniztli, all commoners participated in sweeping
The Auiateteo: the streets, and they also undertook ritual bathing. The
most spectacular ritual was the New Fire ceremony which
Macuiltochtli took place every 52 years and involved every citizen of
Macuilxochitl the Aztec realm, during this commoners would destroy
house utensils, quench all res and receive new re from
Macuilcuetzpalin the bonre on top of Mt. Huixachtlan, lit on the chest of
Macuilcozcacuauhtli a sacriced person by the high priests.
54 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

1.6.3 Priests and temples partake in any festival foods. Nobility sat on tiered seat-
ing under awnings around the plaza periphery, and some
conducted part of the ceremonies on the temple.
In the Nahuatl language, the word for priest was tla-
macazqui meaning giver of thingsthe main respon- Continual rebuilding enabled Tlatoani and other digni-
sibility of the priesthood was to make sure that the gods taries to celebrate their achievements by dedicating new
were given their due in the form of oerings, ceremonies sculptures, monuments and other renovations to the tem-
and sacrices. ples. For festivals, temple steps and tiers were also
festooned with owers, banners and other decorations.
The Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan was the head of the cult of
Each pyramid had a at top to accommodate dancers and
Huitzilopochtli and thus of the state religion of the Aztec
priests performing rites. Close to the temple steps there
empire. He had special priestly duties in dierent rituals
was usually a sacricial slab and braziers.
on the state level.
The temple house (calli) itself was relatively small, al-
However, the Aztec religious organization was not en-
though the more important ones had high and ornately
tirely under his authority. Sahagun and Duran describe
carved internal ceilings. To maintain the sanctity of the
the pairs of high priests (Quetzalcoatls) who were in
gods, these temple houses were kept fairly dark and mys-
charge of the major pilgrimage centres (Cholula and
terious a characteristic that was further enhanced by
Tenochtitlan) as enjoying immense respect from all lev-
having their interiors swirling with smoke from copal (in-
els of Aztec society akin to archbishops and a level
cense) and the burning of oerings. Cortes and Diaz
of authority that partly transcended national boundaries.
describe these sanctuaries as containing sacred images
Under these religious heads were many tiers of priests,
and relics of the gods, often bejeweled but shrouded un-
priestesses, novices, 'nuns and 'monks (some part-time)
der ritual clothes and other veils, and hidden behind cur-
who ran the cults of the various gods and goddesses. Sa-
tains hung with feathers and bells. Flowers and oer-
hagun reports that the priests had a very strict training,
ings (including a great amount of blood) generally cov-
and had to live very austere and ethical lives involving
ered much of the oors and walls near these images. Each
prolonged vigils, fasts and penances. For instance, they
image stood on a pedestal and occupied its own sanctuary.
often had to bleed themselves and undertake prescribed
Larger temples also featured subsidiary chambers ('little
self-mortications in the buildup to sacricial rites.
houses) accommodating lesser deities.
Additionally, Sahagun refers to classes of religious spe-
In the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, the most im-
cialists not aliated with the established priesthood. This
portant temple was the Great Temple which was a dou-
included wandering curers, black magicians and other oc-
ble pyramid with two temples on top. One was dedi-
cultists (of which the Aztecs identied many types, most
cated to Huitzilopochtli this temple was called Coatepetl
of which they feared) and hermits. Finally, the military
snake mountain, and the other temple was dedicated to
orders, professions (e.g. traders pochteca) and wards
Tlaloc. Below the Tlatoani were the high priests of these
(calpulli) each operated their own lodge dedicated to their
two temples. Both high priests were called by the title
specic god. The heads of these lodges, although not full-
Quetzalcoatl the high priest of Huitzilopochtli was Quet-
time religious specialists, had some ritual and moral du-
zalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui and the high priest of Tlaloc
ties. Duran also describes lodge members as having the
was Quetzalcoatl Tlaloc Tlamacazqui.[4] Other important
responsibility of raising sucient goods to host the festi-
temples were located in the four divisions of the town: for
vals of their specic patron deity. This included annually
example the temple called Yopico in Moyotlan which was
obtaining and training a suitable slave or captive to repre-
dedicated to Xipe Totec. Furthermore, all the Calpullis
sent and die as the 'image' of their deity in that festival.
had special temples dedicated to the patron gods of the
Aztec temples were basically oering mounds: solid calpulli.[5] Priests were educated at the Calmecac if they
pyramidal structures crammed with special soils, sacri- were from noble families and in the Telpochcalli if they
ces, treasures and other oerings. Buildings around the were commoners.
base of the pyramid, and sometimes a small chamber un-
der the pyramid, stored ritual items and provided lodg-
ings and staging for priests, dancers and temple orches- 1.6.4 Cosmology and ritual
tras. The pyramids were buried under a new surface ev-
ery several years (especially every 52 years the Aztec The Aztec world consisted of three main parts: the earth
century). Thus the pyramid-temples of important deities world on which humans lived (including Tamoanchan, the
constantly grew in size. mythical origin of human beings), an underworld which
In front of every major temple lay a large plaza. This belonged to the dead (called Mictlan (place of death)),
sometimes held important ritual platforms such as the 'ea- and the upper plane in the sky. The earth and the un-
gle stone' where some victims were slain. Plazas were derworld were both open for humans to enter, whereas
where the bulk of worshippers gathered to watch rites and the upper plane in the sky was impenetrable to humans.
dances performed; to join in the songs and sacrices (the Existence was envisioned as straddling the two worlds
audience often bled themselves during the rites) and to in a cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth. Thus as the
1.6. AZTEC RELIGION 55

recounts how Quetzalcoatl stole the bones of the previous

generation in the underworld, and how later the gods cre-
ated four successive worlds or suns for their subjects
to live in, all of which were destroyed. Then by an act
of self-sacrice one of the gods, Nanahuatzin (the pim-
pled one) caused a fth and nal sun to rise where the
rst humans, made out of maize dough, could live thanks
to his sacrice. Humans were responsible for the suns
continued revival. Blood sacrice in various forms were
conducted. Both humans and animals were sacriced, de-
pending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being
conducted, and priests of some gods were sometimes re-
quired to provide their own blood through self-mutilation.
Sacricial rituals among the Aztecs and in Mesoamerica
in general must be seen in the context of religious cosmol-
ogy: sacrice and death was necessary for the continued
existence of the world. Likewise each part of life had
Aztec cosmological drawing with the god Xiuhtecuhtli, the lord one or more deities associated with it and these had to be
of re and of the Calendar in the center and the other important paid their dues in order to achieve success. Gods were
gods around him each in front of a sacred tree. From the Codex paid with sacricial oerings of food, owers, egies,
Fejrvry-Mayer. and quail. But the larger the eort required of the god,
the greater the sacrice had to be. Blood fed the gods and
kept the sun from falling. For some of the most impor-
sun was believed to dwell in the underworld at night to
tant rites, a priest would oer his own blood, by cutting
rise reborn in the morning and maize kernels were in-
his ears, arms, tongue, thighs, chest or genitals, or oer a
terred to later sprout anew, so the human and divine ex-
human life, or even a gods life. The people who were sac-
istence was also envisioned as being cyclical. The up-
riced came from many segments of society, and might
per and nether worlds were both thought to be layered.
be a war captive, slave, or a member of Aztec society;
Mictlan had nine layers which were inhabited by dier-
the sacrice might also be man or woman, adult or child,
ent deities and mythical beings. The sky had thirteen lay-
noble or commoner.
ers, the highest of which was called Omeyocan (place
of duality) and served as the residence of the progeni-
tor dual god Ometeotl. The lowest layer of the sky was
Deity impersonation
a verdant spring-like place with abundant water called
Tlalocan (the place of Tlaloc).
An important aspect of Aztec ritual was the imperson-
After death the soul of the Aztec went to one of three ation of deities. Priests or otherwise specially elected in-
places: the sun, Mictlan, or Tlalocan. Souls of fallen war- dividuals would be dressed up to achieve the likeness of
riors and women that died in childbirth would transform a specic deity. A person with the honourable charge of
into hummingbirds that followed the sun on its journey impersonating a god was called "ixiptlatli" and was ven-
through the sky. Souls of people who died from less glo- erated as an actual physical manifestation of the god until
rious causes would go to Mictlan. Those who drowned the inevitable end when the gods likeness had to be killed
would go to Tlalocan.[6] as the ultimate sacrice under great circumstance and fes-
In Aztec cosmology, as in Mesoamerica in general, geo- tivities.
graphical features such as caves and mountains held sym-
bolic value as places of crossing between the upper and
nether worlds. The cardinal directions were symbolically Reenactment of myth
connected to the religious layout of the world as well;
each direction was associated with specic colors and As with the impersonation of gods, Aztec ritual was often
Gods. a reenactment of a mythical event which at once served
to remind the Aztecs of their myths but also served to
perpetuate the world by repeating the important events
Sacrice of the creation.

To the Aztecs, death was instrumental in the perpetuation

of creation, and gods and humans alike had the respon- 1.6.5 Calendar
sibility of sacricing themselves in order to allow life to
continue. This worldview is best described in the myth of Main article: Aztec calendar
the ve suns recorded in the Codex Chimalpopoca, which
56
The Aztec religious year was connected mostly to the
natural 365-day calendar, the xiuhpohualli (yearcount)
which followed the agricultural year. Each of the 18
twenty-day months of the religious year had its particu-
lar religious festival most of which were connected to
agricultural themes. The greatest festival was the Xiuh-
molpilli or New Fire ceremony held every 52 years when
the ritual and agricultural calendars coincided and a new
cycle started. In the table below, the veintena festivals
are shown, the deities with which they were associated
and the kinds of rituals involved. The descriptions of
the rites are based on the descriptions given in Sahagns
"Primeros Memoriales", and the Florentine Codex and of
Fray Diego Durns Of the Gods and rites all of which
provide detailed accounts of the rituals written in Nahuatl
soon after the conquest.
1.6.6 Mythology
Main article: Aztec mythology
The main deity in the Mexica religion was the sun god
and war god, Huitzilopochtli. He directed the Mexicas to
found a city on the site where they would see an eagle,
devouring (not all chronicles agree on what the eagle was
devouring, one says it was a precious bird, and though
Father Duran says it was a snake, this is not mentioned in
any pre-Hispanic source) perched on a fruit bearing nopal
cactus. According to legend, Huitzilopochtli had to kill
his nephew, Cpil, and throw his heart on the lake. But,
since Cpil was his relative, Huitzilopochtli decided to Aztec sacrice
honor him, and caused cactus to grow over Cpils heart
which became a sacred place.
Legend has it that this is the site on which the Mexicas
built their capital city of Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan was
built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco where
modern-day Mexico City is located. This legendary vi-
sion is pictured on the Coat of Arms of Mexico.
According to their own history, when the Mexicas ar-
rived in the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco, they
were considered by the other groups as the least civilized
of all. The Mexicas decided to learn, and they took all
they could from other peoples, especially from the an-
cient Toltec (whom they seem to have partially confused
with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan). To the
Mexicas, the Toltecs were the originators of all culture;
Toltecayotl was a synonym for culture. Mexica legends
identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the
mythical city of Tollan, which they also identied with
the more ancient Teotihuacan.
In the process, they adopted most of the Toltec/Nahua
(code) pantheon, but they also made signicant changes
in their religion. As the Mexica rose in power,
they adopted the Nahua gods at equal status to their
own. For instance, Tlaloc was the rain god of all the
Nahuatl-speaking peoples. They put their local god
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Huitzilopochtli at the same level as the ancient Nahua
god, and also replaced the Nahua Sun god with their own.
Thus, Tlaloc/Huitzilopochtli represents the duality of wa-
ter and re, as evidenced by the twin pyramids uncovered
near the Zocalo in Mexico City in the late 1970s, and it
reminds us of the warrior ideals of the Aztec: the Aztec
glyph of war is burning water.
1.6.7 Human sacrice
Main article: Human sacrice in Aztec culture
Human sacrice was practiced on a grand scale through-
out the Aztec empire, although the exact gures are un-
known. At Tenochtitln, the principal Aztec city, accord-
ing to Ross Hassing between 10,000 and 80,400 per-
sons were sacriced over the course of four days for the
dedication of the Great Pyramid in 1487.[8] Excavations
of the oerings in the main temple has provided some
insight in the process, but the dozens of remains exca-
vated are far short of the thousands of sacrices recorded
by eyewitnesses and other historical accounts. For mil-
lennia, the practice of human sacrice was widespread
in Mesoamerican and South American cultures. It was
a theme in the Olmec religion, which thrived between
1200 BC and 400 BC and among the Maya. Human sac-
rice was a very complex ritual. Every sacrice had to
be meticulously planned from the type of victim to spe-
cic ceremony needed for the god. The sacricial victims
were usually warriors but sometimes slaves, depending
upon the god and needed ritual. The higher the rank of
the warrior the better he is looked at as a sacrice. The
victim(s) would then take on the persona of the god he
was to be sacriced for. The victim(s) would be housed,
fed, and dressed accordingly. This process could last up
1.7. COATI 57

to a year. When the sacricial day arrived, the victim(s)
would participate in the specic ceremonies of the god.
These ceremonies were used to exhaust the victim so that
he would not struggle during the ceremony. Then ve
priests, known as the Tlenamacac, performed the sacri-
ce usually at the top of a pyramid. The victim would be
laid upon the table, held down and then have his heart cut
out.[6]
van Tuerenhout, Dirk (2005). The Aztecs: New Per-
spectives. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio,. ISBN
1-57607-924-4.
Burland, C. A (1985). The Aztecs: gods and fate in
ancient Mexico. London: Orbis,.
Brundage, Burr Cartwright (c. 1979). The Fifth
Sun: Aztec gods, Aztec world. Austin: University
of Texas Press,.

1.6.8 See also Markman, Roberta H (c. 1992). The Flayed

God: the mesoamerican mythological tradition: sa-
Maya religion cred texts and images from pre-Columbian Mexico
and Central America. Harper San Francisco,.
Mesoamerican mythology
Carrasco, David (1998). Daily Life of the
Aztec philosophy Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth. Greenwood
Press,Connecticut.
Muisca religion
Smith, Michael E. (2003). the Aztecs 2nd Ed. Black-
well Publishing,UK.
1.6.9 Notes
Aguilar- Moreno, Manuel (2006). Handbook to Life
[1] Study the... WIND GOD. Mexicolore. in the Aztec World. Facts On File, California State
University University, Los Angeles.
[2] Taube and Miller 1999, pp 89. For a lengthy treatment of
the subject see Hvidtfeldt, 1958

[3] Restall 2001 pp 11.6118 1.6.11 External links

[4] Townsend, 1992, p. 192 Aztecs at Mexicolore: constantly updated educa-
tional site specically on the Aztecs, for serious stu-
[5] Van Zantwijk 1985
dents of all ages
[6] Tuerenhout, D. V. (2005). The Aztecs: New Perspectives

[7] According to Townsend (1992)

[8] Hassig (2003). El sacricio y las guerras oridas.
Arqueologa mexicana. XI: 47.
1.6.10 References
Hvidtfeldt, Arild (1958). Teotl and Ixiptlatli: some
central conceptions in ancient Mexican religion: with
a general introduction on cult and myth. Copen-
hagen: Munksgaard.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and
Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London:
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6.
1.7 Coati
The coati, genera Nasua and Nasuella, also known as
the coatimundi /kotmndi/,[1][2] hog-nosed coon,[3]
Mexican tejn, cholugo, or moncn, Guatemalan
and Costa Rican pizote, Colombian cusumbo, and other
names, is a member of the raccoon family (Procyonidae),
a diurnal mammal native to South America, Central
America, and south-western North America. The term
is reported to be derived from the Tupi language of
Brazil.[4]
1.7.1 Physical characteristics

Nicholson, H.B. (1971). Religion in Pre-HispanicAdult coatis measure 33 to 69 cm (13 to 27 in) from head
to the base of the tail, which can be as long as their bodies.
Central Mexico. In G. Ekholm and I. Bernal (eds).
Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 10. Coatis are about 30 cm (12 in) tall at the shoulder, and
Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 395446. weigh between 2 and 8 kg (4.4 and 17.6 lb), about the size
ISBN 0-292-77593-8. of a large house cat. Males can become almost twice as
large as females and have large, sharp canine teeth. The
Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (revised above measurements are for the white-nosed and South
ed.). New York: Thames and Hudson. America coatis. The two mountain coatis are smaller.[5]
van Zantwijk, Rudolph (1985). The Aztec Arrange- All coatis share a slender head with an elongated, exible,
ment: The Social History of Pre-Spanish Mexico. slightly upward-turned nose, small ears, dark feet, and a
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,. long, non-prehensile tail used for balance and signaling.
58 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Ring-tailed coatis have either a light brown or black coat, Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766) South Ameri-
with a lighter under-part and a white-ringed tail in most can coati (South America)
cases. Coatis have a long brown tail with rings on it
which are anywhere from starkly dened like a raccoon's Genus Nasuella
to very faint. Like raccoons and unlike ring-tailed cats Nasuella meridensis (Thomas, 1901) eastern
and cacomistles, the rings go completely around the tail. mountain coati (Venezuela)
Coatis often hold the tail erect; it is used as such to keep
Nasuella olivacea (Gray, 1865) western
troops of coatis together in tall vegetation. The tip of the
mountain coati (Colombia and Ecuador)
tail can be moved slightly on its own, as is the case with
cats, but it is not prehensile as is that of the kinkajou,
another procyonid. The Cozumel Island coati was formerly recognized as a
species, but the vast majority of recent authorities treat
Coatis have bear- and raccoon-like paws, and coatis, rac- it as a subspecies, N. narica nelsoni, of the white-nosed
coons, and bears walk plantigrade (on the soles of the feet, coati.[1][7][9][10][11]
as do humans). Coatis have nonretractable claws. Coatis
also are, in common with raccoons and other procyonids Genetic evidence (cytochrome b sequences) has sug-
(and others in the order Carnivora and rare cases amongst gested that the genus Nasuella should be merged into
[5]
other mammals), double-jointed and their ankles can ro- Nasua, as the latter is otherwise paraphyletic. Other ge-
tate beyond 180; they are therefore able to descend trees netic studies have shown that the closest relatives of the
[12][13][14]
head rst. Other animals living in forests have acquired coatis are the olingos (genus Bassaricyon); the
some or all of these properties through convergent evolu- two lineages are thought to have diverged about 10.2 mil-
[14]
tion, including members of the mongoose, civet, weasel, lion years ago.
cat, and bear families. Some of these animals walk on the
toes of the front paws and soles of the back paws.
1.7.4 Lifespan
The coati snout is long and somewhat pig-like (see
Suidae) part of the reason for its nickname 'the hog- In the wild, coatis live for about seven to eight years, while
nosed raccoon'. It is also extremely exible it can be in captivity they can live for up to 15/16 years.
rotated up to 60 in any direction. They use their noses
to push objects and rub parts of their body. The facial
markings include white markings around the eyes and on 1.7.5 Feeding habits
the ears and snout.
Coatis are omnivores; their diet consists mainly of ground
Coatis have strong limbs to climb and dig, and have a rep-
litter invertebrates, such as tarantula, and fruit (Alves-
utation for intelligence, like their fellow procyonid, the
Costa et al., 2004, 2007; Hirsch 2007). They also eat
raccoon. They prefer to sleep or rest in elevated places
small vertebrate prey, such as lizards, rodents, small
and niches, like the rainforest canopy, in crudely built
birds, birds eggs, and crocodile eggs. The snout, with
sleeping nests. Coatis are active day and night.
a formidable sense of smell, assists the skilled paws in a
hog-like manner to unearth invertebrates.
1.7.2 Habitat and range
1.7.6 Behavior
Overall, coatis are widespread, occupying habitats rang-
ing from hot and arid areas to humid Amazonian rain-
forests or even cold Andean mountain slopes, including
grasslands and bushy areas. Their geographical range
extends from the southwestern U.S. (southern Arizona,
New Mexico, and Texas) through northern Argentina.
Around 10 coatis are thought to have formed a breeding
population in Cumbria, UK.[6]

1.7.3 Taxonomy
The following species are recognized:[5][7][8]

Genus Nasua
Coati showing its canines
Nasua narica (Linnaeus, 1766) white-nosed
coati (Southwestern United States, Mexico, Little is known about the behavior of the mountain
Central America, and Colombia) coatis,[5] and the following is almost entirely about the
1.7. COATI 59

coatis of the genus Nasua. Unlike most members of 1.7.8 Natural predators
the raccoon family (Procyonidae), coatis are primarily
diurnal. Nasua coati females and young males up to two Coati predators include jaguarundis, boa constrictors,
years of age are gregarious and travel through their terri- foxes, dogs, tayras, ocelots, and jaguars. Large raptors,
tories in noisy, loosely organized bands made up of four to such as ornate hawk-eagles, black-and-chestnut eagles,
25 individuals, foraging with their ospring on the ground and harpy eagles, also are known to hunt them.[16] White-
or in the forest canopy. Males over two years become headed capuchin monkeys hunt their pups.[17]
solitary due to behavioural disposition and collective ag-
gression from the females, and will join the female groups
only during the breeding season. 1.7.9 Status
When provoked, or for defense, coatis can be erce ght-
ers; their strong jaws, sharp canine teeth, and fast scratch- Coatis face unregulated hunting and the serious threat of
ing paws, along with a tough hide sturdily attached to the environmental destruction in Central and South America.
underlying muscles, make it very dicult for potential The absence of scientically sound population studies of
predators (e.g., dogs or jaguars) to seize the smaller mam- Nasua or Nasuella in the wild is probably leading to a se-
mal. vere underestimation of the ecological problems and de-
cline in numbers aecting the species.
Coatis communicate their intentions or moods with chirp-
ing, snorting, or grunting sounds. Dierent chirping
sounds are used to express joy during social grooming, 1.7.10 Coatis in captivity
appeasement after ghts, or to convey irritation or anger.
Snorting while digging, along with an erect tail, states Coatis are one of ve groups of procyonids commonly
territorial or food claims during foraging. Coatis addi- kept as pets in various parts of North, Central and South
tionally use special postures or moves to convey simple America, the others being the raccoons (common and
messages; for example, hiding the nose between the front crab-eating), the kinkajou, the ring-tailed cat and ca-
paws as a sign for submission; lowering the head, bar- comistle. However, while both the white-nosed and
ing teeth, and jumping at an enemy signal an aggressive South America coatis are common in captivity, mountain
disposition. Individuals recognize other coatis by their coatis are extremely rare in captivity.[18][19]
looks, voices, and smells, the individual smell is intensi-
ed by special musk-glands on their necks and bellies. Coatis are small creatures that can be wild, somewhat dif-
cult to control or train in some cases, and generally be-
Coatis from Panama are known to rub their own fur and have in a manner radically dierent from that of a pet
that of other troop members with resin from Trattinnickia dog.[20] Optimally, they should have a spacious outdoor
aspera trees, but its purpose is unclear. Some pro- enclosure and a coati-proofed room in the house and/or
posed possibilities are it serves as an insect repellent, a other climate-controlled place, as well. They can be given
fungicide, or as a form of scent-marking.[15] the run of the house but need careful watching, more
careful in some cases than others.
It is possible to litter or toilet train coatis;[21] if one cannot
be trained as such, it is still possible to lessen problems
in that they tend to designate a latrine area, which can
have a litter pan placed in it as is done with many ferrets,
1.7.7 Reproduction pet skunks, rabbits, and rodents.[21] Coatis generally need
both dog and cat vaccines for distemper and many other
Coati breeding season mainly corresponds with the start diseases and a killed rabies vaccine. They can be spayed
of the rainy season to coincide with maximum availability or neutered for the same reason as cats and dogs and other
of food, especially fruits: between January and March in pets.
some areas, and between October and February in others.
During the breeding season, an adult male is accepted
into the band of females and juveniles near the beginning 1.7.11 Gallery
of the breeding season, leading to a polygynous mating
system. White-nosed coati at Tikal, Guatemala
The pregnant females separate from the group, build a South American coati, Nasua nasua, in an English
nest on a tree or in a rocky niche and, after a gestation zoo
period of about 11 weeks, give birth to litters of three to
seven kits. About six weeks after birth, the females and White-nosed coati in Rincn de la Vieja National
their young will rejoin the band. Females become sexu- Park, Costa Rica
ally mature at two years of age, while males will acquire
sexual maturity at three years of age. South American coati near Iguau Falls, Brazil
60
White-nosed coati on Mt. Hopkins near Madera
Canyon, Arizona
Coati at a zoo in the Czech Republic
Coati foraging in Playa del Carmen, Mexico
South American coati seeking discarded food in the
Iguaz [Falls] National Park of Argentina
Pair of South American coatis at Xel-ha aquatic
theme park in Quintana Roo, Mexico
1.7.12 References
[1] Samudio, R., Kays, R., Cuarn, A.D., Pino, J.L. & Hel-
gen, K. (2008). "Nasua narica". IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Con-
servation of Nature. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[2] Braddy, Sarah. Nasua nasua South American coati. Ani-
mal Diversity Web at University of Michigan. Coatis are
also referred to in some texts as coatimundis. The name
coati or coatimundi is Tupian Indian in origin.
[3] Seton, Ernest Thompson (1953). Lives of game animals:
an account of those land animals in America, north of the
Mexican border, which are considered game, either be-
cause they have held the attention of sportsmen, or received
the protection of the law. 2. C.T. Branford. p. 258. Re-
trieved 13 July 2015.
[4] Merriam-Webster; The Shorter Oxford English Dictio-
nary's etymology of the term is that it is Portuguese cua-
timundi from Tupi kwatimnde, from kwti coati + mnde
snare, trick.
[5] Helgen, K. M.; Kays, R.; Helgen, L. E.; Tsuchiya-Jerep,
M. T. N.; Pinto, C. M.; Koepi, K. P.; Eizirik, E.; Mal-
donado, J. E. (August 2009). Taxonomic boundaries and
geographic distributions revealed by an integrative sys-
tematic overview of the mountain coatis, Nasuella (Car-
nivora: Procyonidae)" (PDF). Small Carnivore Conserva-
tion. 41: 6574. Retrieved 2013-08-20.
[6] Exotic animals 'found wild in UK'". BBC News. 2010-
06-21.
[7] Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Genus Na-
sua". Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and
Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press. pp. 625626. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
OCLC 62265494.
[8] Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Genus Na-
suella". Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and
Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press. p. 626. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC
62265494.
[9] Kays, R. (2009). White-nosed Coati (Nasua narica), pp.
527528 in: Wilson, D. E., and R. A. Mittermeier, eds.
(2009). Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Vol. 1,
Carnivores. ISBN 978-84-96553-49-1
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
[10] Decker, D. M. (1991). Systematics Of The Coatis,
Genus Nasua (Mammalia, Procyonidae)" (PDF). Pro-
ceedings of The Biological Society of Washington. 104:
370386.
[11] Reid, F. A. (1997). Mammals of Central America and
Southeast Mexico. pp. 259260. ISBN 0195064011
[12] K.-P. Koepi; M. E. Gompper; E. Eizirik; C.-C. Ho; L.
Linden; J. E. Maldonado; R. K. Wayne (2007). Phy-
logeny of the Procyonidae (Mammalia: Carvnivora):
Molecules, morphology and the Great American Inter-
change. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 43 (3):
10761095. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.10.003. PMID
17174109.
[13] Eizirik, E.; Murphy, W. J.; Koepi, K.-P.; Johnson, W.
E.; Dragoo, J. W.; Wayne, R. K.; OBrien, S. J. (2010-02-
04). Pattern and timing of diversication of the mam-
malian order Carnivora inferred from multiple nuclear
gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolu-
tion. 56 (1): 4963. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.033.
PMID 20138220.
[14] Helgen, K. M.; Pinto, M.; Kays, R.; Helgen, L.; Tsuchiya,
M.; Quinn, A.; Wilson, D.; Maldonado, J. (2013-08-15).
Taxonomic revision of the olingos (Bassaricyon), with
description of a new species, the Olinguito. ZooKeys.
324: 183. doi:10.3897/zookeys.324.5827.
[15] Wainwright, M. (2002). The Natural History of Costa Ri-
can Mammals. Miami, FL: Zona Tropical. p. 226. ISBN
0-9705678-1-2.
[16] Southern Coatimundi. itech.pjc.edu
[17] Perry S.; Rose L. (1994). Begging and transfer
of coati meat by white-faced capuchin monkeys, Ce-
bus capucinus" (PDF). Primates. 35 (4): 409415.
doi:10.1007/bf02381950.
[18] ISIS (2011). Nasua. Version 12 January 2011.
[19] WildlifeExtra (August, 2010). First ever Mountain coati
in captivity in Colombia.
[20] Coat Mundi (kow'aatee'mndee). However if they are
trained properly, they could be really docile. blackpinean-
imalpark.com
[21] Quick Reference Guide to 21 Exotic Species. Exotic
DVM, Vol. 8 #6 2006
1.8 Fall of Tenochtitlan
The Siege of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Em-
pire, was a decisive event in the Spanish conquest of Mex-
ico. It occurred in 1521 following extensive manipulation
of local factions and exploitation of preexisting divisions
by Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts, who was aided
by the support of his indigenous allies and his interpreter
and companion Malinche.
Although numerous battles were fought between the
Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led coalition, which
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN
was itself composed primarily of indigenous (mostly
Tlaxcaltec) personnel, it was the siege of Tenochtitlan
its outcome probably largely determined by the eects of
a smallpox epidemic (which devastated the Aztec popula-
tion and dealt a severe blow to the Aztec leadership while
leaving an immune Spanish leadership intact)that di-
rectly led to the downfall of the Aztec civilization and
marked the end of the rst phase of the Spanish conquest
of the Aztec Empire.
The conquest of Mexico was a critical stage in the Spanish
colonization of the Americas. Ultimately, Spain con-
quered Mexico and thereby gaining substantial access to
the Pacic Ocean meant that the Spanish Empire could
nally achieve its original oceanic goal of reaching the
Asian markets.
1.8.1 Early events
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The road to Tenochtitlan
In April 1519 Hernn Corts, the Chief Magistrate of
Santiago, Cuba, came upon the coast of Mexico at a point
he called Vera Cruz with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14
small cannons. Governor Velazquez, the highest Spanish
authority in the Americas, called for Corts to lead an
expedition into Mexico after reports from a few previous
expeditions to Yucatn caught the interest of the Spanish
in Cuba.[3] Velzquez revoked Corts right to lead the
expedition once he realized that Corts intended to ex-
ceed his mandate and invade the mainland. After Corts Corts army entered the city on the ower-covered
sailed, Velzquez sent an army led by Pnlo de Narvaez causeway (Iztapalapa) associated with the god Quetzal-
to take him into custody.
But Corts used the same legal tactic used by Governor
Velzquez when he invaded Cuba years before: he cre-
ated a local government and had himself elected as the
magistrate, thus (in theory) making him responsible only
to the King of Spain. Corts followed this tactic when he Moctezuma was soon taken hostage on November 14,
and his men established the city of Veracruz. An inquiry 1519, as a safety measure by the vastly outnum-
into Corts action was conducted in Spain in 1529 and bered Spanish. According to all eyewitness accounts,
no action was taken against him.
As he moved inland Corts came into contact with a num-
ber of polities who resented Aztec rule; Corts clashed
with some of these polities, among them the Totonacs
and Tlaxcalans. The latter surrounded his army on a hill-
top for two agonizing weeks. Bernal Diaz del Castillo
wrote that his numerically inferior force probably would
not have survived if it were not for Xicotencatl the El-
der and his wish to form an alliance with the Spaniards
against the Aztecs.[4]
It once was widely believed that the Aztecs rst thought
Corts was Quetzalcoatl, a mythical god prophesied to re- It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated so readily with
turn to Mexicocoincidentally in the same year Corts the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or po-
61
landed and from the same direction he came. This is now
believed to be an invention of the conquerors, and per-
haps natives who wished to rationalize the actions of the
Aztec tlatoani, Moctezuma II. Most scholars agree that
the Aztecs, especially the inner circle around Moctezuma,
were well convinced that Corts was not a god in any
shape or form.[5]
Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other emis-
saries to meet Corts at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries
brought golden jewelry as a gift, which greatly pleased the
Spaniards.[6] According to the Florentine Codex, Lib. 12,
f.6r., Moctezuma also ordered that his messengers carry
the highly symbolic penacho (headdress) of Quetzalcoatl
de Tula to Corts and place it on his person. As news
about the strangers reached the capital city, Moctezuma
became increasingly fearful and considered eeing the
city but resigned himself to what he considered to be the
fate of his people.[7]
Corts continued on his march towards Tenochtitlan.
Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519 Corts
and his troops prepared themselves for battle, armoring
themselves and their horses, and arranging themselves in
proper military rank. Four horsemen were at the lead of
the procession. Behind these horsemen were ve more
contingents: foot soldiers with iron swords and wooden
or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron
lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more
horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebuses; lastly, native
peoples from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhquitepec, and Huexotz-
inco. The indigenous soldiers wore cotton armor and
were armed with shields and crossbows; many carried
provisions in baskets or bundles while others escorted the
cannons on wooden carts.
coatl. Corts was amicably received by Moctezuma.
The captive woman Malinalli Tenpal, also known as La
Malinche or Doa Marina, translated from Nahuatl to
Chontal Maya; the Spaniard Gernimo de Aguilar trans-
lated from Chontal Maya to Spanish.
Moctezuma initially refused to leave his palace but af-
ter a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish
captains, and assurances from La Malinche, he agreed to
move to the Axayctal palace with his retinue. The rst
captain assigned to guard him was Pedro de Alvarado.
Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish.[6]
The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers
in order to prevent any attempt at rescue.[8]
Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spaniards
62 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

litical power. It was clear from the beginning that he was Massacre at the festival of Txcatl
ambivalent about who Corts and his men really were:
gods, descendants of a god, ambassadors from a greater Main article: Massacre in the Great Temple
king, or just barbaric invaders? From the perspective of During Cortss absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in
the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some
decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical
move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more in-
formation on the Spaniards, or to wait for the end of the
agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war
season. However, he did not carry out either of these
actions even though high-ranking military leaders such
as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged
him to do so.[1]
With Moctezuma captive, Corts did not need to worry
about being cut o from supplies or being attacked, al-
though some of his captains had such concerns. He
also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through
Moctezuma. However, Corts had little knowledge of
the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not all-
powerful as Corts imagined. Being appointed to and
maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the abil-
ity to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another no-
ble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec
nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries
were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders
issued by Corts, such as commanding tribute to be gath-
ered and given to the Spaniards, his authority was slip-
ping, and quickly his people began to turn against him.[1]
Corts and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace
of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While
the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velazquez assem-
bled a force of nineteen ships, more than 800 sol-
diers, twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and
twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the
command of Pnlo de Narvaez to capture Corts and
return him to Cuba. Velazquez felt that Corts had ex-
ceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortss mis-
Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.
conduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable
winds, though, and was unable to send any forces until
command in Tenochtitlan with 120 soldiers.[10]
spring. Narvaezs troops landed at San Juan de Ula on
the Mexican coast around April 20, 1520.[9] At this time, the Aztecs began to prepare for the annual
festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca,
After Corts became aware of their arrival, he brought a
otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipo-
small force of about two hundred and forty to Narvaezs
tent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the
camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Corts attacked Nar-
dry season so that the god would ll dry streambeds and
vaezs camp late at night. His men wounded Narvaez and
cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the con-
took him as a hostage quickly. Evidence suggests that
sent of Corts to hold the festival, and again conrmed
the two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and
permission with Alvarado.[11]
Narvaez was not expecting an attack. Corts had also won
over Narvaezs captains with promises of the vast wealth Alvarado agreed to allow the festival on the condition that
in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the there would be no human sacrice but the Toxcatl festi-
Aztec capital. Narvaez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and val had featured human sacrice as the main part of its
his army was integrated into Cortss forces.[1] climactic rituals. The sacrice involved the killing of a
young man who had been impersonating the god Toxcatl
deity for a full year. Thus, prohibiting human sacrice
during this festival was an untenable proposition for the
1.8.2 Rapid deterioration of relations Aztecs.
Before the festival, Alvarado encountered a group of
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN 63

women building a statue of Huitzilopochtli and the im- Corts attempted to parley with the Aztecs, and after
age unsettled him, and he became suspicious about the this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop
eventuality of human sacrice. He tortured priests and ghting. However, the Aztecs refused.[16] The Span-
nobles and discovered that the Aztecs were planning ish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by
a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he se- his own people as he attempted to speak with them.[17]
questered Moctezuma and increased the guards around The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma was mur-
the tlatoani.[12] dered by the Spanish.[1][1][16] Two other local rulers were
[18]
By the day of the festival, the Aztecs had gathered on found strangled as well. Moctezumas younger brother
Cuitlhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then,
the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as [1]
well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around was chosen as the Tlatoani.
the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The
euphoric dancing as well as the accompanying ute and La Noche Triste and the Spanish ight to Tlaxcala
drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for
revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the Main article: La Noche Triste
killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors and This Aztec victory is still remembered as La Noche
priests.[13]
Alvarado, the conquistadors and the Tlaxcalans retreated
to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the
entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their can-
nons, crossbows and arquebuses into the gathering crowd.
The Aztec revolt became more widespread as a result. Al-
varado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside
the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them.[14]
The massacre had the result of resolutely turning all the
Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining
Moctezumas authority.[15]

Aztec revolt La Noche Triste The Sad Night.

When it became more clear what was happening to the
Aztecs outside the Temple, the alarm was sounded. Aztec
warriors came running, and red darts and launched
spears at the Spanish forces.[6] This may have been due
to the fact that their military infrastructure was severely
damaged after the attack on the festival, as the most elite
seasoned warriors were killed.[1]
Alvarado sent for word to Corts of the events, and Corts
hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 sol-
diers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers.
Corts also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the
journey.[1] Corts entered the palace unscathed, although
the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The
Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to
the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for
people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent
people were slaughtered because they were suspected of
helping them.[16] The roads were shut and the causeway
bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish at-
tacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish sol-
dier that was not killed was wounded.[1]
Corts failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as
the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs,
who now were completely against Moctezuma and the
Spanish. Thus, the military gains of the attack also had a
serious political cost for Corts.[1]
Triste, The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say that
Corts wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his
troops at the hands of the Aztecs.
Though a ight from the city would make Corts appear
weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for
the Spanish forces. Corts and his men were in the center
of the city, and would most likely have to ght their way
out no matter what direction they took. Corts wanted to
ee to Tlaxcala, so a path directly east would have been
most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hun-
dreds of canoes to move all of Cortss people and sup-
plies, which he was unable to procure in his position.[1]
Thus, Corts had to choose among three land routes:
north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path
but required the longest trip through the city; south to
Coyohuacan and Ixtlapalapan, two towns that would not
welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which re-
quired the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they
would not be welcome there either. Corts decided on the
west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route
out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people.[1]
Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover
for the escaping Spanish.[18] On that Sad Night, July 1,
1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace rst with their
indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure
as possible. Corts had hoped to go undetected by muf-
64 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

ing the horses hooves and carrying wooden boards to

cross the canals. The Spanish forces were able to pass
through the rst three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapot-
lan, and Atenchicalco.[16]
However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at
Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetch-
ing water saw them and alerted the city, another says it
was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by
road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish o.
The Aztecs attacked the eeing Spanish on the Tlaco-
pan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The
Spanish red their crossbows and arquebuses, but were
unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many The Battle of Otumba.
Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed
down by armor and booty.[16]
feather costume, and immediately charged him with sev-
When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made eral horsemen, killing the Aztec commander. There were
the famous leap of Alvarado using a spear to get to the heavy losses for the Spanish, but in the end they were vic-
other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards suc- torious. The Aztecs retreated.[18]
ceeding in reaching the mainland, while the remaining
ones died in battle or were captured and later sacriced on When Corts nally reached Tlaxcala ve days after ee-
Aztec altars. After crossing over the bridge, the surviv- ing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers,
ing Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women
[1]
to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they who had accompanied Narvaezs troop. Corts claimed
arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spanish had been only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native al-
killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and lies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1150 Spaniards
some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the dead, though this gure was most likely more than the
crossbows were lost.[1] The Spanish nally found refuge total number of Spanish. Francisco Lpez de Gmara,
in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocal- Corts chaplain, estimated 450 Spaniards and 4,000 al-
hueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to lies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of
recover the spoils from the canals.[16] the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or
wounded.[18]
To reach Tlaxcala, Corts had to bring his troops around
Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the The women survivors included Cortss translator
entire trip, because Corts took his troops through the and lover La Malinche, Mara Estrada, and two of
northern towns, they were at an advantage. The north- Moctezumas daughters who had been given to Corts,
ern valley was less populous, travel was dicult, and it including the emperors favorite and reportedly most
was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortss beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doa Isabel
forces were not very heavy. As Corts arrived in more Moctezuma). A third daughter died, leaving behind her
densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were infant by Corts, the mysterious second Mara named
more forceful.[1] in his will.

Battle of Otumba 1.8.3 Both sides attempt to recover

Further information: Battle of Otumba
Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces ar-
rived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where
they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their de-
struction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Span-
ish retreat from Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs had underesti-
mated the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because
all they had seen was the horses traveling on the wet paved
streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used
in open battle on the plains.[18]
Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the
generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Corts
snatched victory from the jaws of defeat when he spot-
ted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful
Shifting alliances
Cuitlhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately
following Moctezumas death. It was necessary for him to
prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from
revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on
a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would
solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitlhuac was not in
a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; there-
fore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for
many tributaries. The Aztec empire was very susceptible
to division: most of the tributary states were divided in-
ternally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based either
on their own interests or fear of punishment.
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN 65

It was necessary for Corts to rebuild his alliances after Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers
his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than
to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlax- to go home, or at the very least to return to Vera Cruz
cala was an autonomous state, and a erce enemy of the and wait for reinforcements. Corts hurriedly quashed
Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the this faction, determined to nish what he started. Not
Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tribu- only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on
taries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself
at this point or turned them over to the Aztecs. In fact, the by defying his superior Velazquez. He knew that in defeat
Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in suc-
they would do just that. The Tlaxcalan leaders rebued cess he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied
the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to con- and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the
tinue their friendship with Corts. siege of Mexico. In this Corts showed skill at exploiting
the divisions within and between the Aztec states while
Corts managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the [1]
Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Corts for hiding those of his own troops.
their continued support, which he was to provide after
they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to Smallpox reduces the local population
pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal
share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in While Corts was rebuilding his alliances and garnering
Tenochtitlan, and nally, to be exempted from any fu- more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of
ture tribute. Corts was willing to promise anything in the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The dis-
the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their de- ease was probably carried by a Spanish slave from Nar-
mands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay vaezs forces, who had been abandoned in the capital dur-
for their food and water with their gold and other jewels ing the Spanish ight.[1] Smallpox played a crucial role
with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish in the Spanish success during the Siege of Tenochtitlan
authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlax- from 15191521, a fact not mentioned in some historical
calans after the fall of Tenochtitlan. accounts. The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late
Corts needed to gain new alliances as well. The October 1520. The epidemic lasted sixty days, ending by
Spaniards needed to be able to prove they could pro- early December.[21]
tect new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, It was at this event where rsthand accounts were
changing sides would not be too dicult for other trib- recorded in the Florentine Codex concerning the adverse
utaries. Additionally Cortss forces managed to defeat eects of the smallpox epidemic of the Aztecs, which
the smaller armies of some of the tributary states. Once stated, many died from this plague, and many others
Corts had demonstrated his political power, states such died of hunger. They could not get up and search for
as Tepeyac, and later Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac, were food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so
easily won over. Corts also used political maneuvering they starved to death in their beds. By the time the dan-
to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. ger was recognized, the plague was well established that
In addition, Corts replaced kings with those who he nothing could halt it.[21] The smallpox epidemic caused
knew would be loyal to him. Corts now controlled many not only infection to the Mexica peoples, but it weakened
major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortss able bodied people who could no longer grow and harvest
forces while weakening the Aztecs.[1] their crops, which in turn led to mass famine and death
Though the largest group of indigenous allies were Tlax- from malnutrition.[21] While the population of Tenochti-
calans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tet- tlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a
zcocans, Chalca, Alcohua and Tepanecs were all impor- city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco that was
tant allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated formerly controlled by the Aztecs but now occupied by
by the Aztecs.[1][18] the Spanish.[6]
Reproduction and population growth declined since peo-
Even the former Triple Alliance member, city of Tetz-
ple of child bearing age either had to ght o the
coco (or Texcoco) became a Spanish ally. As the rebel-
Spanish invasion or died due to famine, malnutrition or
lion attempt led by the Tetzcocan Tlatoani, Cacamatzin
other diseases.[22] Diseases like smallpox could travel
in times of Moctezumas reclusion was conjured by the
great distances and spread throughout large populations,
Spanish,[19] Corts named one of Cacamatzins brothers
which was the case with the Aztecs having lost approx-
as new tlatoani. He was Ixtlilxchitl II, who had disagreed
imately 50% of its population from smallpox and other
with his brother and always proved friendly to the Span-
diseases.[23] The disease killed an estimated forty percent
ish. Later, Corts also occupied the city as base for the
of the native population in the area within a year. The
construction of brigantines. However, one faction of Tet-
zcocan warriors remain loyal to the Aztecs.[20] Aztecs codices give ample depictions of the diseases pro-
gression. It was known to them as the huey ahuizotl (great
Corts had to put down internal struggles among the
rash).
66 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling with the son of Nezahualpilli, baptized as Don Hernando
for eighty days. Though the disease drastically decreased Cortes.[24]:311316
the numbers of warriors on both sides, it had more dire After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortes sent
consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs, eight Mexican prisoners to Guatemoc stating, all the
as they were much harder hit by the smallpox than the towns in the neighbourhood were now on our side, as well
Spanish leaders, who were largely resistant to the disease. as the Tlascans. Cortes intended to blockade Mexico
and then destroy it. Once Martin Lopez and Chichime-
Aztecs regroup catecle brought the logs and planks to Texcoco, the sloops
were built quickly.[24]:321325 Guatemocs forces were de-
It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action feated four times in March 1521, around Chalco and
against the Spanish and their allies after they ed the city. Huaxtepec, and Cortes received another ship load of arms
[24]:326332
One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state and men from the Emperor.
of disorder: the smallpox disease ravaged the population, On 6 April 1521, Cortes met with the Caciques around
killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new Chalco, and announced he would bring peace and
king, Cuauhtmoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on blockade Mexico. He wanted all of their warriors ready
the throne in February 1521. The people were in the pro- the next day when he put thirteen launches into the lake.
cess of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged He was then joined at Chimaluacan by twenty thou-
city. It is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the sand warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huexotzingo, and
Spanish were gone for good.[1] Tlascala.[24]:333 Cortes fought a major engagement with
Staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seventeen thousand Guatemoc warriors at Xochimilco, [24]:340347
seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would before continuing his march northwestward.
allow them the largest possible army that would be close Cortes found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco, and
[24]:347349
to its supplies, while aording them the mobility provided Cuauhitlan deserted.
by the surrounding lake. Any Spanish assault would have Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by
to come through the causeways, where the Aztecs could his Captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortes was joined
easily attack them.[1] by many more men from Castile.[24]:349 Cortes then
discovered a plot aimed at his murder, for which
he had the main conspirator, Antonio de Villafana,
1.8.4 Siege of Tenochtitlan hanged. Thereafter, Cortes had a personal guard
of six soldiers, under the command of Antonio de
Corts plans and prepares Quinones.[24]:350351 The Spaniards also held their third
auctioning of branded slaves, Mexican allies captured by
Cortss overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs Cortes, who had revolted after giving their obedience to
within their capital. Corts intended to do that primarily His Majesty.[24]:308,352
by increasing his power and mobility on the lake, while
Corts had 84 horsemen, 194 arbalesters and
protecting his anks while they marched up the cause-
arquebusiers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He
way, previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered
stationed 25 men on every launch, 12 oarsmen, 12 cross-
the construction of thirteen sloops (brigantines) in Tlas-
bowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each launch had
cala, by his master shipbuilder, Martn Lpez. Corts
rigging, sails, oars, and spare oars. Additionally, Cortes
continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from
had 20,000 warriors from Tlascala, Huexotzinco, and
ships arriving at Vera Cruz, one ship from Spain loaded
Cholula. The Tlascalans were led by Xicotencatl II and
with arms and powder, and two ships intended for Nar-
Chichimecatecle. Cortes was ready to start the blockade
vaez. Cortes also received one hundred and fty sol-
of Mexico after Corpus Christi (feast).[24]:353354
diers and twenty horses from the abandoned Panuco river
settlement.[24]:309,311,324 Corts put Alvarado in command of 30 horsemen, 18
arbalesters and arquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers,
Corts then decided to move his army to Tetzcoco, where
and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, and sent him, accompanied by
he could assemble and launch the sloops in the creeks
his brother Jorge de Alvarado, Gutierrez de Badajoz, and
owing into Lake Texcoco. With his main headquar-
Andres de Monjaraz, to secure Tacuba. Cristobal de Olid
ters in Tetzcoco, he could stop his forces from being
took 30 horsemen, 20 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 175
spread too thin around the lake, and there he could con-
foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, accompanied
tact them where they needed. Xicotencatl the Elder pro-
by Andres de Tapia, Francisco Verdugo, and Francisco
vided Cortes with ten thousand plus Tlascalan warriors
de Lugo, and secured Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval
under the command of Chichimecatecle. Cortes departed
took 24 horsemen, 14 arquebusiers and arbalesters, 150
Tlascala on the day after Christmas 1520. When his
Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco
force arrived at the outskirts of Tetzcoco, he was met
and Huexotzinco, accompanied by Luis Marin and Pedro
by seven chieftains stating their leader Coanacotzin begs
de Ircio, to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortes commanded the
for your friendship. Cortes quickly replaced that leader
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN 67

13 launches.[24]:356 Corts forces took up these positions stumble, and xed concealed stakes into the lake bottom
on May 22.[1] to impale the launches. The Spanish horses were also in-
eective on the causeways.[24]:364

The rst battles Corts was forced to adapt his plans again, as his ini-
tial land campaigns were ineective. He had planned to
attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat
to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to oc-
cupy the abandoned bridges and barricades as soon as
the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Corts had his
forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their
positions.[24]:364366 Cortes also sent orders to never on
any account to leave a gap unblocked, and that all the
horsemen were to sleep on the causeway with their horses
saddled and bridled all night long.[24]:372 This allowed
the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the
city.[1]
The Spaniards prevented food and water from reaching
Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited
the supplies reaching the city from the nine surrounding
towns via canoe, by sending out two of their launches on
An encounter between Spanish and Aztec combatants as depicted nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs were suc-
in the History of Tlaxcala. cessful in setting an ambush with thirty of their pirogues
in an area in which they had placed impaling stakes. They
captured two Spanish launches, killing Captain de Portilla
The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched rst to-
and Pedro Barba.[24]:368369,382383
wards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their
water supply.[24]:359 There were springs there that sup-
plied much of the citys water by aqueduct; the rest of
the citys water was brought in by canoe. The two gen- The Spanish advance closer
erals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway
at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan.[1] The After capturing two chieftains, Cortes learned of another
Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish and halt Aztec plot to ambush his launches with forty pirogues.
this assault on the capital with a determined and hard Cortes then organized a counter-ambush with six of his
fought land and naval counterattack.[16]:94[24]:359360 launches, which was successful, killing many warriors
and taking many prisoners. Afterwards, the Mexicans
Cortes faced more than a thousand canoes after he did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in
launched his thirteen launches from Texcoco. Yet a fa- food and water as openly as before. Lakeside towns, in-
vorable breeze sprang up, enabling him to overturn many
cluding Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic
canoes and kill or capture many. After winning the made peace with the Spaniards.[24]:374375 The ghting
First Battle on the Lake, Cortes camped with Olids
in Tenochtitlan was described by the American historian
forces.[16]:94[24]:362 Charles Robinson as desperate as both sides battled one
The Aztec canoe eets worked well for attacking the another in the streets in a ferocious battle where no quar-
Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the ter was given nor asked for.[25]
Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Corts decided to Guatemoc then attacked all three Spanish camps simul-
make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines taneously with his entire army on the feast day of St.
could help defend his forces from both sides. He then dis- John. On the Tacuba Causeway across Lake Texcoco
tributed the launches amongst his attacking forces, four connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland along a street
to Alvarado, six for Olid, and two to Sandoval on the Te- now known as Puente de Alvarado (Alvarados Bridge)
peaquilla causeway. After this move, the Aztecs could no in Mexico City, Pedro de Alvarado made a mad cavalry
longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the charge across a gap in the Causeway.[26] As Alvardo and
Spanish brigantines, and the ghting went very much in his cavalry emerged on the other side of the gap with
our favour, according to Diaz.[24]:363 the infantry behind, Aztec canoes lled the gap.[27] Pe-
With his brigantines, Corts could also send forces and dro de Alvarado was wounded along with eight men in his
supplies to areas he previously could not, which put a kink camp.[24]:377 Alvarado escaped from the ambush, but ve
in Cuauhtmocs plan. To make it more dicult for the of his men were captured and taken o to the Great Tem-
Spanish ships to aid the Spanish soldiers advance along ple to be sacriced.[28] Much to their horror, the Spanish
the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas from their positions could see their captured comrades
of the lakes, into which they hoped the Spaniards would being sacriced on the Great Pyramid, which increased
68 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

their hatred of the Aztecs.[29] At the end of each day, the the impaling stakes the Mexicans had placed for them.
Spanish gave a prayer: Oh, thanks be to God that they After twelve days of this, the Spanish allies realized the
did not carry me o today to be sacriced.[30] prophesy by the Aztec idols, that the Spaniards would be
Cortes then decided to push forward a simultaneous at- dead in ten days was false. Two thousand warriors re-
tack towards the Mexican market square. However, he turned from Texcoco, as did many Tlascan warriors under
neglected to ll in a channel as he advanced, and when Tepaneca from Topeyanco, and those from Huexotzingo
[24]:390391
the Mexicans counter-attacked, Cortes was wounded and and Cholula.
almost captured. Cristobal de Olea and Cristobal de Guz- Guatemoc then enlisted his allies in Matlazingo, Mali-
man gave their lives for Cortes, and sixty-ve Spanish nalco, and Tulapa, in attacking the Spaniards from the
soldiers were captured alive. Guatemoc then had ve of rear. However, Cortes sent Andres de Tapia, with 20
their heads thrown at Alvarados camp, four thrown at horsemen and 100 soldiers, and Gonzalo de Sandoval,
Cortes camp, six thrown at Sandovals camp, while ten with 20 horsemen and 80 soldiers, to help his allies attack
more were sacriced to the Huichilobos and Texcatlipoca this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo
idols.[24]:379383 chieftains as prisoners.[24]:396
Diaz relates, "...the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their
again,...we saw our comrades who had been captured in stranglehold on Tenochtitlan tightened, and famine be-
Cortes defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacri- gan to aect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut o from
ced...cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating the mainland because of the occupied causeways. Corts
hearts which they oered to the idols...the Indian butch- also had the advantage of ghting a mostly defensive bat-
ers...cut o their arms and legs...then they ate their esh tle. Though Cuauhtmoc organized a large-scale attack
with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes...throwing their on Alvarados forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were
trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had lit-
and snakes. Guatemoc then sent the hands and feet of tle aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal
our soldiers, and the skin of their faces...to all the towns tributaries had diculty sending forces, because it would
of our allies... The Mexicans sacriced a batch of Span- leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these
ish prisoners each night for ten nights.[24]:386387,391 The loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.
Mexicans cast o the cooked limbs of their prisoners to Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their
the Tlaxcalans, shouting: Eat the esh of these tueles
loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard
["Gods"-a reference to the early belief that Spanish were not to lose any allies. They feared a snowball eect,
gods] and of your brothers because we are sated with in that if one tributary left, others might follow. Thus,
it.[31] they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send
The Mexicans continued to attack the Spaniards on the help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and wa-
causeways, day and night. The Spanish allies in the ter were intercepted, and even those trying to sh in the
cities surrounding the lake lost many lives or went home lake were attacked.[1] The situation inside the city was
wounded, and half their canoes were destroyed. Yet, desperate: because of the famine and the smallpox there
they did not help the Mexicans any more, for they were already thousands of victims, women oered to the
loathed them. Yet, of the 24,000 thousand allies, only gods even their children' clothes, so most children were
200 remained in the three Spanish camps, the rest de- stark naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, brackish water
ciding to return home. Ahuaxpitzactzin (later baptized because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery.
as Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything,
Fernando, remained in Cortes camp with forty rela- even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.[6]
tives and friends. The Huexotzinco Cacique remained The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan.
in Sandovals camp with fty men. Alvarados camp The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did,
had Chichimecatecle, the two sons of Lorenzo de Var- preventing Cortss forces from being entirely victorious.
gas, and eighty Tlascalans.[24]:388389 To maintain the ad-
However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They
vance, Corts razed every neighborhood he captured, us- had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Span-
ing the rubble to ll up canals and gaps in the causeways
ish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz,
to allow his infantry and cavalry to advance in formation, and, somewhat renewed, nally entered the main part of
a ghting tactic that favored the Spanish instead of en-
Tenochtitlan.[1][24]:396
gaging in hand to hand street ghting, which favored the
Mexicans.[32]
Cortes then concentrated on letting the Mexicans eat The Aztecs last stand
up all the provisions they have and drink brackish wa-
ter. The Spaniards gradually advanced along the cause- Cortes then ordered a simultaneous advance of all three
ways, though without allies. Their launches had free- camps towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. Alvarados
dom of the lake, after devising a method for breaking company made it there rst, and Gutierrez de Badajoz
advanced to the top of the Huichilcbos cue, setting it
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN 69

Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still

practiced the traditional ceremonies and customs. Tla-
paltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be outtted to wear
the quetzal owl costume. He was supplied with darts sa-
cred to Huitzilopochtli, which came with wooden tips and
int tops. When he came, the Spanish soldiers appeared
scared and intimidated. They chased the owl-warrior, but
he was neither captured nor killed. The Aztecs took this
as a good sign, but they could ght no more, and after dis-
cussions with the nobles, Cuauhtmoc began talks with
the Spanish.[6]
The Last Days of Tenochtitlan, Conquest of Mexico by Cortez,
a 19th-century painting by William de Leftwich Dodge.
After several failed peace overtures to Guatemoc, Cortes
ordered Sandoval to attack that part of the city in which
Guatemoc had retreated. As hundreds of canoes lled the
are and planting their Spanish banners. Cortes and San- lake eeing the doomed city, Corts his brigantines out to
[36]
dovals men were able to join them there after four more intercept them. Guatemoc attempted to ee with his
days of ghting. [24]:396398 property, gold, jewels, and family in fty pirogues, but
was soon captured by Sandovals launches, and brought
The Spanish forces and their allies advanced into the before Cortes.[24]:401403
city. Despite inicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could
not halt the Spanish advance. While the ghting in the
city raged, the Aztecs cut out and eaten the hearts of 70 1.8.5 The surrender
Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar at Huitzilopochtli.
By August, many of the native inhabitants had ed The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surren-
Tlatelolco.[16] Corts sent emissaries to negotiate with the dered on 13 August 1521.[24]:404 Corts demanded the
Tlatelolcas to join his side, but the Tlatelolcas remained return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under
loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans torture, by burning their feet with oil, Cuauhtmoc and
waged a merciless campaign against the Aztecs who had the lord of Tacuba, confessed to dumping his gold and
long oppressed them as for hundreds of years the Tlax- jewels into the lake. Yet, little gold remained, as ear-
calans had been forced to hand over an annual quota of lier, a fth had been sent to Spain and another kept by
young men and women to be sacriced and eaten at the Corts. In the end...the remaining gold all fell to the
Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and now the Tlaxcalans Kings ocials.[24]:409410,412
saw their chance for revenge.[33] The American historian
Cuauhtmoc was taken hostage the same day and re-
Charles Robinson wrote: Centuries of hate and the ba-
mained the titular leader of Tenochtitlan, under the con-
sic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in vi-
trol of Corts, until he was hanged for treason in 1525
olence that appalled Corts himself.[34] In letter to the
while accompanying a Spanish expedition to Guatemala.
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Corts wrote:

We had more trouble in preventing our

allies from killing with such cruelty than we
had in ghting the enemy. For no race, how-
ever savage, has ever practiced such erce
and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these
parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day,
which we were unable to prevent, as they num-
bered more than 150, 000 and we Spaniards
only some nine hundred. Neitherour precau-
tions nor our warnings could stop their loot-
ing, though we did all we could...I had posted
Spaniards in every street, so that when the peo- The Torture of Cuauhtmoc", a 19th-century painting by
ple began to come out [to surrender] they might Leandro Izaguirre
prevent our allies from killing those wretched
people, whose numbers was uncountable. I Remaining Aztec warriors and civilians ed the city as
also told the captains of our allies that on no the Spanish forces, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued
account should any of those people be slain; to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands
but there were so many that we could not pre- of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Span-
vent more than fteen thousand being killed ish and Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they
and sacriced [by the Tlaxcalans] that day.[35] entered houses, stealing all precious things they found,
70 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

raping and then killing women, stabbing children.[16] [5] The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Joseph,
The survivors marched out of the city for the next three Gilbert M. and Henderson, Timothy J. Duke University
days.[1] Press, 2002.

Almost all of the nobility were dead, and the remain-
ing survivors were mostly young women and very young
children.[18] It is dicult, if not impossible, to determine
with any exactitude the number of people killed during
the siege. As many as 240,000 Aztecs are estimated to
have died, according to the Florentine Codex, during the
eighty days. This estimate is greater, however, than some
estimates of the entire population (60,000300,000) even
before the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Reasonable Span-
ish observers estimated that approximately 100,000 in-
habitants of the city died from all causes.
[6] General History of The Things of New Spain. de Saha-
gun, Bernardino. The Human Record: Sources of Global
History, Volume II. Andrea, Alfred J. and James H. Over-
eld. Boston: Houghton Miin, 2005. 12833.
[7] Visin de los vencidos. Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.)
[1959] (1992). The Broken Spears: The Aztec Ac-
count of the Conquest of Mexico, ngel Mara Garibay
K. (Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-
English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.), Expanded and up-
dated edition, Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-
8.

Although some reports put the number as low as forty, the [8] Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco. Crnica de la Nueva
Spanish probably lost around 100 soldiers in the siege, Espaa. Madrid: Linkgua Ediciones, 2007.
while thousands of Tlaxcalans perished. It is estimated
[9] Hassig (2006, p.107).
that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during
the two-year campaignfrom Vera Cruz to Tenochtit- [10] Thomas, Hugh.Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the
lan. (Thomas, p. 528-9) The remaining Spanish forces Fall of Old Mexico, (New York: Simon and Schuster,
consisted of 800900 Spaniards, eighty horses, sixteen 1993), 369. Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes,
pieces of artillery, and Cortss thirteen brigantines.[1] King Montezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs,
Other sources estimate that around 860 Spanish soldiers (New York: Bantam Books, 2008), 120.
and 20.000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed during all the [11] Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Mon-
battles in this region from 15191521. tezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs, (New York:
It is well accepted that Corts indigenous allies, which Bantam Books, 2008), 163164.
may have numbered as many as 200,000 over the three- [12] Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Mon-
year period of the conquest, were indispensable to his tezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs, (New York:
success. Their support was not acknowledged until much Bantam Books, 2008), 166.
later, and they derived little benet from their sacrices,
aside from being rid of the Aztecs. Although several ma- [13] Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Mon-
jor, allied native groups emerged from this campaign, tezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs, (New York:
none were willing to challenge the Spaniards, and the Bantam Books, 2008), 168170.
person who beneted was Corts, who ruled the rem- [14] Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Mon-
nants of the Aztec Empire through his captive and puppet, tezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs, (New York:
Cuauhtmoc and other Aztec lords.[4] Bantam Books, 2008), 170171.

[15] Levy, Buddy, Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Mon-

1.8.6 See also tezuma, and the Last Stands of the Aztecs, (New York:
Bantam Books, 2008), 171.
History of Mexico [16] Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The
Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest
History of the Aztecs of Mexico. ngel Mara Garibay K. (Nahuatl-
Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English
Qualpopoca trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and up-
dated ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-
5501-8.
1.8.7 Notes
[17] Smith 1996, 2003, p.275.
[1] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. New [18] Gruzinski, Serge. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an Empire.
York: Longman, 1994. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987.
[2] George Edwin Mueller [19] Bernal Daz del Castillo
[3] Conquistadors, with Michael Wood website for 2001 [20]
PBS documentary
[21] Len, Portilla Miguel. 2006 The Broken Spears: the
[4] Black, Jeremy, ed. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Bea-
Kindersley, 2000. con
1.8. FALL OF TENOCHTITLAN
[22] (Leon-Portilla 1962: 117, Len, Portilla Miguel. 2006
The Broken Spears: the Aztec Account of the Conquest
of Mexico. Boston: Beacon
[23] (Diamond 1999: 210), Diamond, Jared M. 1999 Guns,
Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New
York: Norton.
[24] Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London:
Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
[25] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 58.
[26] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 58.
[27] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 58.
[28] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 58.
[29] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 59.
[30] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 59.
[31] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 59.
[32] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 59.
[33] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 60.
[34] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 60.
[35] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 60.
[36] Robinson, Charles The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-
1521, London: Osprey, 2004 page 60.
1.8.8 References
Primary sources
Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco. Crnica de la
Nueva Espaa. Madrid: Linkgua Ediciones, 2007.
ISBN 84-9816-211-4
Hernn Corts, Letters available as Letters from
Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN
0-300-09094-3
Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Hispania Victrix; First
and Second Parts of the General History of the In-
dies, with the whole discovery and notable things
that have happened since they were acquired until
the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New
Spain
71
Bernal Daz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain
available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mex-
ico: 15171521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X
Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The
Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of
Mexico. ngel Mara Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish
trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.),
Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated
ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-8.
Secondary sources
Andrea, Alfred J. and James H. Overeld. The Hu-
man Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II.
Boston: Houghton Miin, 2005.
Black, Jeremy, ed. World History Atlas. London:
Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Gruzinski, Serge. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an
Empire. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987.
Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest.
New York: Longman, 1994.
Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. 2nd
edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
2006. ISBN 0-8061-3793-2 OCLC 64594483
Conquest: Corts, Montezuma, and the Fall of
Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0-671-
51104-1
Corts and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon
Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0-7867-0271-0
History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H.
Prescott ISBN 0-375-75803-8
The Rain God cries over Mexico by Lszl Passuth
Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew
Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-
516077-0
The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov
(1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1
Hernando Corts by Fisher, M. & Richardson K.
Hernando Corts Crossroads Resource Online.
Hernando Corts by Jacobs, W.J., New York,
N.Y.:Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974.
The Worlds Greatest Explorers: Hernando
Corts. Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago
Press Inc. 1991.
Davis, Paul K. (2003). Besieged: 100 Great Sieges
from Jericho to Sarajevo. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
72 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Prelimi- Velzquez de Cullar, resulted in the recall of the expe-
nary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the dition at the last moment, an order which Corts ignored.
Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William Arriving on the continent, Corts executed a successful
H. Prescott strategy of allying with some indigenous people against
The Aztecs by Michael E. Smith (1996, 2003), others. He also used a native woman, Doa Marina, as
Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-23016-5 an interpreter; she would later bear Corts a son. When
the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Corts, he
fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforce-
1.8.9 External links ments. Corts wrote letters directly to the king asking
to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished
Hernando Cortes on the Web web directory with for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Corts
thumbnail galleries was awarded the title of Marqus del Valle de Oaxaca,
while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to
Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541
Corts returned to Spain, where he died peacefully but
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood website for embittered, six years later.
2001 PBS documentary
Because of the controversial undertakings of Corts and
Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented the scarcity of reliable sources of information about him,
online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Col- it has become dicult to assert anything denitive about
lections Center his personality and motivations. Early lionizing of the
conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of
Pgina de relacin Corts. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors char-
acter in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment
Coordinates: 192606N 990753W / 19.4350N also did little to expand understanding of Corts as an
99.1314W individual. As a result of these historical trends, descrip-
tions of Corts tend to be simplistic, and either damning
or idealizing.
1.9 Hernn Corts
1.9.1 Name
This name uses Spanish naming customs: the rst or
paternal family name is Corts de Monroy and the second See also: Spanish naming customs
or maternal family name is Pizarro.
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox oceholder
While now generally called Hernn, Corts himself
with unknown parameter other_names (this message
used the form Hernando or Fernando. All are equally
is shown only in preview).
correct.[1]
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox oceholder
with unknown parameter served_with (this message is
shown only in preview). 1.9.2 Early life

Hernn Corts de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano,
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (Spanish pronunciation:
[erna kortes e monroj i piaro]; 1485 December 2, Corts de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy
1547) was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition
that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large
portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King
of Castile in the early 16th century. Corts was part of
the generation of Spanish colonizers who began the rst
phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Born in Medelln, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility,
Corts chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World.
He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he re-
ceived an encomienda and, for a short time, became al-
calde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on
the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third ex-
pedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly
funded. His enmity with the Governor of Cuba, Diego
Corts was born in 1485 in the town of Medelln, in
modern-day Extremadura, Spain. His father, Martn
Fernndez de Monroy and his wife Mara Corts, was
an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slen-
der means. Hernns mother was Catalina Pizarro
Altamirano.[2]
Through his mother, Hernn was the second cousin once
removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the
Inca Empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with
another Francisco Pizarro who joined Corts to conquer
the Aztecs), through her parents Diego Altamirano and
wife and cousin Leonor Snchez Pizarro Altamirano, rst
cousin of Pizarros father.[2] Through his father, Hernn
was a twice distant relative of Nicols de Ovando, the
third Governor of Hispaniola. His paternal grandfather
was a son of Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of
1.9. HERNN CORTS 73

Monroy, and wife Menca de Orellana y Carvajal. the leader of the expedition.
Hernn Corts is described as a pale, sickly child by his
biographer, chaplain, and friend Francisco Lpez de G-
mara. At the age of 14, Corts was sent to study Latin
under an uncle-in-law in Salamanca.[3]
Cuba (15111519)
After two years, Corts, tired of schooling, returned
home to Medelln, much to the irritation of his parents,
who had hoped to see him equipped for a protable legal In 1511, Corts accompanied Diego Velzquez de Cul-
career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his lar, an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedi-
long period of training and experience as a notary, rst tion to conquer Cuba. Velzquez was appointed Governor
in Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close of New Spain. At the age of 26, Corts was made clerk to
acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that helped the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the
him to justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.[4] Crown received the quinto, or customary one fth of the
prots from the expedition.
At this point in his life, Corts was described by Gmara
as restless, haughty and mischievous.[4] This was probably The Governor of Cuba, Diego Velzquez, was so im-
a fair description of a 16-year-old boy who had returned pressed with Corts that he secured a high political posi-
home only to nd himself frustrated by life in his small tion for him in the colony. He became secretary for Gov-
provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting dis- ernor Velzquez. Corts was twice appointed municipal
coveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was magistrate (alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Corts became
streaming back to Spain. a man of substance with an encomienda to provide Indian
labor for his mines and cattle. This new position of power
also made him the new source of leadership, which op-
1.9.3 Early career in the New World posing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514,
Corts led a group which demanded that more Indians be
Plans were made for Corts to sail to the Americas with assigned to the settlers.
a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicols de As time went on, relations between Corts and Governor
Ovando, the newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola Velzquez became strained.[7] This began once news of
(currently Haiti and the Dominican Republic), but an in- Juan de Grijalva, establishing a colony on the mainland
jury he sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bed- where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, reached
room of a married woman from Medelln prevented him Velzquez; it was decided to send him help. Corts
from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year was appointed Captain-General of this new expedition
wandering the country, probably spending most of his in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before
time in Spains southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, Velzquez changed his mind.[7]
and Seville, listening to the tales of those returning from
With Cortss experience as an administrator, knowledge
the Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, In-
gained from many failed expeditions, and his impecca-
dians, and strange unknown lands. He nally left for His-
[5] ble rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men,
paniola in 1504 where he became a colonist.
within a month. Predictably, Velzquezs jealousy ex-
ploded and decided to place the leadership of the expe-
Arrival dition in other hands. However, Corts quickly gathered
more men and ships in other Cuban ports.
Corts reached Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Corts also found time to become romantically involved
Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and with Catalina Xurez (or Jurez), the sister-in-law of
reach the New World before them in order to secure per- Governor Velzquez. Part of Velzquezs displeasure
sonal advantages. Quinteros mutinous conduct may have seems to have been based on a belief that Corts was
served as a model for Corts in his subsequent career. triing with Catalinas aections. Corts was temporar-
The history of the conquistadores is rife with accounts of ily distracted by one of Catalinas sisters but nally mar-
rivalry, jockeying for positions, mutiny, and betrayal.[6] ried Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor
Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of Velzquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure [8]
the
Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Corts registered as a citizen, good will of both her family and that of Velzquez.
which entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies,
Soon afterwards, Nicols de Ovando, still the governor, that Corts began to look beyond his substantial status as
gave him an encomienda and made him a notary of the mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of aairs in
town of Azua de Compostela. His next ve years seemed the thriving colony. He missed the rst two expeditions,
to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Corts took under the orders of Francisco Hernndez de Crdoba and
part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velzquez to Mexico
large estate of land and Indian slaves for his eorts from in 1518.
74 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

1.9.4 Conquest of Mexico (15191521) In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz. By this act,
Corts dismissed the authority of the Governor of Cuba to
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire place himself directly under the orders of King Charles.[9]
In 1518, Velzquez put Corts in command of an expe- In order to eliminate any ideas of retreat, Corts scuttled
his ships.[12]

March on Tenochtitlan

In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs

and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II,
the tlatoani (ruler) of the Aztec Empire.[12] Moctezuma
repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Corts was de-
termined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Corts
A map depicting Cortss invasion route from the coast to the marched on Tenochtitlan in mid-August 1519, along with
Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. 600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of
indigenous carriers and warriors.[9]
dition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for
On the way to Tenochtitlan, Corts made alliances with
colonization. At the last minute, due to the old argument
indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala
between the two, Velzquez changed his mind and re-
and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala. The Otomis initially, and
voked Cortss charter. He ignored the orders and, in an
then the Tlaxcalans fought the Spanish a series of three
act of open mutiny, went anyway in February 1519. He
battles from 2 Sept. to 5 Sept. 1519, and at one point
stopped in Trinidad, Cuba, to hire more soldiers and ob-
Diaz remarked, they surrounded us on every side. Af-
tain more horses. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500
ter Corts continued to release prisoners with messages of
men, 13 horses, and a small number of cannon, Corts
peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Mon-
landed on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mayan territory.[9]
tezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder, and Maxixcatzin, per-
There he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish
suaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger,
Franciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed
that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to
by a period in captivity with the Maya, before escaping.[9]
kill them.[11]:143155,171
Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was
able to translate for Corts.[10] In October 1519, Corts and his men, accompanied by
about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca,[11]:188 marched to Cholula, the
In March 1519, Corts formally claimed the land for the
second largest city in central Mexico. Corts, either in a
Spanish crown. Then he proceeded to Tabasco, where
pre-meditated eort to instill fear upon the Aztecs wait-
he met with resistance and won a battle against the na-
ing for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when
tives. He received twenty young indigenous women from
he was being investigated) wishing to make an example
the vanquished natives, and he converted them all to
when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of
Christianity.[10]
unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central
Among these women was La Malinche, his future plaza, then partially burned the city.[11]:199200
mistress and mother of his son Martn. Malinche knew
both the Nahuatl language and the Chontal Maya, thus
enabling Corts to communicate with the Aztecs through
Aguilar.[11]:82,8687 At San Juan de Ula on Easter Sun-
day 1519, Corts met with Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire
governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque.[11]:89

Corts and La Malinche meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan,

November 8, 1519.
Corts scuttling his own eet o the coast of Veracruz in order to
eliminate the possibility of retreat. By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlan the Spaniards had
1.9. HERNN CORTS 75

a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peace- 1.9.5 Appointment to governorship of
fully received by Moctezuma II.[13] Moctezuma deliber- Mexico and internal dissensions
ately let Corts enter the Aztec capital, the island city of
Tenochtitlan, hoping to get to know their weaknesses bet-
ter and to crush them later.[9]
Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards
which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions
for plunder. In his letters to King Charles, Corts claimed
to have learned at this point that he was considered by the
Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent
god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself a belief which
has been contested by a few modern historians.[14] But
quickly Corts learned that several Spaniards on the coast
had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs,
and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his own
palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitln through him.[15]
Meanwhile, Velzquez sent another expedition, led by
Pnlo de Narvez, to oppose Corts, arriving in Mex-
ico in April 1520 with 1,100 men.[9] Corts left 200 men A painting from Diego Muoz Camargo's History of Tlaxcala
in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvez. He (Lienzo Tlaxcala), c. 1585, showing La Malinche and Hernn
overcame Narvez, despite his numerical inferiority, and Corts.
convinced the rest of Narvezs men to join him.[9] In
Mexico, one of Cortss lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado, Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that
committed the massacre in the Great Temple, triggering a Corts was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and
local rebellion.[16] that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in
establishing New Spain. This picture is the one Corts
Corts speedily returned to Tenochtitln. On July 1,
presents in his letters and in the later biography written
1520 Moctezuma was killed (the Spaniards claimed he
by Francisco Lpez de Gmara. However, there may be
was stoned to death by his own people; others claim he
more to the picture than this. Cortss own sense of ac-
was murdered by the Spanish once they realized his in-
complishment, entitlement, and vanity may have played
ability to placate the locals). Faced with a hostile pop-
a part in his deteriorating position with the king:
ulation, Corts decided to ee for Tlaxcala. During the
Noche Triste (June 30 July 1, 1520), the Spaniards man-
aged a narrow escape from Tenochtitlan across the Tla- Corts personally was not ungenerously re-
copan causeway, while their rearguard was being mas- warded, but he speedily complained of insuf-
sacred. Much of the treasure looted by Corts was lost cient compensation to himself and his com-
(as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from rades. Thinking himself beyond reach of re-
Tenochtitln.[9] straint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the
Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so
in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15,
1524 (Ycazbalceta, Documentos para la His-
Destruction of Tenochtitlan toria de Mxico, Mexico, 1858, I). In this let-
ter Corts, besides recalling in a rather abrupt
After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlax- manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to
cala, having lost 870 men.[9] With the assistance of their him alone, deliberately acknowledges his dis-
allies, Cortss men nally prevailed with reinforcements obedience in terms which could not fail to cre-
arriving from Cuba. Corts began a policy of attrition ate a most unfavourable impression.[18]
towards Tenochtitlan, cutting o supplies and subduing
the Aztecs allied cities. The siege of Tenochtitln ended King Charles appointed Corts as governor, captain gen-
with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city.[17] eral and chief justice of the newly conquered territory,
In January 1521, Corts countered a conspiracy against dubbed "New Spain of the Ocean Sea. But also, much to
him, headed by Antonio de Villafana, who was hanged for the dismay of Corts, four royal ocials were appointed
the oense.[9] Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtmoc, at the same time to assist him in his governing in eect,
the tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitln, on August 13, 1521, submitting him to close observation and administration.
the Aztec Empire was captured, and Corts was able Corts initiated the construction of Mexico City, destroy-
to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico ing Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on
City. From 1521 to 1524, Corts personally governed the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important
Mexico.[9] European city in the Americas.[9]
76 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Corts managed the founding of new cities and appointed

men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, im-
posing the encomienda system in 1524.[9] He reserved
many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which
they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in
conquering central Mexico. However, later arrivals and
members of factions antipathetic to Corts complained
of the favoritism that excluded them.[19]

Portrait of Corts at Museo del Prado.

Cristbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in
the conquests of Jalisco, 1522.
In 1523, the Crown (possibly inuenced by Cortss en-
emy, Bishop Fonseca),[20] sent a military force under the
command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle
the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pnuco. This
was another setback for Corts who mentioned this in his
fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself
as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego
Velzquez de Cullar, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fon-
seca as well as Francisco Garay. The inuence of Garay
was eectively stopped by this appeal to the King who
sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the pol-
itics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a ght.
1.9.6 Granted Coat of Arms by the King,
1525
Although Corts had outed the authority of Diego
Velzquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an
expedition of conquest, Cortss spectacular success was
rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high
honor, following the conquerors request. The document
granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortss accom- 1.9.7
plishments in the conquest of Mexico. The proclamation
of the king says in part
We, respecting the many labors, dangers,
and adventures which you underwent as stated
above, and so that there might remain a perpet-
ual memorial of you and your services and that
you and your descendants might be more fully
honored...it is our will that besides your coat of
arms of your lineage, which you have, you may
have and bear as your coat of arms, known and
recognized, a shield....[21]:43
The grant species the iconography of the coat of arms,
the central portion divided into quadrants. In the up-
per portion, there is a black eagle with two heads on a
white eld, which are the arms of the empire.[21]:43 Be-
low that is a golden lion on a red eld, in memory of the
fact that you, the said Hernando Corts, by your industry
and eort brought matters to the state described above
(i.e., the conquest).[21]:43 The specicity of the other two
quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant
showing three crowns representing the three Aztec em-
perors of the conquest era, Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and
Cuauhtemoc[21]:43 and the other showing the Aztec capi-
tal of Tenochtitlan.[21]:43 Encircling the central shield are
symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their
lords that Corts defeated, with the lords to be shown as
prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with
a lock beneath the shield.[21]:4445
Death of his First Wife and Remar-
riage
Cortss wife Catalina Sarez arrived in New Spain from
sometime around summer 1522, along with her sister and
brother.[22] His marriage to Catalina was at this point ex-
tremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of governor
of Cuba Diego Velzquez, whose authority Corts had
thrown o and was now his enemy. Catalina lacked the
1.9. HERNN CORTS
Fortied Palace of Corts in Cuernavaca
noble title of doa, so at this point his alliance with her no
longer raised his status. Their marriage had been child-
less. Since Corts had sired children with a variety of
indigenous women, including a son ca. 1522 by his cul-
tural translator, Doa Marina, Corts knew he was ca-
pable of fathering children. Cortss only male heir at
this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after
Cortss father, Martn Corts. This natural son Martn
Corts was sometimes called El Mestizo. Cortss wife,
Catalina Surez, died under mysterious circumstances the
night of November 12, 1522. There were accusations
at the time that Corts had murdered his wife. There
was an investigation into her death, interviewing a vari-
ety of household residents and others.[23] The documen-
tation of the investigation published in the nineteenth cen-
tury in Mexico and archival documents uncovered in the
twentieth century.[24][25] The death of Catalina Surez
had produced a scandal and a major investigation, but
weathering that Corts was now free to marry someone
of high status more appropriate to his wealth and power.
In 1526, he had built an imposing residence for himself,
the Palace of Corts in Cuernavaca, in a region close to
the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings.
In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of
don, but more importantly was given the noble title of
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Span-
ish noblewoman Doa Juana de Ziga. The marriage
produced three children, including another son, who was
also named Martn. As the rst-born legitimate son, Don
Martn Corts y Ziga was now Cortss heir and suc-
ceeded his father as holder of the title and estate of the
Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca.[26] Cortss legiti-
mate daughters were Doa Maria, Doa Catalina, and
Doa Juana.[27]
1.9.8 Corts and the Spiritual Conquest
of Mexico
Since the conversion to Christianity of indigenous peo-
ples was an essential and integral part of the extension of
Spanish power, making formal provisions for that con-
version once the military conquest was completed was an
77
important task for Corts. During the Age of Discovery,
the Catholic Church had seen early attempts at conver-
sion in the Caribbean islands by Spanish friars, partic-
ularly mendicant orders. Corts made a request to the
Spanish monarch to send Franciscan and Dominican fri-
ars to Mexico to begin the daunting work of converting
vast populations indigenous to Christianity. In his fourth
letter to the king, Corts pleaded for friars rather than
diocesan or secular priests because those clerics were in
his view a serious danger to the Indians conversion.
If these people [Indians] were now to see
the aairs of the Church and the service of God
in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and
saw them indulge in the vices and profanities
now common in Spain, knowing that such men
were the ministers of God, it would bring our
Faith into much harm that I believe any further
preaching would be of no avail.[28]
He wished the mendicants to be the main evangelists.
Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers
to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of
the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian
faith, so Corts laid out a solution to this to the king.
Your Majesty should likewise beseech His
Holiness [the pope] to grant these powers to
the two principal persons in the religious orders
that are to come here, and that they should be
his delegates, one from the Order of St. Fran-
cis and the other from the Order of St. Do-
minic. They should bring the most extensive
powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, be-
cause these lands are so far from the Church of
Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside
here and shall do so in the future, are so far
from the proper remedies of our consciences
and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is
essential that His Holiness should be gener-
ous with us and grant to these persons most
extensive powers, to be handed down to per-
sons actually in residence here whether it be
given to the general of each order or to his
provincials.[29]
The Franciscans arrived in May 1524, a symbolically
powerful group of twelve known as the Twelve Apostles
of Mexico, led by Fray Martn de Valencia. Franciscan
Geronimo de Mendieta claimed that Cortss most im-
portant deed was the way he met this rst group of Fran-
ciscans. The conqueror himself was said to have met the
friars as they approached the capital, kneeling at the feet
of the friars who had walked from the coast. This story
was used by Franciscans as a demonstration of Cortss
piety and humility was a powerful message to all, includ-
ing the Indians, that Cortss earthly power was subordi-
nate to the spiritual power of the friars. However, one of
78 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

the rst twelve Franciscans, Fray Toribio de Benavente

Motolinia does not mention it in his history.[30] Corts
and the Franciscans had a particularly strong alliance in
Mexico, with Franciscans seeing him as the new Moses
for conquering Mexico and opening it to Christian evan-
gelization. In Motolinias 1555 response to Dominican
Bartolom de Las Casas, he praises Corts.

And as to those who murmur against the

Marqus del Valle [Corts], God rest him, and
who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I be-
lieve that before God their deeds are not as ac-
ceptable as those of the Marqus. Although
as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and
works of a good Christian, and a great de-
sire to employ his life and property in widen-
ing and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ,
and dying for the conversion of these gentiles...
Who has loved and defended the Indians of this
new world like Corts?... Through this captain,
God opened the door for us to preach his holy
gospel and it was he who caused the Indians
to revere the holy sacraments and respect the
ministers of the church.[31]
The coat of arms awarded to Corts, by King/Emperor Charles
In Fray Bernardino de Sahagn's 1585 revision of the V.
conquest narrative rst codied as Book XII of the
Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to
Corts that do not appear in the earlier text from the
and powerful rivals and enemies who have obscured the
indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Flo-
eyes of your Majesty.[34] Charles, who was also Holy Ro-
rentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards
man Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much
search for gold, in Sahagns 1585 revised account, he
of Charless reign was taken up with wars with France,
ends with praise of Corts for requesting the Franciscans
the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Em-
be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians.[32]
pire),[35] except insofar as they contributed to nance his
wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attend-
1.9.9 Expedition to Honduras and after- ing to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian
of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.
math
Velzquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint
See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatn Hernn Corts a commissioner with powers, (a Juez de residencia, Luis
in the Maya lowlands, 152425; and Spanish conquest Ponce de Len), to investigate Cortss conduct and even
of Honduras arrest him. Corts was once quoted as saying that it was
more dicult to contend against (his) own countrymen
than against the Aztecs. Governor Diego Velzquez con-
From 1524 to 1526, Corts headed an expedition to
Honduras where he defeated Cristbal de Olid, who had tinued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop
claimed Honduras as his own under the inuence of Juan Rodrguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colo-
the Governor of Cuba Diego Velzquez. Fearing that nial department, to undermine him in the Council of the
Cuauhtmoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he Indies.
brought him with him to Honduras. In a controver- A few days after Cortss return from his expedition,
sial move, Cuauhtmoc was executed during the journey. Ponce de Len suspended Corts from his oce of gov-
Raging over Olids treason, Corts issued a decree to ar-ernor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died
rest Velzquez, whom he was sure was behind Olids trea- shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar
son. This, however, only served to further estrange the as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick
Crown of Castile and the Council of Indies, both of whichand appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was con-
were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortss ris-
rmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527.
ing power.[33] Corts, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from tak-
Cortss fth letter to King Charles attempts to justify ing over the government.
his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on various Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south. De Figueroa
1.9. HERNN CORTS 79

raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his

decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his ef-
end when the ship carrying these treasures sank. Al-
forts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Corts
bornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Salazar
was rewarded in 1529 by being accorded the noble title of
don but more importantly named the Marqus del Valle
and Chirinos. When Corts complained angrily after one
of his adherents hands was cut o, Estrada ordered him
de Oaxaca" Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca and mar-
exiled. Corts sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to King
ried the Spanish noblewoman, Doa Juana Ziga, after
Charles. the 1522 death of his much less distinguished rst wife,
Catalina Surez. The noble title and senorial estate of
the Marquesado was passed down to his descendants un-
First return to Spain (1528) and Marquisate of the til 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest
Valley of Oaxaca region of New Spain, and Corts had 23,000 vassals in
23 named encomiendas in perpetuity.[9][36]
Although conrmed in his land holdings and vassals, he
was not reinstated as governor and was never again given
any important oce in the administration of New Spain.
During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged
by abusive colonial administrators. He sided with local
natives in a lawsuit. The natives documented the abuses
in the Huexotzinco Codex.
The entailed estate and title passed to his legitimate son
Don Martn Corts upon Cortss death in 1547, who be-
came the Second Marquis. Don Martns association with
the so-called Encomenderos Conspiracy endangered the
entailed holdings, but they were restored and remained
the continuing reward for Hernn Cortss family through
the generations.

Return to Mexico

Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th-

century artist Jakob Seisenegger.

In 1528, Corts returned to Spain to appeal to the justice

of his master, Charles V. Juan Altamirano and Alonso
Valiente stayed in Mexico and acted as Corts represen-
tatives during his absence. Corts presented himself with
great splendor before Charles Vs court. By this time
Charles had returned and Corts forthrightly responded
to his enemys charges. Denying he had held back on gold
due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more
than the quinto (one-fth) required. Indeed, he had spent
lavishly to build the new capital of Mexico City on the Hernn Corts Monroy, with his coat of arms on the upper left
corner. Painting reproduced in the book America, (R. Cronau
ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitln, leveled during 19th century).
the siege that brought down the Aztec empire.
He was received by Charles with every distinction, and Corts returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and
80 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

honors, but with diminished power. Although Corts still Expedition against Algiers
retained military authority and permission to continue
his conquests, viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza was ap- Main article: Algiers expedition (1541)
pointed in 1535 to administer New Spains civil aairs. The emperor nally permitted Corts to join him and his
This division of power led to continual dissension, and
caused the failure of several enterprises in which Corts
was engaged.
On returning to Mexico, Corts found the country in a
state of anarchy. There was a strong suspicion in court
circles of an intended rebellion by Corts, and a charge
was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his
character and plans. He was accused of murdering his
rst wife. The proceedings of the investigation were kept
secret.
No report, either exonerating or condemning Corts, was
published. Had the Government declared him innocent,
it would have greatly increased his popularity. Had it de-
clared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipi-
tated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only
safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that grave danger
was feared from his inuence.
After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort
of order, Corts retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about
30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he con-
centrated on the building of his palace and on Pacic
exploration. Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and
1541, Corts quarreled with Nuo Beltrn de Guzmn
and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today An engraving of a middle aged Corts by 19th-century artist
William Holl.
California with Antonio de Mendoza, the rst viceroy.
Cortes acquired several silver mines in Zumpango del Rio eet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition
in 1534. By the early 1540s, he owned 20 silver mines against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was
in Sultepec, 12 in Taxco, and 3 in Zacualpan. Earlier, then part of the Ottoman Empire and was used as a base
Cortes had claimed the silver in the Tamazula area.[37] by Hayreddin Barbarossa, a famous Turkish corsair and
Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman Fleet. During this un-
In 1536, Corts explored the northwestern part of Mexico
fortunate campaign, which was his last, Corts was almost
and discovered the Baja California Peninsula. Corts also
drowned in a storm that hit his eet while he was pursuing
spent time exploring the Pacic coast of Mexico. The
Barbarossa.[40]
Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortes
by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539. This was
the last major expedition by Corts. Last years, death, and remains

Having spent a great deal of his own money to nance ex-

1.9.10 Later life and death peditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544
he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was ignored
Second return to Spain for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to re-
turn to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he
After his exploration of Baja California, Corts returned was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la
to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a
who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, case of pleurisy at the age of 62.
abuse of power, etc.).[9] Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man.
On his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely He left his many mestizo and white children well cared
obtain an audience. On one occasion he forced his way for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He
through a crowd that surrounded the emperors carriage, requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried
and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the
at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. I am a natural status of four of his children (legitimizing them
man, replied Corts proudly, who has given you more in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he
provinces than your ancestors left you cities.[38][39] had with Doa Marina (also known as La Malinche), said
1.9. HERNN CORTS 81

to be his favourite.. His daughter, Doa Catalina, how- but one supporter of an indigenist vision of Mexico pro-
ever, died shortly after her fathers death. posed that the remains be publicly burned in front of
After his death his body has been moved more than eight the statue
[41]:468
of Cuauhtemoc, and the ashes ung into the
times for several reasons. On December 4, 1547 he was air. Following the discovery and authentication of
buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the Cortss remains, there was a discovery of what were de-
church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years scribed as the bones of Cuauhtmoc occurred, resulting
later (1550) due to the space being required by the duke, in the so-called battle of the bones[41]:468 In 1981, when
his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the a copy of the bust by Tolsa was put in the church, there
was a failed attempt to destroy his bones.
same church. In his testament, Corts asked for his body
to be buried in the monastery he had ordered to be built
in Coyoacan in Mxico, ten years after his death, but the
monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent 1.9.11 Disputed interpretation of his life
to New Spain and buried in the church of San Francisco
de Texcoco, where his mother and one of his sisters were There are relatively few sources to the early life of Corts;
buried. his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of
Mexico and it was only after this that people became in-
In 1629, Don Pedro Corts fourth Marquez del Valle, terested in reading and writing about him.
his last male descendant, died, so the viceroy decided to
move the bones of Corts along with those of his descen- Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he
dant to the Franciscan church in Mxico. This was de- wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are writ-
layed for nine years, while his body stayed in the main ten with the specic purpose of putting his eorts in a
room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was favourable light and so must be read critically. Another
moved to the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where it main source is the biography written by Cortss private
stayed for 87 years. In 1716, it was moved to another chaplain Lopez de Gmara, which was written in Spain
place in the same church. In 1794, his bones were moved several years after the conquest. Gmara never set foot
to the "Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Corts), where a in the Americas and knew only what Corts had told him,
statue by Tolsa and a mausoleum were made. There was and he had an anity for knightly romantic stories which
a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang he incorporated richly in the biography. The third ma-
their bells. jor source is written as a reaction to what its author calls
the lies of Gomara, the eyewitness account written by
the Conquistador Bernal Daz del Castillo does not paint
Corts as a romantic hero but rather tries to emphasize
that Cortss men should also be remembered as impor-
tant participants in the undertakings in Mexico.
In the years following the conquest more critical ac-
counts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written.
The Dominican friar Bartolom de Las Casas wrote his A
Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies which raises
strong accusations of brutality and heinous violence to-
wards the Indians; accusations against both the conquista-
1000 Spanish pesetas
dors in general and Corts in particular.[43] The accounts
of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Fran-
In 1823, after the independence of Mxico, it seemed ciscan Bernardino de Sahagn and his native informants
imminent that his body would be desecrated, so the mau- are also less than attering towards Corts. The scarcity
soleum was removed, the statue and the coat of arms were of these sources has led to a sharp division in the descrip-
sent to Palermo, Sicily, to be protected by the Duke of tion of Cortss personality and a tendency to describe
Terranova. The bones were hidden, and everyone thought him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and
that they had been sent out of Mxico. In 1836, his bones honorable cavalier.
were moved to another place in the same building.
It was not until November 24, 1946 that they were
Representations in Mxico
rediscovered,[41]:467 thanks to the discovery of a se-
cret document by Lucas Alamn. His bones were put
in charge of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e In Mxico there are few representations of Corts. How-
Historia (INAH). The remains were authenticated by ever, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle
INAH.[41]:468 They were then restored to the same place, in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names through-
this time with a bronze inscription and his coat of out the republic.
arms.[42] When the bones were rst rediscovered, the sup- The only authentic monuments are in Mexico City at the
porters of the Hispanic tradition in Mexico were excited, pass between the volcanoes Iztacchuatl and Popocatpetl
82
Monument in Mexico City commemorating the encounter of
Corts and Moctezuma at the Hospital de Jess Nazareno.
where Corts took his soldiers on their march to Mexico
City. It is known as the Paso de Corts.
The muralist Diego Rivera painted several representation
of him but the most famous, depicts him as a powerful
and ominous gure along with Malinche in a mural in the
Scene from the opera La Conquista, 2005
National Palace in Mexico City.
Monument in Mexico City known as Monumento al Mestizaje.
In 1981, President Lopez Portillo tried to bring Corts to
public recognition. First, he made public a copy of the
bust of Corts made by Manuel Tols in the Hospital de
Jess Nazareno with an ocial ceremony, but soon a na-
tionalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out
of the public.[44] Today the copy of bust is in the Hospi-
tal de Jess Nazareno [45] while the original is in Naples,
Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli.
Later, another monument, known as Monumento al
Mestizaje by Julin Martnez y M. Maldonado (1982)
was commissioned by Mexican president Jos Lpez Por-
tillo to be put in the Zcalo (Main square) of Coyoa-
can, near the place of his country house, but it had to be
removed to a little known park, the Jardn Xicotncatl,
Barrio de San Diego Churubusco, to quell protests. The
statue depicts Corts, Malinche and their son Martn.[46]
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
There is another statue by Sebastin Aparicio, in Cuer-
navaca, was in a hotel El casino de la selva. Corts is
barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest. The hotel
was closed to make a commercial center, and the statue
was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the
commercial center.[44]
Cultural depictions
Hernn Corts is a character in the opera La Conquista
(2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, which de-
picts the major episodes of the Spanish conquest of the
Aztec Empire in 1521.
Writings: the Cartas de Relacin
Corts personal account of the conquest of Mexico
is narrated in his ve letters addressed to Charles V.
These ve letters, the cartas de relacin, are Corts
only surviving writings. See Letters and Dispatches of
Corts, translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843);
Prescotts Conquest of Mexico (Boston, 1843); and
Sir Arthur Helpss Life of Hernando Cortes (London,
1871).[38]
As one specialist describes them:
The Cartas de relacin have enjoyed an
unequaled popularity among students of the
Conquest of Mexico. Corts was a good writer.
His letters to the emperor, on the conquest,
deserve to be classed among the best Spanish
documents of the period. They are, of course,
coloured so as to place his own achievements in
relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and
does not exaggerate, except in matters of In-
dian civilization and the numbers of population
as implied by the size of the settlements. Even
there he uses comparatives only, judging from
outward appearances and from impressions.
Historians, sociologists and political scien-
tists use them to glean information about the
1.9. HERNN CORTS
Aztec Empire and the clash between the Euro-
pean and Indian cultures. However, as early as
the 16th century doubt has been cast on the his-
toricity of these Conquest accounts. It is gener-
ally accepted that Corts does not write a true
history, but rather combines history with c-
tion. That is to say, in his narrative Corts ma-
nipulates reality in order to achieve his overar-
ching purpose of gaining the favor of the king.
Corts applies the classical rhetorical gure of
evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full
of vividness that moves the reader and cre-
ates a heightened sense of realism in his letters.
His rst letter is lost, and the one from the municipality
of Veracruz has to take its place. It was published for
the rst time in volume IV of Documentos para la His-
toria de Espaa, and subsequently reprinted. The rst
carta de relacin is available online at the University of He married twice: rstly in Cuba to Catalina Surez Mar-
Wisconsin.[47]
The Segunda Carta de Relacion, bearing the date of Oc-
tober 30, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522. The
third letter, dated May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in
1523. The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at
Toledo in 1525. The fth, on the Honduras expedition, is
contained in volume IV of the Documentos para la Histo-
ria de Espaa. The important letter mentioned in the text
has been published under the heading of Carta indita de
Corts by Ycazbalceta. A great number of minor docu-
ments, either by Corts or others, for or against him, are
dispersed through the voluminous collection above cited
and through the Coleccin de Documentos de Indias, as
well as in the Documentos para la Historia de Mxico of
Ycazbalceta. There are a number of reprints and transla-
tions of Cortss writings into various languages.[48][49]
1.9.12 Children
Natural children of Don Hernn Corts
doa Catalina Pizarro, born between 1514 and 1515
in Santiago de Cuba or maybe later in Nueva Espaa,
daughter of a Cuban woman, Leonor Pizarro. Doa
Catalina married Juan de Salcedo, a conqueror and
encomendero, with whom she had a son, Pedro.[50]
don Martn Corts, born in Coyoacn in 1522, son
of doa Marina (La Malinche), called the First
Mestizo; about him was written The New World of
Martn Corts; married doa Bernaldina de Porras
and had two children:
1.9.13 Ancestors
doa Ana Corts
don Fernando Corts, Principal Judge of Ancestors of Hernn Corts de Monroy y Pizarro,
Veracruz. Descendants of this line are alive 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca
today in Mexico.
83
don Luis Corts, born in 1525, son of doa An-
tonia or Elvira Hermosillo, a native of Trujillo
(Cceres)[51]
doa Leonor Corts Moctezuma, born in 1527 or
1528 in Ciudad de Mexico, daughter of Aztec
princess Tecuichpotzin (baptized Isabel), born in
Tenochtitlan on July 11, 1510 and died on July 9,
1550, the eldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma
II Xocoyotzin and wife doa Mara Miahuaxuchitl;
married to Juan de Tolosa, a Basque merchant and
miner.[52]
doa Mara Corts de Moctezuma, daughter of an
Aztec princess; nothing more is known about her
except that she probably was born with some defor-
mity.
caida, who died at Coyoacn in 1522 without issue, and
secondly in 1529 to doa Juana Ramrez de Arellano de
Ziga, daughter of don Carlos Ramrez de Arellano, 2nd
Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess doa Juana de
Ziga, and had:
don Luis Corts y Ramrez de Arellano, born in
Texcoco in 1530 and died shortly after his birth.
doa Catalina Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca
in 1531 and died shortly after her birth.
don Martn Corts y Ramrez de Arellano, 2nd Mar-
quis of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in
1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548 his
twice cousin once removed doa Ana Ramrez de
Arellano y Ramrez de Arellano and had issue, cur-
rently extinct in male line
doa Mara Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca
between 1533 and 1536, married to don Luis de
Quiones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna
doa Catalina Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca
between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla
after the funeral of her father
doa Juana Corts de Ziga, born in Cuernavaca
between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando
Enrquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of
Alcal de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and
6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue
84
1.9.14 See also
"Cortez the Killer", a song by Neil Young
History of Mexico
History of Mexico City
1.9.15 References
[1] For example, the English-language version of his letters is
called Hernn Corts: Letters from Mexico, etc.
[2] Machado, J. T. Montalvo, Dos Pizarros de Espanha aos
de Portugal e Brasil, Authors Edition, 1st Edition, Lisbon,
1970.
[3] Hernn Corts
[4] Hernan Corts
[5] Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed.
p.73
[6] Famous Hispanics: Hernn Corts. Coloquio.com. Re-
trieved 2009-07-23.
[7] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 4546
[8] Sanderson Beck, Corts in Mexico
[9] Bernard Grunberg, La folle aventure d'Hernan Corts", in
L'Histoire n322, JulyAugust 2007
[10] Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed.
p.75
[11] Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London:
Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
[12] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 5354
[13] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 82, 86
[14] Restall, Matthew (2003). Seven Myths of the Spanish
Conquest. Oxford University Press; Townsend, Camilla
(2003). Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on
the Conquest of Mexico. American Historical Review
108, no. 3: 659687.
[15] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 8889
[16] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 9192
[17] Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman
Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 108143
[18] Catholic Encyclopedia, Hernan Corts
[19] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press
1991.
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
[20] p. 3031 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony
Pagdens translation of Cortss letters Hernan Corts
letters from Mexico 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University
NotaBene books
[21] Grant of coat of arms to Hernando Corts, 1525
transcription and translation by J. Benedict Warren.
The Harkness Collection in the Library of Congress:
Manuscripts concerning Mexico. Washington DC: Library
of Congress 1974.
[22] Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Corts, and the Fall
of Old Mexico, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993, p.
579.
[23] Hugh Thomas, Conquest, pp. 580-82.
[24] Hugh Thomas, Conquest, cites documents from the resi-
dencia against Corts published by Ignacio Lpez Rayon,
Documentos para la historia de Mexico, Mexico, 1852-3
and the documentation in the Archivo General de Indias
(AGI), Justicia, leg. 220, . 316-42.
[25] Hugh Thomas, Conquest also included a summary of evi-
dence found in the AGI, Justicia, leg. 224, p. 1 (f.660v-
722r), which is found on p. 635.
[26] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press
1991, 145-148.
[27] Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Corts: The Life of the Con-
queror by His Secretary, Ed. and trans. Lesley Byrd Simp-
son. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964, p.
408.
[28] Hernn Corts, Letters from Mexico, translated and edited
by A.R. Pagden. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1971,
p. 333.
[29] Hernn Corts, Letters from Mexico, translated and edited
by A.R. Pagden. New York: Grossman Publishers,
1971,p. 334
[30] John Leddy Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Fran-
ciscans in the New World, chapter 3, Hernn Corts, the
Moses of the New World, Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, second edition, revised, 1971, pp. 33-34.
[31] Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, The Franciscan reply
(to the Dominicans) in Letters and People of the Spanish
Indies, Sixteenth Century, translated and edited by James
Lockhart and Enrique Otte. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1976 pp. 244-246.
[32] Bernardino de Sahagn, Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Re-
vision, translated by Howard F. Cline. Salt Lake City:
University of Utah Press, 1989.
[33] p34 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens
translation of Corts letters Hernan Corts letters from
Mexico 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene
books
[34] Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Corts al emperador Carlos
V (in Spanish). Everything2.com. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
[35] Charles V. Everything2.com. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
1.9. HERNN CORTS
[36] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, pp.146-47
[37] West,Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531-
1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter, ed. Mines of Silver and
Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Pub-
lishing Limited. pp. 59, 6162.
[38] Hernn Corts. Virtualology.com. 2001-04-02. Re-
trieved 2009-07-23.
[39] spanishtreasure. Students.ou.edu. Archived from the
original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[40] Sandra Arlinghaus. Naval Battle of Preveza, 1538. Per-
sonal.umich.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[41] Benjamin Keen, The Aztecs Image in Western Thought,
New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1971.
[42] Xavier Lpez Medelln: Los huesos de Hernn Corts.
Motecuhzoma.de. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[43] Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Per-
petrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of
Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II. World
Digital Library. 1620. Retrieved 2013-08-25.
[44] Reconocer a Corts por Leonardo Tarifeo. Letras Li-
bres. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[45] Recuerdos de Espaa en Mexico: Hernn Cortes. 2003-
02-05. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[46] Manuel M. Cascante, Corresponsal en Ciudad de Mxico
(2006-10-13). Corts y sus 9 entierros Domingos
Domingos. Abc.es. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[47] Ibero-American Electronic Text Series: Los Traba-
jos de Persiles y Sigismunda: Contents. Digi-
coll.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[48] Hernn Corts (14851547), Conqueror, Spain. Fa-
mous Hispanics. Coloquio. 2006.
[49] Catholic Encyclopedia: Hernando Cortes. Newad-
vent.org. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
[50] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain,, pp. 147, 235
[51] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, p. 147
[52] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press,
1991, pp. 195-96.
1.9.16 Related reading
Primary sources
Corts, Hernn. Letters available as Letters from
Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden. Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1986. ISBN 0-300-09094-3. Available
online in Spanish from an 1866 edition.
85
Daz del Castillo, Bernal. The Conquest of New
Spain available as The Discovery and Conquest of
Mexico: 15171521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X
Lpez de Gmara, Francisco. Hispania Victrix;
First and Second Parts of the General History of the
Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things
that have happened since they were acquired until
the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New
Spain University of California Press, 1966
Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mex-
ico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civ-
ilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando
Cortes
Last Will and Testament of Hernn Corts
Letter From Hernan Cortes to Charles the V
Hernn Corts Power of Attorney, 1526 From the
Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the
Library of Congress
Praeclara Ferdinandi Cortesii de noua maris oceani
Hyspania narratio sacratissimo... 1524. From the
Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the
Library of Congress
Secondary sources
Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and
the Last Stand of the Aztecs by Buddy Levy 2008
ISBN 978-0-553-80538-3
Myth and Reality: The Legacy of Spain in America
by Jesus J. Chao. Culture/Society Opinion. Febru-
ary 12, 1992. The Institute of Hispanic Culture of
Houston
Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America. 4th ed.
New York: University of California P, 1992.
Hernando Corts by Jacobs, W.J., New York,
N.Y.:Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974.
The Worlds Greatest Explorers: Hernando Corts.
Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago Press Inc.
1991.
Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The
Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of
Mexico. ngel Mara Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish
trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.),
Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated
ed.). Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-8.
Maura, Juan Francisco.Cobarda, falsedad y op-
portunismo espaol: algunas consideraciones sobre
la verdadera historia de la conquista de la Nueva
Espaa Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del
Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 129.
86 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Passuth, Lszl. The Rain God cries over Mexico 1.10 Lake Texcoco
Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Con-
quest Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19- This article is about the lake. For the pre-Columbian
516077-0 city-state, see Texcoco (altepetl). For the modern
municipality and city, see Texcoco, State of Mexico.
Hernando Corts by Fisher, M. & Richardson K.
Lake Texcoco (Spanish: Lago de Texcoco) was a natural
Hernando Corts Crossroads Resource Online. lake within the Anhuac or Valley of Mexico. Lake Tex-
coco is most well known as where the Aztecs built the city
The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov of Tenochtitlan, which was located on an island within the
(1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1 lake. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, ef-
forts to control ooding by the Spanish led to most of the
Thomas, Hugh (1993). Conquest: Corts, Mon-
lake being drained. The entire lake basin is now almost
tezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico ISBN 0-671-
completely occupied by Mexico City, the capital of the
51104-1
present-day nation of Mexico.
White, Jon Manchip. (1971) Corts and the Down-
fall of the Aztec Empire ISBN 0-7867-0271-0

1.9.17 External links 1.10.1 History

The letters by Corts, in which Corts describes the In the Pleistocene era, the lake occupied an even greater
events related to the conquest of Mexico area. There were several paleo-lakes that would con-
nect with each other from time to time. At the north
Genealogy of Hernn Corts in the modern community of San Miguel Tocuilla there
is a great paleontological eld, with a lot of pleistocenic
Origin of the Surname Corts fauna. The disarticulated remains of seven mammoths
dated between 10,220 75 and 12,615 95 years (BP)
Biography of Hernn Corts were found, suggesting human presence.[1]
The change of Hernn Corts self-image by means Agriculture around the lake began about 7,000 years
of the conquest ago,[2] with humans following the patterns of periodic in-
undations of the lake.
Hernando Cortes on the Web web directory with On the northeast side of the lake, between 1700 and 1250
thumbnail galleries BC, several villages appear. By 1250 BC, the identifying
signs of the Tlatilco culture, including more complex set-
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood website for tlements and a stratied social structure, are seen around
2001 PBS documentary the lake. By roughly 800 BC, Cuicuilco had eclipsed the
Tlatilco cultural centers and was the major power in the
Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented Valley of Mexico during the next 200 years, when its fa-
online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Col- mous conical pyramid was built. The Xitle volcano de-
lections Center. stroyed Cuicuilco around 30 AD, a destruction that may
have given rise to Teotihuacan.
Hernan Cortes The Conquistador of the Aztecs;
Informational Link Blog about the History of After the fall of Teotihuacan, 600800 AD, several other
Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources, city states appeared around the lake, including Xoloc,
pictures and educational resources Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan, Coyohuacan, Culhuacn, Chi-
malpa and Chimalhuacn mainly from Toltec and
Latin American studies center, material on Corts Chichimeca inuence. None of these predominated and
they coexisted more or less in peace for several centuries.
Fernand Cortez opera by Gaspare Spontini, Jean- This time was described as a Golden age in Aztec chron-
Paul Penin icles. By the year 1300, however, the Tepanec from
Azcapotzalco were beginning to dominate the area. If
Cortes, Hernando Belinda H. Nanney Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztec Empire, and
Mexico City the capital of Mexico, then Lake Texcoco is
Hernan Cortes, marques del Valle de Oaxaca, the Lake of the capitals, and therefore very important to
Encyclopdia Britannica Mesoamerican history.
1.10. LAKE TEXCOCO 87

1.10.2 Tenochtitlan an interconnected chain of ve major and several smaller

Main article: Tenochtitlan
According to a traditional story, the Mexica wandered in
the deserts of modern Mexico for 100 years before they
came to the thick forests of the place now called the Val-
ley of Mexico.
lakes (the other main lakes being Xaltocan, Zumpango,
Chalco and Xochimilco lakes). During periods of high
water levelstypically after the May-to-October rainy
seasonsthe lakes were often joined as one body of
water, at an average elevation of 2,242 metres (7,356
ft) above mean sea level. In the drier winter months
the lake system tended to separate into individual bod-
ies of water, a ow that was mitigated by the construc-
tion of dikes and causeways in the Late Postclassic pe-
riod of Mesoamerican chronology. Lake Texcoco was the
lowest-lying of all the lakes, and occupied the minimum
elevation in the valley so that water ultimately drained to-
wards it. The Valley of Mexico is a closed or endorheic
basin. Because there is no outow, evapotranspiration is
estimated to be 72-79% of precipitation.[3]

1.10.4 Articial drainage

Tenochtitlans location on Lake Texcoco, circa 1519

Tenochtitlan was founded on an islet in the western part of
the lake in the year 1325. Around it, the Aztecs created a
large articial island using a system similar to the creation
of chinampas. To overcome the problems of drinking wa-
ter, the Aztecs built a system of dams to separate the salty
waters of the lake from the rain water of the euents. It
also permitted them to control the level of the lake. The
city also had an inner system of channels that helped to
control the water.
Monument to Enrico Martinez in Mexico City
Mexico City suered from periodic oods; in 1604 the
lake ooded the city, with an even more severe ood fol-
lowing in 1607. Under the direction of Enrico Martnez,
a drain was built to control the level of the lake, but in
1629 another ood kept most of the city covered for ve
years. At that time, it was debated whether to relocate
the city, but the Spanish authorities decided to keep the
current location.

During Cortss siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the dams Eventually the lake was drained by the channels and a
were destroyed, and never rebuilt, so ooding became a tunnel to the Pnuco River, but even that could not stop
big problem for the new Mexico City built over Tenochti- oods, since by then most of the city was under the water
tlan. table. The ooding could not be completely controlled
until the twentieth century. In 1967, construction of the
Drenaje Profundo (Deep Drainage System), a network
1.10.3 Geography of several hundred kilometers of tunnels, was done, at a
depth between 30 and 250 metres (98 and 820 ft). The
The Valley of Mexico is a basin with an average elevation central tunnel has a diameter of 6.5 metres (21.3 ft) and
of 2,236 metres (7,336 ft) above mean sea level located carries rain water out of the basin.
in the southern highlands of Mexico's central altiplano. The ecological consequences of the draining were enor-
Lake Texcoco formerly extended over a large portion of mous. Parts of the valleys were turned semi-arid, and
the southern half of the basin, where it was the largest of even today Mexico City suers for lack of water. Due
88
to overdrafting that is depleting the aquifer beneath the
city, Mexico City is estimated to have dropped 10 meters
below sea level in the last century.[4] Furthermore, be-
cause soft lake sediments underlie most of Mexico City,
the city has proven vulnerable to soil liquefaction during
earthquakes, most notably in the 1985 earthquake when
hundreds of buildings collapsed and thousands of lives
were lost.[5]
The term Texcoco Lake now refers only to a big area
surrounded by salt marshes 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) east of
Mexico City, which covers the ancient lake bed. Also
there are small remnants of the lakes of Xochimilco,
Chalco, and Zumpango.
Several species indigenous to the lake are now extinct or
endangered (e.g. axolotls).
The modern Texcoco Lake has a high concentration of
salts and its waters are evaporated for their processing.
A Mexican company, Sosa Texcoco S.A has an 800-
hectare (2,000-acre) solar evaporator known as El cara-
col.
1.10.5 See also
History of Mexico City
Paleontological Museum in Tocuila
1.10.6 Notes
[1] Siebe et al. (1999)
[2] Niederberger (1979)
[3] Birkle, Peter (December 1998). The water balance for
the Basin of the Valley of Mexico and implications for fu-
ture water consumption. Hydrogeology Journal (6). Re-
trieved 10/3/2016. Check date values in: |access-date=
(help)
[4] Sample, Ian. Why is Mexico City sinking?".
Guardian. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
[5] Moreno Murillo, Juan Manuel (1995). The 1985 Mex-
ico Earthquake. Geosica Colombiana. Universidad Na-
cional de Colombia (3): 519. ISSN 0121-2974.
1.10.7 References
Agostini, Claudia (2003). Mon-
uments of Progress: Moderniza-
tion and Public Health in Mexico
City, 18761910. Latin American
and Caribbean series, no. 4 ISSN
1498-2366. Calgary and Boul-
der: University of Calgary Press
and University Press of Colorado.
ISBN 1-55238-094-7. OCLC
51495264.
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Archiga Crdoba, Ernesto (July
August 2004). El desage del
Valle de Mxico, siglos XVIXXI:
Una historia paradjica (PDF on-
line reproduction). Arqueologa
mexicana (in Spanish). Mx-
ico, D.F.: Instituto Nacional de
Antropologa e Historia, Editorial
Races. 12 (68): 6065. ISSN
0188-8218. OCLC 29789840.
Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaqun; Elaine
Johnston; Luis Morett A. (2001).
Mammoth bone technology at
Tocuila in the Basin of Mexico
(PDF online reproduction). In G.
Cavarretta; P. Gioia; M. Mussi;
M.R. Palombo (eds.). La Terra
degli Elefanti: atti del 1o Con-
gresso Internazionale = The World
of Elephants: proceedings of the
1st International Congress. 1st In-
ternational Congress the World
of Elephants, Rome, 1620 Oc-
tober 2001. Rome: Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche. pp. 419
423. ISBN 88-8080-025-6. OCLC
50419738.
Berdan, Frances F.; Blanton,
Richard E.; Boone, Elizabeth Hill;
Hodge, Mary G.; Smith, Michael
E.; Umberger, Emily (1996). Aztec
Imperial Strategies. Washington,
DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research
Library and Collection. ISBN
0-88402-211-0. OCLC 27035231.
Bradbury, John P. (March 1971).
Paleolimnology of Lake Texcoco,
Mexico. Evidence from Di-
atoms (PDF online reproduction).
The Limnology and Oceanography.
Waco, TX: American Society
of Limnology and Oceanog-
raphy. 16 (2): 180200.
doi:10.4319/lo.1971.16.2.0180.
ISSN 0024-3590. OCLC
1715910.
Daz del Castillo, Bernal (1963)
[1632]. The Conquest of New
Spain. Penguin Classics. J.
M. Cohen (trans.) (6th printing
(1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, Eng-
land: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-
044123-9. OCLC 162351797.
Joint Academies Committee on the
Mexico City Water Supply (1995).
Mexico Citys Water Supply: Im-
proving the Outlook for Sustainabil-
ity (published online). with the
1.11. MASSACRE IN THE GREAT TEMPLE
participation of the Water Science
and Technology Board, Commis-
sion on Geosciences, Environment,
and Resources, National Research
Council, Academia Nacional de la
Investigacin Cientca A.C. and
the Academia Nacional de In-
geniera, A.C. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press. ISBN
0-585-03773-6. OCLC 42330470.
(English) (Spanish)
Niederberger, Christine (1979-01-
12). Early Sedentary Economy
in the Basin of Mexico. Science.
Washington, DC: American As-
sociation for the Advancement of
Science. 203 (4376): 131142.
doi:10.1126/science.203.4376.131.
ISSN 0036-8075. OCLC
1644869. PMID 17834702.
Rojas Rabiela, Teresa (JulyAugust
2004). Las cuencas lacustres del
Altiplano Central (PDF online re-
production). Arqueologa mexi-
cana (in Spanish). Mxico, D.F.:
Instituto Nacional de Antropologa
e Historia, Editorial Races. 12
(68): 2027. ISSN 0188-8218.
OCLC 29789840.
Siebe, Claus; Peter Schaaf; Jaime
Urrutia-Fucugauchi (October
1999). Mammoth bones em-
bedded in a late Pleistocene
lahar from Popocatpetl volcano,
near Tocuila, central Mxico.
Geological Society of America
Bulletin. Boulder, CO: Geological
Society of America. 111 (10):
15501562. doi:10.1130/0016-
7606(1999)111<1550:MBEIAL>2.3.CO;2.
ISSN 0016-7606. OCLC
94209925.
1.10.8 External links
Agua y Subordinacin en la Cuenca del Ro Lerma
(Spanish)
Coordinates: 192510N 990800W / 19.41944N
99.13333W
1.11 Massacre in the Great Temple
The Massacre in the Great Temple of the Aztec capi-
tal Tenochtitlan was an episode in the Spanish conquest
89
of Mexico which happened on May 22nd, 1520; of the
Julian Calendar.[1][2]
While Hernn Corts was in Tenochtitlan, he heard about
other Spaniards arriving on the coast Pnlo de Narvez
had come from Cuba with orders to arrest him and
Corts was forced to leave the city to ght them. During
his absence, Moctezuma asked deputy governor Pedro de
Alvarado for permission to celebrate Toxcatl (an Aztec
festivity in honor of Tezcatlipoca, one of their main gods).
But after the festivities had started, Alvarado interrupted
the celebration, killing almost everyone present at the
festival, men, women, and children alike. The few who
managed to escape the massacre climbing over the walls
proceeded to inform the community of the treacherous
Spaniards atrocity.
The Spanish version of the incident claims the
conquistadors intervened to prevent a ritual of hu-
man sacrice in the Templo Mayor; the Aztec version
says the Spaniards were enticed into action by the gold
the Aztecs were wearing, prompting an Aztec rebellion
against the orders of Moctezuma. While diering so on
Alvarados specic motive, both accounts are in basic
agreement that the celebrants were unarmed and that the
massacre was without warning and unprovoked.
1.11.1 The Aztec account of the incident
This is part of the Aztec account:[3]:74-77
Here it is told how the Spaniards killed, they
murdered the Mexicans who were celebrating
the Fiesta of Huitzilopochtli in the place they
called The Patio of the Gods
At this time, when everyone was enjoying the
celebration, when everyone was already danc-
ing, when everyone was already singing, when
song was linked to song and the songs roared
like waves, in that precise moment the Spaniards
determined to kill people. They came into the
patio, armed for battle.
They came to close the exits, the steps, the en-
trances [to the patio]: The Gate of the Eagle in
the smallest palace, The Gate of the Canestalk
and the Gate of the Snake of Mirrors. And when
they had closed them, no one could get out any-
where.
Once they had done this, they entered the Sacred
Patio to kill people. They came on foot, carry-
ing swords and wooden and metal shields. Im-
mediately, they surrounded those who danced,
then rushed to the place where the drums were
played. They attacked the man who was drum-
ming and cut o both his arms. Then they cut
90
o his head [with such a force] that it ew o, 1.11.2 The Spaniards account of the inci-
falling far away.
At that moment, they then attacked all the peo-
ple, stabbing them, spearing them, wounding
them with their swords. They struck some
from behind, who fell instantly to the ground
with their entrails hanging out [of their bodies].
They cut o the heads of some and smashed the
heads of others into little pieces.
They struck others in the shoulders and tore their
arms from their bodies. They struck some in
the thighs and some in the calves. They slashed
others in the abdomen and their entrails fell to
the earth. There were some who even ran in
vain, but their bowels spilled as they ran; they
seemed to get their feet entangled with their own
entrails. Eager to ee, they found nowhere to
go.
Some tried to escape, but the Spaniards mur-
dered them at the gates while they laughed.
Others climbed the walls, but they could not
save themselves. Others entered the communal
house, where they were safe for a while. Oth-
ers lay down among the victims and pretended
to be dead. But if they stood up again they [the
Spaniards] would see them and kill them.
The blood of the warriors ran like water as they
ran, forming pools, which widened, as the smell
of blood and entrails fouled the air.
And the Spaniards walked everywhere, search-
ing the communal houses to kill those who were
hiding. They ran everywhere, they searched ev-
ery place.
When [people] outside [the Sacred Patio
learned of the massacre], shouting began, Cap-
tains, Mexicas, come here quickly! Come here
with all arms, spears, and shields! Our captains
have been murdered! Our warriors have been
slain! Oh Mexica captains, [our warriors] have
been annihilated!"
Then a roar was heard, screams, people wailed,
as they beat their palms against their lips.
Quickly the captains assembled, as if planned in
advance, and carried their spears and shields.
Then the battle began. [The Mexicas] attacked
them with arrows and even javelins, including
small javelins used for hunting birds. They fu-
riously hurled their javelins [at the Spaniards].
It was as if a layer of yellow canes spread over
the Spaniards. -- Visin de los Vencidos
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
dent
This is the Spaniards account:
Cortes wanted to entirely understand the cause
of the Indians rebellion. He interrogated them
[the Spaniards] altogether. Some said it was
caused by the message sent by Narvez, others
because the people wanted to toss the Spaniards
out of Mexico [Tenochtitlan], which had been
planned as soon as the ships had arrived, be-
cause while they were ghting they shouted Get
out!" at them. Others said it was to liberate
Moctezuma, for they fought saying, Free our
god and King if you don't want to die!" Still oth-
ers said it was to steal the gold, silver, and jewels
that the Spaniards had, because they heard the
Indians say, Here you shall leave the gold that
you have taken!" Again, some said it was to keep
the Tlaxcalans and other mortal enemies out of
Mexico. Finally, many believed that taking their
idols as gods, they had given themselves to the
devil.
Any of these things would have been enough to
cause the rebellion, not to mention all of them
together. But the principal one was that a few
days after Cortes left to confront Narvez, it be-
came time for a festival the Mexicas wanted to
celebrate in their traditional way. . . . They
begged Pedro de Alvarado to give them his per-
mission, so [the Spaniards] wouldn't think that
they planned to kill them. Alvarado consented
provided that there were no sacrices, no people
killed, and no one had weapons.
More than 600 gentlemen and several lords
gathered in the yard of the largest temple; some
said there were more than a thousand there.
They made a lot of noise with their drums,
shells, bugles, and hendidos, which sounded like
a loud whistle. Preparing their festival, they
were naked, but covered with precious stones,
pearls, necklaces, belts, bracelets, many jewels
of gold, silver, and mother-of-pearl, wearing
very rich feathers on their heads. They per-
formed a dance called the mazeualiztli, which
is called that because it is a holiday from work
[symbolized by the word for farmer, mace-
haulli]. . . . They laid mats in the patio of
the temple and played drums on them. They
danced in circles, holding hands, to the music
of the singers, to which they responded.
The songs were sacred, and not profane, and
were sung to praise the god honored in the fes-
tival, to induce him to provide water and grain,
1.12. MICTLANTECUHTLI 91

health, and victory, or to thank him for healthy The Conquest of Mexico: A Guide to the Digitized
children and other things. And those who knew Primary Sources
the language and these ceremonial rites said that
when the people danced in the temples, they
perform very dierent from those who danced
the netoteliztli, in voice, movement of the body,
1.12 Mictlantecuhtli
head, arms, and feet, by which they manifested
their concepts of good and evil. The Spaniards For the comic book character, see Mictlantecuhtli
called this dance, an areito, a word they brought (comics).
from the islands of Cuba and Santo Domingo. Mictlantecuhtli (Nahuatl pronunciation:

While the Mexica gentlemen were dancing in the

temple yard of Vitcilopuchtli [Huitzilopochtli],
Pedro de Alvarado went there. Whether on [the
basis of] his own opinion or in an agreement de-
cided by everyone, I don't know, but some say
he had been warned that the Indian nobles of
the city had assembled to plot the mutiny and
the rebellion, which they later carried out; oth-
ers, believe that [the Spaniards] went to watch
them perform this famous and praised dance,
and seeing how rich they were and wanting the
gold the Indians were wearing, he [Alvarado]
covered each of the entrances with ten or twelve
Spaniards and went inside with more than fty
[Spaniards], and without remorse and lacking
any Christian piety, they brutally stabbed and
killed the Indians, and took what they were
wearing.[4]

1.11.3 References
[1] El Calendario Mexica y la Cronografa. Rafael Tena 2008 Mictlantecuhtli Codex Borgia
INAH-CONACULTA p 48 108

[2] Revista de la Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico,

[miktantekt
i], meaning Lord of Mictlan), in
UNAM Volume 49, Issues 522-527 p 40 Aztec mythology, was a god of the dead and the
king of Mictlan (Chicunauhmictlan), the lowest and
[3] Len-Portilla, M. 1992, 'The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon northernmost section of the underworld. He was one
Press, ISBN 978-0807055014 of the principal gods of the Aztecs and was the most
prominent of several gods and goddesses of death and the
[4] Lpez de Gmara, Francisco (1887). Conquista de underworld. The worship of Mictlantecuhtli sometimes
Mjico. Barcelona: Biblioteca Clsica Espaola. involved ritual cannibalism, with human esh being
consumed in and around the temple.[1]
1.11.4 Primary sources Two life-size clay statues of Mictlantecuhtli were found
marking the entrances to the House of Eagles to the north
Hernn Corts, Letters available as Letters from of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan.[2]
Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986); ISBN
0-300-09094-3
Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Hispania Victrix; First
1.12.1 Attributes
and Second Parts of the General History of the In-
Mictlantecuhtli was depicted as a blood-spattered skele-
dies, with the whole discovery and notable things
ton or a person wearing a toothy skull.[4] Although his
that have happened since they were acquired until
head was typically a skull, his eye sockets did contain
the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New
Spain eyeballs.[5] His headdress was shown decorated with owl
feathers and paper banners, and he wore a necklace of
The Florentine Codex, compiled by Fr Bernardino human eyeballs,[4] while his earspools were made from
de Sahagn translated by Nancy Fitch: human bones.[6]
92 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

who were born on that day. He was seen as the source of

souls for those born on the sixth day of the 13-day week
and was the fth of the nine Night Gods of the Aztecs.
He was also the secondary Week God for the tenth week
of the twenty-week cycle of the calendar, joining the sun
god Tonatiuh to symbolise the dichotomy of light and
darkness.
In the Colonial Codex Vaticanus 3738, Mictlantecuhtli
is labelled in Spanish as the lord of the underworld,
Tzitzimitl, the same as Lucifer".[10]

Ceramic representation of Mictlantecuhtli recovered during ex-

cavations of the House of Eagles in the Templo Mayor, now on
display at the museum of the Templo Mayor in Mexico City.[3]

He was not the only Aztec god to be depicted in this fash-

ion, as numerous other deities had skulls for heads or else
wore clothing or decorations that incorporated bones and
skulls. In the Aztec world, skeletal imagery was a symbol
of fertility, health and abundance, alluding to the close
symbolic links between death and life.[7] He was often
depicted wearing sandals as a symbol of his high rank
as Lord of Mictlan.[8] His arms were frequently depicted
raised in an aggressive gesture, showing that he was ready
to tear apart the dead as they entered his presence.[8] In
the Aztec codices Mictlantecuhtli is often depicted with Statuette of Mictlantecuhtli in the British Museum.
his skeletal jaw open to receive the stars that descend into
him during the daytime.[6]
His wife was Mictecacihuatl,[4] and together they were 1.12.2 Myths
said to dwell in a windowless house in Mictlan. Mict-
lantecuhtli was associated with spiders,[6] owls,[6] bats,[6] In Aztec mythology, after Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca
the eleventh hour, and the northern compass direction, created the world, they put their creation in order and
known as Mictlampa, the region of death.[9] He was one placed Mictlantecuhtli and his wife in the underworld.[11]
of only a few deities held to govern over all three types According to Aztec legend, the twin gods Quetzalcoatl
of souls identied by the Aztecs, who distinguished be- and Xolotl were sent by the other gods to steal the bones
tween the souls of people who died normal deaths (of old of the previous generation of gods from Mictlantecuhtli.
age, disease, etc.), heroic deaths (e.g. in battle, sacrice
The god of the underworld sought to block Quetzalcoatls
or during childbirth), or non-heroic deaths. Mictlante- escape with the bones and, although he failed, he forced
cuhtli and his wife were the opposites and complements Quetzalcoatl to drop the bones, which were scattered and
of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, the givers of life.[3] broken by the fall. The shattered bones were collected by
Mictlanteculhtli was the god of the day sign Itzcuintli Quetzalcoatl and carried back to the land of the living,
(dog),[4] one of the 20 such signs recognised in the Aztec where the gods transformed them into the various races
calendar, and was regarded as supplying the souls of those of mortals.[12]
1.12. MICTLANTECUHTLI 93

When a person died, they were interred with grave goods,
which they carried with them on the long and dangerous
journey to the underworld. Upon arrival in Mictlan these
goods were oered to Mictlantecuhtli and his wife.[5]
[6] Fernndez 1992, 1996, p.142.
[7] Smith 1996, 2003, p.206.
[8] Matos Moctezuma & Solis Olgun 2002, p.434.
[9] Matos Moctezuma & Solis Olgun 2002, pp.54, 458.
[10] Klein 2000, pp.3-4.
[11] Read & Gonzlez 2000, pp.193, 223.
[12] Miller & Taube 1993, 2003, p.113. Read & Gonzlez
2000, p.224.

1.12.5 References
Fernndez, Adela (1996) [1992].
Dioses Prehispnicos de Mxico (in
Spanish). Mexico City: Panorama
Editorial. ISBN 968-38-0306-7.
OCLC 59601185.
Klein, Cecelia F. (2000). The
Devil and the Skirt: An icono-
graphic inquiry into the pre-
Hispanic nature of the tzitzimime.
Ancient Mesoamerica. Cambridge
University Press. 11: 126.
doi:10.1017/S0956536100111010.
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo;
Felipe Solis Olgun (2002). Aztecs.
London: Royal Academy of Arts.
ISBN 1-903973-22-8. OCLC
56096386.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (2003)
[1993]. An Illustrated Dictionary
of the Gods and Symbols of An-
cient Mexico and the Maya. Lon-
Statuette of Mictlantecuhtli in the Museo de Antropologa in don: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-
Xalapa, Mexico, 2001 500-27928-4. OCLC 28801551.
Read, Kay Almere; Jason Gonzlez
(2000). Handbook of Mesoamer-
1.12.3 See also ican Mythology. Handbooks of
world mythology series. Santa Bar-
Ah Puch bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-
85109-340-0. OCLC 43879188.
Maya death gods Smith, Michael E. (2003). The
Aztecs (second ed.). Malden,
Santa Muerte
MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publish-
Tzitzimitl ing. ISBN 0-631-23016-5. OCLC
48579073.
Smith, Michael E.; Jennifer B.
1.12.4 Notes Wharton; Jan Marie Olson (2003).
Aztec Feasts, Rituals and Mar-
[1] Smith et al. 2003, p.245. kets. In Tamara L Bray (ed.).
[2] Matos Moctezuma & Solis Olgun 2002, pp.60, 458. Archaeology and Politics of Food
and Feasting in Early States and
[3] Matos Moctezuma & Solis Olgun 2002, p.458. Empires. New York: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishing. pp.
[4] Miller & Taube 1993, 2003, p.113.
235270. ISBN 0-306-47730-0.
[5] Matos Moctezuma & Solis Olgun 2002, p.206. OCLC 52165853.
94 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

1.12.6 External links

Media related to Mictlantecuhtli at Wikimedia Commons

1.13 Moctezuma II
This name uses Spanish naming customs for indigenous
people: there is no family name, but the sole name is
Moctezuma.

Moctezuma II (c. 1466 29 June 1520), variant Aztec feather headdress attributed to Moctezuma II exhibited at
spellings include Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Mote- the Museo Nacional de Antropologa e Historia, Mxico
cuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl
texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma
the Young),[N.B. 1] was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner of the
Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. The rst image from the Codex Mendoza above, was composed
contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an attached
and Europeans took place during his reign, and he was earspool, a separate nosepiece and a speech scroll.[6]
killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of
Mexico, when conquistador Hernn Corts and his men
fought to escape from the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. Regnal number
During his reign the Aztec Empire reached its great- The Aztecs did not use regnal numbers; they were given
est size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded the retroactively by historians to more easily distinguish him
territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the from the rst Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I.[2]
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotec The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoy-
and Yopi people into the empire.[1] He changed the previ- otzin, while the rst was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina
ous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened or Huehuemotecuhzoma (Old Moctezuma). Xocoyotzin
the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (IPA: [okojotsin]) means honored young one (from
(commoners) by prohibiting commoners from working in xocoyotl [younger son] + sux "-tzin added to nouns
the royal palaces.[1] or personal names when speaking about them with defer-
The portrayal of Moctezuma in history has mostly been ence [7] ).
colored by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, and many The descriptions of the life of Moctezuma are full of con-
sources describe him as weak-willed and indecisive. The tradictions, and thus nothing is known for certain about
biases of some historical sources make it dicult to un- his personality and rule.[8]
derstand his actions during the Spanish invasion.[2]

Bernal Daz del Castillo

1.13.1 Family
The rsthand account of Bernal Daz del Castillo's True
Moctezuma had many wives and concubines but only History of the Conquest of New Spain paints a portrait of a
two women were his Queens Tlapalizquixochtzin and noble leader who struggles to maintain order in his king-
Teotlalco. He was also a King Consort of Ecatepec be- dom after he is taken prisoner by Hernn Corts. In his
cause Tlapalizquixochtzin was Queen of that city. rst description of Moctezuma, Daz del Castillo writes:
His many children included Princess Isabel Moctezuma The Great Montezuma was about forty years old, of
and sons Chimalpopoca (not to be confused with the good height, well proportioned, spare and slight, and not
previous huey tlatoani) and Tlaltecatzin.[3] very dark, though of the usual Indian complexion. He
did not wear his hair long but just over his ears, and he
had a short black beard, well-shaped and thin. His face
1.13.2 Name was rather long and cheerful, he had ne eyes, and in his
appearance and manner could express geniality or, when
The Nahuatl pronunciation of his name is necessary, a serious composure. He was very neat and
[moteksoma]. It is a compound of a noun mean- clean, and took a bath every afternoon. He had many
ing lord and a verb meaning to frown in anger, and women as his mistresses, the daughters of chieftains, but
so is interpreted as he is one who frowns like a lord[4] two legitimate wives who were Caciques[N.B. 2] in their
or he who is angry in a noble manner.[5] own right, and only some of his servants knew of it. He
1.13. MOCTEZUMA II 95

ple needed to have a scapegoat for the Aztec defeat, and

Moctezuma naturally fell into that role.[10]

Hernn Corts

Moctezuma II, from Historia de la conquista de Mxico by

Antonio de Solis
Moctezuma II, from Le vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes il-
was quite free from sodomy. The clothes he wore one day lustres, Pars 1584
he did not wear again till three or four days later. He had
a guard of two hundred chieftains lodged in rooms beside Unlike Bernal Daz, who was recording his memories
his own, only some of whom were permitted to speak to many years after the fact, Corts wrote his Cartas de
him. (Daz del Castillo 1568/1963: 22425) relacin (Letters from Mexico) to justify his actions to the
Spanish Crown. His prose is characterized by simple de-
When Moctezuma was allegedly killed by being stoned to scriptions and explanations, along with frequent personal
death by his own people Corts and all of us captains and addresses to the King. In his Second Letter, Corts de-
soldiers wept for him, and there was no one among us that scribes his rst encounter with Moctezuma thus:
knew him and had dealings with him who did not mourn
him as if he were our father, which was not surprising,
Mutezuma [sic] came to greet us and with
since he was so good. It was stated that he had reigned
him some two hundred lords, all barefoot and
for seventeen years, and was the best king they ever had
dressed in a dierent costume, but also very
in Mexico, and that he had personally triumphed in three
rich in their way and more so than the oth-
wars against countries he had subjugated. I have spoken
ers. They came in two columns, pressed very
of the sorrow we all felt when we saw that Montezuma
close to the walls of the street, which is very
was dead. We even blamed the Mercederian friar for not
wide and beautiful and so straight that you can
having persuaded him to become a Christian. (Daz del
[9] see from one end to the other. Mutezuma
Castillo 1568/1963: 294)
came down the middle of this street with two
chiefs, one on his right hand and the other on
Bernardino de Sahagn his left. And they were all dressed alike ex-
cept that Mutezuma wore sandals whereas the
The Florentine Codex, made by Bernardino de Sahagn others went barefoot; and they held his arm
and his native informants of Tenochtitlan-subjugated on either side. (Translation: Anthony Pagden
Tlatelolco, generally portrays Tlatelolco and Tlatelolcan 1986:84)[11]
rulers in a favorable light relative to the Tenocha, and
Moctezuma in particular is depicted unfavorably as a Corts truthfulness and motives have been called into
weak-willed, superstitious, and indulgent ruler (Restall question by many scholars. Anthony Pagden[12] and Eu-
2003). Historian James Lockhart suggests that the peo- lalia Guzmn (Relaciones de Hernn Corts 1958:279)[13]
96
have pointed the Biblical messages that Corts seems to
ascribe to Moctezumas retelling of the legend of Quet-
zalcoatl as a vengeful Messiah who would return to rule
over the Mexica. Pagden has written that There is no
preconquest tradition which places Quetzalcoatl in this
role, and it seems possible therefore that it was elaborated
by Sahagn and Motolina from informants who them-
selves had partially lost contact with their traditional tribal
histories (Pagden 1986:467)
Fernando Alvarado Tezozmoc
Fernando Alvarado Tezozmoc, who wrote the Crnica
Mexicayotl, was a grandson of Moctezuma II and his
chronicle mostly relates the genealogy of the Aztec
rulers. He describes Moctezumas issue and counts that
Moctezuma had nineteen children eleven sons and eight
daughters.[14]
1.13.3 Depiction in early post-conquest lit-
erature
Moctezumas Palace from the Codex Mendoza (1542)
Some of the Aztec stories about Moctezuma describe him
as being fearful of the Spanish newcomers, and some
sources, such as the Florentine Codex, comment that the
Aztecs believed the Spaniards to be gods and Corts to be
the returned god Quetzalcoatl. The veracity of this claim
is dicult to ascertain, though some recent ethnohisto- Ethnohistorian Susan Gillespie has argued that the Nahua
rians specialising in early Spanish/Nahua relations have understanding of history as repeating itself in cycles
discarded it as post-conquest mythicalisation.[15] also led to a subsequent rationalization of the events of
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Much of the idea of Corts being seen as a deity can
be traced back to the Florentine Codex, written some 50
years after the conquest. In the codexs description of the
rst meeting between Moctezuma and Corts, the Aztec
ruler is described as giving a prepared speech in classi-
cal oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which as described verba-
tim in the codex (written by Sahagns Tlatelolcan infor-
mants) included such prostrate declarations of divine or
near-divine admiration as, You have graciously come on
earth, you have graciously approached your water, your
high place of Mexico, you have come down to your mat,
your throne, which I have briey kept for you, I who used
to keep it for you, and, You have graciously arrived,
you have known pain, you have known weariness, now
come on earth, take your rest, enter into your palace, rest
your limbs; may our lords come on earth. While some
historians such as Warren H. Carroll consider this as ev-
idence that Moctezuma was at least open to the possi-
bility that the Spaniards were divinely sent based on the
Quetzalcoatl legend, others such as Matthew Restall ar-
gue that Moctezuma politely oering his throne to Corts
(if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may
well have been meant as the exact opposite of what it was
taken to mean, as politeness in Aztec culture was a way to
assert dominance and show superiority.[16] Other parties
have also propagated the idea that the Native Americans
believed the conquistadors to be gods, most notably the
historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Gernimo
de Mendieta.[17] Bernardino de Sahagn, who compiled
the Florentine Codex, was also a Franciscan priest.
Indigenous accounts of omens and Moctezumas be-
liefs
Bernardino de Sahagn (14991590) includes in Book
12 of the Florentine Codex eight events said to have oc-
curred prior to the arrival of the Spanish. These were pur-
portedly interpreted as signs of a possible disaster, e.g. a
comet, the burning of a temple, a crying ghostly woman,
and others. Some speculate that the Aztecs were partic-
ularly susceptible to such ideas of doom and disaster be-
cause the particular year in which the Spanish arrived co-
incided with a tying of years ceremony at the end of a
52-year cycle in the Aztec calendar, which in Aztec be-
lief was linked to changes, rebirth and dangerous events.
The belief of the Aztecs being rendered passive by their
own superstition is referred to by Matthew Restall as part
of The Myth of Native Desolation to which he dedi-
cates chapter 6 in his book Seven Myths of the Spanish
Conquest.[18] These legends are likely a part of the post-
conquest rationalization by the Aztecs of their defeat, and
serve to show Moctezuma as indecisive, vain, and super-
stitious, and ultimately the cause of the fall of the Aztec
Empire.[10]
1.13. MOCTEZUMA II 97

the conquests. In this interpretation the description of
Moctezuma, the nal ruler of the Aztec Empire prior
to the Spanish conquest, was tailored to t the role of
earlier rulers of ending dynastiesfor example Quetzal-
coatl, the mythical last ruler of the Toltecs.[19] In any case
it is within the realm of possibility that the description of
Moctezuma in post-conquest sources was colored by his
role as a monumental closing gure of Aztec history.
exchanged gifts. Moctezuma gave Corts the gift of an
Aztec calendar, one disc of crafted gold and another of
silver. Corts later melted these down for their material
value (Daz del Castillo 1963: 21619).
Host and prisoner of the Spaniards

1.13.4 Contact with the Spanish

See also: Hernn Corts, Spanish conquest of the Aztec

Empire, and Fall of Tenochtitlan

First interactions with the Spanish

Meeting place of Moctezuma and Hernn Corts

Moctezuma captured and imprisoned by Corts

In 1517, Moctezuma received the rst reports of Euro-

Moctezuma brought Corts to his palace where the
peans landing on the east coast of his empire; this was the
Spaniards lived as his guests for several months.
expedition of Juan de Grijalva who had landed on San
Moctezuma continued to govern his empire and even un-
Juan de Ula, which although within Totonac territory
dertook conquests of new territory during the Spaniards
was under the auspices of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma
stay at Tenochtitlan.
ordered that he be kept informed of any new sightings of
foreigners at the coast and posted extra watch guards to At some time during that period Moctezuma became a
accomplish this. (Daz del Castillo 1963: 220). prisoner in his own house. Exactly why this happened
is not clear from the extant sources. The Aztec nobility
When Corts arrived in 1519, Moctezuma was immedi-
reportedly became increasingly displeased with the large
ately informed and he sent emissaries to meet the new-
Spanish army staying in Tenochtitlan, and Moctezuma
comers; one of them known to be an Aztec noble named
told Corts that it would be best if they left. Shortly there-
Tentlil in the Nahuatl language but referred to in the writ-
after Corts left to ght Pnlo de Narvez and during
ings of Corts and Bernal Daz del Castillo as Tendile.
his absence the Massacre in the Great Temple turned the
As the Spaniards approached Tenochtitlan they made an
tense situation between the Spaniards and Aztecs into di-
alliance with the Tlaxcalteca, who were enemies of the
rect hostilities, and Moctezuma became a hostage used
Aztec Triple Alliance, and they helped instigate revolt
by the Spaniards to assure their security.[N.B. 3]
in many towns under Aztec dominion. Moctezuma was
aware of this and he sent gifts to the Spaniards, proba-
bly in order to show his superiority to the Spaniards and Death
Tlaxcalteca.[20]
On 8 November 1519, Moctezuma met Corts on the In the subsequent battles with the Spaniards after Corts
causeway leading into Tenochtitlan and the two leaders return, Moctezuma was killed. The details of his death
98 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

the twelve-volume Florentine Codex the account in

Spanish and Nahuatl is accompanied by illustrations by
natives. One is of the death of Moctezuma II, which the
indigenous assert was due to the Spaniards. According
to the Codex the bodies of Moctezuma and Itzquauhtzin
were cast out of the Palace by the Spanish; the body of
Moctezuma was gathered up and cremated at Copulco.

1.13.5 Aftermath

The Spaniards were forced to ee the city and they took

refuge in Tlaxcala, and signed a treaty with them to con-
quer Tenochtitlan, oering to the Tlaxcalans freedom
from any kind of tribute and the control of Tenochtitlan.
Moctezuma was then succeeded by his brother
Cuitlhuac, who died shortly after during a smallpox
epidemic. He was succeeded by his adolescent nephew,
Cuauhtmoc. During the siege of the city, the sons
of Moctezuma were murdered by the Aztec, possibly
because they wanted to surrender. By the following
year, the Aztec empire had fallen to an army of Spanish
and their Indian allies, primarily Tlaxcalans who were
traditional enemies of the Aztecs.
Following the conquest, Moctezumas daughter Techich-
potzin (or Tecuichpoch) became known as Isabel
Moctezuma. She was given a large estate by Corts,
Death and cremation of Moctezuma as depicted in the Florentine
Codex, Book 12
who also fathered a child by her, Leonor Corts
Moctezuma.[22][23] Isabel was married and widowed by a
conqueror in Cortss original group, Alonso Grado (died.
ca. 1527) and poblador (a Spaniard who had arrived after
are unknown, with dierent versions of his demise given the fall of Tenochtitlan), Pedro Gallego (died ca. 1531),
by dierent sources. and conqueror Juan Cano, who survived her.[24]
In his Historia, Bernal Daz del Castillo states that on 1
July 1520, the Spanish forced Moctezuma to appear on
the balcony of his palace, appealing to his countrymen 1.13.6 Descendants in Mexico and the
to retreat. The people were appalled by their emperors Spanish nobility
complicity and pelted him with rocks and darts. He died
a short time after that. Bernal Daz gives this account: Moctezuma had many wives and concubines by whom
he fathered an enormous family. Though the exact num-
Barely was the emperors speech to his subjects nished
ber of his children is unknown and the names of most of
when a sudden shower of stones and darts descended. his children were lost to history, according to a Spanish
Our men who had been shielding Montezuma had mo-
chronicler, by the time he was taken captive, Moctezuma
mentarily neglected their duty when they saw the attack had fathered 100 children (including dozens of sons)
cease while he spoke to his chiefs. Montezuma was hit by and fty of his wives and concubines were then in some
three stones, one on the head, one on the arm, and one on stage of pregnancy, though this estimate may have been
the leg; and though they begged him to have his wounds exaggerated.[25] As Aztec culture made class distinctions
dressed and eat some food and spoke very kindly to him, between the children of senior wives, lesser wives, and
he refused. Then quite unexpectedly we were told that he concubines, not all of his children were considered equal
was dead.[21] in nobility or inheritance rights.
Corts similarly reported that Moctezuma was stabbed by Of his many wives may be named the princesses Teitlalco,
his countrymen. On the other hand, the indigenous ac- Acatlan, and Miahuaxochitl, of whom the rst named
counts claim that he was killed by the Spanish prior to appears to have been the only legitimate consort. By
their leaving the city. her he left a son, Asupacaci, who fell during the Noche
Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagn recorded Triste, and a daughter, Tecuichpo, baptized as Isabel,
two versions of the conquest of Mexico from the married consecutively to Quauhtemotzin (the last Mex-
Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco viewpoint. In Book 12 of ican sovereign), to visitador general Alonso Grado, to
1.13. MOCTEZUMA II 99

Engraving of Hernan Cortes, 19th century.

Duke, thus becoming Duke of Moctezuma, with de Tul-

tengo again added in 1992 by Juan Carlos I.
Descendants of Pedro Tesifn de Moctezuma included
(through an illegitimate child of his son Diego Luis)
General Jernimo Girn-Moctezuma, 3rd Marquis de las
Anonymous portrait of Moctezuma II, 17th century Amarilas (1741-1819), a 9th generation descendant of
Moctezuma II, who was commander of the Spanish forces
at the Battle of Fort Charlotte, and his grandson, Fran-
cisco Javier Girn y Ezpeleta, 2nd es:Ducado de Ahu-
Pedro Andrade Gallego, and to Juan Cano de Saave-
mada and 5th marqus de las Amarillas who was the
dra. She had children by the latter two, from whom de-
founder of the Guardia Civil in Spain.[28]
scend the illustrious families of Andrade-Montezuma and
Cano-Montezuma. By the Princess Acatlan were left two Other holders of Spanish noble titles that descend from
[29]
daughters, baptized as Maria and Marina (also known as the Aztec emperor include Dukes of Atrisco.
Leonor). The latter alone left ospring, from whom de- Isabel Moctezuma was by Hernn Corts the mother of
scends the Sotelo-Montezuma family.[26] Leonor Corts Moctezuma who was the mother of Isabel
Several lines of descendants exist in Mexico and Spain de Tolosa Corts de Moctezuma.
through Moctezuma IIs son and daughters, notably A nephew of Moctezuma II was Diego de Alvarado
Tlacahuepan Ihualicahuaca, or Pedro Moctezuma and Huanitzin.
Tecuichpoch Ixcaxochitzin, or Isabel Moctezuma.
The grandson of Moctezuma II, Pedros son, Ihuite-
motzin, baptized as Diego Luis de Moctezuma, was 1.13.7 Native American mythology and
brought to Spain by King Philip II. There he married folklore
Francisca de la Cueva de Valenzuela.[27] In 1627, their
son Pedro Tesifn de Moctezuma was given the title Many Native American peoples are reported to worship
Count of Moctezuma (later altered to Moctezuma de Tul- deities named after the Aztec ruler, and often a part of
tengo), and thus became part of the Spanish nobility. the myth is that someday the deied Moctezuma shall
In 1766, the holder of the title became a Grandee of return to vindicate his people. In Mexico the modern
Spain. In 1865 (coincidentally during the Second Mexi- day Pames, the Otomi, Tepehun, Totonac and Nahua
can Empire) the title, which was held by Antonio Mara peoples are reported to worship earth deities named after
Moctezuma-Marcilla de Teruel y Navarro, 14th Count Moctezuma.[30] The name also appears in Tzotzil Maya
of Moctezuma de Tultengo, was elevated to that of a ritual in Zinacantn where dancers dressed as a raingod
100 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

are called Moctezumas[31]

Hubert Howe Bancroft, writing in the 19th century (Na-
tive Races, Volume #3), speculated that the name of the
historical Aztec Emperor Moctezuma had been used to
refer to a combination of dierent cultural heroes who
were united under the name of a particularly salient rep-
resentative of Native American identity.

1.13.8 Symbol of indigenous leadership

Montezuma II
Map showing the expansion of the Aztec empire through conquest.
The conquests of Moctezuma II are marked by the colour green
(based on the maps by Ross Hassig in Aztec Warfare) Montezuma refers to the Battle of Chapultepec in Mex-
ico City during the MexicanAmerican War, 184648.
As a symbol of resistance towards Spanish the name of
Moctezuma has been invoked in several indigenous re- Montezuma is mentioned in Neil Young's song "Cortez
bellions. the Killer", from the 1975 album Zuma (the title of which
is also believed to have come from Montezuma). The
One such example was the rebellion of the Virgin Cult in Aztec empire also served as the backdrop of the song.
Chiapas in 1721, where the followers of the Virgin Mary
rebelled against the Spanish after having been told by an Cuauhtmoc Moctezuma Brewery, a brewery of
apparition of the virgin that Moctezuma would be resus- Heineken International found in Monterrey, Mexico, is
citated to assist them against their Spanish oppressors. In named after Montezuma II and his nephew, Cuauhtmoc.
the Quisteil rebellion of the Yucatec Maya in 1761 the Montezuma Castle and Montezuma Well, 13th century
rebel leader Jacinto Canek reportedly called himself Lit- Puebloan ruins in central Arizona, were named by 19th
tle Montezuma.[32] century American pioneers who mistakenly thought they
were built by the Aztecs.

1.13.9 Portrayals and cultural references
The Mexican emperor is the title character in several
18th-century operas: Motezuma (1733) by Antonio Vi-
valdi; Motezuma (1771) by Josef Mysliveek; Montezuma
(1755) by Carl Heinrich Graun; and Montesuma (1781)
by Niccol Antonio Zingarelli. He is also the subject of
Roger Sessions' opera Montezuma (1963), and the protag-
onist in the modern opera La Conquista (2005) by Italian
composer Lorenzo Ferrero, where his part is written in
the Nahuatl language.
Moctezuma (spelled Montezuma) is portrayed in Lew
Wallace's rst novel The Fair God (1873). He is por-
trayed as inuenced by the belief that Cortes was Quetzal-
coatl returned, and weak and indecisive, saving the con-
quistadores from certain defeat in one battle by ordering
the Aztecs to stop.[33]
The Marines Hymn's opening line From the Halls of
Moctezuma River and Mount Moctezuma, a volcano in
Mexico City, are named after him.
Montezuma is a playable ruler for the Aztec in several of
the video games of the Civilization series.
Several species of animals and plants such as Montezuma
quail, Montezuma oropendola, Argyrotaenia montezumae
and Pinus montezumae have been named after him.
Montezumas Revenge is a colloquialism for travelers di-
arrhea in visitors to Mexico. The urban legend states
that Montezuma II initiated the onslaught of diarrhea on
gringo travelers to Mexico in retribution for the slaugh-
ter and subsequent enslavement of the Aztec people by
Hernn Corts on Aug 13, 1521.[34]
1.13.10 See also
Historic recurrence
1.13. MOCTEZUMA II
Moctezuma I
Montezumas headdress
Qualpopoca
1.13.11 Notes
[1] Classical Nahuatl: Motuczma Xcoytzin
[moteksoma okojotsin] [21] Daz del Castillo (1963, p. 294)
[2] Cacique is a hispanicized word of Caribbean origins,
meaning hereditary lord/chief or "(military) leader.
After rst encountering the term and oce in the
Caribbean, conquest-era writers such as Daz often used
it to describe indigenous rulers generally.
[3] See the account of Moctezumas captivity, as given in Daz
del Castillo (1963, pp. 245299).
1.13.12 References
[1] Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec warfare: imperial expansion
and political control. Civilization of the American Indian
series, no. 188. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
p. 231. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1. OCLC 17106411.
[2] Williamson, Edwin (1992). The Penguin history of Latin
America. New York: Penguin Books. p. 18. ISBN 0-14-
012559-0. OCLC 29998568.
[3] Gonzlez-Obregn, Luis (1992). Las Calles de Mxico
(1st ed.). Ciudad de Mxico, DF: Editorial Porra. ISBN
968-452-299-1.
[4] Andrews, J. Richard (2003) [1975]. Introduction to Clas-
sical Nahuatl. Revised Edition. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press. p. 599.
[5] Brinton, Daniel G. (1890). Ancient Nahuatl Poetry.
[6] British Museum Exhibition Guide for Moctezuma: Aztec
Ruler (2009)
[7] http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/index.lasso
[8] adjunctprofessor.tripod.com/bravehorseswarriors/id53.html
[9] The Conquest of New Spain. Bernal Daz del Castillo.
Translated by J.M. Cohen, New York: Penguin, 1963.
[10] Lockhart 1993, pp. 1719
[11] Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Translated by
Anthony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986.
[12] Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico. Translated by An-
thony Pagden. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1986:467.
[13] Guzman, Eulalia. Relaciones de Hernan Cortes a Carlos V
sobre la invasion de Anhuac. Vol. I. Mexico, 1958.
[14] Tezozomoc, Fernando Alvarado, 1992 (1949), Crnica
Mexicayotl, Translated by Adrin Len, UNAM, Mxico
[15] Restall 2003, chapter 6
101
[16] Restall, 2003, p. 97
[17] Martnez 1980
[18] Restall, 2003, chapter 6
[19] Gillespie, 1989, Chapter 5.
[20] Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest.
Oxford University Press (2003), ISBN 0-19-516077-0
[22] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, The Encomenderos of New
Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press
1991, p.196.
[23] Donald E. Chipman, Moctezumas Children: Aztec Royalty
Under Spanish Rule, 1520-1700. Austin: University of
Texas Press 2005, p. 68.
[24] Robert Himmerich y Valencia, ibid. p.195, 134-35.
[25] Sweet, David G. & Gary B. Nash, Luis (1981). Strug-
gle and Survival in Colonial America (1st ed.). Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04110-
0., page 215
[26] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1883) History of Mexico, Vol. L
1516-1521.
[27] Project MUSE. Muse.jhu.edu. Retrieved 16 November
2009.
[28] A Descendant of Moctezuma at the Battle of Mo-
bile, 1780. Book-smith.tripod.com. 4 January 2001.
Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved
16 November 2009.
[29] Chipman, Donald E (2005). Moctezumas children:
Aztec royalty under Spanish rule, 15201700. ISBN
978-0-292-70628-6.
[30] Gillespie 1989:16566
[31] Bricker,1981:1389
[32] Bricker,1981:73
[33] Wallace, Lew (1873). The Fair God or the Last of the
'Tzins. New York: Grosset and Dunlap.
[34] http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/
aztec-capital-falls-to-corts
1.13.13 Further reading
Gonzlez-Obregn, Luis (1992).
Las Calles de Mxico (1st ed.). Ciu-
dad de Mxico, DF: Editorial Por-
ra. ISBN 968-452-299-1.
Hajovsky, Patrick Thomas. On the
Lips of Others: Moteuczomas Fame
in Aztec Monuments and Rituals.
Austin: University of Texas Press
2015.
102
Lockhart, James (ed. and trans.)
(1993);We People Here: Nahuatl
Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico.
Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Martnez, Jose Luis (1980).
Gernimo de Mendieta. Estu-
dios de Cultura Nahuatl, UNAM,
Mexico. 14: 131197.
Phelan, John Leddy (1970) [1956].
The Millennial Kingdom of the
Franciscans in the New World: A
Study of the Writings of Gern-
imo de Mendieta (15251604) (2nd
edition, revised ed.). Berke-
ley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-01404-9. OCLC
88926.
Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The
Aztecs (2nd edition, revised ed.).
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN
0-500-28132-7. OCLC 43337963.
Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The
Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predeces-
sors: Archaeology of Mesoamer-
ica (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA:
Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-
739065-0. OCLC 25832740.
Bueno Bravo,Isabel (2006).
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin y Hernn
Corts: dos visiones de una misma
realidad (PDF). Revista Espaola
de Antropologa Americana. 36
(2): 1737. (Spanish)
Graulich, Michel (1994). Mon-
tezuma ou lapoge et la chute de
lempire aztque (in French). Paris:
Fayard.
Vazquez Chamorro, Germn
(1981). Las reformas socio-
econmicas de Motecuhzoma II.
Revista espaola de antropologa
americana (in Spanish). 11:
207218. ISSN 0556-6533.
Vazquez Chamorro, Germn
(2006). Moctezuma (in Spanish).
EDAF. ISBN 978-84-96107-53-3.
McEwan Colin and Leonardo
Lpez Lujn (eds) (2009).
Moctezuma Aztec Ruler. London:
The British Museum Press.
1.13.14 External links
A reconstructed portrait of Motecuhzoma Xocoy- arid southern Europe, especially on Malta, where they
otzin, based on historical sources, in a contemporary grow all over the islands, in the south-east of Spain, and
style.
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
"Montezuma I.". Appletons Cyclopdia of Ameri-
can Biography. 1900.
1.14 Opuntia
Opuntia is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.
The most common culinary species is the Indian g op-
untia (O. cus-indica). Most culinary uses of the term
prickly pear refer to this species. Prickly pears are
also known as tuna (fruit), sabra, nopal (paddle, plural
nopales) from the Nahuatl word npalli for the pads, or
nostle, from the Nahuatl word nchtli for the fruit; or pad-
dle cactus.
The genus is named for the Ancient Greek city of Opus,
where, according to Theophrastus, an edible plant grew
which could be propagated by rooting its leaves.[1]
1.14.1 Distribution
Like all true cactus species, prickly pears are native only
to the Americas, but they have been introduced to other
parts of the globe. Prickly pear species are found in abun-
dance in Mexico, especially in the central and western re-
gions, and in the Caribbean islands (West Indies). In the
United States, prickly pears are native to many areas of
the arid Western United States, including the lower ele-
vations of the Rocky Mountains, where species such as
Opuntia phaeacantha and Opuntia polyacantha become
dominant, and to the desert Southwest, where several
types are endemic. Prickly pear cactus is also native to
coastal beach scrub environments and low open areas of
the East Coast from Florida to Connecticut/Long Island
(Opuntia humifusa).
Opuntia species are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland
cacti, extending into western and southern Canada; one
subspecies, O. fragilis var. fragilis, has been found grow-
ing along the Beatton River in central British Columbia,
southwest of Cecil Lake at 56 17 N latitude and 120 39
W longitude.[2] Prickly pears also produce a fruit, com-
monly eaten in Mexico and in the Mediterranean region,
known as tuna; it also is used to make aguas frescas. The
fruit can be red, wine-red, green, or yellow-orange.
The rst introduction of prickly pears into Australia is
ascribed to Governor Philip and the earliest colonists in
1788. Brought from Brazil to Sydney, prickly pear grew
in Sydney, New South Wales, where they were rediscov-
ered in a farmers garden in 1839. They appear to have
spread from New South Wales and caused great ecolog-
ical damage in the eastern states. They are also found in
the Mediterranean region of Northern Africa, especially
in Tunisia, where they grow all over the countryside, and
can be found in enormous numbers in parts of South
1.14. OPUNTIA 103

Africa, where it was introduced from South America. Chollas

Main article: Cylindropuntia

1.14.2 Description Chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genus

Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical,
rather than attened, stem segments with large barbed
spines. The stem joints of several species, notably the
jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida), are very brittle
on young stems, readily breaking o when the barbed
spines stick to clothing or animal fur as a method of
vegetative reproduction. The barbed spines can remain
embedded in the skin, causing discomfort and sometimes
injury. Collectively, opuntias, chollas, and related plants
are sometimes called opuntiads.[4]

Growth (image gallery)

1.14.3 Taxonomy
When Carl Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in 1753
the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature
he placed all the species of cactus known to him in one
genus, Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanist Philip Miller
divided cacti into several genera, including Opuntia. He
distinguished the genus largely on the form of its owers
and fruits.[5]

Selected species

Opuntia hybridizes readily between species.[6] This can

Typical habitus of an Opuntia with fruit make classication dicult. Also, not all species listed
here may actually belong in this genus.

Prickly pears typically grow with at, rounded cladodes

(also called platyclades) armed with two kinds of spines;
large, smooth, xed spines and small, hairlike prickles
called glochids, that easily penetrate skin and detach from
the plant.
In the Galpagos Islands, six dierent species are found:
O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O. saxi-
cola, and O. megasperma. These species are divided into
14 dierent varieties; most of these are conned to one or
a few islands. For this reason, they have been described
as an excellent example of adaptive radiation".[3] On the
whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tor-
toises, and islands lacking tortoises have low or prostrate
forms of Opuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of
food for the common giant tortoises in the Galpagos is- Opuntia cochenillifera
lands so they are important in the food web.
Charles Darwin was the rst to note that these cacti have Opuntia aciculata Chenille prickly pear , old mans
thigmotactic anthers: when the anthers are touched, they whiskers, cowboys red whiskers
curl over, depositing their pollen. This movement can Opuntia anacantha
be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia
ower. The same trait has evolved convergently in other Opuntia arenaria Dune pricklypear; Diploid
cacti (e.g. Lophophora). (2n=22)
104 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Little prickly pear

Opuntia fragilis
Pinkavas prickly pear (Opuntia pinkavae), named in honor of
Donald John Pinkava

Opuntia oricola

Panhandle prickly pear

Opuntia polyacantha

Opuntia ovata

Opuntia articulata

Opuntia atrispina
Opuntia humifusa growing in Ottawa, IL
Opuntia auberi
Opuntia basilaris Beavertail cactus; Diploid
Opuntia aurantiaca (2n=22)
Opuntia aurea Hexaploid (2n=66) Opuntia boldinghii
1.14. OPUNTIA 105

Opuntia echios

Opuntia echios var. gigantea Galpagos

prickly pear, Galpagos Islands

Opuntia elata

Opuntia elatior Mill. syn. O. bergeriana

Opuntia engelmannii Engelmanns prickly pear,

cows-tongue prickly pear, desert prickly pear, dis-
cus prickly pear, Texas prickly pear, calico cactus;
Hexaploid (2n=66)

Opuntia erinacea Tetraploid (2n=44)

Opuntia robusta owers Opuntia exaltata

Opuntia excelsa

Opuntia cus-barbarica

Opuntia cus-indica Indian g opuntia

Opuntia fragilis little prickly pear, brittle cactus,

found in the Great Plains and as far west as British
Columbia

Opuntia galapageia

Opuntia gosseliniana violet prickly pear

Opuntia gosseliniana var. santa-rita Santa

Rita prickly pear
Opuntia stenopetala
Opuntia helleri

Opuntia chaeyi Opuntia hickenii

Opuntia chlorotica pancake prickly pear; native to Opuntia humifusa eastern prickly pear (sometimes
southwest USA and the Sonoran and Mojave deserts; included in O. compressa); Tetraploid (2n=44)
Diploid (2n=22)
Opuntia hyptiacantha
Opuntia clavata
Opuntia inamoema K. Schum. quip
Opuntia cochenillifera
Opuntia insularis
Opuntia comonduensis
Opuntia invicta syn. Corynopuntia invicta, Grusonia
Opuntia curvospina Tetraploid (2n=44) invicta
Opuntia cymochila Grassland prickly pear; One of Opuntia jamaicensis
the most common species found on the Great Plains
of the United States Opuntia laevis

Opuntia decumana Opuntia lasiacantha

Opuntia decumbens nopal de culebra Opuntia leucotricha arborescent prickly pear,

Aarons beard cactus, semaphore cactus, Duraznillo
Opuntia dejecta blanco, nopal blanco
Opuntia diploursina - Found around Grand Canyon Opuntia lindheimeri cowtongue prickly pear
and Lake Mead National Recreation Area; Diploid
(2n=22) Opuntia littoralis coastal prickly pear, sprawling
prickly pear
Opuntia echinocarpa - see Cylindropuntia
echinocarpa Opuntia longispina
106 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Opuntia macrocentra black-spine prickly pear, Opuntia rastrera

purple prickly pear, found in southwest USA and
northern Mexico Opuntia repens

Opuntia macrorhiza Plains prickly pear, found Opuntia robusta

throughout the Great Plains except for the northern- Opuntia ruda (sometimes included in O. micro-
most areas (not found in North Dakota), and extend- dasys)
ing sporadically eastward as far as Kentucky, syn. O.
leptocarpa MacKensen, O. tenuispina Engelm., O. tor- Opuntia schumannii
tispina Engelm. & Bigelow; Tetraploid (2n=44)
Opuntia soehrensii
Opuntia matudae xoconostle (syn. Opuntia jo-
Opuntia stenopetala (syn. O. riviereana Backeb.)
conostle)
Opuntia streptacantha
Opuntia maldonandensis
Opuntia stricta erect prickly pear, spineless prickly
Opuntia maxima
pear
Opuntia megacantha
Opuntia subulata found in South America
Opuntia megarrhiza
Opuntia sulphurea
Opuntia microdasys bunny ears cactus, polka-dot
Opuntia taylori
cactus
Opuntia tehuantepecana nopal de caballo
Opuntia monacantha common prickly pear
Opuntia tomentosa woollyjoint prickly pear
Opuntia nichollii - Distributed throughout much of
the Colorado Plateau, from Grand Canyon north Opuntia triacantha
to Price, Utah and east to the Colorado border;
Hexaploid (2n=66) Opuntia trichophora Diploid (2n=22)

Opuntia oricola Opuntia tuna

Opuntia ovata Opuntia velutina

Opuntia paraguayensis Opuntia violacea

Opuntia phaeacantha tulip prickly pear, in-

cludes plateau prickly pear, brown-spined prickly
pear, Mojave prickly pear, Kingman prickly pear;
Hexaploid (2n=66)

Opuntia picardoi

Opuntia pinkavae Pinkavas prickly pear; Octo-

ploid (2n=88)

Opuntia polyacantha Panhandle prickly pear,

found in the Great Plains, Great Basin, Mojave
Desert, Colorado Plateau, and the Rocky Moun-
tains, syn. O. rhodantha K.Schum.; Tetraploid
(2n=44)
An Opuntia in front of a jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida)
Opuntia polyacantha var. arenaria (syn. O.
erinacea)
Formerly in Opuntia
Opuntia pubescens (syn. O. pascoensis Britton &
Rose)
Austrocylindropuntia
Opuntia pusilla creeping cactus, syn. O. drum- Brasiliopuntia
mondii Graham
Corynopuntia
Opuntia quitensis Red Buttons opuntia (syn. O.
macbridei, O. johnsonii, Platyopuntia quitensis) Cylindropuntia
1.14. OPUNTIA 107

Disocactus phyllanthoides (as Opuntia speciosa) Nutrient content Opuntia has modest content of
essential nutrients as assessed by the amount of Daily
Micropuntia Value (DV) provided in a 100 g portion, with only dietary
Miqueliopuntia ber (14% DV), vitamin C (23% DV) and the dietary
mineral, magnesium (21% DV) having signicant con-
tent (USDA table of measured nutrients, right).
1.14.4 Ecology
Opuntia spreads into large clonal colonies, which con-
tributes to its being considered a noxious weed in some
places.[6]
Prickly pears (mostly Opuntia stricta) were originally im-
ported into Australia in the 18th century for gardens,
and were later used as a natural agricultural fencing[7]
and in an attempt to establish a cochineal dye industry.
They quickly became a widespread invasive weed, even-
tually converting 101,000 sq mi (260,000 km2 ) of farm-
ing land into an impenetrable green jungle of prickly
pear, in places 20 ft (6.1 m) high. Scores of farmers
were driven o their land by what they called the green
hell"; their abandoned homes were crushed under the cac- Prickly pear fruit for sale at a market, Zacatecas, Mexico
tus growth, which advanced at a rate of 1,000,000 acres
(4,046.9 km2 ; 1,562.5 sq mi) per year.[7] In 1919, the Regional food uses The fruit of prickly pears, com-
Australian federal government established the Common- monly called cactus fruit, cactus g, Indian[8] g,
wealth Prickly Pear Board to coordinate eorts with state nopales[9] or tuna in Spanish,[10] is edible, although it
governments to eradicate the weed. Early attempts at must be peeled carefully to remove the small spines on
mechanical removal and poisonous chemicals failed, so the outer skin before consumption. If the outer layer is
in a last resort, biological control was attempted.[7] The not properly removed, glochids can be ingested, causing
moth Cactoblastis cactorum, from South America, the lar- discomfort of the throat, lips, and tongue, as the small
vae of which eat prickly pear, was introduced in 1925 spines are easily lodged in the skin. Native Americans,
and rapidly reduced the cactus population. The son of like the Tequesta, would roll the fruit around in a suit-
the noted entomologist Frederick Parkhurst Dodd, Alan able medium (e.g. grit) to "sand" o the glochids. Al-
Dodd, was a leading ocial in combating the prickly pear ternatively, rotating the fruit in the ame of a campre
menace. A memorial hall in Chinchilla (Queensland) or torch has been used to remove the glochids. Today,
commemorates the moth.[7] parthenocarpic (seedless) cultivars are also available.
The same moth, introduced accidentally further north of In Mexico, prickly pears are often used to make ap-
its native range into southern North America, is causing petizers, soups, and salads through entrees, vegetable
serious damage to some native species in that area. dishes, and breads to desserts, beverages, candy, jelly, or
Other animals that eat Opuntia include the prickly pear drinks.[9][11][12] The young stem segments, usually called
island snail and Cyclura rock iguanas. The fruit are rel- nopales, are also edible in most species of Opuntia.[9]
ished by many arid land animals, chiey birds, which thus They are commonly used in Mexican cuisine in dishes
help distribute the seeds. Opuntia pathogens include the such as huevos con nopales (eggs with nopal), or tacos de
sac fungus Colletotrichum coccodes and Sammons Opun- nopales. Nopales are also an important ingredient in New
tia virus. The ant Crematogaster opuntiae and the spider Mexican cuisine.[9]
Theridion opuntia are named because of their association Opuntia cus-indica has been introduced to Europe, and
with prickly pear cacti. ourishes in areas with a suitable climate, such as the
south of France and southern Italy: In Sicily they are
referred to as chi d'India (Italian literal translation of
1.14.5 Uses
Indian g) or curinia (Sicilian dialect literal transla-
Main article: Nopal tion of Indian g). In Sardinia they are called gu-
morisca - Moorish gs). They can be found also in
the Struma River in Bulgaria, in southern Portugal and
Madeira (where they are called tabaibo, go tuno or In-
As food dian gs), in Andalusia, Spain ( where they are known
as higos chumbos). In Greece, it grows in such places as
Edible varieties See: List of edible cacti the Peloponnese region, Ionian Islands, or Crete, and its
gs are known as frangosyka (Frankish, i.e. Western Eu-
108 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

ropean, gs) or pavlosyka (Pauls gs), depending on the

region. In Albania, they are called q deti translated as
'sea gs, and are present in the south-west shore. The
gs are also grown in Cyprus, where they are known as
papoutsosyka or babutsa (cactus gs).
The prickly pear also grows widely on the islands of
Malta, where it is enjoyed by the Maltese as a typical
summer fruit (known as bajtar tax-xewk, literally 'spiny
gs), as well as being used to make the popular liqueur
known as bajtra.[13] In Egypt, it is known as teen shouky.
The prickly pear is so commonly found in the Maltese is-
lands, it is often used as a dividing wall between many of
Maltas characteristic terraced elds in place of the usual
rubble walls. The prickly pear was introduced to Eritrea
during the period of Italian colonisation between 1890 Close-up image of prickly pear fruit: Apart from the large spines,
note the glochids (the ne prickles, or bristles) that readily dis-
and 1940. It is locally known there as beles and is abun-
lodge and may cause skin and eye irritation.
dant during the late summer and early autumn (late July
through September). The beles from the holy monastery
of Debre Bizen is said to be particularly sweet and juicy. In dye production
In Libya, it is a popular summer fruit and called by the
locals Hindi, which literally means Indian. Main article: Cochineal
In Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Dactylopius coccus is a scale insect from which cochineal
other parts of the Middle East, prickly pears of the yel-
low and orange varieties are grown by the side of farms,
beside railway tracks and other otherwise non-cultivable
land. It is sold in summer by street vendors, and is con-
sidered a refreshing fruit for that season.
Tungi is the local St. Helenian name for cactus pears. The
plants (Indian g opuntia) were originally brought to the
island by the colonial ivory traders from East Africa in the
1850s. Tungi cactus now grows wild in the dry coastal
regions of the island. Three principal cultivars of tungi
grow on the island: the 'English' with yellow fruit; the
'Madeira' with large red fruit; and the small, rm 'spiny
red'.Tungi also gives its name to a local Spirit distilled
at The St Helena distillery at Alarm Forest, the most re-
mote distillery in the world, made entirely from the op-
untia cactus.

Traditional Zapotec nest farming of the cochineal scale insect

on O. cus-indica, Oaxaca

dye is derived. D. coccus itself is native to tropical and

Phytochemicals and folk medicine subtropical South America and Mexico. This insect, a
primarily sessile parasite, lives on cacti from the genus
Opuntia, feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cac-
Opuntia contains a range of phytochemicals in variable tus sap. The insect produces carminic acid, which deters
quantities, such as polyphenols, dietary minerals and predation by other insects. The carminic acid can be ex-
betalains.[14][15] Identied compounds under basic re- tracted from the insects body and eggs to make the red
search include gallic acid, vanillic acid and catechins, as dye.
examples.[14] The Sicilian prickly pear contains betalain, Cochineal is used primarily as a red food colouring and
betanin, and indicaxanthin, with highest levels in their for cosmetics.[9] The cochineal dye was used by the Aztec
fruits.[16] and Maya peoples of Central and North America. Pro-
In Mexican folk medicine, its pulp and juice are con- duced almost exclusively in Oaxaca, Mexico, by indige-
sidered treatments for wounds and inammation of the nous producers, cochineal became Mexicos second-most
digestive and urinary tracts.[17] valued export after silver.[18] The dyestu was consumed
1.14. OPUNTIA 109

throughout Europe, and was so highly valued, its price madic tribe, were wandering throughout Mexico in search
was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam of a divine sign to indicate the precise spot upon which
Commodity Exchanges. they were to build their capital. Their god Huitzilopochtli
Now, the highest production of cochineal is by Peru, the had commanded them to nd an eagle devouring a snake,
Canary Islands, and Chile. Current health concerns over perched atop a cactus that grew on a rock submerged in
articial food additives have renewed the popularity of a lake. After 200 years of wandering, they found the
cochineal dyes, and the increased demand is making cul- promised sign on a small island in the swampy Lake Tex-
tivation of the insect an attractive opportunity in other re- coco. There they founded their new capital, Tenochtitlan.
The cactus (O. cus-indica; Nahuatl: tenochtli), full of
gions, such as in Mexico, where cochineal production had
declined again owing to the numerous natural enemies of fruits, is the symbol for the island of Tenochtitlan.
the scale insect.[19]
Apart from cochineal, the red dye betanin can be ex-
tracted from some Opuntia plants themselves.[9]

For earthen walls

Fluid (cactus juice) extracted from Opuntia pads and

stems, especially O. cus-indica, is one of the most com-
monly used additives in earthen plaster.

For water treatment

The esh (mucilage) of the cactus has been found to pu-

rify water.[20] A project at the University of South Florida
is investigating its potential for low-cost, large-scale wa-
ter purication.[21]

1.14.6 In culture
The coat of arms of Malta from 1975 to 1988

The 19751988 version of the coat of arms of Malta also

featured a prickly pear, along with a traditional dgajsa,
a shovel and pitchfork, and the rising sun.[22]
In Arabic, the cactus is called ubbr; the related
term sabr also translates to patience or tenacity.[23]
The cactus g is called tsabar (Hebrew: )in Hebrew.
This cactus is also the origin of the term sabra used to
describe a Jew born in Israel. The allusion is to a thorny,
spiky skin on the outside, but a soft, sweet interior, sug-
gesting, though the Israeli sabras are rough on the out-
side, they are sweet and sensitive once one gets to know
them.[24][25]
The prickly pear cactus has been used for centuries both
as a food source and a natural fence that keeps in live-
stock and marks the boundaries of family lands.[9] They
The coat of arms of Mexico are resilient and often grow back following removal.[9]
The cactus lends its name to a song by British
See also: Coat of arms of Mexico jazz/classical group Portico Quartet. The song My Ri-
val, on the album Gaucho by the American jazz-pop
The coat of arms of Mexico depicts a Mexican golden group Steely Dan begins with the words, The[26] wind was
eagle, perched upon an Opuntia cactus, holding a driving in my face/The smell of prickly pear.
rattlesnake. According to the ocial history of Mexico, In the fall of 1961, Cuba had its troops plant an 8-mile
the coat of arms is inspired by an Aztec legend regard- (13 km) barrier of Opuntia cactus along the northeastern
ing the founding of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs, then a no- section of the 28-kilometre (17 mi) fence surrounding the
110
Guantanamo Bay Naval Base to stop Cubans from escap- [14] Guzmn-Maldonado, S. H.; Morales-Montelongo,
ing Cuba to take refuge in the United States.[27] This was A. L.; Mondragn-Jacobo, C.; Herrera-Hernndez,
dubbed the Cactus Curtain, an allusion to Europe's Iron G.; Guevara-Lara, F.; Reynoso-Camacho, R. (2010).
[28]
Curtain and the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia. Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Functional Charac-
1.14.7 See also
Cactus fries a deep-fried food prepared from Op-
untia pads
Prickly pears in Australia
1.14.8 References
[1] Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of
Plant Names. III M-Q. CRC Press. p. 1885. ISBN 978-
0-8493-2677-6.
[2] Cota-Snchez (2002)
[3] Fitter, Fitter, and Hosking, Wildlife of the Galapagos
(2000)
[4] http://www.opuntiads.com
[5] Miller, Philip (1754). "Opuntia". The Gardeners Dictio-
nary (4th ed.). London: John & James Rivington. Re-
trieved 2014-06-13.
[6] Grith, M. P. (2004). The origins of an important cac-
tus crop, Opuntia cus-indica (Cactaceae): New molec-
ular evidence. American Journal of Botany. 91 (11):
19151921. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.11.1915.
[7] Patterson, Ewen K. 1936. The Worlds First Insect
Memorial. The Review of the River Plate, December
pp. 1617
[8] Originally meaning "Native American", though the
specic epithet, cus-indica, means "g from India".
Note also Ficus benghalensis which is both a true g tree
and from South Asia.
[9] Prickly pear cactus production. University of
California-Davis, Small Farm Center. 1989. Retrieved
23 December 2015.
[10] Grigson, Jane. Jane Grigsons Fruit Book, 2007, U of Ne-
braska Press, p. 380. ISBN 0-8032-5993-X
[11] Midey, Connie (May 31, 2005). A magical plant. The
Arizona Republic. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
[12] Jarman, Max (October 11, 2005). Hand crafted hooch:
Prickly pear vodka from Flagsta. The Arizona Repub-
lic. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
[13] http://www.timesofmalta.com/
articles/view/20030320/local/
i-zeppis-bajtra-i-the-liqueur-from-the-prickly-pear-fruit.
154122
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
terization of Fruits Xoconostle (Opuntia matudae) Pears
from Central-Mxico Region. Journal of Food Science.
75 (6): C485. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01679.x.
PMID 20722901.
[15] Butera D, et al. (2002). Antioxidant activities of si-
cilian prickly pear (Opuntia cus indica) fruit extracts
and reducing properties of its betalains: betanin and in-
dicaxanthin. J Agric Food Chem. 50 (23): 6895901.
doi:10.1021/jf025696p. PMID 12405794.
[16] Butera, Daniela; Luisa Tesoriere; Francesca Di Gaudio;
Antonino Bongiorno; Mario Allegra; Anna Maria Pin-
taudi; Rohn Kohen; Maria A. Livrea (2002). Antioxi-
dant activities of sicilian prickly pear (Opuntia cus in-
dica) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its be-
talains: betanin and indicaxanthin. Journal of Agri-
cultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (23): 68956901.
doi:10.1021/jf025696p. PMID 12405794.
[17] Frati AC, Xilotl Daz N, Altamirano P, Ariza R, Lpez-
Ledesma R (1991). The eect of two sequential doses
of Opuntia streptacantha upon glycemia. Archivos De In-
vestigacin Mdica. 22 (3-4): 3336. PMID 1844121.
[18] Behan (1995)
[19] Portillo M. & Vigueras G. (1988)
[20] Spinner, Kate. Desert cactus has secret talent for pu-
rifying water. Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved 30
November 2013.
[21] O'Brien, Miles. Cactus esh cleans up toxic water.
National Science Foundation. Retrieved 30 November
2013.
[22] Bonello, Giovanni (8 May 2011). Maltas three national
emblems since independence whats behind them?".
Times of Malta. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[23] Tamir, Tally (1999). The Shadow of Foreignness: On the
Paintings of Asim Abu-Shakra. Palestine-Israel Journal.
6 (1).
[24] Almog, Oz. 2000. The Sabra the Creation of the New Jew.
The S. Mark Taper Foundation imprint in Jewish studies.
Berkeley: University of California Press
[25] Over here and over there. The Economist, 2006-NOV-16.
Retrieved 2007-OCT-16.
[26] LYRICS | GAUCHO (1980)". Steely Dan.
[27] Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and Ecological Crises.
Trade and Environment Database. American University.
Retrieved 2009-04-19.
[28] Yankees Besieged. Time. 1962-03-16.
1.15. QUETZALCOATL 111

1.14.9 Bibliography
Behan, Je (1995): The bug that changed history.
Boatmans Quarterly Review 8(2). HTML fulltext

Bwititi P, Musabayane CT, Nhachi CF (March

2000). Eects of Opuntia megacantha on blood
glucose and kidney function in streptozotocin di-
abetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 69
(3): 24752. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00123-
3. PMID 10722207.

Cota-Snchez, J. Hugo (2002): Taxonomy, distribu-

tion, rarity status and uses of Canadian Cacti. Hasel-
tonia 9: 1725 Google Scholar PDF abstract

Frati-Munari AC, Fernndez-Harp JA, de la Riva

H, Ariza-Andraca R, del Carmen Torres M (1983).
Efecto del nopal (Opuntia sp.) sobre los lpidos
sricos la glucemia y el peso corporal [Eects of
nopal (Opuntia sp.) on serum lipids, glycemia and Quetzalcoatl as depicted in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis
body weight]. Archivos De Investigacin Mdica (in
Spanish). 14 (2): 11725. PMID 6314922.

Ott, Jonathan (1995): In: Ayahuasca Analogues:

Pangaean Entheogens.

Pittler MH, Verster JC, Ernst E (December 2005).

Interventions for preventing or treating alco-
hol hangover: systematic review of randomised
controlled trials. BMJ. 331 (7531): 15158.
doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1515. PMC 1322250 .
PMID 16373736.

Portillo, M.; Liberato; Vigueras, G.; Lilia, Ana

(1988). Natural Enemies of Cochineal (Dactylop-
ius coccus Costa): Importance in Mexico (PDF).
Journal of the Professional Association for Cactus
Development. 3: 4349.

Rayburn, Keith M.D.; Martinez, Rey; Escobedo, Quetzalcoatl in feathered serpent form as depicted in the Codex
Telleriano-Remensis
Miguel; Wright, Fred; Farias, Maria (1998).
Glycemic Eects of Various Species of Nopal (Op-
untia sp.) in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Texas Jour-
Spanish pronunciation: [ketsalkoat]) (Classical Nahu-
nal of Rural Health. 16 (1): 6876. forms part of
atl: Quetzalcohutl [ketsakowat ]
Trenary, Klaus (1997): Visionary Cactus Guide: Mesoamerican literature and is a deity whose name
Opunita [sic]. Retrieved 2007-OCT-15. comes from the Nahuatl language and means feathered
serpent.[2] The worship of a feathered serpent is rst
Wiese J, McPherson S, Odden MC, Shlipak known documented in Teotihuacan in the rst century
MG (June 2004). Eect of Opuntia cus BC or rst century AD.[3] That period lies within the Late
indica on symptoms of the alcohol hangover. Preclassic to Early Classic period (400 BC 600 AD) of
Archives of Internal Medicine. 164 (12): 1334 Mesoamerican chronology, and veneration of the gure
40. doi:10.1001/archinte.164.12.1334. PMID appears to have spread throughout Mesoamerica by the
15226168. Late Classic period (600900 AD).[4]
In the Postclassic period (9001519 AD), the worship of
the feathered serpent deity was based in the primary Mex-
1.15 Quetzalcoatl ican religious center of Cholula. It is in this period that
the deity is known to have been named Quetzalcoatl by
For other uses, see Quetzalcoatl (disambiguation). his Nahua followers. In the Maya area he was approx-
Quetzalcoatl (English pronunciation: /ktslkotl/; imately equivalent to Kukulkan and Gukumatz, names
112 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

that also roughly translate as feathered serpent in dif- 1.15.1 Feathered serpent deity in
ferent Mayan languages. Mesoamerica
Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec god of wind and learning, wears
around his neck the wind breastplate ehecailacocoz- Main article: Feathered Serpent (deity)
catl, the spirally voluted wind jewel made of a conch
shell. This talisman was a conch shell cut at the cross- A feathered serpent deity has been worshiped by many
section and was likely worn as a necklace by religious dierent ethno-political groups in Mesoamerican history.
rulers, as they have been discovered in burials in ar- The existence of such worship can be seen through stud-
chaeological sites throughout Mesoamerica, and poten- ies of iconography of dierent Mesoamerican cultures,
tially symbolized patterns witnessed in hurricanes, dust in which serpent motifs are frequent. On the basis of the
devils, seashells, and whirlpools, which were elemental dierent symbolic systems used in portrayals of the feath-
forces that had meaning in the Aztec mythology. In codex ered serpent deity in dierent cultures and periods, schol-
drawings showing Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl, both are pic- ars have interpreted the religious and symbolic meaning
tured wearing an ehecailacocozcatl around each of their of the feathered serpent deity in Mesoamerican cultures.
necks.[5] There has also been at least one major cache of
oerings with knives and idols adorned with the symbols
of more than one god, some of which were adorned with Iconographic depictions
wind jewels.[6]
In the era following the 16th-century Spanish Conquest
of Mexico, a number of sources were written that con-
ate Quetzalcoatl with Ce Acatl Topiltzin, a ruler of the
mythico-historic city of Tollan. It is a matter of much
debate among historians to which degree, or whether
at all, these narratives about this legendary Toltec ruler
describe historical events.[7] Furthermore, early Span-
ish sources written by clerics tend to identify the god-
ruler Quetzalcoatl of these narratives with either Hernn
Corts or Thomas the Apostlean identication which
is also a source of diversity of opinions about the nature
of Quetzalcoatl.[8]
Among the Aztecs, whose beliefs are the best-
documented in the historical sources, Quetzalcoatl
Feathered Serpent head at the Ciudadela complex in Teotihuacan
was related to gods of the wind, of the planet Venus, of
the dawn, of merchants and of arts, crafts and knowledge.
The earliest iconographic depiction of the deity is be-
He was also the patron god of the Aztec priesthood,
lieved to be found on Stela 19 at the Olmec site of La
of learning and knowledge.[9] Quetzalcoatl was one of
Venta, depicting a serpent rising up behind a person prob-
several important gods in the Aztec pantheon, along
ably engaged in a shamanic ritual. This depiction is be-
with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli.
lieved to have been made around 900 BC. Although prob-
Two other gods represented by the planet Venus are
ably not exactly a depiction of the same feathered ser-
Quetzalcoatls ally Tlaloc who is the god of rain, and
pent deity worshipped in classic and post-classic periods,
Quetzalcoatls twin and psychopomp, who is named
it shows the continuity of symbolism of feathered snakes
Xolotl.
in Mesoamerica from the formative period and on, for ex-
Animals thought to represent Quetzalcoatl include ample in comparison to the Mayan Vision Serpent shown
resplendent quetzals, rattlesnakes (coatl meaning serpent below.
in Nahuatl), crows, and macaws. In his form as Ehecatl he
The rst culture to use the symbol of a feathered ser-
is the wind, and is represented by spider monkeys, ducks,
pent as an important religious and political symbol was
and the wind itself.[10] In his form as the morning star,
Teotihuacan. At temples such as the aptly named Quet-
Venus, he is also depicted as a harpy eagle.[11] In Mazatec
zalcoatl temple in the Ciudadela complex, feathered ser-
legends, the astrologer deity Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, who
pents gure prominently and alternate with a dierent
is also represented by Venus, bears a close relationship
kind of serpent head. The earliest depictions of the feath-
with Quetzalcoatl.[12]
ered serpent deity were fully zoomorphic, depicting the
serpent as an actual snake, but already among the Classic
Maya the deity began acquiring human features.
In the iconography of the classic period Maya serpent
imagery is also prevalent: a snake is often seen as the
embodiment of the sky itself, and a vision serpent is a
1.15. QUETZALCOATL 113

Interpretations

Temple of the Feathered Serpent at Xochicalco, adorned with a

fully zoomorphic feathered Serpent.

On the basis of the Teotihuacan iconographical depic-

tions of the feathered serpent, archaeologist Karl Taube
has argued that the feathered serpent was a symbol of
fertility and internal political structures contrasting with
the War Serpent symbolizing the outwards military ex-
pansion of the Teotihuacan empire.[13] Historian Enrique
Florescano also analysing Teotihuacan iconography ar-
gues that the Feathered Serpent was part of a triad of
agricultural deities: the Goddess of the Cave symboliz-
ing motherhood, reproduction and life, Tlaloc, god of
Vision Serpent depicted on lintel 15 from Yaxchilan. rain, lightning and thunder and the feathered serpent, god
of vegetational renewal. The feathered serpent was fur-
thermore connected to the planet Venus because of this
planets importance as a sign of the beginning of the rainy
shamanic helper presenting Maya kings with visions of season. To both Teotihuacan and Mayan cultures, Venus
the underworld. was in turn also symbolically connected with warfare.[14]
The archaeological record shows that after the fall of While not usually feathered, classic Maya serpent iconog-
Teotihuacan that marked the beginning of the epi-classic raphy seems related to the belief in a sky-, Venus-,
period in Mesoamerican chronology around 600 AD, the creator-, war- and fertility-related serpent deity. In the
cult of the feathered serpent spread to the new religious example from Yaxchilan, the Vision Serpent has the hu-
and political centers in central Mexico, centers such as man face of the young maize god, further suggesting
Xochicalco, Cacaxtla and Cholula.[4] Feathered serpent a connection to fertility and vegetational renewal; the
iconography is prominent at all of these sites. Cholula Mayan Young Maize god was also connected to Venus.
is known to have remained the most important center of
In Xochicalco, depictions of the feathered serpent are ac-
worship to Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec/Nahua version of the
companied by the image of a seated, armed ruler and
feathered serpent deity, in the post-classic period.
the hieroglyph for the day sign 9 Wind. The date 9
During the epi-classic period, a dramatic spread of Wind is known to be associated with fertility, Venus and
feathered serpent iconography is evidenced throughout war among the Maya and frequently occurs in relation to
Mesoamerica, and during this period begins to gure Quetzalcoatl in other Mesoamerican cultures.
prominently at cites such as Chichn Itz, El Tajn, and
On the basis of the iconography of the feathered serpent
throughout the Maya area. Colonial documentary sources
deity at sites such as Teotihuacan, Xochicalco, Chichn
from the Maya area frequently speak of the arrival of for-
Itz, Tula and Tenochtitlan combined with certain eth-
eigners from the central Mexican plateau, often led by a
nohistorical sources, historian David Carrasco has ar-
man whose name translates as Feathered Serpent"; it has
gued that the preeminent function of the feathered ser-
been suggested that these stories recall the spread of the
pent deity throughout Mesoamerican history was as the
feathered serpent cult in the epi-classic and early post-
patron deity of the Urban center, a god of culture and
classic periods.[4]
civilization.[15]
In the post-classic Nahua civilization of central Mexico
(Aztec), the worship of Quetzalcoatl was ubiquitous. The
most important center was Cholula where the worlds 1.15.2 In Aztec culture
largest pyramid was dedicated to his worship. In Aztec
culture, depictions of Quetzalcoatl were fully anthropo- To the Aztecs, Quetzalcoatl was, as his name indicates,
morphic. Quetzalcoatl was associated with the windgod a feathered serpent, a ying reptile (much like a dragon),
Ehecatl and is often depicted with his insignia: a beak- who was a boundary-maker (and transgressor) between
like mask. earth and sky. He was a creator deity having contributed
114
Quetzalcoatl as depicted in the Codex Borbonicus.
essentially to the creation of Mankind. He also had
anthropomorphic forms, for example in his aspects as
Ehecatl the wind god. Among the Aztecs, the name Quet-
zalcoatl was also a priestly title, as the two most important
priests of the Aztec Templo Mayor were called Quetzal-
coatl Tlamacazqui. In the Aztec ritual calendar, dier-
ent deities were associated with the cycle-of-year names:
Quetzalcoatl was tied to the year Ce Acatl (One Reed),
which correlates to the year 1519.[16]
1.15.3 Myths
Attributes
The exact signicance and attributes of Quetzalcoatl var-
ied somewhat between civilizations and through history.
There are several stories about the birth of Quetzalcoatl.
In a version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl was born by a
virgin named Chimalman, to whom the god Onteol ap-
peared in a dream.[17] In another story, the virgin Chimal-
man conceived Quetzalcoatl swallowing an emerald.[18] A
third story narrates that Chimalman was hit in the womb
by an arrow shot by Mixcoatl and nine months later she
gave birth to a child which was called Quetzalcoatl.[19]
A fourth story narrates that Quetzalcoatl was born from
Coatlicue, who already had four hundred children who
formed the stars of the Milky Way.[20]
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Quetzalcoatl as depicted in the Codex Magliabechiano.
According to another version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl is
one of the four sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, the
four Tezcatlipocas, each of whom presides over one of
the four cardinal directions. Over the West presides the
White Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, the god of light, jus-
tice, mercy and wind. Over the South presides the Blue
Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. Over the
East presides the Red Tezcatlipoca, Xipe Totec, the god
of gold, farming and Spring time. And over the North
presides the Black Tezcatlipoca, known by no other name
than Tezcatlipoca, the god of judgment, night, deceit,
sorcery and the Earth.[21] Quetzalcoatl was often consid-
ered the god of the morning star, and his twin brother
Xolotl was the evening star (Venus). As the morning star,
he was known by the title Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, mean-
ing lord of the star of the dawn. He was known as the
inventor of books and the calendar, the giver of maize
(corn) to mankind, and sometimes as a symbol of death
and resurrection. Quetzalcoatl was also the patron of the
priests and the title of the twin Aztec high priests. Some
legends describe him as opposed to human sacrice[22]
while others describe him practicing it.[23][24]
Most Mesoamerican beliefs included cycles of suns. Usu-
ally our current time was considered the fth sun, the pre-
vious four having been destroyed by ood, re and the
like. Quetzalcoatl went to Mictlan, the underworld, and
created fth-world mankind from the bones of the pre-
vious races (with the help of Cihuacoatl), using his own
blood, from a wound he inicted on his earlobes, calves,
tongue, and penis, to imbue the bones with new life.
It is also suggested that he was a son of Xochiquetzal and
Mixcoatl.
One Aztec story claims that Quetzalcoatl was tricked
by Tezcatlipoca into becoming drunk and sleeping with
a celibate priestess (in some accounts, his sister Quet-
zalpetlatl) and then burned himself to death out of
remorse. His heart became the morning star (see
1.15. QUETZALCOATL
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli).
1.15.4 Belief in Corts as Quetzalcoatl
Quetzalcoatl in human form, using the symbols of Ehecatl, from
the Codex Borgia.
Since the sixteenth century, it has been widely held that
the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II initially believed the
landing of Hernn Corts in 1519 to be Quetzalcoatls re-
turn. This view has been questioned by ethno-historians
who argue that the Quetzalcoatl-Corts connection is
not found in any document that was created indepen-
dently of post-Conquest Spanish inuence, and that there
is little proof of a pre-Hispanic belief in Quetzalcoatls
return.[25][26][27][28][29] Most documents expounding this
theory are of entirely Spanish origin, such as Cortss let-
ters to Charles V of Spain, in which Corts goes to great
pains to present the naive gullibility of the Aztecs in gen-
eral as a great aid in his conquest of Mexico.
Much of the idea of Corts' being seen as a deity can be
traced back to the Florentine Codex written down some
50 years after the conquest. In the Codexs description
of the rst meeting between Moctezuma and Corts, the
Aztec ruler is described as giving a prepared speech in
classical oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which, as described
in the codex written by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sa-
hagn and his Tlatelolcan informants, included such pros-
trate declarations of divine or near-divine admiration as:
You have graciously come on earth, you
have graciously approached your water, your
high place of Mexico, you have come down to
your mat, your throne, which I have briey kept
for you, I who used to keep it for you.
and:
You have graciously arrived, you have
known pain, you have known weariness, now
come on earth, take your rest, enter into your
115
palace, rest your limbs; may our lords come on
earth.
Subtleties in, and an imperfect scholarly understanding
of, high Nahuatl rhetorical style make the exact intent
of these comments tricky to ascertain, but Restall argues
that Moctezumas politely oering his throne to Corts
(if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may
well have been meant as the exact opposite of what it
was taken to mean: politeness in Aztec culture was a way
to assert dominance and show superiority. This speech,
which has been widely referred to, has been a factor in the
widespread belief that Moctezuma was addressing Corts
as the returning god Quetzalcoatl.
Other parties have also promulgated the idea that the
Mesoamericans believed the conquistadors, and in par-
ticular Corts, to be awaited gods: most notably the his-
torians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Gernimo
de Mendieta.[30] Some Franciscans at this time held
millennarian beliefs[31] and some of them believed that
Corts coming to the New World ushered in the nal era
of evangelization before the coming of the millennium.
Franciscans such as Toribio de Benavente Motolinia
saw elements of Christianity in the precolumbian reli-
gions and therefore believed that Mesoamerica had been
evangelized before, possibly by St. Thomas whom legend
had it had gone to preach beyond the Ganges. Fran-
ciscans then equated the original Quetzalcoatl with St.
Thomas and imagined that the Indians had long awaited
his return to take part once again in Gods kingdom. His-
torian Matthew Restall concludes that:
The legend of the returning lords, orig-
inated during the Spanish-Mexica war in
Corts reworking of Moctezumas welcome
speech, had by the 1550s merged with the
Corts-as-Quetzalcoatl legend that the Francis-
cans had started spreading in the 1530s. (Re-
stall 2001:114 )
Some scholarship maintains the view that the Aztec Em-
pires fall may be attributed in part to the belief in Corts
as the returning Quetzalcoatl, notably in works by David
Carrasco (1982), H. B. Nicholson (2001 (1957)) and
John Pohl (2016). However, a majority of Mesoamer-
icanist scholars such as Matthew Restall (2003), James
Lockhart (1994), Susan D. Gillespie (1989), Camilla
Townsend (2003a, 2003b), Louise Burkhart, Michel
Graulich and Michael E. Smith (2001) among others,
consider the Quetzalcoatl/Corts myth as one of many
myths about the Spanish conquest which have risen in the
early post-conquest period.
There is no question that the legend of Quetzalcoatl
played a signicant role in the colonial period. How-
ever this legend likely has a foundation in events that took
place immediately prior to the arrival of the Spaniards.
A 2012 exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum
116
Quetzalcoatl as depicted in the post-Conquest Tovar Codex.
of Art and the Dallas Museum of Art, The Children
of the Plumed Serpent: the Legacy of Quetzalcoatl in
Ancient Mexico, demonstrated the existence of a pow-
erful confederacy of Eastern Nahuas, Mixtecs and Za-
potecs, along with the peoples they dominated throughout
southern Mexico between 1200-1600 (Pohl, Fields, and
Lyall 2012, Harvey 2012, Pohl 2003). They maintained
a major pilgrimage and commercial center at Cholula,
Puebla which the Spaniards compared to both Rome and
Mecca because the cult of the god united its constituents
through a eld of common social, political, and religious
values without dominating them militarily. This confed-
eracy engaged in almost seventy-ve years of nearly con-
tinuous conict with the Aztec Empire of the Triple Al-
liance until the arrival of Corts. Members of this con-
federacy from Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Oaxaca provided the
Spaniards with the army that rst re-claimed the city of
Cholula from its pro-Aztec ruling faction, and ultimately
defeated the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City).
The Tlaxcalteca, along with other city-states across the
Plain of Puebla, then supplied the auxiliary and logis-
tical support for the conquests of Guatemala and West
Mexico while Mixtec and Zapotec caciques (Colonial in-
digenous rulers) gained monopolies in the overland trans-
port of Manila galleon trade through Mexico, and formed
highly lucrative relationships with the Dominican order
in the new Spanish imperial world economic system that
explains so much of the enduring legacy of indigenous
life-ways that characterize southern Mexico and explain
the popularity of the Quetzalcoatl legends that continued
through the colonial period to the present day.
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
1.15.5 Contemporary use
Quetzalcoatl Mural in Acapulco by Diego Rivera
Mormonism
See also: Archaeology and the Book of Mormon,
Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting, and
Mormon folklore
Some Mormons believe that Quetzalcoatl was histori-
cally Jesus Christ, but believe His name and the details
of the event were gradually lost over time. According to
the Book of Mormon, the resurrected Christ came down
from the clouds and visited the people of the American
continent, shortly after his resurrection. Quetzalcoatl is
not a religious symbol in the Mormon faith, and is not
taught as such, nor is it in their doctrine.[32] LDS Church
President John Taylor wrote:[33]
The story of the life of the Mexican divin-
ity, Quetzalcoatl, closely resembles that of the
Savior; so closely, indeed, that we can come to
no other conclusion than that Quetzalcoatl and
Christ are the same being. But the history of the
former has been handed down to us through an
impure Lamanitish source, which has sadly dis-
gured and perverted the original incidents and
teachings of the Saviors life and ministry. (Me-
diation and Atonement, p. 194.)
Latter-day Saint scholar Brant Gardner, after investi-
gating the link between Quetzalcoatl and Jesus, con-
cluded that the association amounts to nothing more than
folklore.[34] In a 1986 paper for Sunstone, he noted that
during the Spanish Conquest, the Native Americans and
the Catholic priests who sympathized with them felt pres-
sure to link Native American beliefs with Christianity,
thus making the Native Americans seem more human and
less savage. Over time, Quetzalcoatls appearance, cloth-
ing, malevolent nature, and status among the gods were
reshaped to t a more Christian framework.[35]
1.15. QUETZALCOATL 117

Films and video games [4] Ringle et al. 1998

Quetzalcoatl was ctionalized in the 1982 lm Q as a [5] http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/

monster that terrorizes New York City.[36][37] The deity
has been featured as a character in Beyblade and Final
Fantasy VIII, and in the last of The Secrets of the Immor-
tal Nicholas Flamel books. It was also portrayed as an
enemy in the video game Indiana Jones and the Infernal
Machine.
New Age
Various theories about Quetzalcoatl are popular in the
New Age movement, especially since the publication of [10] http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/gods/
Tony Shearer's 1971 book Lord of the dawn: Quetzalcoatl
and the Tree of Life republished also under the title Lord [11] Archived copy. Archived from the original on Septem-
of the dawn: Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent of Mexico.
He is portrayed as a time traveler in the book A Vary
Strange Trip by L. Ron Hubbard.
expedition/PDFs/8-4/The%20Wind.pdf
[6] http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/artefacts/
personified-knives
[7] Nicholson 2001, Carrasco 1992, Gillespie 1989, Flores-
cano 2002
[8] Lafaye 1987, Townsend 2003, Martnez 1980, Phelan
1970
[9] Smith 2001:213
study-the-wind-god
ber 12, 2014. Retrieved September 11, 2014.
[12] http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/aztefacts/
god-with-the-longest-name

[13] Florescano 2002:8

1.15.6 See also
[14] Florescano 2002:821
Aztec mythology in popular culture
[15] Carrasco 1982
Dragon
[16] Townsend 2003:668
Five Suns, one of Quetzalctl and his brothers leg-
end. [17] J. B. Bierlein, Living Myths. How Myth Gives Meaning to
Human Experience, Ballantine Books, 1999
Quetzalcoatlus, a pterosaur from the Late Creta-
[18] Carrasco, 1982
ceous named after Quetzalcoatl
[19] J. F. Bierlein, 1999
Xipe Totec
[20] J. F. Bierlein 1999
Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl
[21] Smith,Michael E. The Aztecs 2nd Ed. Blackwell Publish-
Tohil ing, 2005
White Gods [22] LaFaye, Jacques (1987). Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe:
The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness, 1531
Children Who Chase Lost Voices, Quetzalcoatl are
1813 (New ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 140.
referred to as Gatekeepers of Agartha ISBN 978-0226467887.

[23] Carrasco, David (1982). Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of

1.15.7 Notes Empire: Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition. Uni-
versity of Chicago Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0226094908.
[1] Jacques Soustelle (1997). Daily Life of the Aztecs. p.
1506. [24] Read, Kay Almere (2002). Mesoamerican Mythology: A
Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs of Mexico
[2] The Nahuatl nouns compounded into the proper name and Central America. Oxford University Press. p. 225.
Quetzalcoatl are: quetzalli, signifying principally ISBN 978-0195149098.
plumage, but also used to refer to the birdresplendent
quetzalrenowned for its colourful feathers, and cohutl [25] Gillespie 1989
snake. Some scholars have interpreted the name as hav-
ing also a metaphorical meaning of precious twin since [26] Townsend 2003a
the word for plumage was also used metaphorically about
[27] Townsend 2003b
precious things and cohutl has an additional meaning of
twin [28] Restall 2003a
[3] Teotihuacan: Introduction. Project Temple of Quetzal- [29] Restall 2003b
coatl, Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia, Mex-
ico/ ASU. 2001-08-20. Retrieved 2009-05-17. [30] Martinez 1980
118
[31] Phelan 1956
[32] Wirth 2002
[33] Taylor 1892:201
[34] Blair 2008
[35] Gardner 1986
[36] Ebert, Roger (1 January 1982). Q Movie Review & Film
Summary (1982)". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved 22 Octo-
ber 2016.
[37] Carr, Nick (29 October 2010). The Complete New York
City Horror Movie Marathon! | Hungton Post. The
Hungton Post. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
1.15.8 References
Boone, Elizabeth Hill (1989). In-
carnations of the Aztec Supernatu-
ral: The Image of Huitzilopochtli in
Mexico and Europe. Transactions
of the American Philosophical So-
ciety, vol. 79 part 2. Philadelphia,
PA: American Philosophical Soci-
ety. ISBN 0-87169-792-0. OCLC
20141678.
Burkhart, Louise M. (1996). Holy
Wednesday: A Nahua Drama from
Early Colonial Mexico. New cul-
tural studies series. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN 0-8122-1576-1. OCLC
33983234.
Carrasco, David (1982). Quet-
zalcoatl and the Irony of Empire:
Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec
Tradition. Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
09487-1. OCLC 0226094871.
Florescano, Enrique (1999).
The Myth of Quetzalcoatl. Lysa
Hochroth (trans.), Ral Velzquez
(illus.) (translation of El mito
de Quetzalcatl original Spanish-
language ed.). Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0-8018-7101-8. OCLC
39313429.
Gardner, Brant (1986). The
Christianization of Quetzalcoatl
(PDF). Sunstone. 10 (11).
Gillespie, Susan D (1989). The
Aztec Kings: The Construction of
Rulership in Mexica History. Tuc-
son: University of Arizona Press.
ISBN 0-8165-1095-4. OCLC
60131674.
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Harvey, Doug (2012) How a Feath-
ered God Presided Over a Golden
Age of Mexican Art. Humanities:
The Magazine of the National En-
dowment of the Humanities. Vol.
33 (5) pp. 34-39.
Hodges, Blair (29 September
2008). Method and Skepticism
(and Quetzalcoatl...)". Life on Gold
Plates.
James, Susan E (Winter 2000).
Some Aspects of the Aztec Re-
ligion in the Hopi Kachina Cult.
Journal of the Southwest. Tucson:
University of Arizona Press. 42
(4): 897926. ISSN 0894-8410.
OCLC 15876763.
Knight, Alan (2002). Mexico:
From the Beginning to the Spanish
Conquest. Mexico, vol. 1 of
3-volume series (pbk ed.). Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-89195-7.
OCLC 48249030.
Lafaye, Jacques (1987). Quetzal-
coatl and Guadalupe: The For-
mation of Mexican National Con-
sciousness, 15311813. Benjamin
Keen (trans.). Chicago: University
of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
46788-0.
Lawrence, D.H. (1925). The
Plumed Serpent.
Locke,Raymond Friday (2001).
The Book of the Navajo. Hollaway
House.
Lockhart, James, ed. (1993). We
People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of
the Conquest of Mexico. Reper-
torium Columbianum, vol. 1.
James Lockhart (trans. and notes).
Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press. ISBN 0-520-07875-
6. OCLC 24703159. (English)
(Spanish) (Nahuatl)
Martnez, Jose Luis (1980).
Gernimo de Mendieta (1980)".
Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl. 14.
Nicholson, H.B. (2001). Topiltzin
Quetzalcoatl: the once and future
lord of the Toltecs. University Press
of Colorado. ISBN 0-87081-547-
4.
Nicholson, H.B. (2001). The Re-
turn of Quetzalcoatl": did it play
a role in the conquest of Mexico?.
Lancaster, CA: Labyrinthos.
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE
Phelan, John Leddy (1970) [1956].
The Millennial Kingdom of the
Franciscans in the New World.
University of California Press.
Pohl, John M.D. (2003). Cre-
ation Stories, Hero Cults, and Al-
liance Building: Postclassic Con-
federacies of Central and South-
ern Mexico from A.D. 11501458.
In: The Postclassic Mesoamerican
World. pp. 6166. Edited by
Michael Smith and Frances Berdan.
University of Utah Press.
Pohl, John M.D. (2016). Dramatic
Performance and the Theater of the
State: The Cults of the Divus Tri-
umphator, Parthenope, and Quet-
zalcoatl. In: Altera Roma: Art and
Empire from Mrida to Mxico pp.
127-146. Edited by John M.D. Pohl
and Claire L. Lyons. Cotsen Insti-
tute of Archaeology Press.
Pohl, John M.D., Virginia M.
Fields, and Victoria L. Lyall
(2012). Children of the Plumed
Serpent: The Legacy of Quetzalcoatl
in Ancient Mexico: Introduction.
In: Children of the Plumed Serpent:
The Legacy of Quetzalcoatl in
Ancient Mexico. pp. 1549. Scala
Publishers Ltd.
Restall, Matthew (2003). Seven
Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Ox-
ford and New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-516077-
0. OCLC 51022823.
Restall, Matthew (2003). Top-
iltzin Quetzalcoatl: The Once and
Future Lord of the Toltecs (re-
view)". Hispanic American Histori-
cal Review. 83 (4).
Ringle, William M.; Toms
Gallareta Negrn; George
J. Bey (1998). The Re-
turn of Quetzalcoatl. Ancient
Mesoamerica. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. 9 (2): 183232.
doi:10.1017/S0956536100001954.
Smith, Michael E. (2003). The
Aztecs (2nd ed.). Malden, MA:
Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-
631-23015-7. OCLC 48579073.
Taylor, John (1892) [1882]. An Ex-
amination into and an Elucidation
of the Great Principle of the Medi-
ation and Atonement of Our Lord
and Savior Jesus Christ. Deseret
119
News.
Townsend, Camilla (2003). No
one said it was Quetzalcoatl:
Listening to the Indians in the
conquest of Mexico. History
Compass. 1 (1).
Townsend, Camilla (2003). Bury-
ing the White Gods:New perspec-
tives on the Conquest of Mexico.
The American Historical Review.
108 (3).
Wirth, Diane E (2002).
Quetzalcoatl, the Maya maize god
and Jesus Christ. Journal of Book
of Mormon Studies. Provo, Utah:
Maxwell Institute. 11 (1): 415.
1.16 Spanish conquest of the Aztec
Empire
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (begun
February 1519) was one of the most signicant events
in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Following Christopher Columbus' establishment of per-
manent European settlement in the Caribbean, the Span-
ish authorized expeditions or entradas for the discovery,
conquest, and colonization of new territory, using exist-
ing Spanish settlements as a base. Many of those on the
Corts expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before.
In fact, Corts had never commanded men in battle be-
fore. However, there was a whole generation of Spaniards
who participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and
Tierra Firme (Central America), learning strategy and
tactics of successful enterprises. The Spanish conquest
of Mexico had antecedents with established practices.[2]
The Spanish campaign began in February 1519, and was
declared victorious on August 13, 1521, when a coalition
army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led
by Hernn Corts and Xicotencatl the Younger captured
the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan, the capital of
the Aztec Empire.
During the campaign, Corts was given support from a
number of tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, includ-
ing the Totonacs, and the Tlaxcaltecas, Texcocans, and
other city-states particularly bordering Lake Texcoco. In
their advance, the allies were tricked and ambushed sev-
eral times by the people they encountered. After eight
months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the
diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma
II to his visit, Corts arrived in Tenochtitlan on Novem-
ber 8, 1519, where he took up residence, welcomed by
Moctezuma. When news reached Corts of the death
of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the
Totonacs in Veracruz, he took the opportunity to take
Moctezuma captive, Moctezuma allowed himself to be
120
captured as a diplomatic gesture. Capturing the cacique
or indigenous ruler was standard operating procedure for
Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, so captur-
ing Moctezuma had considerable precedent, which might
well have included those in Spain during the Christian re-
conquest of territory held by Muslims.[3]
When Corts left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and
deal with the expedition of Pnlo de Narvez, Pedro de
Alvarado was left in charge. Alvarado allowed a signi-
cant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan and on
the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula, closed o
the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noble-
men. The biography of Corts by Francisco Lpez de
Gmara contains a description of the massacre.[4] The
Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan
precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. When
the captured emperor Moctezuma II, now seen as a mere
puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the
outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile.[5] Corts
had returned to Tenochtitlan and his men ed the capital
city during the Noche Triste in June, 1520. The Spanish,
Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on
August 13, 1521 to a civilization that had been wiped out
by famine and smallpox. This made it easier to conquer
the remaining Aztecs.
The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the for-
mation of the Spanish overseas empire, with New Spain,
which later became Mexico, a major component.
1.16.1 Sources for the history of the con-
quest of Central Mexico
The conquest of Mexico is not only a signicant event
in world history as the rst successful conquest of a great
pre-Columbian civilization, but is also particularly impor-
tant because there are multiple accounts of the conquest
from dierent points of view, Spanish and indigenous of
diverse backgrounds. The Spanish conquerors could and
did write accounts that narrated the conquest from the
rst landfalls in Mexico to the nal victory over the Mex-
ica in Tenochtitlan on August 13, 1521. Indigenous ac-
counts are from particular native viewpoints (either allies
or opponents) and as the events had a direct impact on
their polity. All accounts of the conquest, Spanish and
indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations. In gen-
eral, Spanish accounts do not credit their indigenous al-
lies support. Individual conquerors accounts exaggerate
that individuals contribution to the conquest, downplay-
ing other conquerors. Indigenous allies accounts stress
their loyalty to the Spanish and their particular aid as be-
ing key to the Spanish victory. Their accounts are similar
to Spanish conquerors accounts contained in petitions for
rewards, known as benemrito petitions.[6]
Two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous view-
point were created under the direction of Spanish friars, The best-known indigenous account of the conquest
Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagn and Dominican Diego is Book 12 of Bernardino de Sahagn's General His-
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
Durn, using indigenous informants.[7]
The rst Spanish account of the conquest was written by
lead conqueror Hernn Corts, who sent a series of let-
ters to the Spanish monarch Charles V, giving a contem-
porary account of the conquest from his point of view,
in which he justied his actions. These were almost im-
mediately published in Spain and later in other parts of
Europe. Much later, Spanish conqueror Bernal Daz del
Castillo, a well-seasoned participant in the conquest of
Central Mexico, wrote what he called The True History
of the Conquest of New Spain, countering the account by
Cortss ocial biographer, Francisco Lpez de Gmara.
Bernal Dazs account had begun as a benemrito petition
for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full his-
tory of his earlier expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra
Firme and the conquest of the Aztec. A number of lower
rank Spanish conquerors wrote benemrito petitions to
the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services
in the conquest, including Juan Daz, Andrs de Tapia,
Garca del Pilar, and Fray Francisco de Aguilar.[8] In-
terestingly, Cortss right-hand man, Pedro de Alvarado
did not write at any length about his actions in the New
World, and died as a man of action in the Mixtn War in
1542. Two letters to Corts about Alvarados campaigns
in Guatemala are published in The Conquistadors.[9] The
chronicle of the so-called Anonymous Conqueror was
written sometime in the sixteenth century, entitled in an
early twentieth-century translation to English as Narrative
of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of
Temestitan (i.e. Tenochtitlan). Rather than it being a
petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish ac-
counts were, the Anonymous Conqueror made observa-
tions about the indigenous situation at the time of the con-
quest. The account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit
Francisco Javier Clavijero in his descriptions of the his-
tory of Mexico.[10]
On the indigenous side, the allies of Corts, particularly
the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to
the Spanish Crown in the conquest, arguing for special
privileges for themselves. The most important of these
are the pictorial Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Historia de
Tlaxcala by Diego Muoz Camargo. Less successfully,
the Nahua allies from Huexotzinco (or Huejotzinco) near
Tlaxcala argued that their contributions had been over-
looked by the Spanish. In a letter in Nahuatl to the
Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huejotzinco lay
out their case in for their valorous service. The letter
has been published in Nahuatl and English translation by
James Lockhart in We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of
the Conquest of Mexico in 1991.[11] Texcoco patriot and
member of a noble family there, Fernando Alva Ixtlilxo-
chitl, likewise petitioned the Spanish Crown, in Spanish,
saying that Texcoco had not received sucient rewards
for their support of the conquistadors, particularly after
the Spanish were forced out of Tenochtitlan.[12]
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE 121

tory of the Things of New Spain and published as the narrative of Bernal Daz del Castillo, The True History of
Florentine Codex, in parallel columns of Nahuatl and the Conquest of New Spain. The primary sources from
Spanish, with pictorials. Less well-known is Sahagn's the native people aected as a result of the conquest are
1585 revision of the conquest account, which shifts from seldom used, because they tend to reect the views of
the indigenous viewpoint entirely and inserts at crucial a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. In-
junctures passages lauding the Spanish and in particu- digenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as
lar Hernn Corts.[13] Another indigenous account com- 1525. Later accounts were written in the native tongue
piled by a Spanish friar is Dominican Diego Durn's of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico,
The History of the Indies of New Spain, from 1581, Nahuatl.
with many color illustrations.[14] A text from the Nahua It is also important to note that the native texts of the de-
point of view, the Anales de Tlatelolco, an early in-
feated Mexica narrating their version of the conquest de-
digenous account in Nahuatl, perhaps from 1540, re- scribed eight omens that were believed to have occurred
mained in indigenous hands until it was published. An
nine years prior to the arrival of the Spanish from the Gulf
extract of this important manuscript was published in of Mexico.[19] The eight bad omens or wonders:[16]:311
1991 by James Lockhart in Nahuatl transcription and
English translation.[15] A popular anthology in English
for classroom use is Miguel Len-Portilla's, The Broken
Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico
from 1992.[16] Not surprisingly, many publications and
republications of sixteenth-century accounts of the con-
quest of Mexico appeared around 1992, the 500th an-
niversary of Christopher Columbus's rst voyage, when
scholarly and popular interest in rst encounters surged.
The most popular and enduring narrative of the Span-
ish campaign in central Mexico is by New England-born
nineteenth-century historian William Hickling Prescott.
His History of the Conquest of Mexico, rst published
in 1843, remains an engaging narrative of the conquest,
based on a large number of sources copied from the Span-
ish archives.[17] Prescott based his narrative history on Aztec empire on the eve of the Spanish Invasion
primary source documentation, mainly from the Spanish
viewpoint, but it is likely that the copy of the Spanish text
of the 1585 revision of Bernardino de Sahagns account 1. A column of re that appeared from midnight until
of the conquest was done for Prescotts history. [18] dawn, and seemed to rain re in the year 1517 (12-
House)
2. Fire consuming the temple of Huitzilopochtli
1.16.2 Signicant events in the conquest of
Central Mexico 3. A lightning bolt destroying the straw temple of
Xiuhtecuhtli
Historical sources for the conquest of Mexico recount 4. The appearance of re, or comets, streaming across
some of the same events in both Spanish and indigenous the sky in threes during the day
sources. Others, however, are unique to a particular pri-
mary source or group narrating the event. Individuals and 5. The boiling deep , and water ooding, of a lake
groups laud their own accomplishments, while often den- nearby Tenochtitlan
igrating or ignoring those of their opponents or their allies
6. A woman, Cihuatcoatl, weeping in the middle of the
or both.
night for them (the Aztecs) to ee far away from
this city
Aztec omens for the conquest 7. A two headed man, tlacantzolli, running through the
streets
In the sources recorded by Franciscan Bernardino de Sa-
hagn and Dominican Diego Durn, there are accounts 8. Montezuma II saw the stars of mamalhuatztli, and
of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of images of ghting men riding on the backs of ani-
the conquest. These two accounts are full-blown narra- mals resembling deer, in a mirror on the crown of
tives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Most a bird caught by shermen
rst-hand accounts about the conquest of the Aztec Em-
pire were written by Spaniards: Hernn Corts letters Additionally, the Tlaxcala saw a radiance that shone in
to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the rst-person the east every morning three hours before sunrise, and a
122 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

whirlwind of dust from the volcano Matlalcueye.[16]:11 tadors, but the Spanish conquest of Yucatn with its many
According to Diaz, These Caciques also told us of a tra- independent city-state polities of the Late Postclassic
dition they had heard from their ancestors, that one of Maya civilization came many years after the Spaniards
the idols which they particularly worshipped had proph- rapid conquest of Central Mexico, from 1519 to 1521.
esied the coming of men from distant lands in the direc- With the help of tens of thousands of Xiu Mayan war-
tion of the sunrise, who would conquer them and rule riors, it would take more than 170 years for the Spanish
them.[20]:181 to establish full control of the Maya homelands, which ex-
Omens were extremely important to the Aztecs, who be- tended from northern Yucatn to the central lowlands re-
gion of El Petn and the southern Guatemalan highlands.
lieved that history repeated itself. Emperor Moctezuma,
often spelled Montezuma in English, who was trained The end of this latter campaign is generally marked by the
downfall of the Maya state based at Tayasal in the Petn
as a high priest, was said to have consulted his chief
priests and fortune tellers to determine the causes of these region, in 1697.
omens. However, they were unable to provide an exact
explanation until, perhaps, the Spanish arrived. A num-
1.16.4 Corts expedition
ber of modern scholars cast doubt on whether such omens
occurred or whether they were ex post facto (retrospec-
Commissioning the expedition
tive) creations to help the Mexica explain their defeat.[21]
Many sources depicting omens and the return of old
Aztec gods, including those supervised by Spanish
priests, were written after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521.
Some ethnohistorians say that when the Spanish arrived
native peoples and their leaders did not view them as
supernatural in any sense but rather as simply another
group of powerful outsiders.[22] Many Spanish accounts
incorporated omens to emphasize what they saw as the
preordained nature of the conquest and their success as
Spanish destiny. This means that native emphasis on
omens and bewilderment in the face of invasion may be a Map depicting Corts conquest route
postconquest interpretation by informants who wished to
please the Spaniards or who resented the failure of Mon- Even before Juan de Grijalva returned to Spain,
tezuma and of the warriors of Tenochtitlan to provide Velzquez decided to send a third and even larger expe-
leadership.[23] Hugh Thomas concludes that Moctezuma dition to explore the Mexican coast.[25] Hernn Corts,
was confused and ambivalent about whether Corts was a then one of Velzquezs favorites and brother-in-law, was
god or the ambassador of a great king in another land.[24] named as the commander, which created envy and re-
However, Thomas does not support the theory that the sentment among the Spanish contingent in the Spanish
Aztec Emperor really believed that Corts was any rein- colony.[25] Velzquezs instructions to Corts, in an agree-
carnation of Quetzalcoatl. ment signed on 23 October 1518, were limited to leading
an expedition to initiate trade relations with the indige-
nous coastal tribes, but no authorization for conquest or
1.16.3 Spanish arrival in Yucatn settlement.
One account suggests that Governor Velzquez wished
In 1517, Cuban governor Diego Velzquez de Cullar to restrict the Corts expedition to being a pure trading
commissioned a eet of three ships under the command expedition. Invasion of the mainland was to be a privi-
of Hernndez de Crdoba to sail west and explore the lege reserved for himself as the senior ocial in Cuba.
Yucatn peninsula. Crdoba reached the coast of Yu- However, by calling upon the knowledge of the law of
catn. The Mayans at Cape Catoche invited the Span- Castile that Corts likely gained while he was a student
ish to land, and the conquistadors read the Requirement in Salamanca and by utilizing his powers of persuasion,
of 1513 to them, which oered the natives the protec- Corts was able to maneuver Governor Velzquez into
tion of the King of Spain, if they would submit to him. inserting a clause into his orders that enabled Corts to
Crdoba took two prisoners, who adopted the baptized take emergency measures without prior authorization, if
names of Melchor and Julin and became interpreters. such were "...in the true interests of the realm. He was
On the western side of the Yucatn Peninsula, the Spanish also named the chief military leader and chief magistrate
were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh (Mochh (judge) of the expedition. Such licenses for expeditions
Couoh), a battle in which fty men were killed. Crdoba allowed the Crown to retain sovereignty over newly con-
was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew quered lands while not risking its own assets in the en-
returned to Cuba.[20]:1526 terprise. Spaniards with assets who were willing to risk
At that time, Yucatn was briey explored by the conquis- them to increase their wealth and power could potentially
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE
gain even more.[26]
Corts invested a considerable part of his personal for-
tune to equip the expedition and probably went into debt
to borrow additional funds. Expeditions of exploration
and conquest were business enterprises, with those invest-
ing more in the enterprise receiving higher rewards upon
its success; greater risk reaped greater rewards. Men
who brought horses, caballeros, received two shares of
the spoils of war, one for the warrior himself, another
because of the horse.[26] When Corts assets were de-
pleted, Governor Velzquez may have personally con-
tributed nearly half the cost of the expedition.
The ostentatious nature of this operation and the swift-
ness of its commission probably added to the envy and
resentment of the Spanish contingent in Cuba, who were
keenly aware of the opportunity this assignment oered
for fame, fortune and glory.
Revoking the commission
Velzquez himself must have been keenly aware that
whoever conquered the mainland for Spain would gain
fame, glory and fortune to eclipse anything that could be
achieved in Cuba. Thus, as the preparations for depar-
ture drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that
Corts would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer
the expedition for his own purposes,[27] namely to estab-
lish himself as governor of the colony, independent of
Velzquezs control.
Therefore, Velzquez sent Luis de Medina with orders
to replace Corts. However, Corts brother-in-law al-
legedly had Medina intercepted and killed. The papers
that Medina had been carrying were sent to Corts. Thus
warned, Corts accelerated the organization and prepara-
tion of his expedition.[28]
Velzquez arrived at the dock in Santiago de Cuba in
person, he and Cortes again embraced, with a great
exchange of compliments, before Cortes set sail for
Trinidad, Cuba. Velzquez then sent orders for the eet to
be held and Corts taken prisoner. Nevertheless, Cortes Bernal Daz del Castillo wrote in his account The True
set sail, beginning his conquest of New Spain with the History of the Conquest of New Spain that Marina was
legal status of a mutineer.[20]:49,51,5556
Cortss contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying of Doa would be added to her baptized name.
about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12
arquebusiers, an early form of rearm), a doctor, several
carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred Cuban
Arawaks and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves.
Although modern usage often calls the European par-
ticipants soldiers, the term was never used by these
men themselves in any context, something that James
Lockhart realized when analyzing sixteenth-century legal
records from conquest-era Peru.[29]
123
Corts lands at Cozumel
Corts spent some time at the island of Cozumel, on
the east coast of Yucatn, trying to convert the locals
to Christianity, something that provided mixed results.
While at Cozumel, Corts heard reports of other white
men living in the Yucatn. Corts sent messengers to
these reported castilianos, who turned out to be the sur-
vivors of a Spanish shipwreck that had occurred in 1511,
Gernimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero.
Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed to
join his former countrymen, and he was released and
made his way to Cortss ships. According to Bernal
Daz, Aguilar relayed that before coming, he had at-
tempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero
declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated
with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three chil-
dren, and he was looked upon as a gure of rank within
the Maya settlement of Chetumal, where he lived.[30]
Although Guerreros later fate is somewhat uncertain, it
appears that for some years he continued to ght along-
side the Maya forces against Spanish incursions, pro-
viding military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is
speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle.
Aguilar, now quite uent in Maya, as well as some other
indigenous languages, proved to be a valuable asset for
Corts as a translator - a skill of particular signicance to
the later conquest of the Aztec Empire that was to be the
end result of Corts expedition.[31]
Corts lands on the Yucatn peninsula
After leaving Cozumel, Hernn Corts continued round
the tip of the Yucatn Peninsula and landed at Potonchn,
where there was little gold. However, Corts, after de-
feating the local natives in two battles, discovered a far
more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Corts
would have christened Marina. She is often known as La
Malinche and also sometimes called "Malintzin" or Ma-
linalli, her native birth names. Later, the Aztecs would
come to call Corts Malintzin or La Malinche by dint
of his close association with her.[32]
truly a great princess. Later, the honoric Spanish title
[20]:80,82
Her lineage notwithstanding, Corts had stumbled upon
one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak
to Gernimo de Aguilar in Spanish who would then trans-
late into Mayan for Marina. She would then translate
from Mayan to Nahuatl. With this pair of translators,
Corts could now communicate to the Aztecs.[20]:8687
How eectively is still a matter of speculation, since Ma-
rina did not speak the dialect of the Aztecs, nor was she
familiar with the protocols of the Aztec nobility, who
124 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

were renowned for their owery, attering talk. ing this same period, soon after he arrived, Corts
Doa Marina quickly learned Spanish, and became was welcomed by representatives of the Aztec Emperor,
Cortss primary interpreter, condant, consort, cultural Moctezuma II. Gifts were exchanged, and Corts at-
translator, and the mother of his son, Martin.[20]:82 Un- tempted to frighten the Aztec delegation with a display
til Cortess marriage to his second wife, a union which of his repower.[16]:26[20]:8991
produced a legitimate son whom he also named Martin, Faced with imprisonment or death for defying the gov-
Cortss natural son with Marina was the heir of his en- ernor, Corts only alternative was to continue his enter-
visaged fortunes. prise in the hope of redeeming himself with the Span-
Native speakers of Nahuatl would call her Malintzin. ish Crown. To do this, he directed his men to estab-
This name is the closest phonetic approximation possible lish a settlement called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz,
in Nahuatl to the sound of 'Marina' in Spanish. Over time, or True Cross, since they arrived on Maundy Thurs-
"La Malinche" (the modern Spanish cognate of 'Mal- day and landed on Good Friday. The legally constituted
intzin') became a term that describes a traitor to ones "town council of Villa Rica then promptly oered him
people. To this day, the word malinchista is used by Mex- the position of adelantado, or Chief Justice and Captain-
[20]:102
icans to denote one who apes the language and customs of General.
another country.[33] It would not be until the late 20th cen- This strategy was not unique.[34] Velsquez had used
tury that a few feminist writers and academics would at- this same legal mechanism to free himself from Diego
tempt to rehabilitate La Malinche as a woman who made Columbus' authority in Cuba. In being named adelan-
the best of her situation and became, in most respects, tado by a duly constituted cabildo, Corts was able to
the most powerful woman in the Western Hemisphere, as free himself from Velsquezs authority and continue his
well as the founder of the modern Mexican nation. expedition. To ensure the legality of this action, several
members of his expedition, including Francisco Montejo
and Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero, returned to Spain
Foundation of the Spanish town of Veracruz to seek acceptance of the cabildos declaration with King
Charles.[20]:127128
Corts learned of an indigenous settlement called
Cempoala and marched his forces there. On their arrival
in Cempoala, they were greeted by 20 dignitaries and
cheering townsfolk.[20]:88,107 Corts quickly persuaded
the Totonac chiefs to rebel against the Aztecs, taking pris-
oner ve of Moctezumas tax collectors.[20]:111113 The
Totonacs also helped Corts build the town of Villa Rica
de la Vera Cruz, which was the starting point for his at-
tempt to conquer the Aztec Empire.[20]:114
Hearing of the rebellion, more ambassadors from the
Aztec Emperor returned to see Corts, bearing gifts of
gold and cloth, in thankfulness for Cortes freeing his
tax collectors. Montezuma also told Corts, he was cer-
tain the Spanish were of his own race, and had ar-
rived as his ancestors had foretold. As Corts told
his men, the natives think of us as gods, or godlike
beings.[16]:13,21,25,33,35[20]:115117
Although they attempted to dissuade Corts from visit-
ing Tenochtitlan, the lavish gifts and the polite, welcom-
ing remarks only encouraged El Caudillo to continue his
march towards the capital of the empire.[20]:96,166

Scuttling the eet and aftermath

Those of his men still loyal to the Governor of Cuba con-

Coat of arms of Villa Rica, Veracruz; the rst town council
spired to seize a ship and escape to Cuba, but Corts
founded by the Spanish. The tile mosaic is located in Mexico
City. moved swiftly to squash their plans. Two ringleaders were
condemned to be hanged; two were lashed, and one had
Corts landed his expedition force on the coast of the his foot mutilated. To make sure such a mutiny did not
modern day state of Veracruz in April 1519. Dur- happen again, he decided to scuttle his ships.[20]:128130
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE 125

Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 Septem-

ber, 1519, and at one point Diaz remarked, they sur-
rounded us on every side. After Corts continued to re-
lease prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the
Spanish were enemies of Montezuma, Xicotencatl the El-
der, and Maxixcatzin, persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader,
Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally
with the newcomers than to kill them.[20]:143155,171
The Tlaxcalans main city was Tlaxcala. After almost a
century of ghting the Flower Wars, a great deal of ha-
tred and bitterness had developed between the Tlaxcalans
Corts scuttling eet o Veracruz coast
and the Aztecs. The Aztecs had already conquered most
of the territory around Tlaxcala, and waged war on them
There is a popular misconception that the ships were every year.[20]:154 It has been suggested that the Aztecs
burned rather than sunk. This misconception has been left Tlaxcala independent so that they would have a con-
attributed to the reference made by Cervantes de Salazr stant supply of war captives to sacrice to their gods.[37]
in 1546, as to Corts burning his ships.[35] This may have On 23 September 1519, Corts arrived in Tlaxcala and
also come from a mistranslation of the version of the story was greeted with joy by the rulers, who saw the Spanish
written in Latin.[36] as an ally against the Aztecs. Due to a commercial block-
With all of his ships scuttled, Corts eectively stranded ade by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was poor, lacking, among
the expedition in central Mexico. However, it did not other things, salt and cotton cloths, so they could only
completely end the aspirations of those members of oer Corts and his men food and slaves. Corts stayed
his company who remained loyal to the Governor of twenty days in Tlaxcala, giving his men time to recover
Cuba. Corts then led his band inland towards the fabled from their wounds from the battles. Corts seems to have
Tenochtitlan. won the true friendship and loyalty of the senior leaders of
Tlaxcala, among them Maxixcatzin and Xicotencatl the
In addition to the Spaniards, Corts force now included
Elder, although he could not win the heart of Xicotencatl
40 Cempoalan warrior chiefs and at least 200 other
the Younger. The Spaniards agreed to respect parts of the
natives whose task was to drag the cannon and carry
city, like the temples, and reportedly took only the things
supplies.[20]:134 The Cempoalans were accustomed to the
that were oered to them freely.[20]:172174
hot climate of the coast, but they suered immensely
from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as As before with other native groups, Corts preached
they marched towards Tenochtitlan. to the Tlaxcalan leaders about the benets of Chris-
tianity. The Cacques gave Cortes the most beauti-
ful of their daughters and nieces. Xicotencatl the El-
Alliance with Tlaxcala ders daughter was baptized as Doa Luisa, and Maxix-
catzins daughter as Doa Elvira. They were given by
Corts to Pedro de Alvarado and Juan Velazquez de Leon
respectively.[20]:176178
Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlax-
cala to become baptized. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the
Elder, Citalpopocatzin and Temiloltecutl received the
names of Don Lorenzo, Don Vicente, Don Bartolom and
Don Gonzalo. It is impossible to know if these leaders un-
derstood the Catholic faith. In any case, they apparently
had no problems in adding the Christian Dios (God in
Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex
pantheon of gods. An exchange of gifts was made and
thus began the highly signicant and eective alliance
between Corts and Tlaxcala.[38]
Palacio de Gobierno, Tlaxcala city: Murals - Discussions be-
tween Tlaxcalans and Hernn Corts Corts marches to Cholula
Corts soon arrived at Tlaxcala, a confederacy of about Meanwhile, Moctezumas ambassadors, who had been
200 towns and dierent tribes, but without central gov- in the Spanish camp after the battles with the Tlax-
ernment. calans, continued to press Corts to take the road to Mex-
The Otomi initially, and then the Tlaxcalans fought the ico via Cholula, which was under Aztec control, rather
126 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

than over Huexotzinco. They were surprised Corts had Corts, after talking to the wife of one of the lords of
stayed in Tlaxcala so long among a poor and ill-bred Cholula, that the locals planned to murder the Spanish
people.[20]:166,185186 in their sleep.[20]:196 Although he did not know if the ru-
Cholula was one of the most important cities of mor was true or not, Corts ordered a pre-emptive strike,
Mesoamerica, the second largest, and probably the most urged by the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Cholulans.
sacred. Its huge pyramid (larger in volume than the great Corts confronted the city leaders in the main temple al-
pyramids of Egypt)[39] made it one of the most presti- leging that they were planning to attack his men. They ad-
gious places of the Aztec religion. However, it appears mitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma,
but they claimed they had not followed his orders. Re-
that Corts perceived Cholula more as a military threat
to his rear guard as he marched to Tenochtitlan than a gardless, on command, the Spaniards seized[20]:199 and killed
many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.
religious center. He sent emissaries ahead to try a diplo-
matic solution to enter the city. They captured the Cholulan leaders Tlaquiach and
Corts, who had not yet decided to start a war with the Tlalchiac and then ordered the city to be set on re. The
Aztec Empire, decided to oer a compromise. He ac- troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to
cepted the gifts of the Aztec ambassadors, and at the Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. In letters to his King, Corts
same time accepted the oer of the Tlaxcalans to provide claimed that in three hours time his troops (helped by
porters and 1000 warriors on his journey to Cholula. He the Tlaxcalans)
[40]
killed 3,000 people and had burned the
also sent two men, Pedro de Alvarado, and Bernardino city. Another witness, Vzquez de Tapia, claimed the
Vzquez de Tapia, directly to Tenochtitlan, as ambas- death toll was as high as 30,000. Of course, the reports
sadors and to scout for an appropriate route.[20]:186188 by the Spaniards were usually gross exaggerations. Since
the women and children, and many men, had already ed
the city,[20]:200201 it is unlikely that so many were killed.
Massacre of Cholula Regardless, the massacre of the nobility of Cholula was a
notorious chapter in the conquest of Mexico.
The Azteca and Tlaxcalteca histories of the events leading
up to the massacre vary; the Tlaxcalteca claimed that their
ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had
been tortured by the Cholula. Thus, Corts was avenging
him by attacking Cholula.[16]:4647 (Historia de Tlaxcala,
por Diego Muoz Camargo, lib. II cap. V. 1550). The
Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca, claim-
ing that they resented Corts going to Cholula instead of
Huexotzingo.[41]
The massacre had a chilling eect on the other city states
and groups aliated with the Aztecs, as well as the Aztecs
themselves. Tales of the massacre convinced the other
cities in the Aztec Empire to entertain seriously Corts
proposals rather than risk the same fate.[20]:203
The massacre depicted in the 1885 Cyclopaedia of Universal
Corts then sent emissaries to Moctezuma with the mes-
History
sage that the people of Cholula had treated him with trick-
ery and had therefore been punished.[20]:204
There are contradictory reports about what happened at
Cholula. Moctezuma had apparently decided to resist In one of his responses to Corts, Moctezuma blamed
with force the advance of Corts and his troops, and it the commanders of the local Aztec garrison for the resis-
seems that Moctezuma ordered the leaders of Cholula to tance in Cholula, and recognizing that his long-standing
try to stop the Spanish. Cholula had a very small army, attempts to dissuade Corts from coming to Tenochtit-
because as a sacred city they put their condence in their lan with gifts of gold and silver had failed, Moctezuma
prestige and their gods. According to the chronicles of nally invited the conquistadors to visit his capital city,
the Tlaxcalteca, the priests of Cholula expected to use according to Spanish sources.[20]:205206
the power of Quetzalcoatl, their primary god, against the
invaders.[20]:193,199
Corts and his men entered Cholula without active re- Tenochtitlan
sistance. However, they were not met by the city leaders
and were not given food and drink on the third day.[20]:192 On 8 November 1519, after the fall of Cholula, Corts
Cempoalans reported that fortications were being con- and his forces entered Tenochtitlan, the island capital
structed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warn- of the Mexica-Aztecs.[20]:219 It is believed that the city
ing the Spaniards.[20]:193 Finally, La Malinche informed was one of the largest in the world at that time, and the
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE 127

Corts and his counselor, the Nahua woman La Malinche, meet

Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan, 8 November 1519

Texcoco (altepetl); Tetlepanquetzaltin, king of Tlacopan,

Itzcuauhtzin the Tlacochcalcatl, lord of Tlatelolco
(altepetl); and Topantemoc, Motechzomas treasurer in
Tlatelolco.[16]:65
A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma says: My
Map of the Valley of Mexico on the eve of the Spanish conquest lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired:
to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city:
Mexico, here you have come to sit on your place, on your
largest in the Americas up to that point.[42] The most throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it
common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to was conserved by those who have gone, your substitutes...
over 300,000 people.[43] If the population of Tenochtitlan This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom
was 250,000 in 1519, then Tenochtitlan would have been governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come
larger than every city in Europe except perhaps Naples to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come
and Constantinople, and four times the size of Seville.[42] here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of
your royal houses, give food to your body. [16]:64[44]
According to Sahagns manuscript, Moctezuma per-
sonally dressed Corts and his commanders with
owers.[16]:63 In turn, Corts attempted to embrace the
Emperor, but was restrained by a courtier.[20]:218
This contradiction between the arrogant emperor' and
the humble servant of Quetzalcoatl has been problem-
atic for historians to explain and has led to much spec-
ulation. However, all the proscriptions and prohibitions
regarding Moctezuma and his court had been established
by Moctezuma and were not part of traditional Aztec cus-
toms. Those prohibitions had already caused friction be-
tween Moctezuma and the pillis (noble classes). There
is even an Aztec legend in which Huemac, the legendary
last lord of Tollan Xicotitlan, instructed Moctezuma to
live humbly and eat only the food of the poor, to divert
Meeting place of Montezuma and Hernn Corts
a future catastrophe. Thus, it seems out of character for
Corts welcomed by Montezuma Accordings Moctezuma to violate rules that he himself had promul-
to the Aztec chronicles recorded by Sahagn, the gated. Yet, as supreme ruler, he had the power to break
Aztec ruler Moctezuma II welcomed Hernn Corts, his own rules.
El Caudillo, with great pomp. Sahagn reports that Moctezuma had the royal palace of Axaycatl,
Moctezuma welcomed Corts to Tenochtitlan on Moctezumas father, prepared for Corts.[20]:218 On
the Great Causeway.[20]:216217 The chiefs who ac- the same day that the Spanish expedition and their allies
companied Moctcuhzoma were: Cacama, king of entered Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came to visit Corts
128
and his men. What happened in this second meeting
remains controversial. According to several Spanish ver-
sions, some written years or decades later, Moctezuma
rst repeated his earlier, owery welcome to Corts on
the Great Causeway, but then went on to explain his view
of what the Spanish expedition represented in terms of
Aztec tradition and lore, including the idea that Corts
and his men (pale, bearded men from the east) were the
return of characters from Aztec legend.[20]:220221 At the
end of this explanation, the Emperor pledged his loyalty
to the King of Spain and accepted Corts as the Kings
representative. According to Diaz, Moctezuma said to
Cortes, As for your great King, I am in his debt and will
give him of what I possess.[20]:223
While in the Axayacatl palace, the conquistadors discov-
ered the secret room where Moctezuma kept the treasure
he had inherited from his father. The treasure consisted
of a quantity of golden objects - jewels and plates and
ingots. Diaz noted, The sight of all that wealth dumb-
founded me.[20]:218,242
Corts later asked Moctezuma to allow him to erect a
cross and an image of Virgin Mary next to the two large
idols of Huichilobos and Tezcatlipoca, after climbing the
one hundred and fourteen steps to the top of the main
temple pyramid. Moctezuma and his papas were furi-
ous at the suggestion, with Moctezuma claiming his idols,
give us health and rain and crops and weather, and all the
victories we desire.[20]:237
Conquistadors and their Tlaxcalan allies enter Tenochtitlan ish troops, consisting of nineteen ships and fourteen hun-
The Mexica then killed seven Spanish soldiers Corts had had arrived. De Narvez had been sent by Governor
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
left on the coast, including Cortes Villa Rica Constable
Juan de Escalante, and many Totonacs. Corts along with
ve of his captains and Doa Marina and Aguilar, con-
vinced Moctezuma to come quietly with us to our quar-
ters, and make no protest...if you cry out, or raise any
commotion, you will immediately be killed. Moctezuma
was later implicated by Qualpopoca and his captains, who
had killed the Spanish soldiers. Though these captains
of Moctezuma were sentenced to be burned to death,
Moctezuma continued to remain a prisoner, fearing a re-
bellion in his city or that the Spanish may try to set up
another prince in his place. This, despite Moctezumas
chieftains, nephews and relations suggesting they should
attack the Spanish.[20]:243249
As of 14 November 1519, Moctezuma was Corts pris-
oner as insurance against any further resistance, until the
end of May 1520, Moctezuma lived with Corts in the
palace of Axaycatl.
However, Moctezuma continued to act as Emperor, sub-
ject to Corts overall control.[20]:248 During the period
of his imprisonment, Moctezuma stated he was glad to
be a prisoner, since either our gods gave us power to con-
ne him or Huichilobos permitted it. He would even play
the game of totoloque with Corts.[20]:252 After the trea-
son of Cacamatzin, Moctezuma and his caciques, were
forced to take a more formal oath of allegiance to the
King of Spain, though Moctezuma could not restrain
his tears.[20]:265 Moctezuma told his caciques that their
ancestral tradition, set down in their books of records,
that men would come from the direction of the sunrise
to rule these lands and that He believed...we were these
men.[20]:264
Corts sent expeditions to investigate the Aztec sources
of gold in the provinces of Zacatula, Tuxtepec, and the
land of the Chinantec.[20]:265269 Moctezuma was then
made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included
his fathers treasure. These treasures, the Spaniards
melted down to form gold bars stamped with an iron
die.[16]:6668[20]:270272 Finally, the Moctezuma let the
catholic conquistadors build an altar on their temple, next
to the Aztec idols.[20]:277
Finally, the Aztec gods allegedly told the Mexican pa-
pas, or priests, they would not stay unless the Spaniards
were killed and driven back across the sea. Moctezuma
warned Corts to leave at once, as their lives were
at risk.[20]:278279 Many of the nobility rallied around
Cuitlhuac,[20]:294 the brother of Moctezuma and his heir-
apparent; however, most of them could take no overt ac-
tion against the Spanish unless the order was given by the
Emperor.[20]:247
Defeat of de Narvez In April 1520, Corts was
told by Moctezuma, that a much larger party of Span-
dred soldiers under the command of Pnlo de Narvez,
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE 129

Velzquez from Cuba to kill or capture Corts.[20]:281-281 and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and
Leaving his least reliable soldiers under the command by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus
of Pedro de Alvarado to guard Moctezuma, Corts set out caught[20]:297299,305
on a narrow road with water or buildings on both
against De Narvez who had advanced onto Cempoala. sides.
Corts surprised his antagonist with a night attack, dur- The retreat quickly turned into a rout. The Spanish dis-
ing which his men wounded De Narvez in the eye and covered that they could not remove their portable bridge
took him prisoner. After Corts permitted the defeated unit from the rst gap, and so had no choice but to leave
soldiers to settle in the country, they passed with more it behind. The bulk of the Spanish infantry, left behind
or less willingness to Corts side. Hernn Corts gained by Corts and the other horsemen, had to cut their way
their support when he promised to make them rich and through the masses of Aztec warriors opposing them.
give them commands. The Caudillo then made a rapid Many of the Spaniards, weighed down by their armor and
return to Tenochtitlan, to relieve the besieged Alvarado booty, drowned in the causeway gaps or were killed by the
and his men.[20]:282284 Aztecs. Much of the wealth the Spaniards had acquired
Corts led his combined forces on an arduous trek back in Tenochtitlan [20]:299,300,306
was lost. The bridge was later called Al-
over the Sierra Madre Oriental, returning to Mexico on varados Leap.
St. Johns Day June 1520, with 1300 soldiers and 96 The channel is now a street in Mexico City, called "Puente
horses, plus 2000 Tlaxcalan warriors.[20]:284 de Alvarado" (Alvarados Bridge), because it seemed Al-
varado escaped across an invisible bridge. (He may have
been walking on the bodies of those soldiers and attack-
The Aztec response See also: Massacre in the Great ers who had preceded him, given the shallowness of the
Temple lake.)
It is said that Corts, upon reaching the mainland at Tla-
When Corts returned to Tenochtitlan in late May, he copan, wept over their losses. This episode is called "La
found that Alvarado and his men had attacked and killed Noche Triste" (The Night of Sorrows), and the old tree
many of the Aztec nobility in the Massacre in the Great (El rbol de la noche triste) where Corts allegedly
Temple, that happened during a religious festival orga- cried, is still a monument in Mexico City.
nized by the Aztec. Alvarados explanation to Corts was Corts had to ght one last battle, before reaching
that the Spaniards had learned that the Aztecs planned Tlaxcala. The Aztecs pursued and harassed the Span-
to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the fes- ish, who, guided by their Tlaxcalan allies, moved around
tival was complete, so he had launched a pre-emptive Lake Zumpango towards a sanctuary in Tlaxcala. On 14
attack.[20]:286 July 1520 the Aztecs attempted to destroy the Spanish for
Considerable doubt has been cast by dierent commen- good at the Battle of Otumba. Although hard-pressed,
tators on this explanation, which may have been self- the Spanish infantry was able to hold o the overwhelm-
serving rationalization on the part of Alvarado, who may ing numbers of enemy warriors, while the Spanish cav-
have attacked out of fear (or greed) where no immediate alry under the leadership of Corts charged through the
threat existed. enemy ranks again and again. When Corts and his men
killed one of the Aztec leaders, the Aztecs broke o the
In any event, the population of the city rose en masse af-
battle and left the eld.[20]:303305
ter the Spanish attack. Fierce ghting ensued, and the
Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards In this retreat, the Spaniards suered heavy casualties,
and Moctezuma. The nobility of Tenochtitlan chose losing 860 soldiers, 72 other Spanish members of Cortes
Cuitlhuac as Huey Tlatoani (Emperor). Corts ordered group, including ve women, and a thousand Tlaxcalan
Moctezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony warriors. Several Aztec noblemen loyal to Corts, includ-
and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast ing Cacamatzin, and their families also perished, includ-
in peace. Moctezuma was jeered and stones were thrown ing Moctezumas son and two daughters.[20]:302,305306
at him, mortally wounding Moctezuma.[20]:287294 Aztec
sources state the Spaniards killed him.[16]:90
The Spanish and their allies had to ee the city, as the Spaniards nd refuge in Tlaxcala The Spanish were
people of Tenochtitlan had risen against them and their able to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. There, they
situation could only deteriorate. Because the Aztecs had were given assistance and comfort, since all 440 of them
removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that were wounded, with only 20 horses left. Maxixcatzin,
linked the city to the surrounding lands, Corts men con- Xicotencatl the Elder and Chichimecatecle told Corts
structed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. men: Consider yourselves at home. Rest...do not think
On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and it a small thing that you have escaped with your lives from
their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to that strong city...if we thought of you as brave men before,
Tlacopan. They placed the portable bridge in the rst we consider you much braver now.[20]:306307
gap, but at that moment their movement was detected Corts then received reinforcements when the Panuco
130 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

in September 1520, which lasted seventy days. Many

were killed, including their new leader, the Emperor
Cuitlahuac.[16]:9293
The joint forces of Tlaxcala and Corts proved to be
formidable. One by one they took over most of the cities
under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy.
In the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring city of
Tlatelolco remained unconquered or not allied with the
Spaniards.[20]:326352
Corts then approached Tenochtitlan and mounted a siege
of the city that involved cutting the causeways from the
mainland and controlling the lake with armed brigantines
constructed by the Spanish and transported overland to
the lake. The Siege of Tenochtitlan lasted eight months.
The besiegers cut o the supply of food and destroyed the
aquaduct carrying water to the city.[20]:359,368

A page from the Lienzo de Tlaxcala, showing a battle of Otumba. Despite the stubborn Aztec resistance organized by their
new emperor, Cuauhtmoc, the cousin of Moctezuma II,
Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521, dur-
River settlement was abandoned, and supply ships ar- ing which the Emperor was captured trying to escape the
rived from Cuba and Spain. Corts also built 13 sloops city in a canoe. The siege of the city and its defense had
to cross Lake Texcoco. Xicotencatl the Younger, how- both been brutal. Largely because he wanted to present
ever, sought an alliance with the Mexicans, but was the city to his king and emperor, Corts had made sev-
opposed.[20]:309311 eral attempts to end the siege through diplomacy, but all
oers were rejected. During the battle, the defenders cut
Corts sent Diego de Ordaz, and the remants of De Nar- the beating hearts from seventy Spanish prisoners-of-war
vaez' men, on a ship to Spain, and Alonso de vila on a at the altar to Huitzilopochtli, an act that infuriated the
ship to Santo Domingo to represent his case in the Royal Spaniards.[20]:386387,391,401403
Courts.[20]:311
Corts then ordered the idols of the Aztec gods in the
Corts was able to pacify the country, after the natives temples to be taken down and replaced with icons of
realized the Spaniards put an end to the rape and rob- Christianity. He also announced that the temple would
bery that the Mexicans practised. Finally, Xicotencatl never again be used for human sacrice. Human sacrice
the Elder, baptized as Don Lorenzo de Vargas, agreed and reports of cannibalism, common among the natives
to support Corts expedition against Texcoco. He sent of the Aztec Empire, had been a major reason motivat-
more than ten thousand warriors under the command ing Corts and encouraging his soldiers to avoid surrender
of Chichimecatecle as Corts marched on the day after while ghting to the death.
Christmas 1520.[20]:309,311312
Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed by re and
cannon re during the siege, and once it nally fell, the
Siege of Tenochtitlan Main article: Fall of Tenochti- Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to
tlan Siege of Tenochtitlan establish the foundations of what would become Mexico
The Aztecs were struck by a smallpox plague starting City on the site. The surviving Aztec people were forbid-
den to live in Tenochtitlan and the surrounding isles, and
were banished to live in Tlatelolco.

1.16.5 Integration into the Spanish Em-

pire
Main article: History of New Spain

The Council of the Indies was constituted in 1524 and

Model depicting the rst lake battle between Spanish and Aztecs
the rst Audiencia in 1527. In 1535, Charles V the Holy
Roman Emperor (who was as the King of Spain known as
Charles I), named the Spanish nobleman Don Antonio de
Mendoza the rst Viceroy of New Spain. Mendoza was
entirely loyal to the Spanish crown, unlike the conqueror
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE 131

of Mexico Hernn Corts, who had demonstrated that he
was independent-minded and deed ocial orders when
he threw o the authority of Governor Diego Velzquez
de Cullar in Cuba. The name New Spain had been
suggested by Corts and was later conrmed ocially by
Mendoza.
1.16.6 Later Wars of Conquest
The Last Days of Tenochtitlan, Conquest of Mexico by Cortez,
a 19th-century painting by William de Leftwich Dodge.
The fall of Tenochtitlan usually is referred to as the main
episode in the process of the conquest of Mesoamerica.
However, this process was much more complex and took
longer than the three years that it took Corts to con-
quer Tenochtitlan. It took almost 60 years of wars for the
Spaniards to suppress the resistance of the Indian popu-
lation of Mesoamerica.
Chichimec Wars
Main articles: Chichimeca War and Mixton War
Chichimeca territory which altered the terrain and the
Chichimeca traditional way of life. The Chichimeca re-
sisted the intrusions on their ancestral lands by attacking
travelers and merchants along the silver roads. The en-
suing Chichimeca War (15501590) would become the
longest and costliest conict between Spanish forces and
indigenous peoples in the Americas. The attacks inten-
sied with each passing year. In 1554, the Chichimecas
inicted a great loss upon the Spanish when they attacked
a train of sixty wagons and captured more than 30,000
pesos worth of valuables. By the 1580s, thousands had
died and Spanish mining settlements in Chichimeca ter-
ritory were continually under threat. In 1585, Don Al-
varo Manrique de Ziga, Marquis of Villamanrique, was
appointed viceroy. The viceroy was infuriated when he
learned that some Spanish soldiers had begun supple-
menting their incomes by raiding the villages of peace-
ful Indians in order to sell them into slavery. With no
military end to the conict in sight, he was determined
to restore peace to that region and launched a full-scale
peace oensive by negotiating with Chichimeca leaders
and providing them with lands, agricultural supplies, and
other goods. This policy of peace by purchase nally
brought an end to the Chichimeca War.[45]
Conquest of the Yucatn Peninsula
Main article: Spanish Conquest of Yucatan
The Spanish conquest of Yucatn took almost 170 years.
The whole process could have taken longer were it not
for three separate epidemics that took a heavy toll on the
Native Americans, causing the population to fall in half
and weakening the traditional social structure.[46]

After the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, expedi- 1.16.7 The Aztecs under Spanish rule
tions were sent further northward in Mesoamerica, to the
region known as La Gran Chichimeca. The expeditions
under Nuo Beltrn de Guzmn were particularly harsh
on the Chichimeca population, causing them to rebel un-
der the leadership of Tenamaxtli and thus launch the
Mixton War.
In 1540, the Chichimecas fortied Mixtn, Nochistln,
and other mountain towns then besieged the Spanish
settlement in Guadalajara. The famous conquistador
Pedro de Alvarado, coming to the aid of acting governor
Cristbal de Oate, led an attack on Nochistln. How-
ever, the Chichimecas counter-attacked and Alvarados
forces were routed. Under the leadership of Viceroy Don
Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish forces and their Indian
allies ultimately succeeded in recapturing the towns and
suppressing resistance. However, ghting did not com-
pletely come to a halt in the ensuing years.
In 1546, Spanish authorities discovered silver in the Cristbal de Olid led Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the
Zacatecas region and established mining settlements in conquests of Jalisco and Colima of West Mexico.
132
The Aztec Empire ceased to exist with the Spanish nal
conquest of Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The empire
had been composed of separate city-states that had either
allied with or been conquered by the Mexica of Tenochtit-
lan, and rendered tribute to the Mexica while maintaining
their internal ruling structures. Those polities now came
under Spanish rule, also retaining their internal structures
of ruling elites, tribute paying commoners, and land hold-
ing and other economic structures largely intact. Two key
works by historian Charles Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Six-
teenth Century (1952)[47] and his monograph The Aztecs
Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley
of Mexico, 1519-1810 (1964)[48] were central in reshap-
ing the historiography of the indigenous and their com-
munities from the Spanish Conquest to the 1810 Mexican
independence era.[49]
Scholars who were part of a branch of Mesoamerican
ethnohistory, more recently called the New Philology
have, using indigenous texts in the indigenous languages,
been able to examine in considerable detail how the in-
digenous lived during the era of Spanish colonial rule.
A major work that utilizes colonial-era indigenous texts
as its main source is James Lockhart's The Nahuas Af-
ter the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History
and Philology.[50] The key to understanding how consid-
erable continuity of pre-Conquest indigenous structures
was possible was the Spanish colonial utilization of the
indigenous nobility. In the colonial era, the indigenous
nobility were largely recognized as nobles by the Span-
ish colonial regime, with privileges including the noble
Spanish title don for noblemen and doa for noblewomen.
To this day, the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a
Spanish noble family. A few of the indigenous nobility
learned Spanish. Spanish friars taught indigenous tribes
to write their own languages in Latin letters, which soon
became a self-perpetuating tradition at the local level.[51]
Their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of Evangelization of Mexico
colonial era Nahuas.
The rst mendicants in central Mexico, particularly the
Franciscans and Dominicans learned the indigenous lan-
guage of Nahuatl, in order to evangelize to the indigenous
people in their native tongue. Early mendicants created
texts in order to forward the project of Christianization.
Particularly important were the 1571 Spanish-Nahuatl
dictionary compiled by the Franciscan Fray Alonso de
Molina,[52] and his 1569 bilingual Nahuatl-Spanish con-
fessional manual for priests.[53] A major project by the
Franciscans in Mexico was the compilation of knowl-
edge on Nahua religious beliefs and culture that friar
Bernardino de Sahagn, oversaw, using indigenous in-
formants, resulting in a number of important texts and
culminating in a 12 volume text, The General History
of the Things of New Spain published in English as the
Florentine Codex. The Spanish crown via the Council
of the Indies and the Franciscan order in the late six-
teenth century became increasingly hostile to works by
religious in the indigenous languages, concerned that they
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
were heretical and an impediment to the Indians true
conversion.[54]
To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of
what is now contemporary Mexico, the Spanish crown
authorized grants of native labor, in particular the assign-
ment of entire indigenous communities to labor via the
Encomienda system. The indigenous were not slaves un-
der this system, chattel bought and sold or removed from
their home community, but the system was still one of
forced labor. The indigenous people of Central Mexico
had practices rendering labor and tribute products to their
politys elites and those elites to the Mexica overlords in
Tenochtitlan, so the Spanish system of encomienda was
built on pre-existing patterns of labor service.
The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colo-
nial era lived o the labor of the indigenous peoples. Due
to some horrifying instances of abuse against the native
peoples, Bishop Bartolom de las Casas suggested im-
porting black slaves to replace them. Las Casas later re-
pented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the
black slaves.[55]
The other discovery that perpetuated this system of in-
digenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines dis-
covered at Potosi, in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) and other
places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were
worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and
contributed most of the wealth that owed to Spain.
According to West, slavery was a well established in-
stitution among the Aztecs and their neighbors. Dur-
ing the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large num-
bers of natives - men, women and children - as booty
of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek. In
fact, Cortes owned several hundred, used mainly in gold
placering. Indian slavery was abolished in 1542, but per-
sisted until the 1550s.[56]
Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mer-
cenaries to ght the Protestant Reformation and to halt
the Turkish invasions of Europe. The silver was used to
purchase commercial goods abroad, as European manu-
factured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Mid-
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE
dle East. The Manila Galleon brought in far more sil-
ver direct from South American mines to China than the
overland Silk Road, or even European trade routes in the
Indian Ocean could.
The Aztec education system was abolished and replaced
by a very limited church education. Even some foods as-
1.16.9 See also
sociated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as
amaranth, were forbidden.
In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered
American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the
[57]
next century. Unlike the English-speaking colonists
of North America, the majority of the Spanish colonists
were single men who married or made concubines of the
natives, and were even encouraged to do so by Queen Is-
abella during the earliest days of colonization. As a re-
sult of these unions, as well as concubinage and secret
mistresses, mixed race individuals known as "Mestizos"
came into being as the majority of the Mexican popula-
tion in the centuries following the Spanish conquest.
1.16.8 Cultural depictions
Scene from the opera La Conquista, 2005
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire is the sub-
ject of an opera, La Conquista (2005) and of a set of six
symphonic poems, La nueva Espaa (199299) by Italian
composer Lorenzo Ferrero.
Cortss conquest has been depicted in numerous tele-
vision documentaries. These include in an episode of
Engineering an Empire as well as in the BBC series
Heroes and Villains, with Corts being portrayed by Brian
McCardie.
Captain from Castile (1947) is about early Corts and the
Aztec.
The expedition was also partially included in the animated
lm The Road to El Dorado as the main characters Tulio
and Miguel end up as stowaways on Hernn Corts eet
to Mexico. Here, Corts is represented as a merciless and
ambitious villain, leading a quest to nd El Dorado, the
legendary city of gold in the New World. Hernn Corts
is voiced by Jim Cummings.
133
The aftermath of the Spanish conquest, including the
Aztecs struggle to preserve their cultural identity, is the
subject of the acclaimed Mexican feature lm, The Other
Conquest, directed by Salvador Carrasco.
Aztec inuence in Spain
History of Mexico City
History of smallpox in Mexico
New Spain
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Spanish conquest of Yucatn
Spanish conquest of the Muisca
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Spanish Empire
Heroes and Villains: Cortes
1.16.10 Notes
[1] Indigeniso e hispanismo. Arqueologa mexicana. Re-
trieved 2015-10-20. (Spanish)
[2] James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, Early Latin Amer-
ica: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. See espe-
cially chapter 3, From islands to mainland: the Caribbean
phase and subsequent conquests.
[3] James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz,Early Latin America:
A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 80
[4] Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Corts: The Life of the Con-
queror by His Secretary, translated by Lesley Byrd Simp-
son. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964, pp.
207-08.
[5] Ida Altman, et al. The Early History of Greater Mexico,
Pearson, 2003, p. 59.
[6] Sarah Cline, Conquest Narratives, in The Oxford Ency-
clopedia of Mesoamerica, David Carrasco, ed. New York:
Oxford University Press 2001, vol. 1, p. 248
[7] Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early
History of Greater Mexico, chapter 4, Narratives of the
Conquest. Pearson, 2003, pp. 73-96
[8] Patricia de Fuentes, ed. The Conquistadors: First-Person
Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico, Norman: University
of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previously published by Orion
Press 1963.
134
[9] Two Letters of Pedro de Alvarado in The Conquista-
dors, Patricia de Fuente, editor and translator. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 182-196
[10] The Cronicle of the Anonymous Conquistador in The
Conquistadors: First-person Accounts of the Conquest of
Mexico Patricia de Fuente, (editor and trans). Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 165-181
[11] James Lockhart, We People Here, University of California
Press 1991, pp. 289-297
[12] Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitil, Ally of Corts: Account 13
of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of the
Evangelical Law. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El
Paso: Texas Western Press 1969
[13] Fray Bernardino de Sahagn, The Conquest of New Spain,
1585 Revision translated by Howard F. Cline, with an in-
troduction by S.L. Cline. University of Utah Press 1989.
[14] Fray Diego Durn, The History of the Indies of New
Spain[1581], Trans., annotated, and with an introduc-
tion by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1994.
[15] James Lockhart, We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the
Conquest of Mexico, University of California Press 1991,
pp. 256-273
[16] Len-Portilla, M. 1992, 'The Broken Spears: The Aztec
Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon
Press, ISBN 978-0807055014
[17] William Hickling Prescott, History of the Conquest of
Mexico, introduction by James Lockhart. New York: The
Modern Library, 2001
[18] S.L. Cline Introduction, History of the Conquest of New
Spain, 1585 Revision by Bernardino de Sahagn, Salt Lake
City: University of Utah Press 1989.
[19] Fray Bernardino de Sahagn, General History of the
Things of New Spain (The Florentine Codex). Book 12.
Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators.
Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
[20] Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London:
Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
[21] Camilla Townsend, Burying the White Gods: New Per-
spectives on the Conquest of Mexico The American His-
torical ReviewVol. 108, No. 3 (June 2003), pp. 659-687
[22] Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest.
Oxford University Press (2003), ISBN 0-19-516077-0
[23] Schwartz, Stuart B., ed. Victors and Vanquished: Span-
ish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston:
Bedforf, 2000.
[24] (p. 192)
[25] Hassig, Ross, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Long-
man: London and New York, 1994. p. 45
[26] Ida Altman, S.L. (Sarah) Cline, The Early History of
Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003, p. 54
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
[27] Hassig, Ross, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Long-
man: London and New York, 1994. p. 46.
[28] Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Corts, and the
fall of Old Mexico p. 141
[29] James Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 1532-1560., Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press 1968.
[30] Guerrero is reported to have responded, Brother Aguilar,
I am married and have three children, and they look at me
as a Cacique here, and a captain in time of war [...] But
my face is tattooed and my ears are pierced. What would
the Spaniards say if they saw me like this? And look how
handsome these children of mine are!" (p. 60)
[31] Later in the voyage a young woman, La Malinche, would
be given to Corts as a slave by the Chontal Maya inhab-
itants of the Tabasco coast. La Malinche spoke Nahuatl,
the language of the Aztec and a regional lingua franca,
as well as Chontal Maya, which was also understood by
Aguilar. Corts would be able to use the two of them to
communicate with the central Mexican peoples and the
Aztec court. See The Conquest of New Spain, pp. 8587
[32] Conquistadors - Corts. PBS. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[33] Tuck, Jim (2008-10-09). Armative action and Hernn
Corts (14851547) : Mexico History. Mexcon-
nect.com. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[34] See: Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Con-
quest. Oxford University Press: Oxford and New York,
2003.
[35] Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest,
2003
[36] Corts Burns His Boats pbs.org
[37] Conquistadors - Corts. PBS. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[38] Hugh Tomas, The conquest of Mexico, 1994
[39] Evans, Susan Toby (2001). Archaeology of ancient Mex-
ico and Central America, an Encyclopedia. New York &
London: Garland Publishing, Inc. pp. 139141.
[40] Empires Past: Aztecs: Conquest. Li-
brary.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[41] Informantes de Sahagn: Cdice Florentino, lib. XII, cap.
X.; Spanish version by Angel Ma. Garibay K.
[42] Russell, Philip L. (2010). The history of Mexico from pre-
conquest to present. New York: Routledge. p. 12. ISBN
9781136968280. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[43] Denevan, William M., ed. (1992). The Native popula-
tion of the Americas in 1492 (2nd ed. ed.). Madison,
Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 148149. ISBN
9780299134334. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[44] Anonymous informants of Sahagn, Florentine Codex,
book XII, chapter XVI, translation from Nahuatl by Angel
Ma. Garibay
[45] John P. Schmal. Somosprimos.com. Retrieved 2010-
10-31.
1.16. SPANISH CONQUEST OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE
[46] Nancy Marguerite Farriss (1984). Maya Society Un-
der Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival.
Princeton UP. pp. 5859.
[47] Charles Gibson, Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century, New
Haven: Yale University Press 1952
[48] Charles Gibson, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A His-
tory of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810,
Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
[49] Review by Benjamin Keen in Hispanic American Histori-
cal Review Vol. 45, No. 3 (Aug., 1965), pp. 477-480
[50] James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest: Post-
conquest Central Mexican History and Philology, Stanford:
Stanford University Press 1992.
[51] Frances Karttunen, Aztec Literacy, in George A. Coller
et al., eds. The Inca and Aztec States, pp. 395-417. New
York: Academic Press 1982.
[52] Fray Alonso de Molina, Vocabulario en lengua cstellana y
mexicana y mexcana y castellana(1571), Mexico: Edito-
rial Porra, 1970
[53] Fray Alonso de Molina, Confessionario mayor en la
lengua castellana y mexicana (1569), With an introduc-
tion by Roberto Moreno. Mexico: Instituto de Investiga-
ciones Filolgicos, Instituto de Investigaciones Histricos,
Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico.
[54] Howard F. Cline, Evolution of the Historia General in
Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethno-
historical Sources, vol. 13, part 2, Howard F. Cline, vol-
ume editor, Austin: University of Texas Pres, 1973 p.196.
[55] Blackburn 1997: 136; Friede 1971: 165166
[56] West,Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531-
1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter, ed. Mines of Silver and
Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Pub-
lishing Limited. pp. 6566.
[57] Axtell, James (SeptemberOctober 1991). The
Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America. Humanities.
12 (5): 1218. Archived from the original on 17 May
2008. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
1.16.11 Further reading
Primary sources
Alva Ixtlilxochitil, Fernando. Ally of Corts: Ac-
count 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Be-
ginning of the Evangelical Law. Douglass K. Ballen-
tine, translator. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969
Anonymous Conqueror, the (1917) [1550].
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the
Great City of Temestitan. Marshall Saville (trans).
New York: The Corts Society.
Corts, Hernn. Letters available as Letters from
Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN
0-300-09094-3
135
de Fuentes, Patricia, ed. The Conquistadors: First-
Person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Nor-
man: University of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previ-
ously published by Orion Press 1963.
Francisco Lpez de Gmara, Hispania Victrix; First
and Second Parts of the General History of the In-
dies, with the whole discovery and notable things
that have happened since they were acquired until
the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New
Spain
Bernal Daz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain
available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mex-
ico: 1517-1521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X
Len-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The
Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of
Mexico. ngel Mara Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish
trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.),
Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated
ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-5501-8.
Lockhart, James. We People Here: Nahuatl Ac-
counts of the Conquest of Mexico, Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press 1991.
Sahagn, Fray Bernardino. General History of the
Things of New Spain (The Florentine Codex). Book
12. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble,
translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah
Press.
Schwartz, Stuart B., ed. Victors and Vanquished:
Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mex-
ico. Boston: Bedford, 2000.
Secondary sources
History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Prelimi-
nary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the
Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William
H. Prescott ISBN 0-375-75803-8
Conquest: Corts, Montezuma, and the Fall of
Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0-671-
51104-1
Corts and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon
Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0-7867-0271-0
The Rain God cries over Mexico by Lszl Passuth
Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew
Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-
516077-0
The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov
(1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1
Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mex-
ico by Ross Hassig, Texas University Press (2001)
ISBN 0-292-73139-6
136 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented
by Frances F. Berdan, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Col-
(1982) ISBN 0-03-055736-4 lections Center

Mexico and the Spanish Conquest by Ross Hassig, La Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva
Longman: London and New York, (1994) ISBN 0- Espaa (Spanish)
582-06828-2

1.17 Tenochtitlan
Additional bibliography
Not to be confused with Teotihuacan.
Brandt, Anthony. Perfect storm at Tenochtitlan
1521: How Cortess band of hidalgos destroyed the
Mexica Empire. MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Mexico-Tenochtitlan (Spanish: Mxico-Tenochtitlan,
Military History (2014): 58. Spanish pronunciation: [mexiko tenottitlan]), commonly
known as Tenochtitlan (Classical Nahuatl: Tenchtitlan
Chasteen, John Charles. Born in Blood and Fire: A [tenottit
an])
was an Aztec altepetl (city-state) located
Concise History of Latin America. New York: W.W. on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico.
Norton, 2011. Founded on June 20, 1325, it became the capital of the
expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century,[1] until it
Daniel, Douglas A. Tactical Factors in the Spanish was captured by the Spanish in 1521.
Conquest of the Aztecs. Anthropological Quarterly
(1992): 187-194. At its peak it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian
Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the
Francisco Nunez de Pineda y Bascunan. Happy Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today the ruins of Tenochti-
Captivity. In Born in Blood and Fire: Latin Ameri- tlan are located in Mexico Citys downtown.
can Voices, edited by John Charles Chasteen. 42-48. Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua altepetl (city-states)
New York: W.W. Norton, 2011. on the island, the other being Tlatelolco.
Garofalo, Leo J., and Erin E. O'Connor. Document-
ing Latin America : Gender, Race, and Empire, vol. 1.17.1 Etymology
1. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011.
Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come
O'Connor, Erin, and Leo Garofalo. Mothers Making from Nahuatl tetl [tet] (rock) and nchtli [notti]
Latin America. ("prickly pear") and is often thought to mean, Among
Raudzens, George. So Why Were the Aztecs Con- the prickly pears [growing among] rocks. However, one
quered, and What Were the Wider Implications? attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as
Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of Europes the Bancroft dialogues suggest the second vowel[2]was
Pre-Industrial Colonial Conquests. War in History short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.
(1995): 87-104.

Townsend, Camilla. Malintzins Choices: An Indian

1.17.2 Geography
Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. Albuquerque:
Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2 (3.1 to
University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow
White, John Manchip. Cortes and the Downfall of Lake Texcoco.
the Aztec Empire: A Study in a Conict of Cul- At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised
tures. The Hispanic American Historical Review both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from
(1972): 467-468. north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the
swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing
to the west; the city ended more or less at the present
1.16.12 External links location of Avenida Bucareli.

Hernn Corts on the Web web directory with The city was connected to the mainland by causeways
thumbnail galleries leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways
were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other
Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) trac to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away,
if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood website for with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could
2001 PBS documentary be visited either on foot or via canoe.
1.17. TENOCHTITLAN
The Western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan is
the southern part of the main island (under the red line). The
northern part is Tlatelolco
Lake Texcoco was the largest of ve interconnected lakes.
Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was Marketplaces
brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the "levee
of Nezahualcoyotl" was constructed, reputedly designed
by Nezahualcoyotl. Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5
to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453.
The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around
Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the
dike, to the east.
Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km (2.5 mi)
long and made of terracotta,[3] provided the city with
fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was
intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking,
water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the
population liked to bathe twice a day; Moctezuma was
said to take four baths a day. According to the context of
Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely
used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria
americana),[4] and to clean their clothes they used the root
of metl (Agave americana). Also, the upper classes and
pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, sim-
ilar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of
137
Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican
cultures.
1.17.3 City plans
When we saw so many cities and villages
built in the water and other great towns on dry
land we were amazed and said that it was like
the enchantments (...) on account of the great
towers and cues and buildings rising from the
water, and all built of masonry. And some of
our soldiers even asked whether the things that
we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know
how to describe it, seeing things as we did that
had never been heard of or seen before, not
even dreamed about.
Bernal Daz del Castillo, The Conquest of
New Spain[5]
The city was divided into four zones, or campan; each
campan was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, Nahuatl
calplli); and each calpulli, or 'big house', was crossed
by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets
that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three
causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and
Tlacopan.[6] Bernal Daz del Castillo reported that they
were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised
causeways were articial oating gardens with canal wa-
terways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees.[7] The
calpullis were divided by channels used for transporta-
tion, with wood bridges that were removed at night.
The earliest European images of the city were woodcuts
published in Augsburg around 1522.[8]
The Tlatelolco Marketplace as depicted at The Field Museum,
Chicago.
Each calpulli (from Classical Nahuatl calplli, Nahu-
atl pronunciation: [kapoli], meaning large house)
138 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

had its own tiyanquiztli (marketplace), but there was isted in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called
also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco Tenochtitlans Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.[11]
sister city. Corts estimated it was twice the size of
the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading
daily. Bernardino de Sahagn provides a more conserva- 1.17.4 Social classes
tive population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and
40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized mar- Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex soci-
kets in the other central Mexican cities. ety in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratication. The
complex system involved many social classes. The mace-
hualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city
Public buildings of Tenochtitlan. The pipiltin were noblemen who were
relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the
connes of the island. Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were
commoners who impressed the nobles with their great
war skills, and were treated as nobles.[6] Teteuctin were
the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire,
including the king. Tlacohtin were individuals who chose
to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not
slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical
slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide. Fi-
nally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of
Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was
based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich be-
cause they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the
ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they ob-
tained from their trade expeditions. People were traded
in large buses.
A picture of Tenochtitlan and a model of the Templo Mayor.
Status was displayed by location and type of house where
In the center of the city were the public buildings, tem- a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of
ples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 300 meters to a reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People
side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 who were better o had houses of adobe brick with at
public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor, which roofs.[6] The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with
was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli at roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes
and the Rain God Tlaloc; the temple of Quetzalcoatl; the that were arranged around the inner court. The higher of-
tlachtli (ball game court) with the tzompantli or rack of cials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes
skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to Tonatiuh; that made up the city.
the Eagles House, which was associated with warriors Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratica-
and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the glad- tion was the calpolli. Calpolli, meaning big house is a
iatorial sacrice; and some minor temples.[9] group of families related by either kinship or proximity.
Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec so-
each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of ciety and commoners. Elites provided commoners with
allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and com-
cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.[10] moners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.[12]
The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be
approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of
1.17.5 The History of The City
the city planning.
Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Mexican civiliza-
Palaces of Moctezuma II tion, consisting of the Mexica people, founded in 1325.
The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the
The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or fulllment of an ancient prophecy: that the wandering
zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, tribes would nd the destined site for a great city whose
reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were ded- location would be signaled by an Eagle eating a snake
icated to the care of the animals. There was also a while perched atop a cactus.
botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had The Aztecs saw this vision on what was then a small
ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, con- swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now im-
taining sh and aquatic birds. Places like this also ex- mortalized in Mexicos coat of arms and on the Mexican
1.17. TENOCHTITLAN
A Mexico City statue commemorating the foundation of Tenochti-
tlan.
ag. Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set The Conquest of Tenochtitlan.
about building their city, using the chinampa system (mis-
named as oating gardens) for agriculture and to dry
and expand the island.
A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization
came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small
natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan
grew to become the largest and most powerful city in
Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that
brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico,
the Pacic Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire.[13]
After a ood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under
the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the
grandest ever in Mesoamerica.
Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts arrived in Tenochti-
tlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated popula-
tion between 200,000 and 300,000, many scholars be-
lieve Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities
in the world at that time.[14] Compared to Europe, only
Paris, Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It
was ve times the size of the London of Henry VIII.[6] In
a letter to the Spanish king, Corts wrote that Tenochtit-
lan was as large as Seville or Crdoba. Cortes men were
in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered
if they were dreaming.[15]
Although some popular sources put the number as high
as 350,000,[16] the most common estimates of the popu-
lation are of over 200,000 people. One of the few com-
prehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and
town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on
13.5 km2 (5.2 sq mi),[17] It is also said that at one time,
Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost ve mil-
lion people in central and southern Mexico because he
had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain
tribute and prisoners to sacrice to the gods.[7]
The coming of Corts
Further information: Fall of Tenochtitlan
When Corts and his men arrived to Tenochtitlan,
Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large em-
pire, chose to welcome Corts as an honored guest, rather
than risk a war which might quickly be joined by ag-
139
grieved indigenous people. The persistent myth that
Corts was seen as a god has been put to rest by histo-
rians such as Camilla Townsend.[18]
As Corts approached the great city of Tenochtitlan, the
natives put on many events. Nobles lined each side along
the buildings of the citys main causeway, which ex-
tended about a league. Walking down the center came
Moctezuma II, who had two lords at his side, one being
his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Corts dismounted,
and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but was forbid-
den to touch him. Corts gave him a necklace of crystals,
placing it over his neck.[19]
They were then brought to a large house that would serve
as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were set-
tled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Corts.
The ruler declared that anything that they needed would
be theirs to have.[20] He was thrilled to have visitors of
such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold,
Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort,
but all of it was to be given to Corts if he so desired it.[21]
Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Corts faced early trouble.
Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the ocer left in charge re-
ceived a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almera,
asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested
that ocers be sent to him so that he could conrm his
submission. To reach the province, the ocers would
have to travel through hostile land. The ocer in charge
of Vera Cruz decided to send four ocers to meet with
Qualpopoca.[22]
When they arrived, they were captured and two were
killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon
their return to Vera Cruz, the ocer in charge was in-
furiated, and so led troops to storm Almera. Here
they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one
who commanded the ocers to be executed.[23] Back
in Tenochtitlan, Corts detained Moctezuma and ques-
tioned him endlessly.[24] Though no serious conclu-
sions were made, this started the relationship between
Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.[25]
140
After the conquest
Corts subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days,
causing the inhabitants utter famine,[7] directed the sys-
tematic destruction and leveling of the city,[26] and be-
gan its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area ing the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess
designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian
section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to
be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was di-
vided into the same subdivisions as before.[27]
Ruins
The ruins of the Templo Mayor.
Fundacin de Mxico (The foundation of Mexico) Tenochti-
tln by Roberto Cueva del Ro.
Tenochtitlans main temple complex, the Templo Mayor,
was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish
colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great tem-
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
ple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construc-
tion of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor
was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major
excavations did not take place until 19781982, after
utility workers came across a massive stone disc depict-
Coyolxauhqui. This stone disc is 3.25 meters in diam-
eter (or 10.5 ft).[28] These nds are held at the Templo
Mayor Museum.
The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on
top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures
caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco.
This resulted in the ruins now resting at an angle instead
of horizontally.
Mexico Citys Zcalo, the Plaza de la Constitucin, is lo-
cated at the site of Tenochtitlans original central plaza
and market, and many of the original calzadas still cor-
respond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone
was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters in diame-
ter and weighs over 20 tons. It was once located half-way
up the great pyramid. This sculpture was made around
1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor
of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and
a prophecy for the future.[29]
In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789
human bones ve metres below street level in Mexico
City.[30] The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at
the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial
precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from chil-
dren, teenagers and adults and a complete skeleton of a
young woman was also found at the site.[30]
1.17.6 See also
List of megalithic sites
List of Mesoamerican pyramids
History of Mexico City
1.17.7 Notes
[1] Tenochtitln, la capital azteca. www.historiang.com.
Archived from the original on March 22, 2012. Retrieved
8 April 2011.
[2] Frances Karttunen (1983) An Analytical Dictionary
of Nahuatl p.225, Texas linguistic series, University
of Texas, Austin ISBN 978-0-2927-0365-0; OCLC
230535203
[3] Corts, H.
[4] Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006). Handbook to life in the
Aztec world. Infobase Publishing. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-
8160-5673-6. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
1.17. TENOCHTITLAN 141

[5] Bernal Diaz Del Castillo, The Discovery And Conquest
Of Mexico 1517 1521, Edited by Genaro Garcia, Trans-
lated with an Introduction and Notes?, pp 269, A. P.
MAUDSLAY, rst pub 1928
[6] Coe, M. 2008, p. 193.
[7] Walker, C. 1980, p. 162.
[8] Newspaper About the Country that the Spaniards Found
in 1521, Called Yucatan. World Digital Library. 2011-
10-17. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
[9] Coe, M. 2008, p. 193
[10] Corts, H. 1520, p. 87.
[11] Corts, H. 1520, p. 89.
[12] Coe, M. 2008, p. 194-196.
[13] Blainey, G. A Very Short History of the World, 2007
[14] Levy, Buddy (2008). Conquistador: Hernn Corts, King
Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. Bantam
Books. p. 106. ISBN 978-0553384710.
[15] Butterworth, Douglas; Chance, John K. (1981). Latin
American urbanization. CUP Archive. p. 2. ISBN 978-
0-521-28175-1.
[16] Stannard, D. (1992)
[17] Smith (2005), p. 411
[18] Townsend, Camilla. Burying the White Gods: New Per-
spectives on the Conquest of Mexico, American Histor-
ical Review (June 2003)
[19] Corts, H. 1520, p. 69.
1.17.8 References
Coe,Michael D. (2008). Mexico: From the Olmecs to
the Aztecs. New York, New York: Thames & Hud-
son.
Cohen, Sara E. (March 1972). How the Aztecs Ap-
praised Montezuma. Society for History Education:
The History Teacher. 5 (3): 2130.
Corts, Hernn (1969). Five Letters of Corts to the
Emperor. Morris J.Baynard (ed. and trans.).
Daz del Castillo, Bernal (1963) [1632]. The Con-
quest of New Spain. Penguin Classics. J. M. Cohen
(trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044123-9.
OCLC 162351797.
Smith, Michael E. (May 2005). City Size
in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica (PDF).
Journal of Urban History. Beverley Hills,
CA: SAGE Publications. 31 (4): 403434.
doi:10.1177/0096144204274396. OCLC
1798556. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
Soustelle, Jacques (1984). La vida cotidiana de
los aztecas en visperas de la conquista (in Spanish).
Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica.
Stannard, David E. (1992). American Holocaust:
Columbus and the conquest of the New World. New
York, New York: Oxford University Press.
Walker, Charles (1980). Wonders of the Ancient
World. New York, New York: Crescent Books.

[20] Corts, H. 1520, p. 71. 1.17.9 Further reading

[21] Corts, H. 1520, p. 70. Calnek, Edward. Settlement Pattern and Chi-
nampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan. American An-
[22] Corts, H. 1520, p. 72. tiquity 37.1. (1973) 190-95.
[23] Corts, H. 1520, p. 73. Calnek, Edward. El sistema de mercado en
Tenochtitlan. In Economa poltica e ideologa en
[24] Corts, H. 1520, p. 77.
el Mxico prehispnico. Eds. Pedro Carrasco and
[25] Stannard, D. 1992, 214. Johanna Broda, pp. 97114. Mexico City: Cen-
tro de Investigaciones Superiores del Instituto de
[26] The Colonial Spanish-American City: Urban Life in the Antropologa e Historia, 1978.
Age of Atlantic Capitalism, Jay Kinsbruner, University
of Texas Press, 2005, p20,ISBN 0-292-70668-5 Calnek, Edward. Tenochtitlan in the Early Colonial
Period. Acts of the XLII International Congress of
[27] Stannard, D. 1992, 109. Americanists 8, 1976 (1979) 35-40.
[28] Snow, Dean R. (2010). Archaeology of Native North Calnek, Edward. Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco: the
America. Boston: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13- Natural History of a City. In El Urbanismo en
615686-4. Mesoamrica/Urbanism in Mesoamerica, vol. 1.
[29] Walker, p. 1627 edited by W.T. Sanders et al., 149-202. Mexico
City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Histo-
[30] A.R Williams (29 August 2012). Venerable Bones. Na- ria; University Park: Pennsylvania State University
tional Geographic. 2003.
142 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

Molina Montes, Augusto F. (December 1980).

The building of Tenochtitlan. National Geo-
graphic. Vol. 158 no. 6. pp. 753764. ISSN
0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
Mundy, Barbara E. Mapping the Aztec Capital: the
1524 Nuremberg Map of Tenochtitlan, Its Sources
and Meanings. Imago Mundi 50 (1998), 1-22.
Mundy, Barbara E. Place-Names in Mexico-
Tenochtitlan. Ethnohistory 61 (2) Spring 2014.
329-355.
Mundy, Barbara E. The Death of Aztec Tenochtitlan,
the Life of Mexico City. Austin: University of Texas The jaguar was a sacred animal to Tezcatlipoca.
Press 2015.
Toussaint, Manuel, Federico Gmez de Orozco, and
Justino Fernndez, Planos de la Ciudad de Mx- Toxcatl ceremony celebrated in the month of May. One
ico. XVI Congreso Internacional de Planicacin of the four sons of Ometeotl, he is associated with a
y de la Habitacin. Mexico City: Instituto de In- wide range of concepts, including the night sky, the night
vestigaciones Estticas de la Universidad Nacional winds, hurricanes, the north, the earth, obsidian, enmity,
Autnoma de Mxico 1938. discord, rulership, divination, temptation, jaguars, sor-
cery, beauty, war and strife. His name in the Nahuatl
Townsend, Richard F. State and Cosmos in the Art language is often translated as Smoking Mirror[2] and
of Tenochtitlan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and alludes to his connection to obsidian, the material from
Archeology 20. Washington D.C., Dumbarton Oaks which mirrors were made in Mesoamerica which were
1979. used for shamanic rituals and prophecy.[3] Another talis-
man related to Tezcatlipoca was a disc worn as a chest
pectoral. This talisman was carved out of abalone shell
1.17.10 External links and depicted on the chest of both Huitzilopochtli and Tez-
catlipoca in codex illustrations.[4][5]
Tenochtitlan Entry in The Visual History Project
He had many epithets which alluded to dierent as-
pects of his deity: Titlacauan /ttlkan/ (We are his
1.18 Tezcatlipoca Slaves), Ipalnemoani (He by whom we live), Necoc
Yaotl (Enemy of Both Sides), Tloque Nahuaque (Lord
of the Near and the Nigh) and Yohualli hecatl (Night,
For other uses, see Tezcatlipoca (disambiguation). Wind), Ome Acatl[6] (Two Reed), Ilhuicahua Tlaltic-
Tezcatlipoca (/tzktlipok/; Classical Nahuatl: paque (Possessor of the Sky and Earth).[7]

When depicted he was usually drawn with a black and a

yellow stripe painted across his face. He is often shown
with his right foot replaced with an obsidian mirror, bone,
or a snakean allusion to the creation myth in which he
loses his foot battling with the Earth Monster. Sometimes
the mirror was shown on his chest, and sometimes smoke
would emanate from the mirror. Tezcatlipocas nagual,
his animal counterpart, was the jaguar and his jaguar
aspect was the deity Tepeyollotl (Mountainheart). In
the Aztec ritual calendar the Tonalpohualli Tezcatlipoca
ruled the trecena 1 Ocelotl (1 Jaguar)he was also pa-
tron of the days with the name Acatl (reed).[8]
The Tezcatlipoca gure goes back to earlier Mesoamer-
ican deities worshipped by the Olmec and Maya. Simi-
larities exist with the patron deity of the K'iche' Maya as
described in the Popol Vuh. A central gure of the Popol
Tezcatlipoca one of the deities described in the Codex Borgia. Vuh was the god Tohil whose name means obsidian and
who was associated with sacrice. Also the Classic Maya
Tezcatlipca pronounced [teskatipoka][1] ) was a central god of rulership and thunder known to modern Mayanists
deity in Aztec religion, and his main festival was the as "God K", or the Manikin Scepter and to the clas-
1.18. TEZCATLIPOCA 143

sic Maya as K'awil was depicted with a smoking obsidian legs, or any combination there of can be depicted. Most
knife in his forehead and one leg replaced with a snake.[9] commonly he is shown with horizontal face bands, wear-
ing a heron feather headdress, a loincloth, and knotted
sandals with an armband, and tinker bells either around
his neck or ankles.[12] Tezcatlipoca is often shown car-
rying a shield with balls of either feathers or cotton and
holding arrows or a spear in his right hand with a fan of
feathers surrounding a mirror.[13]

1.18.2 Temples to Tezcatlipoca

Many of the temples now associated with Tezcatlipoca
are built facing East-West, as Olivier quotes Felipe So-
lis: the sacred building of the war god [Tezcatlipoca]
was in direct relation with the movement of the sun, in
the same manner of the Great Temple was, their faades
being towards the West.[14] There are also several ref-
erence to momoztli. Although the exact denition of
the momoztli is unknown, with denitions varying from
mound, stone seat and temple, there is an over-
all consensus that it is a general holy place to worship
the gods, specically mentioned as his [Tezcatlipocas]
viewing place.[15]
Aztec Obsidian Mirror.

1.18.3 Priests of Tezcatlipoca

1.18.1 Representations of Tezcatlipoca
Tezcatlipoca with all 20 day signs, symbolizing the divine calen-
dar.
There are few surviving representations of Tezcatlipoca
into the present day. Due to the lack of surviving images,
some have chosen to describe Tezcatlipoca as the 'invisi-
ble god'.[10] However, the fact that many images are dif-
cult to identify as one god or another does not mean that
no generalizations can be made about Tezcatlipocas ap-
pearance. The color black is strongly associated with Tez-
catlipoca and he is often portrayed as having horizontal
bands across his face especially in black and yellow, but
the many dierent codices vary on which two colors from
site to site.[11] There are also portrayals of his body also
being black in certain places. Depending on the site half
of his leg, the full length of his arms, the majority of his
The priests of Tezcatlipoca often wore the ornaments of
the god and wore specic garments for dierent ritu-
als. Common ornaments were white turkey feather head-
dresses, a paper loincloth, and a tzanatl stick with simi-
lar feathers and paper decorations.[16] Another common
practice was to cover themselves in black soot or ground
charcoal while they were involved in priestly activities at
the temple or during rituals.[17] They would also cover the
sick and newly appointed king in a similar manner with
a black ointment to encourage an association with the
god.[18] When the ritual called for it, priests would also
dress up as Tezcatlipoca himself and accompany other
similarly outtted gods or goddesses.[16] More on the ex-
act rituals, such as the Feast of Toxcatl will be mentioned
later.
1.18.4 Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl
Tezcatlipoca was often described as a rival of another im-
portant god of the Aztecs, the culture hero, Quetzalcoatl.
In one version of the Aztec creation account[19] the myth
of the Five Suns, the rst creation, The Sun of the Earth
was ruled by Tezcatlipoca but destroyed by Quetzalcoatl
when he struck down Tezcatlipoca who then transformed
into a jaguar. Quetzalcoatl became the ruler of the sub-
sequent creation Sun of Water, and Tezcatlipoca de-
stroyed the third creation The Sun of Wind by striking
down Quetzalcoatl.
In later myths, the four gods who created the world, Tez-
catlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopochtli and Xipe Totec
144 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

also worshipped in many other Nahua cities such as

Texcoco, Tlaxcala and Chalco. Each temple had a statue
of the god for which copal incense was burned four times
a day. There were several priests dedicated to the ser-
vice of Tezcatlipoca, one of them was probably the one
Sahagn calls "huitznahuac teohua omacatl", others were
the calmeca teteuctin who were allowed to eat the rit-
ual food oered to Tezcatlipoca, others accompanied the
Ixiptlatli impersonator of Tezcatlipoca in the year prior
to his execution. Honoring Tezcatlipoca was fundamen-
tal to both the priesthood and the nobility. On his in-
stallation, the new king fasted and meditated, which in-
cluded prayers in honor of Tezcatlipoca, the patron deity
of the royal house.[21] Tezcatlipocas priests were oered
into his service by their parents as children, often because
they were sick. These children would then have their skin
painted black and be adorned with quail feathers in the
image of the god.[22]
Tezcatlipoca depicted in the codex Rios in the aspect of a Tezcatlipocas main feast was during Toxcatl, the fth
Jaguarin this form he was called Tepeyollotl. month of the Aztec calendar.[23] The preparations began a
year earlier, when a young man was chosen by the priests,
to be the likeness of Tezcatlipoca. For the next year he
were referred to respectively as the Black, the White, the lived like a god, wearing expensive jewellery and hav-
Blue and the Red Tezcatlipoca. The four Tezcatlipocas ing eight attendants.[24] For one year he lived a life of
were the sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, lady and honor, the handsome young man worshipped literally
lord of the duality, and were the creators of all the other as the embodiment of the deity [24] He would marry four
gods, as well as the world and all humanity. young women, and spent his last week singing, feasting
The rivalry between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca is also and dancing. During the feast where he was worshipped
recounted in the legends of Tollan where Tezcatlipoca de- as the deity he personied he climbed the stairs to the
ceives Quetzalcoatl who was the ruler of the legendary top of the temple on his own where the priests seized
city and forces him into exile. But it is interesting to him, a time in which he proceeded to symbolically crush
note that Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca both collabo- one by one the clay utes on which he had played in
rated in the creation of the dierent creations and that his brief moment of glory, and then was sacriced, his
both of them were seen as instrumental in the creation body being eaten later.[24] Immediately after he died a
of life. Karl Taube and Mary Miller, specialists in new victim for the next years ceremony was chosen. Tez-
Mesoamerican Studies, write that, More than anything catlipoca was also honoured during the ceremony of the
Tezcatlipoca appears to be the embodiment of change 9th month, when the Miccailhuitontli Little Feast of the
through conict.[8] Tezcatlipoca appears on the rst page Dead was celebrated to honour the dead, as well as dur-
of the Codex Borgia carrying the 20 day signs of the ing the Panquetzaliztli Raising of Banners ceremony in
calendar; in the Codex Cospi he is shown as a spirit of the 15th month.
darkness, as well as in the Codex Laud and the Dresden
Codex. His cult was associated with royalty, and was the
subject of the most lengthy and reverent prayers in the 1.18.6 Mythical stories
rites of kingship, as well as being mentioned frequently
in coronation speeches. The temple of Tezcatlipoca was In one of the Aztec accounts of creation, Quetzalcoatl and
in the Great Precinct of Tenochtitlan. Tezcatlipoca joined forces to create the world. Before
their act there was only the sea and the crocodilian earth-
monster called Cipactli.[25] To attract her, Tezcatlipoca
1.18.5 Aztec religion used his foot as bait, and Cipactli ate it.[25] The two gods
then captured her, and distorted her to make the land from
The Main temple of Tezcatlipoca in Tenochtitlan was her body. After that, they created the people, and peo-
located south of the Great Temple. According to Fray ple had to oer sacrices to comfort Cipactli for her suf-
Diego Durn it was lofty and magnicently built. Eighty ferings. Because[25]
of this, Tezcatlipoca is depicted with a
steps led to a landing twelve or fourteen feet wide. Be- missing foot.
yond it stood a wide, long chamber the size of a great Another story of creation goes that Tezcatlipoca turned
hall....[20] There were several smaller temples dedicated himself into the sun, but Quetzalcoatl was furious possi-
to Tezcatlipoca in the city, among them the ones called bly because they were enemies, he is a night god or due to
Tlacochcalco and Huitznahuatl. Tezcatlipoca was his missing foot, so he knocked Tezcatlipoca out of the
1.18. TEZCATLIPOCA
Turquoise mask representing the god Tezcatlipoca, from the
British Museum.
sky with a stone club.[25] Angered, Tezcatlipoca turned
into a jaguar and destroyed the world. Quetzalcoatl re-
placed him and started the second age of the world and
it became populated again.[25] Tezcatlipoca overthrew
Quetzalcoatl, forcing him to send a great wind that devas-
tated the world, and the people who survived were turned
into monkeys. Tlaloc, the god of rain, then became the
sun. But he had his wife taken away by Tezcatlipoca. An-
gered in turn, he would not make it rain for several years
until, in a t of rage, he made it rain re with the few
people who survived the assault turning into the birds.[25]
Chalchihuitlicue the Water Goddess then became the sun.
But she was crushed by Tezcatlipocas words who accused
her of just pretending to be kind. She cried for many
years and the world was destroyed by the resulting oods.
Those people who survived the deluge were turned into
sh.[25]
1.18.7 Aztec reverence
As discussed above, Aztec folklore is rife with par-
allels, much of the time depicted in deities such as
Tezcatlipoca.[25] For Aztec nobility, this patron deity
is fundamental in the social and natural phenomena jus-
tied by religion during this time.[21] Extreme reverence
and respect, characterized by ceremonial proceedings in
which priests were to pay homage to Tezcatlipoca, or
145
Tezcatlipoca Lord of the Night Winds
where citizens waited expectantly for ceremonial pro-
ceedings to start under the low hum of shell trumpets,
were commonplace, especially for this deity.[21] Utter re-
spect from the highest position of Aztec nobility, the
king, shown through the gurative and literal nakedness
of his presence in front of Tezcatlipoca.[21] The king
would stand naked, emphasizing his utter unworthiness,
speaking as nothing but a vessel for the gods will.[21] The
new king would claim his spiritual nakedness symboli-
cally through words and physical vulnerability, praising
Tezcatlipoca with lines such as:
O master, O our lord, O lord of the near, of the nigh, O
night, O wind...Poor am I. In what manner shall I act for
thy city? In what manner shall I act for the governed, for
the vassals (macehualtin)? For I am blind, I am deaf, I am
an imbecile, and in excrement, in lth hath my lifetime
been... Perhaps thou mistaketh me for another; perhaps
thou seekest another in my stead.[21]
For kings, lords, priests, and citizens alike, the cyclical
nature they observed every day and every year was por-
trayed not through science or philosophical debate, but
utter reverence and respect for the spiritual beings they
believed were the cause of these events. It was gods like
Tezcatlipoca that solidied this notion, representing both
the silent wind, and thunderous war.[25]
146 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

1.18.8 See also [22] The Aztec Trickster. Trinity.edu. Retrieved 2015-06-
23.
Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures
[23] For an in depth description and interpretation of the Tox-
Lords of the Night (mythology) catl festival see Olivier (2003) Chapter 6.
[24] Coe and Koontz p. 212
Aztec mythology in popular culture
[25] Olivier 2003 Tezcatlipoca stories
Nagual
Quetzalcoatl 1.18.10 References
Coe, Michael D.; Koontz, Rex (2008). Mexico:
1.18.9 Notes From the Olmecs to the Aztecs (Sixth ed.). Thames
& Hudson Ltd, London. ISBN 978-0-500-28755-2.
[1] The vowel transliterated here as [i] may in fact have been
long or followed by a glottal stop which is sometimes writ- Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and
ten as an h Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London:
[2] For a discussion of the many interpretations of the mean- Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6.
ing of the name Tezcatlipoca see Olivier (2003) pp. 14- Olivier, Guilhem (2003). Mockeries and Metamor-
15. phoses of an Aztec God: Tezcatlipoca, Lord of the
[3] See and Be Seen: ('Smoking') Mirrors. Mexicol- Smoking Mirror. translated by Michel Besson. Uni-
ore.co.uk. 2013-04-16. Retrieved 2015-06-23. versity Press of Colorado. ISBN 0-87081-745-0.

[4] http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/artefacts/
personified-knives 1.18.11 External links
[5] Archived September 12, 2014, at the Wayback Ma- Mexicolore - Tezcatlipoca Symposium
chine.The template Wayback is being considered for
merging.

[6] This name which is derived from his birthdate in the Aztec
2 Reed which is the rst date in the Aztec year is some-
times also spelled Omecatl
[7] For a summary of Tezcatlipocas epithets and their siginif-
icance see Olivier (2003) Chapter 1.
[8] Taube & Miller 1993 p. 164
1.19 Thirteen Heavens
The Nahua people such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs and the
Toltecs believed that the heavens were constructed and
separated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to many
Lords (gods) living in and ruling them.

[9] Jun Raqan the one-legged was an epithet of this Classic

Maya Deity of rulership and thunder which eventually led 1.19.1 Aztec mythology
to the English word Hurricane.
Main article: Aztec mythology
[10] Olivier 2003 p. 48

[11] Olivier 2003 p. 52 In Aztec mythology, the Thirteen Heavens were formed
out of Cipactli's head when the gods made creation out
[12] Olivier 2003 pp. 54-55
of its body, whereas Tlaltipac, the earth, was made from
[13] Olivier 2003 p. 51 its center and the nine levels of the underworld (Mictlan)
from its tail.[1]
[14] Olivier 2003 p. 167
The most important of these heavens was Omeyocan
[15] Olivier 2003 p. 174 (Place of Two), where Ometeotl - the dual Lord, creator
of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ome-
[16] Olivier 2003 p. 183
tecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl
[17] Olivier 2003 p. 185 (Two Lady) - resided.
[18] Olivier 2003 p. 183, 186

[19] Other Research at FAMSI - Alec Christensen.

1.19.2 Notes
Famsi.org. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
[1] Adela Fernndez (1 January 1992). Dioses prehispni-
[20] Durn quoted from Olivier (2003) p. 166 cos de Mxico: mitos y deidades del panten nhuatl.
Panorama Editorial. pp. 30, 33, 34. ISBN 978-968-38-
[21] Coe and Koontz p.201 0306-1.
1.20. TLALOCAN 147

Tlahuiztlampa, East hemisphere with its respective trees, temples, Cihuatlampa, West hemisphere with its respective trees, temples,
patron deities and divinatory signs. patron deities and divinatory signs.

Mictlampa, North hemisphere with its respective trees, temples, Huitztlampa, South hemisphere with its respective trees, temples,
patron deities and divinatory signs. patron deities and divinatory signs.

1.19.3 References
1.20 Tlalocan
Cecilio Agustn Robelo (1905). Diccionario de Mitologa
Nahua. Mxico: Biblioteca Porra. Imprenta del Museo This article is about the concept in Aztec mythology. For
Nacional de Arqueologa, Historia y Etnologa. p. 851. the journal, see Tlalocan (journal).
ISBN 978-9684327955.
Tllcn [talokan ] (place of Tlaloc") is described
in several Aztec codices as a paradise, ruled over by
the rain deity Tlaloc and his consort Chalchiuhtlicue.
1.19.4 See also It absorbed those who died through drowning or light-
ning, or as a consequence of diseases associated with the
Aztec mythology
rain deity. Tlalocan has also been recognized in certain
Aztec philosophy wall paintings of the much earlier Teotihuacan culture.
Among modern Nahua-speaking peoples of the Gulf
Coast, Tlalocan survives as an all-encompassing concept
embracing the subterranean world and its denizens.
148
Mural of Tlalocan, Tepantitla, Teotihuacan culture
1.20.1 Aztecs
In the Florentine Codex, a set of sixteenth-century vol-
umes which form one of the prime sources of infor-
mation about the beliefs and history of Postclassic cen-
tral Mexico, Tlalocan is depicted as a realm of unend-
ing Springtime, with an abundance of green foliage and
edible plants of the region.[1]
Tlalocan is also the rst level of the upper worlds,
or the Aztecs Thirteen Heavens, that has four com-
partments according to the mythic cosmographies of
the Nahuatl-speaking peoples of pre-Columbian central
Mexico, noted particularly in Conquest-era accounts of
Aztec mythology. To the Aztec there were thirteen levels
of the Upper Worlds, and nine of the Underworld; in the
conception of the Afterlife the manner of a persons death
determined which of these layers would be their destina-
tion after dying. As the place of Tlaloc, 9th Lord of the
Night,[2] Tlalocan was also reckoned as the 9th level of
the Underworld, which in the interpretation by Eduard
Seler was the uppermost underworld in the east.[3]
As a destination in the Afterlife, the levels of heaven were
reserved mostly for those who had died violent deaths,[4]
and Tlalocan was reserved for those who had drowned
or had otherwise been killed by manifestations of water,
such as by ood, by diseases associated with water, or in
storms by strikes of lightning. It was also the destination
after death for others considered to be in Tlalocs charge,
most notably the physically deformed.[5]
CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA
1.20.2 Teotihuacan
1.20.3 Contemporary Nahuas
In areas of contemporary Mexico, such as in the Sierra
Norte de Puebla region, some communities continue
to incorporate the concept of Tlalocn as a nether-
world and shamanic destination in their modern religious
practices.[6] As described by Knab, shamanic entry into
Tlalocan, always achieved during dreams and often with
the objective of curing a patient, is via underground wa-
terways, commonly a whirlpool (the water was whirling
there and it took me in and down into the darkness around
and around[7] ). Upon awakening, the shaman-dreamer
will recount, to the audience during a curing-session, the
itinerary traveled in Tlalocan; to which will be added
(only when instructing a trainee or in speaking to other
practicing shamans, never to an audience of general pub-
lic) a description of the itinerary in term of numerically
counted rivers, highways, and hills : as counted in series
of 14, There are thus thirteen of each type of feature
located between the center and the edges of the under-
world and one of each type (p. 120) of feature located in
the center of the underworld.[8]
Here is a description of the sections of Tlalocan, as ar-
ranged in cardinal directions :-
In the North are the ehecatagat, the lord of the
winds, and the miquitagat, the lord of death. They
are the ones that care for souls for the rst year after
death. Both of the lords live in great caves. ... there
are two caves, one on top of the other, and ... death
lives in the lowest realm. The dead enter the under-
world from the cemetery, where the lord death and
his minions keep their souls. The role of the lord of
the winds is to seek out more souls on the surface of
the earth with which to populate the regions of the
dead.
From the cave of the winds in the northern reaches
of t[l]alocan issue the mal aires or evil winds,
the feared ahmo cualli ehecat[l], the sombra de
muerte or shadow of death, the miquicihual, and the
miquiehecat[l], the nortes, 'the winds of death'.[9]
The cave of the winds ... is where the lord of the
winds resides with his various assistants who guard
the cooking pots ["According to numerous tales, the
assistants are toads who keep the pots. (p. 163, n.
4:9)] where the ingredients for storms are kept, the
winds, mists, rains, thunder, and lightning. Other
assistants of the lord of winds are the quautiomeh
or lightning bolts, the thunderclaps or popocameh,
and the smoke ones, who make the miquipopoca or
smoke of death that issues forth onto the surface of
the earth, in t[l]alticpac, along with the winds of
death.[10]
In the South is a spring of boiling water shrouded in
mist and clouds. This spring is found in the depths
1.21. TOLLAN
of a cave illuminated by the res of the popocameh.
In the depths of this boiling spring, ... lives ... a
giant worm, the cuiluhuexi.The cuiluhuexi eats the
earth and fashions the caverns ... Its ery breath and
boiling saliva eat away the earth as it crawls beneath
the surface.[11]
In the East is the place known as apan, the waters
... . Apan is a great lake or sea in the underworld
[13] Knab, pp. 110-1
that is united in its depths with all the waters of the
surface of the world. In its depths live atagat and [14] Knab, p. 112
acihuat[l], the lord and lady of the waters. The aci-
huat[l] is often identied with the llorona or weep-
ing woman {"in the Telleriano-Remensis and the 1.20.6 References
Tonalamatl Aubin, her eyes are lled with tears[12] }
of folklore, who ... is always found near sources of
water weeping. ... In the depths of apan are cities
..., and ... souls once they have passed out of the
north at the end of the rst year of death seek out
... this region.[13]
In the West is actually a cave inhabited only by
truly dangerous women such as miquicihuauh, 'death
woman,' and the ehecacihuauh, 'wind woman.' "
the women from this side of the underworld ... went
in search of the souls of men, especially lascivious
men who couple with various women. They would
also take the souls of women waiting on the paths, in
the gardens, or in the elds for their illicit lovers.[14]
1.20.4 See also
Mictlan
1.20.5 Notes
[1] As described in Miller and Taube (1993, p.167)
[2] Elizabeth Hill Boone : Cycles of Time and Meaning in the
Mexican Books of Fate. U of TX Pr, Austin, 2007. pp.
95-99
[3] http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/america/
am-moff4.htm (Fig. 1)
[4] Those dying of natural causes, i.e. the majority, would
instead endure a perilous journey through the layers of the
Underworld to nally reach Mictlan, the lowest layer. See
Miller and Taube (1993:178).
[5] See for example the Vaticanus A Codex, per Miller and
Taube (op. cit.)
[6] See for example the investigations into religious practices
of the area conducted by Timothy Knab, anthropologist
at the Fundacin Universidad de las Amricas, Puebla, as
recounted in Knab (2004).
[7] Knab, p. 69
[8] Knab, p. 119
149
[9] Knab, p. 107
[10] Knab, pp. 108-9
[11] Knab, pp. 109-10
[12] Elizabeth Hill Boone : Cycles of Time and Meaning in the
Mexican Books of Fate. U of TX Pr, Austin, 2007. pp.
93b-94a
Knab, Timothy J. (2004). The Di-
alogue of Earth and Sky: Dreams,
Souls, Curing and the Modern Aztec
Underworld. Tucson: University
of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-
2413-0. OCLC 54844089.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993).
The Gods and Symbols of Ancient
Mexico and the Maya: An Illus-
trated Dictionary of Mesoamerican
Religion. London: Thames & Hud-
son. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC
27667317.
1.21 Tollan
This article is about the historic cities. In the sci-
ence ction television series Stargate SG-1, the
Tollan are an advanced human civilization;
see: Tollan (Stargate).
Tollan, Tolan, or Toln is a name used for the capital
cities of two empires of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica;
rst for Teotihuacan, and later for the Toltec capital, Tula,
both in Mexico. The name has also been applied to the
Postclassic Mexican settlement Cholula.
The name Tlln means Among the reeds" in the
Nahuatl language, with the gurative sense of a densely
populated place where people are thick as reeds.
Names with the same meaning were used in Maya and
other native Mexican languages.
Teotihuacan seems to have been the rst city known by
this name. After the collapse of the Teotihuacan empire,
central Mexico broke into various petty states. The Toltec
created the rst sizable Mexican empire after the fall of
Teotihuacan, and their capital was referred to by the same
name as a reference to the earlier greatness of Teotihua-
can.
In Aztec accounts at the time of the arrival of the
Conquistadores, Teotihuacan and the Toltec capital
sometimes seem to be confused and conated.
150 CHAPTER 1. MOCTEZUMA

The epithet Tollan was also sometimes applied to any

great metropolis or capital. Cholula, for example, was
sometimes called Tollan Cholula, and the Aztec capital
of Tenochtitln was likewise given the title Tollan. The
Mixtec translation of this, uu Co'yo is still the Mixtec
name for Mexico City to this day.

1.21.1 Tollan in Mesoamerican mythology

Tollan is the name given to the mythical place of origin
in many Mesoamerican traditions, including those of the
Aztecs and the K'iche' Maya.[1] In the K'iche' epic Popul
Vuh, the rst people created are gathered at Tollan, the
place of seven caves, where they receive their languages
and their gods.[2]

1.21.2 Notes
[1] Read & Gonzlez 2000, pp.90, 123.n10.

[2] Read & Gonzlez 2000, p.90.

1.21.3 References
Lpez Austin, Alfredo; Lpez
Lujan, Leonardo (1999). Mito
y realidad de Zuyu: Serpiente
emplumada y las transforma-
ciones mesoamericanas del clsico
al posclsico. Mexico City:
COLMEX & FCE. ISBN 968-16-
5889-2.
Read, Kay Almere; Jason Gonzlez
(2000). Handbook of Mesoamer-
ican Mythology. Oxford: ABC-
CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-340-0.
OCLC 43879188.
Chapter 2

Pierre-Jean De Smet

2.1 Pierre-Jean De Smet

Pierre-Jean De Smet (30 January 1801 23 May
1873), also known as Pieter-Jan De Smet, was a Belgian
Catholic priest and member of the Society of Jesus (Je-
suits), active in missionary work among the Native Amer-
icans of western North America in the mid-19th century,
in the midwestern and northwestern United States and
western Canada.
His extensive travels as a missionary were said to to-
tal 180,000 miles (290,000 km). He was known as the
Friend of Sitting Bull", because he persuaded the Sioux
war chief to participate in negotiations with the United
States government for the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.

2.1.1 Early life

Born in Dendermonde, in what is now Belgium, De Smet

rst came to the United States with eleven other Belgian
Jesuits in 1821 to begin his novitiate at White Marsh, a
Jesuit estate near Baltimore, Maryland. Part of the com-
plex survives today as Sacred Heart Church in Bowie. De
Smet moved west to St. Louis to complete his theological
studies in 1823.[1]
De Smet and ve other Belgian novices, led by Charles
Van Quickenborne, moved to Florissant, Missouri, at the
invitation of bishop Dubourg. Several academic insti-
tutions were immediately founded, among which the St.
Regis Seminary where De Smet had his rst contacts with
indigenous boys. After further studies, he was ordained
priest on 23 September 1827. Until 1830, he learned
about Indian customs and languages as a prefect at the
seminary. In 1833 he had to return to Belgium due to
health problems. It was 1837 before he could return to
Missouri.
2.1.2 Mission work in Iowa Territory
In 1838 and 1839, De Smet helped to establish St.
Josephs Mission in what is now Council Blus, Iowa.
Taking over the abandoned Council Blus Block-
house military fort, De Smet worked primarily with a
Likeness of De Smets map of the Council Blus, Iowa area,
1839. De Smets mission is labeled St. Josephs, The area
labeled 'Caldwells Camp' was a Potawatomi village led by
Sauganash; this was at or near the later town of Kanesville, the
precursor of Council Blus.[2]
Potawatomi band led by Billy Caldwell, also known as
Sauganash (of Irish and Mohawk descent, he was born
in Canada and spoke English as well as some Indian lan-
guages.).
De Smet was appalled by the murders and brutality re-
sulting from the whiskey trade, which caused much social
disruption among the Indian people. He tried to protect
them. During this time, he also assisted and supported
Joseph Nicollets eorts at mapping the Upper Midwest.
De Smet used newly acquired mapping skills to produce
the rst detailed map of the Missouri River valley sys-
tem, from below the Platte River to the Big Sioux River.
His map shows the locations of Indian villages and other
cultural features, including the wreck of the Steamboat
Pirate.[3][4]

151
152 CHAPTER 2. PIERRE-JEAN DE SMET

2.1.3 First missionary tour District to the British. He started from Lake Pend Oreille
in present-day north Idaho and crossed into the Kootenay
After discussion with Iroquois, the Salish had gained a River valley. He followed the Kootenay valley north,
slight knowledge of Christianity, and became so con- eventually crossing over to Columbia Lake, the source of
vinced of its truth that at three times they sent delegations the Columbia River at Canal Flats.
of their tribe over 1,500 miles (2,400 km) to St. Louis to He followed the upper Columbia valley north to and past
request black-robes to be sent among them to baptize Lake Windermere. At Radium Hot Springs he turned east
their children, sick, and dying. The rst three delegations and went over Sinclair Pass into the Kootenay River Val-
failed due to disease and massacre, while passing through ley. He recrossed the Kootenay. and continued along the
the Territory of the Sioux, but the fourth was successful. reverse of the route pioneered by the Sinclair expedition.
Fr. de Smet was then assigned to accompany the messen- He followed the Cross River upstream to its headwaters
gers back to the Indian territory, to ascertain the nation at Whitemans Pass. The Cross River was named for the
and establish a mission among them. On 5 July 1840, Fa- large wooden cross De Smet built at the top of the pass,
ther De Smet oered the rst Holy Mass in Wyoming, where it could be seen for miles away.
a mile east of Daniel, a town in the west-central part of
the present state. A monument to the event stands on its On the other side of the Great Divide was the British
site.[5] territory of Ruperts Land. From the crest of the pass,
streams lead to Spray Lakes above present day Canmore,
In 1841, St. Marys Mission was founded among the Sal- Alberta and the Spray River which joins the Bow River
ish by De Smet, who labored there for several years. He near modern-day Ban, Alberta. Once in the Bow Val-
noted the proselytising of the American Board of Com- ley, he headed upstream and in a North-westerly direc-
missioners for Foreign Missions under Henry H. Spalding tion to its source Bow Lake. He went further north until
based at Lapwai had made neighboring Nimipuu (Nez he came to the Saskatchewan River, which he followed
Perce) nation wary of Catholicism.[6] One particular band downstream and east.
of Nimipuu was convinced to reside at the mission for a
period of two months, their time there ending in every- It was October, and a long cold Canadian winter was
one receiving baptism. Near the end of his time with the looming, when he reached Rocky Mountain House. He
Salish, De Smet sent out an appeal to the United States had fullled one of his main goals; to meet with the Cree,
public for nancial aid to bolster his eorts. He viewed Chippewa, and Blackfoot of the area. At the end of the
their cultural habit of a mobile living to make it impossi- month, De Smet traveled further the east to search for
ble to do any solid and permanent good among these poor more Natives. He was fortunate to nd his way back
people...[6] He forwarded a plan that the Salish be as- to Rocky Mountain House and was guided from there to
sembled in villagesmust be taught the art of agriculture, Fort Edmonton, where he spent the winter of 1845-1846.
consequently must be supplied with implements, with cat- In the spring of 1846, De Smet began his return follow-
tle, with seed.[6] ing the established York Factory Express trade route to
the Columbia District. He headed west to Jasper House,
and with considerable suering followed the route; cross-
2.1.4 1845-1846 Canadian Rockies expedi- ing the Great Divide by Athabaska Pass, to the Canoe
tion River, the north-most tributary of the Columbia River,
and eventually onto Fort Vancouver some thousand miles
(1600 km) southwest.
He returned to his mission at Sainte-Marie on the
Bitterroot River, and nally to St. Louis. His time as
a missionary in the Rockies was over.

2.1.5 Later years and death

In his remaining years, De Smet was active in work re-

garding the missions he helped establish and fund. Dur-
ing his career, he sailed back to Europe eight times to
raise money for the missions among supporters there.
Engraving of a Kaw (Kansas) village by De Smet, showing earth-
lodges and other traditional house forms. In 1868 he persuaded Sitting Bull to accept the Treaty of
Fort Laramie.
One of De Smets longest explorations began in August He died 23 May 1873 in St. Louis, where he was origi-
1845 in the jointly occupied region west of the Rockies, nally buried with some fellow early Jesuit explorers at St.
known to Americans as Oregon Country and Columbia Stanislaus Seminary near Florissant, Missouri. In 2003,
2.1. PIERRE-JEAN DE SMET
Statue of Pieter-Jan de Smet in Dendermonde, Belgium
after some controversy, his remains and those of the other
Jesuits were moved and reinterred at Calvary Cemetery
in St. Louis, the burial site for many Missouri Province
Jesuits.
2.1.6 Legacy
De Smets papers, with accounts of his travels and mis-
sionary work with Native Americans, are held at two sep-
arate locations:
Jesuit Archives - De Smetiana series in St. Louis[7]
Pierre Jean De Smet Papers at the Washington State
University archives in Pullman, Washington.[8]
2.1.7 Namesake places
Several places are named in honor of De Smet, including:
De Smet, Idaho, a populated place
DeSmet, Montana, a populated place near the
Missoula International Airport
De Smet, South Dakota,[9] the later childhood home
of Laura Ingalls Wilder
De Smet Jesuit High School in Creve Coeur, Mis-
souri
De Smet Range and Roche de Smet in Canada
Lake Desmet, between Bualo and Sheridan,
Wyoming
DeSmet Hall, the largest and oldest all-mens res-
idence hall on the Gonzaga University campus in
Spokane, Washington.
153
2.1.8 See also
Red Fish, Oglala chief
2.1.9 References
[1] Literary St. Louis. St. Louis, Missouri: Associates of St.
Louis University Libraries, Inc. and Landmarks Associa-
tion of St. Louis, Inc. 1969.
[2] Whittaker (2008): Pierre-Jean De Smets Remarkable
Map of the Missouri River Valley, 1839: What Did He
See in Iowa?", Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society
55:1-13
[3] Whittaker (2008).
[4] Mullen, Frank (1925) Father De Smet and the Pottawat-
tamie Indian Mission, Iowa Journal of History and Poli-
tics 23:192-216.
[5] Ocial State Highway Map of Wyoming (Map). Wyoming
Department of Transportation. 2014.
[6] Smet, Pierre. Origin, Progress, and Prospects of the
Catholic Mission to the Rocky Mountains. Faireld, Wash-
ington: Ye Origin Galleon Press, 1972. pp. 9-11.
[7] De Smetiana. jesuitarchives.org.
[8] http://ntserver1.wsulibs.wsu.edu/masc/finders/cg537.
htm
[9] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place
Names in the United States. Govt. Print. O. p. 105.
Sources
Killoren, John J. Come, Blackrobe": De Smet and
the Indian Tragedy, The Institute of Jesuit Sources
(2003), reprint of the University of Oklahoma Press
(1994); ISBN 1-880810-50-6
2.1.10 External links
Jesuit website
Biography from the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913
Biography at Dictionary of Canadian Biography On-
line
Biographies and other publications of Father De
Smet
The Apostle of the Rocky Mountains: Father Pierre-
Jean De Smet, S.J. by the Slaves of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary
Chapter 3
Pocahantas
3.1 Indian massacre of 1622
The Indian Massacre of 1622 took place in the English
Colony of Virginia, in what now belongs to the United
States, on Friday, 22 March 1622. Captain John Smith,
though he had not been in Virginia since 1609 and was
not a rsthand eyewitness, related in his History of Vir-
ginia that braves of the Powhatan Confederacy came
unarmed into our houses with deer, turkeys, sh, fruits,
and other provisions to sell us.[1] The Powhatan grabbed
any tools or weapons available and killed all English set-
tlers they found, including men, women and children of
all ages. Chief Opechancanough led a coordinated se-
ries of surprise attacks by the Powhatan Confederacy that
killed 347 people, a quarter of the English population of
Jamestown.[2]
Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the site of the rst
successful English settlement in North America, and
was then the capital of the Colony of Virginia. Its to-
bacco economy led to constant expansion and seizure
of Powhatan lands, which ultimately provoked a violent
reaction.[3]
Although Jamestown was spared due to a timely last-
minute warning, the Powhatan also attacked and de-
stroyed many smaller settlements along the James River.
In addition to killing settlers, the Powhatan burned houses
and crops. The English abandoned many of the smaller
settlements after the attacks.
3.1.1 Background
At rst, the natives were glad to trade provisions to the
colonists for metal tools, but by 1609 the English gov-
ernor, John Smith, had begun to send in raiding par-
ties to demand food. This earned the colonists a bad
reputation among the Native Americans and precipitated
conict.[4][5] They isolated the Native Americans, burned
down houses, and stole their food supplies.[6] The English
violence alienated the natives further and they laid siege
to the Jamestown fort for several months. Unable to se-
cure more food supplies, many colonists died during the
starving time in 160910.[7]
154
The London Company's primary concern was the survival
of the colony. In Englands best interest, the colonists
would have to maintain civil relations with the Powhatan.
The Powhatan and the English realized that they could
benet from each other through trade once peace was re-
stored. In exchange for food, the chief asked the colonists
to provide him with metal hatchets and copper.[8] Un-
like John Smith, other early leaders of Virginia such as
Thomas Dale and Thomas Gates based their actions on
dierent thinking, as they were military men and saw the
Powhatan as essentially a military problem.[9]
The Powhatan had soon realized that the Englishmen did
not settle in Jamestown to trade with them. The English
wanted more; they wanted control over the land. As Chief
Powhatan said:
Your coming is not for trade, but to invade
my people and possess my countryHaving
seene the death of all my people thrice I
knowe the dierence of peace and ware bet-
ter than any other Countrie. [If he fought the
English, Powhatan predicted], he would be so
haunted by Smith that he can neither rest eat
nor sleepe, but his tired men must watch, and if
a twig but breake, everie one crie, there comes
Captain John Smith; then he must ie he knowe
not whether, and thus with miserable fear end
his miserable life[10]
In 1610 the London Company instructed Gates, the
newly appointed colonial governor, to Christianize the na-
tives and absorb them into the colony.[11] As for Chief
Powhatan, Gates was told, If you nde it not best to
make him your prisoner yet you must make him your
tributary, and all the other his weroances [subordinate
chiefs] about him rst to acknowledge no other Lord but
King James.[10] When Gates arrived at Jamestown in
1610, he decided to evacuate the settlement because he
thought the governments plan was not feasible. As the
colonists were about to leave the Bay and head out into
the open sea, they were met by the incoming eet of Lord
de la Warre. Taking command as governor, de la Warre
ordered the fort reoccupied. He plotted conquest of the
surrounding tribes. In July 1610 he sent Gates against
the Kecoughtan. Gates lured the Indians into the open
3.1. INDIAN MASSACRE OF 1622 155

by means of music-and-dance act by his drummer, and 3.1.2 Jamestown forewarned

then slaughtered them.[10]
This was the First Anglo-Powhatan War. The English, Jamestown was saved by the warning of an Indian youth
led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas, daughter of living in the home of one of the colonists, Richard Pace.
Powhatan, and held her hostage until he would agree to The Indian woke Pace and told him of the planned attack.
their demands. English demanded that all Powhatan Living across the river from Jamestown, Pace secured his
captives be released, return all English weapons taken by family and rowed to the settlement to spread the alarm.
his warriors, and agree upon a lasting peace. It was while Jamestown increased its defenses.
Pocahontas was held by the English that she met John The name of the Indian who warned Pace is not recorded
Rolfe, whom she later married. While in captivity, Poca- in any of the contemporary accounts. Although legend
hontas was taught the English language, manners and re- has named him "Chanco", this may be a misidentication.
ligion. She was baptized as a Christian and took the name An Indian named Chauco is mentioned in a letter from
Rebecca. Rolfe wrote that the way to maintain peace be- the Virginia Council to the Virginia Company of London
tween the Powhatan and the English, was to marry Poca- dated April 4, 1623. He is described not as a youth but as
hontas, not with the unbridled desire of carnal aection one...who had lived much amongst the English, and by
but for the good of the colony and the glory of God. Such revealinge yt pl[ot] To divers vppon the day of Massacre,
a marriage might bring peace between the warring En- saued theire lives...[14] Chauco may be the same person
glish and Powhatan, just as it would satisfy Pocahontass as Chacrow, an Indian mentioned in a court record of
desire.[10] After they married, there were more peaceful 25 October 1624 as living with Lt Sharpe, Capt. William
relations for a time between the English colonists and the Powell, and Capt. William Peirce in the tyme of Sir
Powhatan Confederacy. Edward Waterhouse, secretary Thos Dales governmentthat is, before 1616.[15] It is
of the Virginia Company, wrote: possible that the older Indian, Chauco, and the youth who
warned Richard Pace, have been conated.[16]
[S]uch was the conceit of rme peace and
amitie, as that there was seldome or never a
3.1.3 Destruction of other settlements
sword worne, and a Peece [rearm] seldomer,
except for a Deere or Fowle....The Plantations
During the one-day surprise attack, the Powhatan tribes
of particular Adventurers and Planters were
attacked many of the smaller communities, including
placed scatteringly and straglingly as a choyce
Henricus and its edgling college for children of natives
veyne of rich ground invited them, and the fur-
and settlers alike. At Martins Hundred, they killed more
ther from neighbors held the better. The houses
than half the population of Wolstenholme Towne, where
generally set open to the Savages, who were al-
only two houses and a part of a church were left standing.
waies friendly entertained at the tables of the
In all, the Powhatan killed about four hundred colonists
English, and commonly lodged in their bed-
(a third of the white population) and took 20 women cap-
chambers.[12]
tive. The captives lived and worked as Powhatan Indians
until their deaths or ransom. The settlers abandoned the
In 1618, after the death of Powhatan, his brother Falling Creek Ironworks, Henricus and Smiths Hundred.
Opitchapam, a lame and quite old man, became
paramount chief of the confederacy. Their youngest
brother, Opechancanough, was probably the eec- 3.1.4 Date of the attack
tive leader, with his friend, war-chief and advisor
Nemattanew, and both of them did not believe peaceful Julian Calendar dates
relations with the colonists could be maintained. Per-
haps in 1620-1621 Opitchapam retired or he was de- Under the Julian Calendar, by which England and its
posed (but possibly he died in 1630) and he was suc- colonies were still operating, New Years Day fell on
ceded by his youngest brother, and Opechancanough and March 25 (Lady Day or the Feast of the Annunciation).
Nemattanew began to predispose plans for the unavoid- The attack took place on March 22, 1621 as reckoned
able war. Having recovered from their defeat command- by the colonists, three days before New Years Day 1622.
ing Pamunkey warriors during the First Anglo-Powhatan Historians, genealogists, and others who work with dates
War, they planned to shock the English with an attack in this era commonly denote Julian calendar dates in the
that would leave them contained in a small trading out- interval between January 1 and March 24 with the 'Old
post, rather than expanding throughout the area with Style' sux (OS) when presenting these dates with their
new plantations.[13] In the spring of 1622, after a set- original year value, or to use a mixed-style date syntax
tler murdered his adviser Nemattanew, Opechancanough which combines original and adjusted values. For exam-
launched a campaign of surprise attacks on at least 31 sep- ple, the date of the attack on Jamestown can be denoted as
arate English settlements and plantations, mostly along March 22, 1621(OS), or March 22, 1621/22. The com-
the James River, extending as far as Henricus. mon practice of showing the date as March 22, 1622 is
156 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

technically inaccurate, but less confusing for those who them, driving them to ee within reach of their enemies
are unfamiliar with the dierences in calendaring sys- among other tribes, and assimilating and abetting their
tems. enemies against them.[22]
The 1622 massacre was used as a justication for ongoing
seizure of Powhatan land by the colonists for the next ten
The Good Friday fallacy
years. Historian Betty Wood writes:
Recent accounts of the attack frequently note that it took
place on Good Friday. This is incorrect. No contem- What is usually referred to as the Mas-
porary accounts of the attack mention Good Friday, but sacre of 1622, the native American attack
rather on the Friday morning (the fatal day) the 22 of that resulted in the death of 347 English set-
March.[17] March 22, 1622 was a Friday. Good Friday tlers and almost wiped out Jamestown, gave
that year fell on April 19, nearly a month after the at- the colonists the excuse they needed to take
tack. The idea that the attack fell on Good Friday seems even more of what they wanted from the in-
to have originated years later, as part of mythmaking; it digenous population of the Chesapeake. As far
was erroneously noted so frequently as to be accepted as as the survivors of the Massacre of 1622 were
conventional wisdom. It is demonstrably incorrect.[18] concerned, by virtue of launching this unpro-
voked assault native Americans had forfeited
any legal and moral rights they might previ-
3.1.5 Aftermath ously have claimed to the ownership of the
lands they occupied.[23]
For more details on this topic, see Anglo-Powhatan Wars.
Wood quotes a Virginian settler:
Opechancanough withdrew his warriors, believing that
the English would behave as Native Americans would We, who hitherto have had possession of
when defeated: pack up and leave, or learn their lesson no more ground than their waste and our pur-
and respect the power of the Powhatan.[19] Following the chase at a valuable consideration to their own
event, Opechancanough told the Patawomeck, who were contentment. . . may now by right of war, and
not part of the Confederacy and had remained neutral, law of nations, invade the country, and those
that he expected before the end of two Moones there who sought to destroy us: whereby we shall en-
should not be an Englishman in all their Countries.[20] joy their cultivated places.[24]
He misunderstood the English colonists and their back-
ers overseas.
The surviving English settlers were in shock after the at- 3.1.6 Indian poisoning
tacks. As they began to recover, the men worked on a
plan of action. By unanimous decision both the council Colonists who survived the attacks raided the tribes and
and planters it was agreed to draw people together into particularly their corn crops in the summer and fall of
fewer settlements for better defense.[21] The colony in- 1622 were so successful that Chief Opechancanough de-
tended to gather men together to plan attack, but this was cided to negotiate. Through friendly native interme-
dicult because of the survivors, two-thirds were said to diaries, a peace parley was arranged between the two
have been women and children and men who were unable groups. Some of the Jamestown leaders, led by Cap-
to work or to go against the Indians.[22] tain William Tucker and Dr. John Potts, poisoned the
Powhatans share of the liquor for the parleys ceremonial
In England when the massacre occurred, John Smith be-
toast. The poison incapacitated the Powhatans and about
lieved that the settlers would not leave their plantations
200 were killed.[25] Chief Opechancanough escaped.
to defend the colony. He planned to return with a ship
lled with soldiers, sailors, and ammunition, to establish
a running Army able to ght the Powhatan. Smiths 3.1.7 Indian decline and defeat
goal was to inforce the Salvages to leave their Country,
or bring them in the feare of subjection that every man In 1624 Virginia was made a royal colony of England.
should follow their business securely,[22] but Smith never This meant that the Crown took direct authority rather
returned to Virginia. than allowing guidance by the Virginia Company of Lon-
The English took revenge against the Powhatan by the don. The Crown could exercise its patronage for royal
use of force, surprise attacks, famine resulting from the favorites. Settlers continued to encroach on land of the
burning of their corn, destroying their boats, canoes, and Powhatan tribes, and the colony (and England) tended to
houses, breaking their shing weirs and assaulting them change or ignore agreements with the natives when no
in their hunting expedition, pursuing them with horses longer in the colonys interest. The tribes had increasing
and using bloodhounds to nd them and mastis to seaze frustration with the settlers.
3.1. INDIAN MASSACRE OF 1622 157

The next major confrontation with the Powhatan Confed- [9] Glenn, Captain John Smith and the Indians, 22848.
eracy occurred in 1644, resulting in the deaths of about
500 colonists. While similar to the death toll in 1622, [10] Alden T. Vaughan, "" Expulsion of the Savages: English
the loss a generation later represented less than ten per- Policy and the Virginia Massacre of 1622, The William
cent of the population, and had far less impact upon the and Mary Quarterly 35, no. 1 (Jan., 1978), 5784.
colony. This time, the elder Opechancanough, who was
[11] Helen Rountree, Pocahontass People, p. 54.
being transported by litter, was captured by the colonists.
Imprisoned at Jamestown, he was killed by one of his [12] Grizzard, Frank E.; Smith, D. Boyd (2007). Jamestown
guards. Colony: a political, social, and cultural history. Santa Bar-
His execution marked the beginning of the increasingly bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 130. ISBN 1-85109-637-X.
precipitous decline of the once powerful Powhatan Con-
[13] Bailyn, Bernard (2012). The Barbarous Years: The Peo-
federacy. Its member tribes eventually left the area en-
pling of British North America: The Conict of Civiliza-
tirely, gradually lived among the colonists, or lived on one tions, 16001675. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-
of the few reservations established in Virginia. Most of 394-51570-0.
these were also subject to incursion and seizure of land
by the ever-expanding European population. [14] CCCXIX. Council in Virginia. Letter to Virginia Company
of London, April 4, 1623 Susan Myra Kingsbury, editor.
In modern times, seven tribes of the original Powhatan
Records of the Virginia Company, 160626, Volume IV:
Confederacy are recognized in the Commonwealth of
Miscellaneous Records, p. 98
Virginia. The Pamunkey and Mattaponi still have con-
trol of their reservations established in the 17th century, [15] Minutes of the Council and General court of colonial Vir-
each located between the rivers of the same names within ginia, 16221632, ed. McIlwaine, p.28
the boundaries of present-day King William County.
[16] Fausz, J. Frederick. Chauco (. 16221623)". Encyclo-
pedia Virginia. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
3.1.8 See also
[17] Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed. A Relation of the Barbarous
List of massacres Massacre, Records of the Virginia Company, 160626,
Volume III: Miscellaneous Records, pp. 550551

3.1.9 References
[1] James Mooney, The Powhatan Confederacy, Past and
Present, American Anthropologist 9, no. 1 (Jan. Mar.,
1907), 12952.
[2] Hoer, Peter. The Brave New World: A History of Early
America. JHU Press. p. 132. ISBN 0-8018-8483-7.
[3] Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), p. 72. By
1620 the colonists were simply taking the acres they re-
quired for their expanding tobacco economy without even
the pretense of negotiation or payment. Increasing en-
croachments on native American lands, and particularly
onto their hunting grounds, largely accounted for the dete-
rioration of relations between the English and the indige-
nous populations of the Tidewater Chesapeake that nally
exploded in 1622.
[4] Anthony S. Parent, Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave
Society, UNC Press Books, 2003, p.15.
[18] Fred Fausz, Jamestown at 400: Caught Between a Rock
and a Slippery Slope, History News Network, George Ma-
son University, 7 May 2007
[19] Helen C. Rountree and E. Randolph Turner III, Before
and After Jamestown: Virginias Powhatans and Their
Predecessors
[20] Helen Rountree, Pocahontass People p. 75, citing John
Smiths 1624 Generall Historie.
[21] "to quitt many of our Plantacons and to vnite more
neerely together in fewer places the better for to
Strengthen and Defende ourselve., Gov. Francis Wyatt,
quoted in Seth Mallios, At the Edge of the Precipice:
Frontier Ventures, Jamestowns Hinterland, and the Ar-
chaeology of 44JC802 Archived July 24, 2008, at
the Wayback Machine.The template Wayback is be-
ing considered for merging. , APVA Association for the
Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, July 2000

[5] Fausz, An Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides (1990)
p. 20
[6] Fausz, An Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides (1990)
pp. 6, 22.
[22] William S. Powell, Aftermath of the Massacre: The First
Indian War, 16221632"], The Virginia Magazine of His-
tory and Biography, Vol. 66, no. 1 (Jan., 1958), pp. 44
75

[7] Fausz, An Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides (1990)
p. 54.
[8] Jay B. Hubbell, "The Smith-Pocahontas Story in Litera-
ture, The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 65,
no. 3 (Jul., 1957), 275300.
[23] Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), p. 72.
[24] Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), p. 73.
[25] Anthony S. Parent, Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave
Society, UNC Press Books, 2003, p.18
158 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

Sources

Fausz, J. Frederick. An Abundance of Blood Shed

on Both Sides: Englands First Indian War, 1609
1614. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biog-
raphy, 98(1), January 1990.

Wood, Betty. The Origins of American Slavery.

New York: Hill and Wang, 1997. ISBN 978-0-
8090-1608-2.

3.1.10 Further reading

Fausz, J. Frederick. The 'Barbarous Massacre' Re-
considered: The Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and
the Historians, Explorations in Ethnic Studies, vol
1 (Jan. 1978), 1636

Price, David A. (2003). March 22, 1622: Skyfall.

Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahon-
tas, and the Start of A New Nation. New York: Al-
fred A. Knopf. pp. 200221. ISBN 0-375-41541-
6.

Rajtar, Steve (1999). Indian War Sites. Jeerson,

NC: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0710-7.

The woman who writes about native America Added

November 21, 2012.

3.2 Opchanacanough
A 1585 painting of a Chesapeake Bay warrior by John White;
this painting was adapted to represent Opechancanough in the
engraving above.

Opechancanough or Opchanacanough (15541646)[1]

was a tribal chief within the Powhatan Confederacy
of what is now Virginia in the United States, and its
paramount chief from sometime after 1618 until his
death in 1646. His name meant He whose Soul is
White in the Algonquian Powhatan language.[2] He
was the younger brother (or possibly half-brother) of
Chief Powhatan, who had organized and dominated the
Powhatan Confederacy.

3.2.1 Powhatan warrior

'John Smith taking the King of Pamunkey prisoner', a fanciful
image of Opechancanough from Smiths General History of Vir-
ginia (1624). The image of Opechancanough is based on a 1585
painting of another native warrior by John White {See below}
The Powhatan Confederacy was established in the late
16th and early 17th century under the leadership of Chief
Wahunsonacock (who was more commonly known as
Chief Powhatan, named for the tribe he originally led
which was based near present-day Richmond, Virginia).
Over a period of years, through negotiation and/or coer-
cion, Chief Powhatan united more than 30 of the Virginia
Indian[3] tribal groups in the Tidewater region of what is
now the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States,
essentially the southeastern portion of the state.
3.2. OPCHANACANOUGH
At the time of the English settlement at Jamestown which
was established in May 1607, Opechancanough was a
much-feared warrior and a charismatic leader of the
Powhatans. As Chief Powhatans younger brother (or
possibly half-brother), he headed a tribe situated along
the Pamunkey River near the present-day town of West
Point. Known to be strongly opposed to the European
settlers, he captured John Smith of Jamestown along
the Chickahominy River and brought him before Chief
Powhatan at Werowocomoco, one of the two capital vil-
lages of the Powhatans. Located along the northern shore
of the present-day York River, Werowocomoco is the
site where the famous incident with Powhatans young
daughter Pocahontas intervening on Smiths behalf dur-
ing a ceremony is thought to have occurred, based upon
Smiths account.
Written accounts by other colonists conrm that Poca-
hontas subsequently did serve as an intermediary between
the natives and the colonists, and helped deliver crucial
food during the winter of 1607-08, when the colonists
fort at Jamestown Island burned in an accidental re in
January 1608.
The marriage of Pocahontas and colonist John Rolfe in
April 1614 brought a period of peace; this ended not
long after her death while on a trip to England and the
death of her father, Wahunsonacock, in 1618. A short
time later, after a brief succession of the chiefdom by
Opitchipam, Opechancanough became paramount chief
of the Powhatan Confederacy.
3.2.2 Powhatan chief
The natives and the colonists came into increasingly ir-
reconcilable conicts as the land-hungry export crop,
tobacco (which had been rst developed by Rolfe), be-
came the cash crop of the colony. The relationship be-
came even more strained as ever-increasing numbers of
Europeans arrived and began establishing hundreds and Other historians speculate Don Luis may have become
plantations along the navigable rivers.
Beginning with the Indian massacre of 1622, in which his
forces killed many settlers, Chief Opechancanough aban-
doned diplomacy with the English colonists as a means
of settling conicts and tried to force them to abandon
the region altogether. On the morning of Friday, March
22, 1622, approximately a third of the settlers in Virginia
were killed by Powhatan forces during a series of coor-
dinated attacks along both shores of the James River, ex-
tending from Newport News Point, near the mouth of the
river, all the way to Falling Creek, near the fall line at
the head of navigation. The colony eventually rebounded,
however, and later they killed hundreds of natives in re-
taliation, including many warriors poisoned by Dr. John
Potts at Jamestown.
Chief Opechancanough launched a last major eort to
expel the colonists on April 18, 1644, the third Anglo-
Powhatan War.[4] In 1646, forces under Royal Governor
159
William Berkeley captured Opechancanough, at the time
believed to be between 90 and 100 years old.[1] They pa-
raded him as a prisoner through Jamestown before a jeer-
ing crowd; the chief was subsequently killed by a soldier,
who shot him in the back while assigned to guard him.[5]
Before dying, the chief reportedly said, If it had been
my fortune to take Sir William Berkeley prisoner, I would
not have meanly exposed him as a show to my people.[6]
Opechancanough died (possibly) at the age of 92.
He was succeeded as Weroance rst by Nectowance, then
by Totopotomoi, and later by his daughter, Cockacoeske,
Totopotomois wife. Cockacoeske had a concubine rela-
tionship with Colonel John West, who was the son of the
Governor of Virginia.
3.2.3 Connection with 'Don Luis
Main article: Don Luis
Historians, including Carl Bridenbaugh,[7] have specu-
lated that Opechancanough was the same Native Ameri-
can youth who was a chiefs son and is known to have been
transported voluntarily from the village of Kiskiack, Vir-
ginia to Spain in the 16th century at the age of 17 and ed-
ucated. He became known as Don Luis.[8] Murrin, how-
ever, suggests that Opechancanough was more likely the
nephew or cousin of Don Luis.[8]
Rechristened as Don Luis, the young man returned to
his homeland in what is now the Virginia Peninsula sub-
region of the Hampton Roads region of Virginia, where
Jesuit priests established their Ajacn Mission in Septem-
ber 1570. Shortly thereafter, Don Luis is believed to have
returned to live with the Powhatan and turned against the
Europeans. Don Luis and his allies killed the Jesuits at
the mission in the winter of 1571, ending Spanish eorts
to colonize the area.
the father of Powhatan chiefs Wahunsunacock, who died
in 1618, and Opechancanough, who was killed in 1646.[1]
Their remains are buried on the Pamunkey Indian Reser-
vation in King William, Virginia.
3.2.4 Illness
From various contemporary reports, Marsteller (1988)
concludes that Opchanacanough may have suered from
myasthenia gravis. These reports include symptoms of
weakness which improved with resting and visible droop-
ing of the eyelids.[9]
3.2.5 Representations in other media
Opechancanough was portrayed by Stuart Randall
in the 1953 low-budget lm Captain John Smith
160 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

and Pocahontas. This lm shortened his name to 3.2.8 External links

Opechanco.
Jamestown 2007
He appeared as a gure in the Animated Hero Clas-
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars
sics 1994 episode Pocahontas, and was voiced by
Lorenzo Gonzalez. Opchanacanough at Find a Grave

Opechancanough is portrayed in the 2005 lm The

New World, in which he is played by Wes Studi. In 3.2.9 References
the lm, he is conated with Tomocomo, a priest
who accompanied Pocahontas/Rebecca to London. Marsteller H. Blair (1988). The rst
American case of myasthenia gravis.
Arch. Neurol. 45 (2): 1857.
3.2.6 See also doi:10.1001/archneur.1988.00520260073024.
PMID 3277598.
History of Virginia
Middle Peninsula Historic Marker: Cockacoeske
Nemattanew W. Martha W. McCartney, Cockacoeske, Queen of
Pamunkey: Diplomat and Suzeraine. .

3.2.7 Notes David A. Price, Love and Hate in Jamestown: John

Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of A New Nation,
[1] Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechan- Alfred A. Knopf, 2003
canough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown. Uni-
Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Vir-
versity of Virginia Press: Charlottesville, 2005
ginia: Their Traditional Culture. University of Ok-
[2] John M. Murrin, et al. Liberty Equality Power: A History lahoma Press, 1989.
of the American People, Volume I: To 1877, third edi- Helen C. Rountree. Powhatan Foreign Relations:
tion (Florence, Kentucky: Wadsworth-Thomson Learn-
1500-1722, Charlottesville: University of Virginia
ing, 1996, 2002), page 36-37.)
Press. 1993.
[3] Virginia Secretary of Natural Resources - Doug Alan Taylor. American Colonies, New York:
Domenech
Viking, 2001.
[4] Spencer C. Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (30 Peter H. Wood, Powhatans Mantle: Indians in the
September 2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Colonial Southeast
Indian Wars, 16071890: A Political, Social, and Military
History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1819. ISBN 978-1-85109-
697-8. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
3.3 Allegheny Mountains
[5] Robert Marshall Utley; Wilcomb E. Washburn (1985).
Indian Wars. Houghton Miin Harcourt. p. 20. ISBN See also: Allegheny Mountains (Antarctica)
978-0-618-15464-7. Retrieved 30 March 2013. For individual mountains with a similar name, see
Allegheny Mountain (disambiguation).
[6] Carl Waldman (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of Native
American Tribes. Infobase Publishing. p. 237. ISBN Warning: Page using Template:Infobox mountain with
978-1-4381-1010-3. Retrieved 2 April 2013. unknown parameter 1 = Mountain Range?" (this
message is shown only in preview).
[7] John M. Murrin, et al. Liberty Equality Power: A History Warning: Page using Template:Infobox mountain with
of the American People, Volume I: To 1877, third edi- unknown parameter country_ag (this message is
tion (Florence, Kentucky: Wadsworth-Thomson Learn- shown only in preview).
ing, 1996, 2002), page 36-37 Warning: Page using Template:Infobox mountain with
unknown parameter area_unit (this message is shown
[8] Jamestown, Williamsburg, Yorktown: The Ocial Guide to only in preview).
Americas Historic Triangle. John F. Blair, Publisher. 28
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox mountain with
February 2007. pp. 122123. ISBN 978-0-87935-230-1.
unknown parameter area_round (this message is shown
Retrieved 30 March 2013.
only in preview).
[9] Marsteller H. Blair (1988). The rst American case Warning: Page using Template:Infobox mountain with
of myasthenia gravis. Arch. Neurol. 45 (2): 185 unknown parameter elevation_round (this message is
7. doi:10.1001/archneur.1988.00520260073024. PMID shown only in preview).
3277598.
3.3. ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS 161

The Allegheny Mountain Range /leni/also Extent

spelled Alleghany, Allegany and, informally, the
Allegheniesis part of the vast Appalachian Mountain From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains
Range of the eastern United States and Canada where run about 400 miles (640 km). From west to east, at their
it posed a signicant barrier to land travel in less tech- widest, they are about 100 miles (160 km).
nologically advanced eras. It is a barrier range that has
Although there are no ocial boundaries to the Al-
a northeastsouthwest orientation and runs for about
legheny Mountains region, it may be generally dened
400 miles (640 km) from north-central Pennsylvania,
to the east by the Great Appalachian Valley (locally
through western Maryland and eastern West Virginia, to
called the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania and the
southwestern Virginia.
Shenandoah Valley in Virginia); to the north by the
The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central Susquehanna River valley; and to the south by the New
portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately River valley. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down
4,862 feet (1,483 m) in northeastern West Virginia. In into the dissected Allegheny Plateau (of which they are
the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment sometimes considered to be a part). The westernmost
known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut
down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains
extends into Ohio and Kentucky. The principal settle- in West Virginia.
ments of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and
The mountains to the south of the Allegheniesthe Ap-
Johnstown, Pennsylvania; and Cumberland, Maryland.
palachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky,
and eastern Tennesseeare the Cumberlands. The Al-
leghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the
3.3.1 Name Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians.
The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which
drains only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-
Allegheny Front and Allegheny Highlands
central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which
comes from the Lenape (Delaware) Indians, is not deni-
tively known but is usually translated as ne river. A
Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Al-
legewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the
Lenape.[1] Allegheny is the early French spelling (as in
Allegheny River, which was once part of New France),
and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling (as in
Allegany County, Maryland or Alleghany County, Vir-
ginia).
The word Allegheny was once commonly used to re-
fer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian
Mountains. John Norton used it (spelled variously)
around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee and
Georgia.[2] Around the same time, Washington Irving
proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia
or Alleghania.[1] In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot pub-
The George Washington and Jeerson National Forests lie on
lished the rst systematic geologic study of the whole
the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies. The Monongahela NF lies
mountain range.[3] His map labeled the range as the Al- within the central Alleghenies.
leghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian
Mountain System. As late as 1867, John Muirin his
The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the
book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulfused the word
Allegheny Front, which is also sometimes considered the
Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians.
eastern terminus of the Allegheny Plateau. This great
There was no general agreement about the Ap- escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Con-
palachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th tinental Divide in this area. A number of impressive
century.[1] gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies: to the east,
Smoke Hole Canyon (South Branch Potomac River), and
to the west the New River Gorge and the Blackwater and
3.3.2 Geography Cheat Canyons. Thus, about half the precipitation falling
on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi
See also: List of mountains of the Alleghenies and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic
seaboard.
162 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

The highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of The mostly completed Allegheny Trail, a project of the
the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of West Virginia Scenic Trails Association since 1975, runs
up to 3,000 feet (910 m). Absolute elevations of the the length of the range within West Virginia. The north-
Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet (1,500 m), ern terminus is at the MasonDixon line and the southern
with the highest elevations in the southern part of the is at the West Virginia-Virginia border on Peters Moun-
range. The highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is tain.[4]
Spruce Knob (4,863 ft/1,482 m), on Spruce Mountain in
West Virginia. Other notable Allegheny highpoints in-
clude Thorny Flat on Cheat Mountain (4,848 ft/1478 m),
3.3.3 Geology
Bald Knob on Back Allegheny Mountain (4,842 ft/1476
m), and Mount Porte Crayon (4,770 ft/1,454 m), all in
West Virginia; Dans Mountain (2,898 ft/883m) in Mary- The bedrock of the Alleghenies is mostly sandstone and
land, Backbone Mountain (3360 ft/1024 m), the high- metamorphosed sandstone, quartzite, which is extremely
est point in Maryland; Mount Davis (3,213 ft/979 m), resistant to weathering. Prominent beds of resistant
the highest point in Pennsylvania, and the second highest, conglomerate can be found in some areas, such as the
Blue Knob (3,146 ft/959 m). Dolly Sods. When it weathers, it leaves behind a pure
white quartzite gravel. The rock layers of the Alleghe-
nies were formed during the Appalachian orogeny.
Development Because of intense freeze-thaw cycles in the higher Al-
leghenies, there is little native bedrock exposed in most
There are very few sizable cities in the Alleghenies. areas. The ground surface usually rests on a massive jum-
The four largest are (in descending order of population): ble of sandstone rocks, with air space between them, that
Altoona, State College, Johnstown (all in Pennsylvania) are gradually moving down-slope. The crest of the Al-
and Cumberland (in Maryland). In the 1970s and '80s, legheny Front is an exception, where high blus are often
the Interstate Highway System was extended into the exposed.
northern portion of the Alleghenies, and the region is now Mineral springs in the High Alleghenies attracted Native
served by a network of federal expresswaysInterstates Americans and 18th century white settlers and provided
80, 70/76 and 68. Interstate 64 traverses the southern a modest incentive to the local economy. The spas de-
extremity of the range, but the Central Alleghenies (the veloping around these geological features include cele-
High Alleghenies of eastern West Virginia) have posed brated resorts that continue to cater to an exclusive clien-
special problems for highway planners owing to the re- tele, such as The Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs,
gions very rugged terrain and environmental sensitivities West Virginia; hotel built 1858) and The Homestead (Hot
(see Corridor H.) This region is still served by a rather Springs, Virginia; original lodge built 1766).
sparse secondary highway system and remains consider-
ably lower in population density than surrounding regions.
In the telecommunications eld, a unique impediment to
3.3.4 Ecology
development in the central Allegheny region is the United
States National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), a large
Flora
rectangle of landabout 13,000 square miles (34,000
km2 )that straddles the border area of Virginia and
West Virginia. Created in 1958 by the Federal Com- The High Alleghenies are noted for their forests of red
munications Commission, the NRQZ severely restricts all spruce, balsam r, and mountain ash, trees typically
omnidirectional and high-power radio transmissions, al- found much farther north. Hardwood forests also include
though cell phone service is allowed throughout much of yellow birch, sugar and red maple, eastern hemlock, and
the area. black cherry. American beech, pine and hickory can also
be found. The forests of the entire region are now almost
all second- or third-growth forests, the original trees hav-
Protected areas ing been removed in the late 19th and (in West Virginia)
early 20th centuries. The wild onion known as the ramp
Much of the Monongahela (West Virginia), George (Allium tricoccum) is also present in the deeper forests.
Washington (West Virginia, Virginia) and Jeerson (Vir- Certain isolated areas in the High Alleghenies are well
ginia) National Forests lie within the Allegheny Moun- known for their open expanses of sphagnum bogs and
tains. (No part of the wooded Alleghenies in Maryland heath shrubs (e.g., Dolly Sods, Cranberry Glades). Many
or Pennsylvania, however, is managed by the U.S. For- plant communities are indeed similar to those of sea-level
est Service.) The Alleghenies also include a number of eastern Canada. But the ecosystems within the Alleghe-
federally designated wilderness areas, such as the Dolly nies are remarkably varied. In recent decades, the many
Sods Wilderness, Laurel Fork Wilderness, and Cranberry stages of ecologic succession throughout the area have
Wilderness in West Virginia. made the region one of enduring interest to botanists.
3.3. ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS 163

Fauna people appear to have lingered much beyond their clas-

sically dened period in parts of the most mountainous
The larger megafauna which once inhabited the High valleys.[9]
Alleghenieselk, bison, mountain lionwere all exter-
The watershed of the Monongahela River is within the
minated during the 19th century. They survived longer
northwestern Alleghenies, and it is from it that the
in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern
Monongahela culture takes its name. The Godwin-
United States. Naturalist John James Audubon reported
Portman site (36AL39) located in Allegheny County,
that by 1851 a few eastern elk (Cervus canadensis cana-
Pennsylvania, had a possible Fort Ancient (c. AD 850 to
diensis) could still be found in the Alleghany Mountains
1680) presence during the 15th century.[10] Washington
but that by then they were virtually gone from the remain-
Boro ceramics have been found on the Barton (18AG3)
der of their range. Mammals in the Allegheny region
and Llewellyn (18AG26) sites in Maryland on the north-
today include whitetail deer, chipmunk, raccoon, skunk,
eastern slopes of the late Susquehannock sequence. The
groundhog, opossum, weasel, eld mouse, ying squir-
early Monongahela (c. AD 900 to 1630) are called the
rel, cottontail rabbit, gray foxes, red foxes, gray squir-
Drew Tradition in Pennsylvania. According to Richard L.
rels, red squirrels and a cave bat. Bobcat, snowshoe hare,
George: I believe that some of the Monongahela were of
wild boar and black bear and coyote are also found in the
Algonquin origin.... Other scholars have suggested that
forests and parks of the Alleghenies. Mink and beaver
Iroquoian speakers were interacting with Late Monon-
are much less often seen.
gahela people, and additional evidence is presented to
These mountains and plateau have over 20 species of rep- conrm this. I conclude that the archaeologically con-
tiles represented as lizard, skink, turtle and snake. Some ceived term, Monongahela, likely encompasses speakers
of the icterid birds visit the mountains as well as the of several languages, including Siouan.[11] According
hermit thrush and wood thrush. North American migrant to Dr Maslowski of West Virginia in 2009: The New
birds live throughout the mountains during the warmer River Drainage and upper Potomac represents the range
seasons. Occasionally, osprey and eagles can be found of the Human Phase (Page) hunting and gathering area
nesting along the streams. The hawks and owls are the or when it is found in small amounts on village sites, trade
most common birds of prey. ware or Page women being assimulated into another vil-
The water habitats of the Alleghenies hold 24 fam- lage (tribe). Finally, according to Prof Potter of Vir-
ilies of sh. Amphibian species number about 21, ginia, they [the people represented by the Human Phase
among them hellbenders, lungless salamanders, and vari- of Page pottery] had occupied the eastern slopes of the
ous toads and frogs. The Alleghenies provide habitat for Alleghenies on the upper Potomac to the northern, lower
about 54 species of common invertebrate. These include Shenandoah Valley region before the A.D. 1300 Luray
Gastropoda, slugs, leech, earthworms and grub worm. Phase (Algonquian) peoples invasion. It is thought that
Cave craysh (Cambarus nerterius) live alongside a little these ancient Alleghenians were pushed from the classic
over seven dozen cave invertebrates.[5] Human Phase of the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies
to the Blue Ridge Mountains in western Virginia, which
was eastern Siouan territory.
3.3.5 History
Pre-contact Native Americans

The indigenous people inhabiting the Allegheny Moun-

tains emerged from the greater regions archaic and
mound building cultures, particularly the Adena and
Eastern Woodland peoples with a later Hopewellian in-
uence. These Late Middle Woodland culture people
have been called the Montaine (c. A.D. 500 to 1000)
culture.[6][7] Their neighbors, the woodland Buck Gar-
den culture, lived in the western valleys of the central Al-
legheny range. The Montaine sites extend from the tribu-
taries of the upper Potomac River region south to the New
River tributaries. These also were inuenced by the ear-
lier Armstrong culture of the more southwestern portions Detail of a French map of 1671. The Alleghenies are in the lower
northern sub-range of the Ouasioto (Cumberland) Moun- center portion.
tains and by the more easterly Virginia Woodland peo-
ple. The Late Woodland Montaine were less inuenced In 1669, John Lederer and members of his party became
by Hopewellian trade from Ohio, although similarly pol- the rst Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains and
ished stone tools have been found among the Montaine the rst to see the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny
sites in the Tygart Valley.[8] Small groups of Montaine Mountains beyond.
164
Native Americans in the 17th century
The proto-historic Alleghenies can be exampled by the
earliest journals of the colonists. According to Batts
and Fallows September, 1671 Expedition, they found
Mehetan Indians of Mountain Cherokee-Iroquois mix
on the New River tributaries. This journal does not iden-
tify the Salt Village, but, that the Mehetan were asso-
ciated with these and today thought to be "Monetons",
Siouans. However, this journal does not identify the
Salt Village below the Kanawha Falls, but, that sim-
ply the Mehetan were associated with these. He ex-
plained, below the Salt Villages, a mass of hostile In-
dians had, implied, arrived and some believe these to be
Shanwans of Vielles Expedition of 1692~94, ancient
Shawnee. In 1669, John Lederer of Maryland for the
Virginia Colony and the Tennessee Cherokee had visited
the mouth of the Kanawha and reported no hostilities on
the lower streams of the Alleghenies. The Mohetan rep-
resentative through a Siouan translator explained to Mr
Batts and Mr Fallon, Colonel Abraham Woods exploriers
1671-2, that he (Moheton Native American) could not
say much about the people below the Salt Village be-
cause they (Mountain Cherokee) were not associated with
them. The Mohetan was armed by this time of 1671 for
the Mohetan Representative was given several pouches of
ammunition for his and the others weapons as a token of
friendship. Somebody had already been trading within
the central Alleghenies before the Virginians historical
record begins in the Allegheny Mountains. Some earlier
scholars found evidence these Proto-historics were either
Cistercians of Spanish Ajacan Occuquan outpost on the
Potomac River or Jesuits and their Kahnawake Praying
Indians (Mohawk) on the Riviere de la Ronceverte. The
"Kanawha Madonna" may date from this period or ear-
lier. Where the New River breaks through Peters Moun-
tain, near Pearisburg Virginia the 1671 journal mentions
the Moketans had formerly lived.
According to a number of early 17th century maps,
the Messawomeake or Mincquas (Dutch) occupied
the northern Allegheny Mountains. The Shatteras
(an ancient Tutelo) occupied the Ouasioto Mountains
and the earliest term Canaraguy (Kanawhans other-
wise Canawest[12] ) on the 1671 French map occupied
the southerly Alleghenies. They were associated with
the Allegheny Cherokee and Eastern Siouan as trade-
movers and canoe transporters. The Calicuas, an ancient
most northern Cherokee, migrated or was pushed from
the Central Ohio Valley onto the north eastern slopes
of the Alleghenies of the ancient Messawomeake, Iro-
quois tradesmen to 1630s Kent Island, by 1710 maps.
Sometime before 1712, the Canawest (Kanawhans"-
"Canallaway"-"Canaragay) had moved to the upper Po-
tomac and made a Treaty with the newly established trad-
ing post of Fort Conolloway which would become a part
of western Maryland during the 1740s.
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
White trading posts and other settlements
Prior to European exploration and settlement, trails
through the Alleghenies had been transited for many gen-
erations by American Indian tribes such as the Iroquois,
Shawnee, Delaware, Catawba and others, for purposes of
trade, hunting and, especially, warfare.[13] Western Vir-
ginia "Cherokee" were reported at Cherokee Falls, to-
days Valley Falls of the Tygart Valley.[14] Indian trader
Charles Pokes trading post dates from 1731 with the
Calicuas of Cherokee Falls still in the region from the
previous century.
The London Scribes (The Crowns taxation records)
vaguely mentions the colonial Alleghenian location of
only a few other early colonial trading locations. A gen-
eral knowledge of these few outposts are more of tradi-
tional telling of some local people. However, an example
is the Van Metre trading house mentioned in an ear-
lier edition of the Wonderful West Virginia Magazine
being on the South Branches of the upper reaches of the
Potomac. Another very early trading house appears on a
lower Greenbrier Valley map during the earlier decades
of the 18th century.
As early as 1719, new arrivals from Europe began to cross
the lower Susquehanna River and settle illegally in de-
ance of the Board of Property in Pennsylvania, on un-
warranted land of the northeastern drainage rivers of the
Allegheny Mountains. Several Indian Nations requested
the removal of Maryland Intruders.[15] Some of these
moved onward as territory opened up beyond the Al-
leghenies.
The rst permanent white settlers west of the Alleghe-
nies have traditionally been considered to have been two
New Englanders: Jacob Marlin and Stephen Sewell, who
arrived in the Greenbrier Valley in 1749. They built a
cabin together at what would become Marlinton, West
Virginia, but after disputing over religion, Sewell moved
into a nearby hollowed-out sycamore tree. In 1751, sur-
veyor John Lewis (father of Andrew Lewis) discovered
the pair. Sewell eventually settled on the eastern side of
Sewell Mountain, near present-day Rainelle, West Vir-
ginia.[16] They may well have been the rst to settle what
was then called the western watersi.e., in the regions
where streams owed westward to the Gulf of Mexico
rather than eastward to the Atlantic.
First surveys
Among the rst whites to penetrate into the Allegheny
Mountains were surveyors attempting to settle a dispute
over the extent of lands belonging to either Thomas Fair-
fax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron or to the English Privy
Council. An expedition of 1736 by John Savage estab-
lished the location of the source of the North Branch
Potomac River. In March 1742, a frontiersman named
John Howardalong with his son and othershad been
3.3. ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS 165

The Fry-Jeerson Map (1751) prominently features The Alla-

gany Ridge of Mountains.

commissioned by Governor Gooch to explore the south-

west of Virginia as far as the Mississippi River. Following
Cedar Creek through the Natural Bridge, they oated in
bualo-skin boats down the New, Coal, Kanawha, and A 1775 map of the Allegheny Plateau and Mountain Range.
Ohio Rivers to the Mississippi. Although captured by the
French before he reached Natchez, Howard was eventu-
mountains. Permanent white settlement of the northern
ally released and (in 1745) was interviewed by Fairfax.
Alleghenies was facilitated by the explorations and sto-
Howards description of the South Branch Potomac River
ries of such noted Marylanders as the Indian ghter and
resulted in the denite decision by Fairfax to secure his
trader Thomas Cresap (170290) and the backwoodsman
lands in the region.[17] An expedition under Peter Jeer-
and hunter Meshach Browning (17811859).[20] In the
son and Thomas Lewis in the following year emplaced
late 18th century, a massive migration to the Monon-
the "Fairfax Stone" at the source of the North Branch and
gahela River basin took place over three main routes:
established a line of demarcation (the "Fairfax Line") ex-
along the old Braddock Road via Winchester, Virginia;
tending from the stone south-east to the headwaters of
through the Shenandoah Valley to the head of the Cheat
the Rappahannock River. Lewis journal of that expedi-
River and from there to the Monongahela; and along the
tion provides a valuable view of the Allegheny country
Lincoln Highway to Ligonier, Pennsylvania and thence
before its settlement.[18] Jeerson and Joshua Fry's Fry-
along Jacobs Creek to the Monongahela. These immi-
Jeerson Map of 1751 accurately depicted the Alleghe-
grants were predominantly Scotch-Irish, German, and, to
nies for the rst time. In the following decades, pioneer
a lesser extent, British stock.[21]
settlers arrived in the Alleghenies, especially during Colo-
nial Virginias Robert Dinwiddie era (175158). These The Braddock Road was superseded by the Cumberland
included squatters by the Quit-rent Law. Some had pre- Roadalso called the National Roadone of the rst
ceded the ocial surveyors using a hack on the tree and major improved highways in the United States to be built
eld of corn marking land ownership approved by the by the federal government. Construction began in 1811
Virginia Colonial Governor who had to be replaced with at Cumberland and the road reached Wheeling, Virginia
Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore. (now West Virginia) on the Ohio River in 1818. Just
to the south, the state-funded Staunton and Parkersburg
Turnpike was constructed to provide a direct route for
First roads the settlements of the Shenandoah Valley to the Ohio
River by way of the Tygart Valley and Little Kanawha
Trans-Allegheny travel had been facilitated when a mil- Rivers. Planned and approved in 1826 and completed in
itary trailBraddock Roadwas blazed and opened by 1848, the Staunton and Parkersburg was maintained by
the Ohio Company in 1751. (It followed an earlier Indian fees (tolls) collected at toll houses placed at regular inter-
and pioneer trail known as Nemacolins Path.) Braddock vals.
Road connected Cumberland, Maryland (the upper limit
of navigation on the Potomac River) and the forks of the First railroads and canals
Ohio River (the future Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). It re-
ceived its name from the British leader of the French andConstruction on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad be-
Indian War (175463), General Edward Braddock, who gan at Baltimore in 1828; the B&O traversed the Al-
led the ill-fated Braddock expedition four years later.[19]
leghenies, changing the economy and society of the
In addition to the war, hunting and trading with Indians Mountains forever. The B&O had reached Martinsburg,
were primary motivations for white movement across the (West) Virginia by May 1842, Hancock, (West) Vir-
166
ginia, by June, Cumberland, Maryland, on November 5,
1842, Piedmont, (West) Virginia on July 21, 1851 and
Fairmont, (West) Virginia on June 22, 1852. (It nally
reached its Ohio River terminus at Wheeling, (West) Vir-
ginia on January 1, 1853.)
The Chesapeake and Ohio Canalalso begun in 1828,
but at Georgetownwas also a public work of enormous
economic and social signicance for the Alleghenies. It
approached Hancock, Maryland by 1839. From the be-
ginning, the B&O Railroad and the C&O Canal operated
in bitter legal and commercial competition with one an-
other as they vied for rights to the narrow strips of land
along the Potomac.[22] When the Canal nally reached
Cumberland in 1850, the Railroad had already arrived
eight years before.[23] Debt-ridden, the Canal company
dropped its plan to continue construction of the next 180
miles (290 km) of the Canal into the Ohio Valley.[24]
The company had long realizedespecially with the dif-
cult experience of digging the Paw Paw Tunnelthat
the original plan of construction over the mountains and
all the way down the Youghiogheny River to Pittsburgh
was wildly unrealistic.[25]
Public works nanced at the state level were not lacking
during this period. The Main Line of Public Works was
a railroad and canal system across southern Pennsylvania
between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Built between 1826
and 1834 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, it
included the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, the
Allegheny Portage Railroad and the Pennsylvania Canal
system.
Actual and proposed routes of the C&O Canal through the Al-
leghenies.
Civil War
Lying astride the border separating the Union and
Confederacy, the Alleghenies were among the areas most
directly aected by the American Civil War (1861
1865). One of the earliest campaigns of the War was
fought for control of the Staunton and Parkersburg Turn-
pike and for the access it provided to the B&O Railroad.
The Battle of Rich Mountain (July 11, 1861) gave the
Federals control of the turnpike, of Tygarts Valley, and
of all of the territory of western Virginia to the north
and west, including the railroad. (Union General George
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
McClellan's victory in this theater would ultimately bring
him promotion to commander the Army of the Potomac.)
The Federals fortied at Cheat Summit, and the Confed-
erates established strongholds at Camp Bartow and Camp
Allegheny. Here they faced each other warily through the
fall of 1861 and the following winter. General Robert
E. Lee's attempt to attack Cheat Summit Fort (Septem-
ber 1215, 1861) and Federal attempts to attack Bartow
and Allegheny, all failed to change the strategic stalemate.
Finally, the harsh, high elevation winter achieved what
the troops had failed to accomplish, and in the spring of
1862 both armies moved on down the pike to the Battle
of McDowell (May 8, 1862), and then on to ght what
became General Stonewall Jackson's Shenandoah Valley
Campaign (spring 1862). Two years later, much of this
contested area (along with much else) became part of the
new state of West Virginia. The very rugged terrain of
the Alleghenies was not at all amenable to a large-scale
maneuver war and so the actions that the area witnessed
for the remainder of the conict were generally guerrilla
in nature.
Coal and timber industries
With the further spread of the railroad networks in the
1890s and early 1900s, many new towns developed and
thrived in the Alleghenies. The lumbering and coal in-
dustries that boomed in the wake of the railroads brought
a measure of prosperity to the region, but most of the
revenues owed out of the mountains to the cities of
the eastern seaboard where the captains of industry were
headquartered. This inequity created a bitter legacy
that would last for generations and form the foundation
of the mountaineers poverty and the areas immense
environmental degradation.
The most momentous disaster to aict the people of the
Alleghenies was the Johnstown Floodlocally known as
the Great Flood of 1889which occurred on May 31
of that year after the catastrophic failure of the South
Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River 14 miles (23
km) upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania.
The dam broke after several days of extremely heavy
rainfall, unleashing 20 million tons of water (18 million
cubic meters) from the reservoir known as Lake Cone-
maugh. (This body of water had been built as part of the
Main Line of Public Works, then abandoned.) With a
ow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi
River,[26] the ood killed 2,209 people[27] and caused
US$17 million of damage (about $425 million in 2012
dollars). The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton
and with 50 volunteers, undertook a major disaster re-
lief eort.[28] Support for victims came from all over the
United States and 18 foreign countries. After the ood,
survivors suered a series of legal defeats in their at-
tempts to recover damages from the dams owners. Pub-
lic indignation at that failure prompted the development
in American law changing a fault-based regime to strict
3.3. ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS
liability.
20th century
In the 1920s and '30s, Allegheny highways were exten-
sively paved to provide access for automobiles.
From the 1950s to 1992, the United States government
maintained a top secret continuity program known as
Project Greek Island at The Greenbrier hotel in the Al-
leghenies of southern West Virginia.
In 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King referenced the
Allegheniesamong several in an evocative list of
mountainsin his famous "I Have a Dream" speech,
when he said Let freedom ring from the heightening Al-
leghenies of Pennsylvania!"
21st century
The Flight 93 National Memorial is located at the site
of the crash of United Airlines Flight 93which was 3.3.8 Notes
hijacked in the September 11 attacksin Stonycreek
Township, Pennsylvania, about 2 miles (3.2 km) north Citations
of Shanksville. The memorial honors the passengers and
crew of Flight 93, who stopped Al-Qaeda terrorists from [1] Stewart, George R. (1967), Names on the Land, Boston.
reaching their intended target.
3.3.6 Photo gallery
Cumberland, Maryland with Wills Mountain and
the Cumberland Narrows in the background.
North Fork Mountain, West Virginia, looking south
Blue Knob, Pennsylvania, the northernmost 3,000
footer in the Alleghenies.
The Homestead, Hot Springs, Virginia has catered
to spa enthusiasts since 1766.
Shenandoah Mountain, at the easternmost limit of
the Alleghenies.
Laurel Mountain, West Virginia, at the westernmost
limit of the Alleghenies.
Allegheny Mountain Tunnel, through Allegheny
Mountain, services Interstate 76 in Pennsylvania.
New River Gorge, Section of the cli at Endless
Wall cli. [10] THE LATE PREHISTORIC COMPONENTS AT
Germany Valley, a scenic upland valley of eastern
West Virginia.
The grand hotel at The Greenbrier, White Sulphur
Springs, West Virginia, was built in 1858.
The Blackwater Canyon, a rugged gorge in eastern
West Virginia.
167
A Norfolk Southern train at Horseshoe Curve near
Altoona, Pennsylvania.
Cheat Canyon, in Coopers Rock State Forest, north-
eastern West Virginia.
Dolly Sods Wilderness, West Virginia: View from
atop Breathed Mountain.
Eastern entrance to the Paw Paw Tunnel on the
C&O Canal towpath in Maryland.
Altoona, Pennsylvania viewed from atop Brush
Mountain.
3.3.7 See also
High Allegheny National Park and Preserve, a pro-
posed NPS unit in eastern West Virginia
[2] Norton, Major John (1816), The Journal of Major John
Norton (Toronto: Champlain Society, Reprinted 1970)
[3] Guyot, Arnold, On the Appalachian Mountain System,
American Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series,
XXXI, (March 1861), 167-171.
[4] Rosier, George L., Compiler, Hiking Guide to the Al-
legheny Trail, Second edition, West Virginia Scenic Trails
Association, Kingwood, W. Va., 1990.
[5] West Virginia DNR - Wildlife Resources, West Vir-
ginia Division of Wildlife. and http://lutra.dnr.state.wv.
us/cwcp/appendix2.shtm
[6] McMichael, WV 1968
[7] Dragoo, Pa 1963
[8] McMichael, Edward V., Introduction to West Virginia
Archeology, 2nd Edition, 1968, West Virginia Archeo-
logical Society
[9] McMichael 1968
THE GODWIN-PORTMAN SITE, 36AL39, abstract
RICHARD L. GEORGE. It had several Late Prehistoric
occupations. This multicomponent site was destroyed in
1979. The Pennsylvania Archaeologist; Volume 77(1),
Spring 2007
[11] Revisiting the Monongahela Linguistic/Cultural Alia-
tion Mystery, ABSTRACT by Richard L. George, Penn-
sylvania Archeology Society.
168
[12] Relocated Subjects of the 5 Nations, To my friend
Winjack, King of the Ganawese Indians on Sasqua-
hanna, Brother : I have heard that your friends the
Nanticokes are now at yr. Town upon their Journey to the
ve Nations. I know they are a peaceable People that live
quietly amongst the English in Mary Land, and therefore
I shall be glad to see them, and will be ready to do
them any kindness in my power. New Castle, June 16,
1722. Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania
By Pennsylvania. Provincial Council, Samuel Hazard,
Pennsylvania Committee. To Colo. Juhn French, Francis
Worley, & James Mitehell, Esqrs. Whereas, the three
Nations of Indians settled on the North side of the River
Sasquahanuah, in His Maties Peace & under the pro-
tection of this Government, viz: The Conestogoes, The
Shawanoea, & The Cawnoyes, are very much disturbed,
and the Peace of thia Colony is hourly in danger of being
broken by persons, who pursuing their own private gain
without any regard to Justice, Have attempted & others
do still threaten to Survey and take up Lauds on the South
West Branch of the sd. River, right against the Towns
& Settlements of the said Indians, without any Right or
pretence of Authority so to do, from the Proprietor of this
Province unto whom the Lands unquestionably belong.
at Conestogoe, the 18th day of June, in the Eighth year
of our Sovereign Lord George. Annoq. Dom. 1722.
Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania By
Pennsylvania. Provincial Council, Samuel Hazard, Penn-
sylvania Committee https://books.google.com/books?id=
rEwOAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA188&ots=gqLrLn2dB6&
dq=Ganawese&pg=PA188&output=text
[13] Smith, J. Lawrence, The High Alleghenies: The Drama
and Heritage of Three Centuries, Tornado, West Virginia:
Allegheny Vistas; Illustrations by Bill Pitzer, 1982.
[14] Wonderful West Virginia articles Allegeny and Wonder-
full W. Virginia September 1973, p.30, Valley Falls Of
Old, Walter Balderson
[15] AN EARLY HISTORY OF HELLAM TOWNSHIP,
Kreutz Creek Valley Preservation Society, Archived
copy. Archived from the original on October 25, 2009.
Retrieved October 25, 2009. (4/28/2009). 2009-10-25.
[16] http://www.wvencyclopedia.org/articles/1508
[17] Brown, Jr., Stuart E. (1965), Virginia Baron: The
Story of Thomas 6th Lord Fairfax, Berryville, Virginia:
Chesapeake Book Company, pp 98-99.
[18] The Fairfax Line: Thomas Lewiss Journal of 1746; Foot-
notes and index by John Wayland, Newmarket, Virginia:
The Henkel Press (1925 publication).
[19] Borneman, Walter R. (2007). The French and Indian
War. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0-06-076185-1.
[20] Browning, Meshach (1859), Forty-Four Years of the Life
of a Hunter; Being Reminiscences of Meshach Browning,
a Maryland Hunter; Roughly Written Down by Himself,
Revised and illustrated by E. Stabler. Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott & Co..
[21] Leckey, Howard Louis, The Tenmile Country and Its Pi-
oneer Families: A Genealogical History of the Upper
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
Monongahela Valley; Waynesburg Republican, 1950, with
index 1977.
[22] Lynch, John A., Justice Douglas, the Chesapeake & Ohio
Canal, and Maryland Legal History, University of Balti-
more Law Forum 35 (Spring 2005): 104125
[23] Mackintosh, Barry (1991), C&O Canal: The Making of A
Park, Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, Depart-
ment of the Interior, pg 1.
[24] Hahn, Thomas F. Swiftwater (1984), The Chesapeake &
Ohio Canal: Pathway to the Nations Capital, Metuchen,
New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., pg 7.
[25] Kytle, Elizabeth (1983), Home on the Canal, Cabin John,
MD: Seven Locks Press, pg 61 [Note #10].
[26] Sid Perkins, Johnstown Flood matched volume of Mis-
sissippi River, Science News, Vol.176 #11, 21 November
2009, accessed 14 October 2012
[27] Gibson, Christine. Our 10 Greatest Natural Disasters.
American Heritage (August/September 2006). Archived
from the original on December 5, 2010.
[28] Founder Clara Barton. The American National Red
Cross. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
References
Folklore:
McNeill, G.D. (Douglas), The Last Forest, Tales of
the Allegheny Woods, n.p., 1940 (Reprinted with
preface by Louise McNeill, Pocahontas Communi-
cations Cooperative Corporation, Dunmore, W. Va.
and McClain Printing Company, Parsons, W. Va,
1989.)
Botany:
Core, Earl L. (1967), Wildowers of the Alleghe-
nies, J. Alleghenies, 4(l):I, 2-4.
Core, Earl L. (1943), Botanizing in the Higher Al-
leghenies, Sci. Monthly, 57:119-125.
3.3.9 External links
USGS GNIS - Allegheny Mountains
The Allegheny Regional Family History Society
3.4 Pocahontas
This article is about the Powhatan woman. For the
Disney lm, see Pocahontas (1995 lm). For the Disney
character, see Pocahontas (character). For other uses,
see Pocahontas (disambiguation).
3.4. POCAHONTAS 169

Matoaka, Princess Matoika, and Rebecca Rolfe Algonquian-speaking groups and petty chiefdoms in
redirect here. For the American towns, see Matoaca, Tidewater, Virginia.[9] Her mother, whose name and spe-
Virginia and Matoaka, West Virginia. For the transport cic group of origin are unknown, was one of dozens of
ship, see USS Princess Matoika (ID-2290). For the Irish wives taken by Powhatan; each wife gave him a single
cricketer, see Rebecca Rolfe (cricketer). child and then was sent back to her village to be sup-
ported by the paramount chief until she found another
Pocahontas (born Matoaka, known as Amonute, c. husband.[10]
15961617) was a Native American[2][3][4] notable for Pocahontass childhood was probably little dierent from
her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, that of most girls who lived in Tsenacommacah. She
Virginia. Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, the learned how to perform what was considered to be
paramount chief[2] of a network of tributary tribal nations womens work, which included foraging for food and
in the Tsenacommacah, encompassing the Tidewater re- rewood, farming, and searching for the plant materials
gion of Virginia. In a well-known historical anecdote, used in building thatched houses.[11] As she grew older,
she is said to have saved the life of an Indian captive, En- she helped other members of Powhatans household with
glishman John Smith, in 1607 by placing her head upon preparations for large feasts.[10] Serving feasts, such as
his own when her father raised his war club to execute the one presented to John Smith after his capture, was
him. Some historians have suggested that this story, as a regular obligation of the Mamanatowick, or paramount
told by Smith, is untrue.[5] chief.[12]
Pocahontas was captured by the English during Anglo-
Indian hostilities in 1613, and held for ransom. During
her captivity, she converted to Christianity and took the
name Rebecca. When the opportunity arose for her to
return to her people, she chose to remain with the English.
In April 1614, she married tobacco planter John Rolfe, Names
and in January 1615, bore their son, Thomas Rolfe.[1]
In 1616, the Rolfes traveled to London. Pocahontas
At the time Pocahontas was born, it was common for
was presented to English society as an example of the
Powhatan Native Americans to be given several per-
civilized savage in hopes of stimulating investment in
sonal names, have more than one name at the same time,
the Jamestown settlement. She became something of
have secret names that only a select few knew, and to
a celebrity, was elegantly fted, and attended a masque
change their names on important occasions. Bestowed
at Whitehall Palace. In 1617, the Rolfes set sail for
at dierent times, the names carried dierent meanings
Virginia, but Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown
and might be used in dierent contexts.[13] Pocahontas
causes. She was buried in a church in Gravesend in the
was no dierent. Early in her life she was given a se-
United Kingdom, but the exact location of her grave is
cret name, Matoaka, but later she was also known as
unknown.[1]
Amonute. Matoaka means Bright Stream Between the
Numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United Hills"; Amonute cannot be translated.[14][15]
States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has
The name Pocahontas was a childhood nickname that
been romanticized over the years, and she is a subject of
probably referred to her frolicsome nature; according to
art, literature, and lm. Her descendants, through her son
the colonist William Strachey, it meant little wanton,[16]
Thomas, include members of the First Families of Vir-
some interpret the meaning as playful one.[12] The 18th-
ginia, First Lady Edith Wilson, American Western actor
century historian William Stith claimed that her real
Glenn Strange, and astronomer Percival Lowell.[6]
name, it seems, was originally Matoax, which the Indi-
ans carefully concealed from the English and changed it
to Pocahontas, out of a superstitious fear, lest they, by
3.4.1 Early life the knowledge of her true name, should be enabled to do
her some hurt.[17] According to the anthropologist Helen
Pocahontass birth year is unknown, but some historians C. Rountree, Pocahontas revealed [her secret name] to
estimate it to have been around 1596.[1] In A True Rela- the English only after she had taken another religious
tion of Virginia (1608), Smith described the Pocahontas baptismalname, Rebecca.[18]
he met in the spring of 1608 as being a child of tenne Pocahontass Christian name, Rebecca, may have been a
[sic] years old.[7] In a letter written in 1616, he again symbolic gesture to Rebecca of the Book of Genesis who,
described her as she was in 1608, but this time she had as the mother of Jacob and Esau, was the mother of two
grown slightly to a child of twelve or thirteen years of nations, or distinct peoples. Pocahontas, as a Powhatan
age.[8] marrying an Englishman, may have been seen by herself
Pocahontas was the daughter of Powhatan, paramount and by her contemporaries as being also, potentially, the
chief of Tsenacommacah, an alliance of about thirty mother of two nations.[19]
170
Title and status
Pocahontas has been considered in popular culture to be
a princess. In 1841, William Watson Waldron of Trinity
College, Dublin, in Ireland, published Pocahontas, Amer-
ican Princess: and Other Poems, calling Pocahontas the
beloved and only surviving daughter of the king.[20]
Indeed, Pocahontas was a favorite of her fathershis
delight and darling, according to the colonist Captain
Ralph Hamor[21] but she was not in line to inherit
a position as a weroance, subchief, or mamanatowick
(paramount chief). Instead, Powhatans brothers, sis-
ters, and his sisters children all stood in line to suc-
ceed him.[22] In his A Map of Virginia John Smith ex-
plained how matrilineal inheritance worked among the In this chromolithograph credited to the New England Chromo.
Powhatans:
His [Powhatans] kingdom descendeth
not to his sonnes nor children: but rst
to his brethren, whereof he hath three
namely Opitchapan, Opechanncanough, and
Catataugh; and after their decease to his
sisters. First to the eldest sister, then to the
rest: and after them to the heires male and
female of the eldest sister; but never to the
heires of the males.
Mother
The identity and exact group origin of Pocahontass
mother has never been known, but her status would
have been lowly. In his Relation of Virginia (1609),
the colonist Henry Spelman, who had lived among
the Powhatan serving as an interpreter, noted Chief
Powhatans many wives. Each wife gave the paramount
chief one child, after which she not only resumed her sta-
tus as a commoner but was also sent back where she had
come from.[23] However, some historians even theorize
her mother died during childbirth.[24]
3.4.2 Interactions with the English
John Smith
Pocahontas is most famously linked to the English
colonist Captain John Smith, who arrived in Virginia with
a hundred other settlers in April 1607. After building
a fort on a marshy peninsula poking out into the James
River, the Englishmen had numerous encounters over the
next several months with the Natives of Tsenacommacah,
some of them friendly, some hostile. Then, in Decem-
ber 1607, while exploring on the Chickahominy River,
Smith was captured by a hunting party led by Powhatans
younger brother (or close relative) Opechancanough and
brought to Powhatans capital at Werowocomoco. In his
1608 account, Smith described a large feast followed by
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
Lith. Company, ca. 1870, Pocahontas saves the life of John
Smith. The scene is idealized and relies on stereotypes of Native
Americans rather than reliable information about the particulars
of this historical moment. There are no mountains in Tidewater
Virginia, for example, and the Powhatans lived not in tipis but in
thatched houses. And the scene that Smith famously described in
his Generall Historie (1624) did not take place outdoors but in a
longhouse.
a long talk with Powhatan. He does not mention Poca-
hontas in relation to his capture; in fact, in this account,
he does not meet Pocahontas for the rst time until a few
months later.[25] In 1616, however, Smith wrote a letter to
Queen Anne in anticipation of Pocahontass visit to Eng-
land. In this new account, his capture included the threat
of his own death: "... at the minute of my execution,
he wrote, she [Pocahontas] hazarded the beating out of
her own brains to save mine; and not only that, but so
prevailed with her father, that I was safely conducted to
Jamestown.[8]
Early histories did establish that Pocahontas befriended
Smith and the Jamestown colony. Pocahontas often went
to the settlement and played games with the boys there.[26]
When the colonists were starving, every once in four
or ve days, Pocahontas with her attendants brought him
[Smith] so much provision that saved many of their lives
that else for all this had starved with hunger.[27] As the
colonists expanded their settlement further, the Powhatan
felt their lands were threatened, and conicts arose again.
In late 1609, an injury from a gunpowder explosion
forced Smith to return to England for medical care.
The English told the Powhatans that Smith was dead.
Pocahontas believed that account and hence afterward,
stopped visiting Jamestown. Much later, she learned that
he was living in England when she traveled there as the
wife of John Rolfe.[28]
Historical records do not suggest that Smith and Poca-
hontas were lovers. When Smith rst arrived at Virginia,
Pocahontas was around the age of eleven. Although texts
substantiate claims of friendship, they do not suggest a
romance between Smith and her.[29] The romance is fea-
tured only (but repeatedly) in ctional versions of their
3.4. POCAHONTAS
relationship (such as the 1995 animated lm by Walt Dis-
ney Pictures and the 2005 Terence Malick lm, The New
World). The rst romance was written about them in the
early 19th century, suggesting the storys mythic appeal.
Modern views on Smiths near execution Eight years
after his original account, in his Generall Historie, Smith
expanded upon the story. Writing about himself in the
third person, he explained that after he was captured and
taken to the paramount chief, two great stones were
brought before Powhatan: then as many as could layd
hands on him [Smith], dragged him to them, and thereon
laid his head, and being ready with their clubs, to beate
out his braines, Pocahontas the Kings dearest daughter,
when no intreaty could prevaile, got his head in her armes,
and laid her owne upon his to save him from death ...[30]
The anthropologist Helen C. Rountree has argued that
Smiths rst version of events [i.e., that he was in-
terviewed by Powhatan] makes sense, given how eager
the Indian leadership was to nd out why the English
had come and stayed in Virginia. Its a popular opin-
ion among historians that Smiths story was, in fact, a
lie.[31] Some scholars have argued that the absence of
the episode in Smiths earlier works should not be deni-
tive evidence that it did not happen. Historian J. A. Leo
Lemay, for instance, noted in his 1992 book that, as
Smiths earlier writing was primarily concerned with ge-
ographical and ethnographic matters, he had no reason
then to recount the story of Pocahontas.[32] Stan Birch-
eld has written that Smiths writings are perfectly con-
sistent with the truthfulness of the episode.[33]
In True Travels (1630), Smith told a similar story of hav-
ing been rescued by the intervention of a young girl after
having been captured in 1602 by Turks in Hungary. The
historian Karen Ordahl Kupperman has suggested that he
presented those remembered events from decades ear-
lier when telling the story of Pocahontas.[34]
A dierent theory suggests that Smith may have mis-
understood what had happened to him in Powhatans
longhouse. Rather than the near victim of an execu-
tion, he may have been subject to a tribal ritual in-
tended to symbolize his death and rebirth as a mem-
ber of the tribe.[35][36] However, this theory is not well
supported by evidence of Powhatan rituals or those of
other North American Native groups.[37] The historian
Margaret Williamson Huber has argued that Powhatan,
in this case, was being politically pragmatic by attempt-
ing to bring Smith, and so the English, into his chief-
dom. According to Huber, Powhatan attempted to oer
Smith rule of the town of Capahosic, which was close
to Powhatans capital at Werowocomoco. In this way,
the paramount chief hoped to keep Smith and his men
nearby and better under control.[38]
171
In his engraving The abduction of Pocahontas (1619), Johann
Theodor de Bry depicts a full narrative. Starting in the lower left,
Pocahontas (center) is deceived by the weroance Iopassus, who
holds as bait a copper kettle, and his wife, who pretends to cry.
At center right, Pocahontas is put on the boat and feasted. In
the background, the action moves from the Potomac to the York
River, where negotiations for a hostage trade fail and the English
attack and burn a Native American village.[39]
Capture
Pocahontass capture occurred in the context of the First
Anglo-Powhatan War, a conict between the Jamestown
settlers and the Native Americans that began late in the
summer of 1609.[40] In the rst years of war, the En-
glish took control of the James River, both at its mouth
and at the falls. Captain Samuel Argall, in the mean-
time, pursued contacts with Native American groups in
the northern portion of Powhatans paramount chiefdom.
The Patawomecks, who lived on the Potomac River, were
not always loyal to Powhatan, and living with them was
a young English interpreter named Henry Spelman. In
March 1613, Argall learned that Pocahontas was visiting
the Patawomeck village of Passapatanzy and living under
the protection of the weroance Iopassus (also known as
Japazaws).
[41]
With Spelmans help translating, Argall pressured Iopas-
sus to assist in Pocahontass capture by promising an al-
liance with the English against the Powhatans.[41] They
tricked Pocahontas into boarding Argalls ship and held
her for ransom, demanding the release of English prison-
ers held by her father, along with various stolen weapons
and tools.[42] Powhatan returned the prisoners, but failed
to satisfy the colonists with the number of weapons and
tools he returned. A long stando ensued, during which
the English kept Pocahontas captive.
During the year-long wait, she was held at Henricus,
in modern-day Chestereld County, Virginia. Little
is known about her life there, although colonist Ralph
Hamor wrote that she received extraordinary courteous
172 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

usage.[43] Linwood Little Bear Custalow, in a 2007 Marriage to John Rolfe

book, asserted that Pocahontas was raped during this
time, citing oral tradition handed down over four cen-
turies. According to Helen Rountree, Other historians
have disputed that such oral tradition survived and in-
stead argue that any mistreatment of Pocahontas would
have gone against the interests of the English in their ne-
gotiations with Powhatan.[44]
At this time, the minister at Henricus, Alexander
Whitaker, taught Pocahontas about Christianity and
helped her to improve her English. Upon her baptism,
Pocahontas took the Christian name Rebecca.[45]
In March 1614, the stando built up to a violent con-
frontation between hundreds of English and Powhatan
men on the Pamunkey River. At Powhatans capital of John Gadsby Chapman, The Baptism of Pocahontas (1840). A
Matchcot, the English encountered a group of some se- copy is on display at the US Capitol.
nior Native American leaders (but not Powhatan himself,
who was away). The English permitted Pocahontas to During her stay in Henricus, Pocahontas met John Rolfe.
talk to her countrymen. Pocahontas reportedly rebuked Rolfes English-born wife, Sarah Hacker, and child,
her father for valuing her less than old swords, pieces, Bermuda Rolfe, died prior to his journey to Virginia. He
or axes, and told the Powhatan she preferred to live with had successfully cultivated a new strain of tobacco there
the English.[46] and spent much of his time tending to his crop. He was a
pious man who agonized over the potential moral reper-
cussions of marrying a heathen. In a long letter to the
governor requesting permission to wed her, he expressed
Possible rst marriage both his love for her and his belief he would be saving her
soul claiming he was:
Current Mattaponi tradition holds that Pocahontass
rst husband was Kocoum, brother of the Patawomeck motivated not by the unbridled desire of
weroance Japazaws, and that Kocoum was killed by the carnal aection, but for the good of this planta-
English after his wifes capture in 1613.[47] Todays Pata- tion, for the honor of our country, for the Glory
womecks believe that Pocahontas and Kocoum had a of God, for my own salvation... namely Poca-
daughter, Ka-Okee, who was raised by the Patawomecks hontas, to whom my hearty and best thoughts
after her fathers death and her mothers abduction.[48] are, and have been a long time so entan-
gled, and enthralled in so intricate a labyrinth
However, Kocoums actual identity, location, and even that I was even a-wearied to unwind myself
existence have been widely debated among scholars for thereout[52]
centuries, with several historians arguing that the only
mention of a Kocoum in any English document is taken
Pocahontass feelings about Rolfe are unknown. She
from a brief statement written ca. 1616 by William Stra-
married him on April 5, 1614. Though frequently the
chey in England that Pocahontas had been living married
wedding is placed at Jamestown, there is in fact no
to a private captaine called Kocoum for two years.[49]
surviving record indicating where the ceremony took
Since 1614 is certainly when she married John Rolfe, and
place. Possible sites include Henricus, Bermuda City, and
no other records even hint at any previous husband, it has
Jamestown. Richard Buck presided. They lived for two
accordingly been suggested that when Strachey wrote of
years on Rolfes plantation, Varina Farms, which was lo-
the private captaine called Kocoum he was mistakenly
cated across the James River from the new community
referring to Rolfe himself, with the reference being later
of Henricus. Their son Thomas was born on January 30,
misunderstood as one of Powhatans ocers.[50] There
1615.
was a Powhatan military rank called kokoraws, some-
times translated 'captain', and scholarly debate has also Their marriage was not successful in winning the English
raged whether Strachey could have meant this as one of captives back, but it did create a temporary climate of
his famously divergent spellings, as a gloss to 'Captayne'. peace between the Jamestown colonists and Powhatans
In addition, the date of Stracheys original statement has tribes for eight years. This period of time was termed the
been widely disputed by numerous authors attempting ei- Peace of Pocahontas";[29] in 1615, Ralph Hamor wrote:
ther to make the case, or refute, that Pocahontas had been
previously married. If there was such a marriage and Since the wedding we have had friendly
Kocoum was not murdered, it likely ended, according to commerce and trade not only with Powhatan
Powhatan custom, when Pocahontas was captured.[51] but also with his subjects round about us.[53]
3.4. POCAHONTAS
England
The Sedgeford Hall Portrait, once thought to represent Pocahon-
tas and Thomas Rolfe, is now believed to actually depict the wife
(Pe-o-ka) and son of Osceola, Seminole Indian Chief.[54]
The Virginia Company of London had long seen one of something of a curiosity and, according to one observer,
its primary goals as the conversion of Native Americans she was merely the Virginian woman.[22]
to Christianity. With the conversion of Pocahontas and
her marriage to an Englishman all of which helped bring
an end to the First Anglo-Powhatan War the company
saw an opportunity to promote investment. The com-
pany decided to bring Pocahontas to England as a sym-
bol of the tamed New World savage and the success of
[55]
the Jamestown settlement. In 1616, the Rolfes trav-
eled to England, arriving at the port of Plymouth on June
[56]
12. They journeyed to London by coach, accompanied
by a group of about eleven other Powhatans, including a
[57]
holy man named Tomocomo. John Smith was living
in London at the time and while Pocahontas was in Ply-
[58]
mouth, she learned he was still alive. Smith did not
meet Pocahontas, but wrote to Queen Anne, the wife of
King James, urging that Pocahontas be treated with re-
spect as a royal visitor. He suggested that if she were
treated badly, her present love to us and Christianity
might turn to ... scorn and fury, and England might lose
the chance to rightly have a Kingdom by her means.[8]
Pocahontas was entertained at various society gatherings.
On January 5, 1617, she and Tomocomo were brought
before the king at the old Banqueting House in the Palace
of Whitehall at a performance of Ben Jonson's masque
The Vision of Delight. According to Smith, King James
was so unprepossessing that neither Pocahontas nor To-
mocomo realized whom they had met until it was ex-
173
plained to them afterward.[58]
Although Pocahontas was not a princess in the context
of Powhatan culture, the Virginia Company nevertheless
presented her as a princess to the English public. The in-
scription on a 1616 engraving of Pocahontas, made for
the company, reads: MATOAKA ALS REBECCA FILIA
POTENTISS : PRINC : POWHATANI IMP:VIRGINI",
which means: Matoaka, alias Rebecca, daughter of the
most powerful prince of the Powhatan Empire of Vir-
ginia. Many English at this time recognized Powhatan
to be the ruler of an empire, and they presumably ac-
corded to his daughter what they considered appropriate
status. Smiths letter to Queen Anne refers to Powhatan
their chief King.[8] Samuel Purchas recalled meeting
Pocahontas in London, writing that she impressed those
she met because she carried her selfe as the daugh-
ter of a king.[59] When he met her again in London,
Smith referred to Pocahontas deferentially as a Kings
daughter.[60]
Pocahontas was apparently treated well in London. At
the masque, her seats were described as well placed,[61]
and, according to Purchas, John King, Bishop of London,
entertained her with festival state and pomp beyond what
I have seen in his greate hospitalitie aorded to other
ladies.[62]
Not all the English were so impressed. According to He-
len C. Rountree, there is no contemporary evidence to
suggest ... that Pocahontas was regarded [in England] as
anything like royalty. Rather, she was considered to be
Pocahontas and Rolfe lived in the suburb of Brentford,
Middlesex, for some time, as well as at Rolfes family
home at Heacham Hall, Heacham, Norfolk. In early
1617, Smith met the couple at a social gathering, and
later wrote that when Pocahontas saw him, without any
words, she turned about, obscured her face, as not seem-
ing well contented, and was left alone for two or three
hours. Later, they spoke more; Smiths record of what she
said to him is fragmentary and enigmatic. She reminded
him of the courtesies she had done, saying, you did
promise Powhatan what was yours would be his, and he
the like to you. She then discomted him by calling him
father, explaining Smith had called Powhatan father
when a stranger in Virginia, and by the same reason so
must I do you. Smith did not accept this form of ad-
dress because, he wrote, Pocahontas outranked him as
a Kings daughter. Pocahontas then, with a well-set
countenance, said:
Were you not afraid to come into my fa-
thers country and caused fear in him and all
his people (but me) and fear you here I should
call you 'father'? I tell you then I will, and you
shall call me child, and so I will be for ever and
ever your countryman.[58]
174
Finally, Pocahontas told Smith that she and her fellow Na-
tive Americans had thought him dead, but her father had
told Tomocomo to seek him because your countrymen
will lie much.[58]
3.4.3 Death
Statue of Pocahontas in Saint Georges church, Gravesend, Kent
In March 1617, John Rolfe and Pocahontas boarded a
ship to return to Virginia; the ship had sailed only as
far as Gravesend on the river Thames, when Pocahon-
tas became gravely ill.[63] She was taken ashore and died
in Rolfes arms at the approximate age of 21. It is not
known what caused her death, but theories range from
pneumonia, smallpox, or tuberculosis, to her having been
poisoned.[64] According to Rolfe, she died saying, all
must die, but tis enough that her child liveth.[65] Her fa-
ther Powhatan died within a year of Pocahantas, and after
this, the Peace of Pocahontas began to disintegrate.
Pocahantas funeral took place on March 21, 1617, in
the parish of Saint Georges, Gravesend.[66] Her grave
is thought to be underneath the churchs chancel, though
since that church was destroyed in a re in 1727, her exact
gravesite is unknown.[67] Her memory is honored with a
life-size bronze statue at St. Georges Church by William
Ordway Partridge.[68]
In other renderings, Pocahontass story has been roman-
3.4.4 Descendants and legacy ticized. Among the writers who prefer accounts of a love
story between Pocahontas and John Smith is John Davis,
Pocahontas and her husband, John Rolfe, had one child, who was the rst to publish such a story at length, in his
Thomas Rolfe, who was born in January 1615. The fol- Travels in the United States of America (1803).[73]
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
lowing year, Thomas parents traveled to London.
Pocahontas and her father, Chief Powhatan, have many
notable descendants, including two First Ladies of the
United States, Nancy Reagan and Edith Bolling Galt Wil-
son (Woodrow Wilson's wife), American Western actor
Glenn Strange, astronomer and mathematician Percival
Lowell (whose achievements include helping discover
Pluto), and numerous members of the First Families
of Virginia, George Wythe Randolph, Admiral Richard
E. Byrd, Virginia Governor Harry F. Byrd, fashion de-
signer and socialite Pauline de Rothschild,[69] and Ma-
toaka Whittle Sims (pictured in the photo gallery).
The aforementioned Edith Wilson, who was both a First
Lady of the United States and a member of the First Fam-
ilies of Virginia, was very proud of her heritage. She
was born and raised in Virginia, and through her father,
William Holcombe Bolling, was a ninth-generation de-
scendant of Pocahontas.[70] Her blood was introduced
to the Randolph family of Virginia via the marriage of
her great-great-granddaughter, Jane Bolling, to Richard
Randolph.
In 1907, Pocahontas became the rst Native American to
be honored on a US stamp.[71]
In July 2015, the Pamunkey Indian Tribe, descendants
of the Powhatan chiefdom, of which Pocahontas was a
member, became the rst federally recognized tribe in
the state of Virginia.[72]
First Lady Edith Wilson, a descendant of Pocahon-
tas.
Pocahontas stamp, reissue of 1907
Matoaka Whittle Sims, born 1844, Pittsylvania
County, Virginia, descended on both sides from
namesake Pocahontas
3.4.5 Cultural representations
After her death, increasingly fanciful and romanticized
representations of Pocahontas were produced.
Some myths that have arisen around Pocahontass story
portray her as one who demonstrated the potential of Na-
tive Americans to be assimilated into European society.
For example, the United States Capitol displays a painting
by John Gadsby Chapman, The Baptism of Pocahontas
(1840), in the Rotunda. A government pamphlet, enti-
tled The Picture of the Baptism of Pocahontas, explains
the characters in the painting and praises the Jamestown
settlers for introducing Christianity to the heathen sav-
ages.
3.4. POCAHONTAS 175

A 19th-century depiction

In dramatizations

Perhaps the rst surviving stage dramatization of the

Pocahontas story is James Nelson Barker's The In-
dian Princess; or, La Belle Sauvage (1624).

In the 19th century, John Brougham produced a

burlesque, Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage
(which debuted in 1855).

In events and postage stamps

The Jamestown Exposition, held in Norfolk from

April 26 to December 1, 1907, celebrated the 300th
anniversary of the Jamestown settlement in 1607 as
the rst permanent British colony in America.
The Disney version of Pocahontas.

In conjunction with the 1907 Jamestown Exposi-

tion, three commemorative postage USPS stamps In lms
were issued. The 5-cent portrays Pocahontas, a
friend to the colony, noted for saving John Smiths Multiple lms about Pocahontas have been made:
life. Her engraved portrait is modeled from Simon
Van de Passes 1616 engraving, which appeared in Pocahontas (1910 lm), a Thanhouser Company
a book published by John Smith in 1624. The 5- silent short drama lm
cent paid large weight and foreign destination rates;
about 8 million were issued.[74] Pocahontas and John Smith (1924), a silent lm di-
176
rected by Bryan Foy
Captain John Smith and Pocahontas (1953), an
American production directed by Lew Landers,
starring Jody Lawrance as the title role heroine
Pocahontas (1994 lm), a Japanese animated
production from Jetlag Productions, directed by
Toshiyuki Hiruma Takashi
Pocahontas: The Legend (1995), a Canadian live-
action feature lm based on her life.
The Walt Disney Company's animated feature
Pocahontas (1995) presents a ctional love aair be-
tween Pocahontas and John Smith, in which Poca-
hontas teaches Smith respect for nature.
Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998),
its straight-to-video sequel, depicts Pocahan- Numerous places and landmarks were named after Poc-
tas journey to England and her meeting and ahontas:
falling in love with John Rolfe.
Pocahontas (character), main character of Animals
above lms
Pocahontas (franchise)
Pocahontas (soundtrack)
The New World (2005), directed by Terrence Mal-
ick and starring Q'orianka Kilcher as Pocahontas,[75]
depicts the founding of the Jamestown Settlement
and Pocahontass role in the colony.
The main plot of James Camerons lm Avatar
(2009) is closely based on Pocahontas (1995).
In games
Disneys Pocahontas (video game), a video game
based on the Disney lm
In literature
Davis, John (1803). Travels in the United States of
America.[73] is mentioned above.
In music
Neil Young's song "Pocahontas", on his album Rust
Never Sleeps (1979), is based on Stracheys account
and expresses the speakers desire to sleep with her
as part of his romantic yearning to return to a pre-
conquest, natural world.[76]
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
In visual art
The only contemporary portrait of Pocahontas is
Simon van de Passe's engraving of 1616. In this por-
trait, he tried to portray her Virginia- Native Amer-
ican features.
In The abduction of Pocahontas (1619), Johann
Theodor de Bry depicts a full narrative (see photo)
As mentioned above, her memory is honored with
a life-size bronze statue at St. Georges Church by
William Ordway Partridge.[68]
John Gadsby Chapman' painting, The Baptism of
Pocahontas (1840), located in the United States
Capitol Building Rotunda, is mentioned above.
3.4.6 Namesakes
Pocahontas (horse), Thoroughbred racehorse
Companies
Pocahontas Land Company, a subsidiary of the
Norfolk and Western Railway
Places
4487 Pocahontas (1987 UA), an asteroid
Amonate, Virginia
Fort Pocahontas, an American Civil War fortica-
tion in Charles City County, Virginia
Lake Matoaka, part of the campus of the College of
William and Mary
Matoaca, Virginia, located in Chestereld County
on the Appomattox River; county historians say this
is the site of the Native American village Matoax,
where she was raised
Matoaka, West Virginia
Pocahontas, Alberta, Canada
Pocahontas, Arkansas
Pocahontas, Illinois
Pocahontas, Iowa, in Pocahontas County
Pocahontas, Mississippi
3.4. POCAHONTAS
Pocahontas Mounds, an archaeological site in
Hinds County, Mississippi
Pocahontas, Missouri
Pocahontas, Tennessee
Pocahontas, Virginia
Pocahontas Coaleld, one of the richest seams of
bituminous coal found in Virginia and West Virginia
Pocahontas County, Iowa
Pocahontas County, West Virginia
Pocahontas Park, Vero Beach, Florida
Pocahontas State Park, Chestereld, Virginia
Schools
Matoaca High School, located in Chestereld
County, Virginia; their teams are called The War-
riors
Pocahontas and John Rolfe Middle School in
Henrico County, Virginia
Transport
The Pocahontas was a passenger train of the Norfolk
and Western Railway (in the United States), which
ran from 1926 until 1971.
MV Pocahontas, a river tour boat operated from [17] Stith, William (1865). The History of the First Discov-
Gravesend in London, UK ery and Settlement of Virginia. archive.org. p. 136. Re-
USS Princess Matoika, a United States Navy ship
USS Pocahontas, four United States Navy ships
3.4.7 References
[1] Stebbins, Sarah J (August 2010). Pocahontas: Her Life
and Legend. National Park Service. U.S. Department of
the Interior. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
[2] A Guide to Writing about Virginia Indians and Virginia
Indian History (PDF). Commonwealth of Virginia, Vir-
ginia Council on Indians. January 2012. Retrieved July
19, 2012.
[3] Karenne Wood, ed., The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail,
Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Foundation for the Human-
ities, 2007.
[4] Pocahontas. Historic Jamestowne. Preservation Vir-
ginia. Retrieved April 27, 2013.
[5] National Museum of the American Indian (2007). Do
All Indians Live in Tipis? Questions & Answers from the
National Museum of the American Indian. New York:
HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-115301-3.
177
[6] Shapiro, Laurie Gwen (June 22, 2014). Pocahontas:
Fantasy and Reality. Slate. The Slate Group. Retrieved
April 7, 2015.
[7] Smith, True Relation, p. 93.
[8] Smith.John Smiths 1616 Letter to Queen Anne of Great
Britain. Digital History. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
[9] Huber, Margaret Williamson (January 12, 2011).
Powhatan (d. 1618)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved
February 18, 2011.
[10] Rountree, Helen C. (January 25, 2011). Pocahontas (d.
1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 27,
2011.
[11] Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Early Virginia
Indian Education. Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved
February 27, 2011.
[12] Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Cooking in
Early Virginia Indian Society. Encyclopedia Virginia.
Retrieved February 27, 2011.
[13] Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Uses of Per-
sonal Names by Early Virginia Indians. Encyclopedia
Virginia. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
[14] Price, Love and Hate in Jamestown, p. 66; Rountree,
Helen C. (January 25, 2011). Pocahontas (d. 1617)".
Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
[15] Pocahontas. powhatanmuseum.com. Retrieved 24 July
2015.
[16] Strachey, Historie, p. 111
trieved April 8, 2014. But her real name, it seems, was
originally Matoax; which the Indians carefully concealed
from the English, and changed it to Pocahontas, out of a
superstitious Fear, lest they, by the Knowledge of her true
Name, should be enabled to do her some Hurt.
[18] Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010) Uses of Per-
sonal Names by Early Virginia Indians. Encyclopedia
Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
[19] Pocahontas. Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved Febru-
ary 18, 2011.
[20] Waldron, William Watson. Pocahontas, American
Princess: and Other Poems (New York: Dean and Trevett,
1841), p. 8.
[21] Hamor, True Discourse. p. 802.
[22] Rountree, Helen C. (January 25, 2011). Pocahontas (d.
1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 24,
2011.
[23] Spelman, Relation. 1609.
[24] Stebbins, Sarah J (August 2010). Pocahontas: Her Life
and Legend. National Park Service. Retrieved 2015-04-
06.
178
[25] Smith, ''A True Relation''". Mith2.umd.edu. Retrieved
2013-08-10.
[26] Strachey, Historie, p. 65
[27] Smith, General History, p. 152.
[28] Smith, Generall Historie, 261.
[29] Pocahontas: Her Life and Legend - Historic Jamestowne
Part of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National
Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
[30] Smith, ''Generall Historie'', p. 49. Docsouth.unc.edu.
Retrieved 2013-08-10.
[31] The Pocahontas Myth. Powhatan Renape Nation -
Rankokus American Indian Reservation.
[32] Stan Bircheld, Did Pocahontas Save Captain John
Smith?", PhD student, Stanford University, Updated
March 3, 1998. Retrieve September 17, 2009.
[33] Stan Bircheld, Did Pocahontas Save Captain John
Smith?", PhD student, Stanford University, Updated
March 23, 1998. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
[34] Karen Ordahl Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press, 2007, 5160, 1256
[35] Gleach, Powhatans World, pp. 118121.
[36] Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English, pp. 114,
174.
[37] Price, pp. 243244
[38] Huber, Margaret Williamson (January 12, 2010).
Powhatan (d. 1618)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved
February 18, 2011.
[39] Early Images of Virginia Indians: Invented Scenes for
Narratives. Virginia Historical Society. Retrieved Febru-
ary 27, 2011.
[40] Fausz, J. Frederick. An 'Abundance of Blood Shed on
Both Sides: Englands First Indian War, 16091614.
The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98:1
(January 1990), pp. 3.
[41] Rountree, Helen C. (December 8, 2010). Pocahontas (d.
1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18,
2011.
[42] Argall, Letter to Nicholas Hawes. p. 754; Rountree, He-
len C. (December 8, 2010). Pocahontas (d. 1617)".
Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
[43] Hamor, True Discourse, p. 804.
[44] Rountree, Helen C. (December 8, 2010). Pocahontas (d.
1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved March 4, 2011.
[45] Pocahontas, V28, Virginia Highway Historical Markers,
accessed 17 Sep 2009
[46] Dale, Letter to 'D.M.', p. 843844.
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
[47] Custalow, Dr. Linwood Little Bear"; Daniel, Angela L.
Silver Star (2007). The True Story of Pocahontas: The
Other Side of History. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Pub-
lishing. pp. 43, 47, 51, 89. ISBN 9781555916329. Re-
trieved September 18, 2014.
[48] Deyo, William Night Owl (September 5, 2009). Our
Patawomeck Ancestors (PDF). Patawomeck Tides. 12
(1): 27. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
[49] Strachey, William (1849) [composed ca. 1616]. The His-
torie of Travaile Into Virginia Britinia. London: Hakluyt
Society. p. 54. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
[50] Warner, Charles Dudley (October 31, 2012) [rst pub-
lished 1881]. The Story of Pocahontas. Project Guten-
berg. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
[51] Rountree, Helen C. (May 30, 2014). Divorce in
Early Virginia Indians Society. Encyclopedia Virginia.
Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. Retrieved
September 18, 2014.
[52] Rolfe. Letter to Thomas Dale. p. 851.
[53] Hamor. True Discourse. p. 809.
[54] Navab, Valorie. Smithsonian Institution. .
[55] Price, Love and Hate. p. 163.
[56] Biography: PocahontasBorn, 1594Died, 1617..
The Family Magazine. New York: Redeld & Lindsay.
4: 90. 1837. Retrieved 2013-08-10.
[57] Dale. Letter to Sir Ralph Winwood. p. 878.
[58] Smith, General History. p. 261.
[59] Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus. Vol. 19 p. 118.
[60] Smith, Generall Historie, p. 261.
[61] Qtd. in Herford and Simpson, eds. Ben Jonson, vol. 10,
568569
[62] Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, Vol. 19, p. 118
[63] Price, Love and Hate. p. 182.
[64] Dr. Linwood Little Bear Custalow and Angela L.
Danieal Silver Star, The True Story of Pocahontas: The
Other Side of History
[65] Rolfe. Letter to Edwin Sandys. p. 71.
[66] Anon. Entry in the Gravesend St. George composite
parish register recording the burial of Princess Pocahontas
on 21 March 1616/1617.. Medway: City Ark Document
Gallery. Medway Council. Retrieved 2009-09-17.
[67] Pocahontas. St. Georges, Gravesend. Retrieved 31
May 2012.
[68] Virginia Indians Festival: reports and pictures.
[69] The Esoteric Curiosa: From Pochantas To Pauline:
Pauline Fairfax Potter, Baroness Philippe De Rothschild.
Retrieved 2015-10-27.
3.4. POCAHONTAS
[70] Dickinson, Joanne. Two Pocahontas Descendants Be-
came First Ladies. Our Heritage: 12th Century & Be-
yond. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
[71] Postage Stamps - Postal Facts.
[72] Heim, Joe (2015-07-02). A renowned Virginia Indian
tribe nally wins federal recognition. The Washington
Post. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
[73] Tilton. Pocahontas. pp. 35, 41.
[74] Haimann, Alexander T. Jamestown Exposition Issue.
Arago: People, postage & the post. National Postal Mu-
seum online.
[75] The New World. IMBD. 2005-01-20. Retrieved 2015-
04-06.
[76] Tilton. Pocahontas. p. 180.
3.4.8 Bibliography
Argall, Samuel. Letter to Nicholas Hawes. June
1613. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward
Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998.
Bulla, Clyde Robert. 'Little Nantaquas. In Poca-
hontas and The Strangers, ed Scholastic inc., 730
Broadway, New York, NY 10003. 1971.
Custalow, Linwood Little Bear and Daniel, An-
gela L. Silver Star. The True Story of Pocahontas,
Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado 2007, ISBN
978-1-55591-632-9.
Dale, Thomas. Letter to 'D.M.' 1614. Repr. in
Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile.
Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998.
Dale, Thomas. Letter to Sir Ralph Winwood. 3 June
1616. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward
Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998.
Fausz, J. Frederick. An 'Abundance of Blood Shed
on Both Sides: Englands First Indian War, 1609
1614. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biog-
raphy 98:1 (January 1990), pp. 356.
Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatans World and Colo-
nial Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press, 1997.
Hamor, Ralph. A True Discourse of the Present Es-
tate of Virginia. 1615. Repr. in Jamestown Nar-
ratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA:
Roundhouse, 1998.
Herford, C.H. and Percy Simpson, eds. Ben Jonson
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 19251952).
Huber, Margaret Williamson (January 12, 2011).
Powhatan (d. 1618)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Re-
trieved February 18, 2011.
179
Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Indians and English:
Facing O in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 2000.
Lemay, J.A. Leo. Did Pocahontas Save Captain
John Smith? Athens, Georgia: The University of
Georgia Press, 1992
Price, David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown. New
York: Vintage, 2003.
Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus or Pur-
chas His Pilgrimes. 1625. Repr. Glasgow: James
MacLehose, 19051907. vol. 19
Rolfe, John. Letter to Thomas Dale. 1614. Repr.
in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile.
Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998
Rolfe, John. Letter to Edwin Sandys. June 8, 1617.
Repr. in The Records of the Virginia Company of
London, ed. Susan Myra Kingsbuy. Washington:
US Government Printing Oce, 19061935. Vol.
3
Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Divorce
in Early Virginia Indian Society. Encyclopedia
Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Early
Virginia Indian Education. Encyclopedia Virginia.
Retrieved February 27, 2011.
Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). Uses
of Personal Names by Early Virginia Indians.
Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18,
2011.
Rountree, Helen C. (December 8, 2010).
Pocahontas (d. 1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia.
Retrieved February 18, 2011.
Smith, John. A True Relation of such Occurrences
and Accidents of Noate as hath Hapned in Virginia,
1608. Repr. in The Complete Works of John Smith
(15801631). Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill:
University Press of Virginia, 1983. Vol. 1
Smith, John. A Map of Virginia, 1612. Repr. in
The Complete Works of John Smith (15801631),
Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University Press
of Virginia, 1983. Vol. 1
Smith, John. Letter to Queen Anne. 1616. Repr.
as 'John Smiths Letter to Queen Anne regarding
Pocahontas. Caleb Johnsons Mayower Web Pages
1997, Accessed 23 April 2006.
Smith, John. The Generall Historie of Virginia,
New-England, and the Summer Isles. 1624. Repr.
in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile.
Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998.
180 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

Spelman, Henry. A Relation of Virginia. 1609. Warner, Charles Dudley, The Story of Pocahontas,
Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright 1881. Repr. in The Story of Pocahontas Project
Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Gutenberg Text, accessed 4 July 2006

Strachey, William. The Historie of Travaile into Vir-
ginia Brittania. c1612. Repr. Boston: Elibron Clas-
sics, 2001.
Symonds, William. The Proceedings of the English
Colonie in Virginia. 1612. Repr. in The Complete
Works of Captain John Smith. Ed. Philip L. Bar-
bour. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1986. Vol. 1
Tilton, Robert S. (1994). Pocahontas: The Evo-
lution of an American Narrative. Cambridge UP.
ISBN 9780521469593.
Waldron, William Watson. Pocahontas, American
Princess: and Other Poems. New York: Dean and
Trevett, 1841
3.4.10 External links
Warner, Charles Dudley. Captain John Smith, 1881.
Repr. in Captain John Smith Project Gutenberg
Text, accessed 4 July 2006
Woodward, Grace Steele. Pocahontas. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1969.
3.4.9 Further reading
Barbour, Philip L. Pocahontas and Her World.
Boston: Houghton Miin Company, 1970. ISBN
0-7091-2188-1
Neill, Rev. Edward D. Pocahontas and Her Com-
panions. Albany: Joel Munsell, 1869.
Price, David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown. Alfred
A. Knopf, 2003 ISBN 0-375-41541-6
Woodward, Grace Steele. Pocahontas. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1969. ISBN 0-8061-
0835-5 or ISBN 0-8061-1642-0
John William Weidemeyer (1900). "Powhatan".
Appletons Cyclopdia of American Biography. This
article is mostly about Pocahontas.
Pocahontas, Alias Matoaka, and Her Descendants
Through Her Marriage at Jamestown, Virginia, in
April, 1614, with John Rolfe, Gentleman, Wyndham
Robertson, Printed by J. W. Randolph & English,
Richmond, Va., 1887
Contact and Conict. The Story of Virginia: An
American Experience. Virginia Historical Society.
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars. The Story of Virginia:
An American Experience. Virginia Historical Soci-
ety.
Stan Bircheld, Did Pocahontas Save Captain John
Smith?". 1998. Summarises J.A.O. Lemays book
on the subjet.
Virtual Jamestown. Includes text of many original
accounts
The Pocahontas Archive, a comprehensive bibli-
ography of texts about Pocahontas.

Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontass People: The On this day in history: Pocohontas marries John
Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Cen- Rolfe, History.com
turies. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
1990. ISBN 0-8061-2280-3

Strong, Pauline Turner. Animated Indians: Critique 3.5 Eusebio Kino

and Contradiction in Commodied Childrens Cul-
ture. Cultural Anthology, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Aug., Eusebio Francisco Kino, (10 August 1645 15 March
1996), pp. 405-424 1711) was an Italian Jesuit, missionary, geographer,
explorer, cartographer and astronomer. For the last 24
Sandall, Roger. 2001 The Culture Cult: Designer
years of his life he worked in the region then known as the
Tribalism and Other Essays ISBN 0-8133-3863-8
Pimera Alta, modern-day Sonora in Mexico and south-
Townsend, Camilla. Pocahontas and the Powhatan ern Arizona in the United States. He explored the region
Dilemma. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004. ISBN and worked with the indigenous Native American popu-
0-8090-7738-8 lation, including primarily the Sobaipuri and other Upper
Piman groups. He proved that Baja California is not an
Warner, Charles Dudley, Captain John Smith, 1881. island by leading an overland expedition there. By the
Repr. in Captain John Smith Project Gutenberg time of his death he had established 24 missions and vis-
Text, accessed 4 July 2006 itas (country chapels or visiting stations).[1]
3.5. EUSEBIO KINO 181

3.5.1 Biography
Early life

Kino was born Eusebius Chinus (the name Kino was

the version for use in Spanish-speaking domains) in the
village of Segno, (now part of the town of Taio), then in
the sovereign Prince-bishopric of Trent, a part of the Holy
Roman Empire. Other sources cite his name as Eusebio
Francesco Chini.[1]
His parents were Franciscus Chinus and Margherita
Luchi.[2] The exact date of his birth is unknown but he
was baptized on 10 August 1645 in the parish church, lo-
cated in Taio. Kino was educated in Innsbruck, Austria,
and after recuperating from a serious illness, he joined Written historic accounts of the Casa Grande in Coolidge, Ari-
zona, begin with the journal entries of Padre Eusebio Francisco
the Society of Jesus on 20 November 1665. From 1664-
Kino when he visited the ruins in 1694.
69, he received religious training as a member of the
Society at Freiburg, Ingolstadt, and Landsberg, Bavaria.
After completing a nal stage of training in the Society, sequently Kino traveled across northern Mexico, and to
during which he taught mathematics in Ingolstadt, he re- present day California and Arizona. He followed ancient
ceived Holy Orders as a priest on 12 June 1677. trading routes established millennia prior by the natives.
These trails were later expanded into roads. His many ex-
Although Kino wanted to go to the Orient, he was sent
peditions on horseback covered over 50,000 square miles
to New Spain. Due to travel delays while crossing Eu-
(130,000 km2 ), during which he mapped an area 200
rope, he missed the ship on which he was to travel and had
miles (320 km) long and 250 miles (400 km) wide. Kino
to wait a year for another ship. While waiting in Cdiz,
was important in the economic growth of the area, work-
Spain, he wrote some observations, done during late 1680
ing with the already agricultural indigenous native peo-
and early 1681, about his study of a comet (later known
ples and introducing them to European seed, fruits, herbs
as Kirchs comet), which he published as the Exposicin
and grains.[5] He also taught them to raise cattle, sheep
astronmica de el cometa.[1] This publication was later the
and goats. Kinos initial mission herd of twenty cattle im-
subject of a sonnet by the noted colonial nun and poet of
ported to Pimera Alta grew during his period to 70,000.
New Spain, Sor (Sister) Juana Ins de la Cruz, O.S.H.[3]
Historian Herbert Bolton referred to Kino as Arizonas
rst rancher.[6]
3.5.2 Mission in Baja California
Interaction with the Natives
Main article: Spanish missions in Baja California
In his travels in the Pimera Alta, Father Kino interacted
Kinos rst assignment was to lead the Atondo expedi- with 16 dierent tribes. Some of these had land that
tion to the Baja California peninsula of Las Californias bordered on the Pimera Alta, but there are many cases
Province of New Spain. He established the Misin San where tribal representatives crossed into the Piman lands
Bruno in 1683. After a prolonged drought there in 1685, to meet Kino. In other cases, Father Kino traveled into
Kino and the Jesuit missionaries were forced to abandon their lands to meet with them. The tribes Kino met with
the mission and return to the viceregal capital of Mexico are the Cocopa, Eudeve, Hia C-ed O'odham (called Yu-
City.[1] mans by Kino), Kamia, Kavelchadon, Kiliwa, Maricopa,
Mountain Pima, Opata, Quechan, Gila River Pima, Seri,
Tohono O'odham, Sobaipuri, Western Apache, Yavapai,
3.5.3 Missions in the Pimeria Alta and the Yaqui (Yoeme). [5] [7] [8][9]

See also Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert

Interests
Father Kino began his career in the Pimera Alta on the
morning of 14 March 1687, 24 years and one day before Kino opposed the slavery and compulsory hard labor in
his death on 15 March 1711. This was the morning he the silver mines that the Spaniards forced on the na-
left Cucurpe, a town once considered the Rim of Chris- tive people. This also caused great controversy among
tendom. [1][4] his co-missionaries, many of whom acted according to
Once Father Kino arrived in the Pimera Alta, at the re- the laws imposed by Spain on their territory. Kino was
quest of the natives, he quickly established the rst mis- also a writer, authoring books on religion, astronomy
sion in a river valley in the mountains of Sonora.[1] Sub- and cartography. He built missions extending from the
182
This map, which was hand-colored by cartographer Nicholas de
Fer, was originally created by Kino in 1696. It is called Califor-
nia or New Carolina: Place of Apostolic Works of Society of
Jesus at the Septentrional America.
present day states of Mexican Sonora, northeast for 150
miles (240 km), into present-day Arizona, where the San
Xavier del Bac mission, near Tucson, a popular National
Historic Landmark, is still a functioning Franciscan
parish church. Kino constructed nineteen rancheras (vil-
lages), which supplied cattle to new settlements.[6]
Kino practiced other crafts and was reportedly an expert
astronomer, mathematician and cartographer, who drew
the rst accurate maps of Pimera Alta, the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, and Baja California.[10] Father Kino enjoyed mak-
ing model ships out of wood. His knowledge of maps and
ships led him to believe that Mexican Indians could eas-
ily access California by sea, a view taken with skepticism
by missionaries in Mexico City. When Kino proposed
and began making a boat that would be pushed across
the Sonoran Desert to the Mexican west coast, a con-
troversy arose, as many of his co-missionaries began to
question Kinos faculties. Kino had an unusual amount of
wealth for his vocation, which he used primarily to fund
his missionary activities. His contemporaries reported on
his wealth with suspicion.[11]
3.5.4 Death
Kino remained among his missions until his death in
1711. He died from fever on 15 March 1711, aged 65, in
what is present-day Magdalena de Kino, Sonora, Mexico.
His skeletal remains can be viewed in his Crypt.[1]
3.5.5 Legacy
Kino has been honored both in Mexico and the United
States, with various towns, streets, schools, monuments,
and geographic features named after him. In 1965, a
statue of Kino was donated to the United States Capitol's
National Statuary Hall collection, one of two statues rep- Each type of frontier station needed to be self-supporting,
resenting Arizona. Another statue of him stands above because supply lines (roads) were non-existent. There
Kino Parkway, a major thoroughfare in Tucson. An was no way to maintain a village from outside sources.
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
Crypt housing the remains of Father Kino in Magdalena de Kino.
equestrian statue featuring Kino stands in Wesley Bolin
Memorial Plaza across from the Arizona State Capitol in
Phoenix. A time capsule is encapsuled in the base. An-
other equestrian statue also stands next to the Cathedral
in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mxico. The towns of
Baha Kino, and Magdalena de Kino in Sonora and Ejido
Padre Kino in Baja California are named in his honor.[5]
A park with statue of Kino resides in the city of Nogales,
AZ. The largest statue of Kino is located along the US-
Mexico border in Tijuana, Baja California. Also a wine
is named after him (Padre Kino), produced by Pernod
Ricard Mexico in Hermosillo, Sonora. A monument to
Kino was erected in 2015 in the garden of Piazza Dante,
just outside the historic center of Trento, Italy
3.5.6 Missions and visitas founded
After the rst voyage of Christopher Columbus, the
Catholic Church awarded to the Spanish Crown the lands
of New Spain. This grant was with the directive that
the Crown would underwrite the eorts to convert the
pagan inhabitants to Catholicism. The lands included
the Caribbean, Mexico, and portions of what is now the
Southwestern United States.[9]
In its new lands, the Spanish Crown employed three ma-
jor agencies to extend its borders and consolidate its colo-
nial presence: the presidio (royal fort), pueblo (town), and
the misin (mission). In addition, there were asistencias
(sub-missions or contributing chapels) which were small-
scale missions that regularly conducted Divine service on
days of obligation, but lacked a resident priest. Visitas
(visiting chapels or country chapels) also lacked a resident
priest, and were often attended only sporadically. These
dierent types of settlements were established such that
each of the installations was no more than a long days
ride by horse or boat (or three days on foot) from one
another.[9]
3.5. EUSEBIO KINO 183

rial, and ample elds for grazing herds and raising crops.
The Fathers blessed the site, and with the aid of their mil-
itary escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs
roofed with thatch, reeds, or in Pimera Alta saguaro ribs
or ocotillo branches topped with brush and mud. These
simple huts would ultimately give way to the stone and
adobe buildings that exist today.[9]
The majority of structures, indeed whole villages, were
oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best ad-
vantage of the suns position for interior illumination; the
exact alignment depended on the geographic features of
the particular site. Directives from Spain clearly stated
that villages were to be sited on the west side of any val-
ley so that the sun would shine in the homes rst thing in
the morning, discouraging slothful behavior on the part
of the inhabitants.[9]
When founding a mission compound, rst the spot for
the church itself was selected, its position marked and
then the remainder of the mission complex would be laid
out. Workshops, kitchens, living quarters, storerooms,
and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped in a
quadrangle, inside which religious celebrations and other
festive events could take place.[9]

List of missions

This listing of the sites founded by Kino is not complete.

Also, since names have changed over time, there appears
to be some duplication. They are:

Mission San Bruno: founded 1683 (Kino led the

Bronze sculpture by Suzanne Silvercruys
To sustain a mission settlement, the Fathers needed either
Spanish colonists or converted natives to cultivate crops
and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-
sized Church establishment. Scarcity of imported mate-
rials and lack of skilled laborers compelled the Fathers to
employ simple building materials and methods.[5][9]
Although the Spanish hierarchy considered the missions
temporary ventures, individual settlement development
was not based simply on a priestly whim. The founding
of a mission followed long-standing rules and procedures.
The paperwork involved required months, sometimes
years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of
virtually every level of the Spanish bureaucracy.[5][9]
Atondo expedition to the Baja California peninsula
of the Las Californias Province of New Spain). In
1685, after a prolonged drought there, Kino and the
Jesuit missionaries were forced to abandon the mis-
sion.
Mission Nuestra Seora de los Dolores: founded on
March 13, 1687. This was the rst Pimaria Alta
mission founded by Father Kino. By 1744, the mis-
sion was abandoned.
Nuestra Seora de los Remedios was founded in
1687 and was abandoned by 1730. Nothing remains
of this mission.
San Ignacio de Cabrica was founded in 1687 and
is located in San Ignacio, Sonora.
Mission San Pedro y San Pablo del Tubutama was
founded in 1687, in Tubutama, Sonora.
Santa Teresa de Atil was founded in 1687, in the
small town of Atil, Sonora.

Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the Santa Maria Magdalena was founded in 1687, lo-
men assigned to it chose a specic site that featured a good cated in Magdalena de Kino, Sonora. Kinos grave
water supply, plenty of wood for res and building mate- is located here.
184
San Jos de Imuris was founded in 1687, in Imuris,
Sonora.
Nuestra Seora del Pilar y Santiago de Cocspera
was founded in 1689. It is located in Cocspera,
Sonora.
San Antonio Paduano del Oquitoa was founded in
1689. It is located in Oquitoa, Sonora.
San Diego del Pitiquito was founded in 1689. It is
located in Pitiquito, Sonora.
San Luis Bacoancos was founded in 1691, but was
soon abandoned after Apache attacks.
Mission San Cayetano del Tumaccori was founded
in 1691 at a native Sobaipuri settlement. This was
southern Arizonas rst mission and Arizonas rst
Jesuit mission. Later a chapel was built. (San
Cayetano de Calabasas was established in a dier-
ent location much later, after Kinos time.) Some-
time after the 1751 Pima Revolt the settlement and
mission were moved to the opposite side of the river
3.5.7 Movie
and became San Jos de Tumaccori.
Mission San Jos de Tumaccori, the presently
known location that is a National Historic Park. The
farming land around the mission was sold at auction
in 1834 and the mission was abandoned by 1840.
It is now a National Monument in Tumaccori Na-
tional Historical Park in Southern Arizona.
La Misin de San Gabriel de Guevavi was founded
in 1691. It became a cabecera or head mission in
1701 with the establishment of what Kino described
aectionately as a neat little house and church.
Through the years its name changed many times so 3.5.8 Literature
that now it is known by the generic name referencing
many saints: Mission Los Santos ngeles de Gue-
vavi. The chapel was initially established in a native
settlement, but then was destroyed by re, probably
during an indigenous uprising. The church rebuilt
in new locations twice, the nal and largest one be-
ing built in 1751. Its ruins are part of Tumaccori
National Historical Park.
San Lzaro was founded in 1691, but was soon aban- 3.5.10
doned after Apache attacks.
San Xavier del Bac (O'odham [Sobaipuri-
O'odham]: Wa:k), 16 m south of Tucson,
Arizona, founded as a missionary location in 1692.
The present building, located 1 mi from the original
Kino-period location, dates from 1785. The inte-
rior is richly decorated with ornaments showing a
mixture of New Spain and Native American artistic
motifs. It is still used by Tohono O'odham Nation
members (Wa:k community members especially)
and Yaqui tribal members.
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
Visitas San Cosme y Damin de Tucson: founded
1692
Visitas Los Santos Reyes de Sonoita/San Ignacio
de Sonoitac: a rancheria near Tumacacori, founded
1692.
Visita San Martn de Aribac: a rancheria 25 miles
west of Tumacacori, founded before 1695
La Pursima Concepcin de Nuestra Seora de
Caborca: founded 1693
Santa Mara Suamca: founded 1693
San Valentn de Busanic/Bisanig: founded 1693
Nuestra Seora de Loreto y San Marcelo de
Sonoyta: founded 1693
Nuestra Seora de la Ascencin de Opodepe:
founded 1704
Father Kino, Padre on Horseback (or Mission to
Glory: A True Story) starring Richard Egan as Kino,
was made in 1977. The movie is available in DVD
format.
Kino: La leyenda de Padre Negro (or Kino: The Leg-
end of the Black Robe Priest) starring Enrique Rocha
as Kino, was made in 1993 and was awarded the
Mexican Academy of Films Ariel award for best
original score. The movie is available in DVD for-
mat.
In John Steinbeck's novel, The Pearl, it is implied
the protagonist is named after the missionary. It is
likely this was to emphasize the long lasting cultural
impact of European colonization.
3.5.9 Notes
References
[1] Polzer, Charles W. (1982). Kino Guide II: a Life of Eu-
sebio Francisco Kino, S.J., Arizonas First Pioneer, and a
Guide to His Missions and Monuments. Tucson: South-
west Mission Research Center.
[2] Studi trentini 1930, vol. VIII, pg. 7 (See talk page)
[3] Sor Juana Ins de la Cruz, Soneto. Aplaude la ciencia As-
tronomica del Padre Eusebio Francisco Kino, de la Com-
paia de Jesus, que escrivi del Cometa.... Inundacion
castalida de la unica poetisa, musa decima...; Madrid,
1689 Online view
3.6. JACQUES MARQUETTE
[4] BOLTON, Herbert Eugene (1927). Rim of Christendom:
a biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Pacic coast pio-
neer. University of California Press.
[5] SOULE, Jacqueline A. (2011). Father Kinos herbs: grow-
ing & using them today. Tucson, Az: Tierra del Sol Insti-
tute. ISBN 9780975855423. OCLC 759608112. 112 p.
: ill. ; 28 cm. Includes index
[6] BOLTON, Herbert Eugene (1932). The Padre on Horse-
back. a Sketch of Eusebio Francisco Kino S. J. Apostle to
the Pimas. Sonora Press.
[7] SPICER, E. H. The Yaquis: A Cultural History. University
of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona: 1980.
[8] SEYMOUR, Deni J. Where the Earth and Sky are Sewn
Together. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah:
2011.
[9] SPICER, Edward H. (1967) [1962]. Cycles of Conquest
The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on Indi-
ans of the Southwest, 15331960. Tucson, Az: University
of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-0021-5. 609 pp. /
6.12 in x 9.25 in
[10] California or New Carolina: Place of Apostolic Works
of Society of Jesus at the Septentrional America. World
Digital Library. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
[11] Lopez, George. Non Nobis: The Servants of Bernard. Ox-
ford University Press, Oxford, UK: 1964.
3.5.11 Related Organizations
Kino Border Initiative - Its mission is to promote
US/Mexico border and immigration policies that af-
rm the dignity of the human person and a spirit of
bi-national solidarity through
Kino Heritage Society - An organization that pro-
motes Kinos cause for Catholic sainthood and main-
tains an electronic library on its website about Kino
subjects.
3.5.12 Additional Reading
KINO, Eusebio Francisco (1919) [1708]. [Online at
Google Spain in the West: Kinos Historical Memoir
of Pimera Alta, A Contemporary Account of the Be-
ginnings of California, Sonora and Arizona, 1682
1711] Check |url= value (help). I. translated and
annotated by Herbert Eugene Bolton. Cleveland:
Arthur H. Clark Company. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
KINO, Eusebio Francisco (1919) [1711]. [Online at
Google Spain in the West: Kinos Historical Memoir
of Pimera Alta, A Contemporary Account of the Be-
ginnings of California, Sonora and Arizona, 1682
1711] Check |url= value (help). II. translated and
annotated by Herbert Eugene Bolton. Cleveland:
Arthur H. Clark Company. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
185
Polzer, Charles W., Kino Guide II: a Life of Eusebio
Francisco Kino, S.J., Arizonas First Pioneer, and a
Guide to His Missions and Monuments, Southwest
Mission Research Center, 1982.
Polzer, C., Kino: His Missions, His Monuments, Je-
suit Fathers of Southern Arizona, 1998.
Polzer, C. & Sheridan, Thomas H., Presidio and
Militia on the Northern Frontier of New Spain: A
Documentary History, Volume Two, Part One: The
Californias and Sinaloa-Sonora, 17001765, Uni-
versity of Arizona Press, 1997.
Seymour, Deni J., 1989 The Dynamics of Sobaipuri
Settlement in the Eastern Pimeria Alta. Journal of
the Southwest 31(2): 205-22.
Seymour, D., 1997 Finding History in the Archae-
ological Record: The Upper Piman Settlement of
Guevavi. Kiva 62(3): 245-60.
Seymour, D., 2003 Sobaipuri-Pima Occupation in
the Upper San Pedro Valley: San Pablo de Quiburi.
New Mexico Historical Review 78(2): 147-66.
Seymour, D., 2007 Delicate Diplomacy on a Rest-
less Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri So-
cial And Economic Relations in Northwestern New
Spain, Part I. New Mexico Historical Review, Vol-
ume 82(4): 469-99.
Seymour, D. 2007 A Syndetic Approach To Iden-
tication Of The Historic Mission Site Of San
Cayetano Del Tumaccori. International Journal of
Historical Archaeology, Vol. 11(3): 269-96.
Seymour, D., 2008a Delicate Diplomacy on a Rest-
less Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri So-
cial And Economic Relations in Northwestern New
Spain, Part II. New Mexico Historical Review, Vol-
ume 83(2): 17199.
Seymour, D. 2009 Father Kinos 'Neat Little House
and Church' at Guevavi. Journal of the Southwest
51(2):285-316.
Seymour, D., 2011 Where the Earth and Sky are
Sewn Together: Sobapuri-Oodham Contexts of
Contact and Colonialism. University of Utah Press,
Salt Lake City.
3.6 Jacques Marquette
Pere Marquette redirects here. For other uses, see
Pere Marquette (disambiguation).
Father Jacques Marquette S.J. (June 1, 1637 May
18, 1675),[1] sometimes known as Pre Marquette
or James (Jim) Marquette,[2] was a French Jesuit
186
missionary who founded Michigan's rst European set-
tlement, Sault Ste. Marie, and later founded St. Ignace,
Michigan. In 1673 Father Marquette and Louis Jolliet
were the rst Europeans to explore and map the northern
portion of the Mississippi River.
3.6.1 Biography
Jacques Marquette was born at Laon, France, on June 1,
1637 and joined the Society of Jesus at age 17.[3] After
he worked and taught in France for several years, the Je-
suits assigned him to New France in 1666 as a missionary
to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. He showed
great prociency in learning the local languages, espe-
cially Huron. In 1668 Father Marquette was moved by hs
superiors to missions farther up the St. Lawrence River
in the western Great Lakes region. He helped found mis-
sions at Sault Ste. Marie in present-day Michigan in 1668,
St. Ignace in 1671,[3] and at La Pointe, on Lake Superior
near the present-day city of Ashland, Wisconsin. At La
Pointe he encountered members of the Illinois tribes, who
told him about the important trading route of the Mis-
sissippi River. They invited him to teach their people,
whose settlements were mostly further south. Because of
wars between the Hurons at La Pointe and the neighbor-
ing Lakota people, Father Marquette left the mission and
went to the Straits of Mackinac; he informed his superi-
ors about the rumored river and requested permission to
explore it.
Pere Marquette and the Indians [at the Mississippi River],
oil painting (1869) by Wilhelm Lamprecht (18381906), at
Marquette University[4]
Leave was granted, and in 1673, Marquette joined the
expedition of Louis Jolliet, a French-Canadian explorer.
They departed from St. Ignace on May 17, with two
canoes and ve voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry
(Mtis).[3] They followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay
and up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters. From
there, they were told to portage their canoes a distance of
slightly less than two miles through marsh and oak plains
to the Wisconsin River. Many years later, at that point
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
the town of Portage, Wisconsin was built, named for the
ancient path between the two rivers. From the portage,
they ventured forth, and on June 17, they entered the
Mississippi near present-day Prairie du Chien, Wiscon-
sin.
The Joliet-Marquette expedition traveled to within 435
miles (700 km) of the Gulf of Mexico but turned back at
the mouth of the Arkansas River. By this point they had
encountered several natives carrying European trinkets,
and they feared an encounter with explorers or colonists
from Spain.[5] They followed the Mississippi back to the
mouth of the Illinois River, which they learned from local
natives provided a shorter route back to the Great Lakes.
They reached Lake Michigan near the site of modern-day
Chicago, by way of the Chicago Portage. In September
Marquette stopped at the mission of St. Francis Xavier,
located in present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin, while Jol-
liet returned to Quebec to relate the news of their discov-
eries.
Monument marking where Marquette spent the winter of 1674
75 in what is now Chicago
Marquette and his party returned to the Illinois Terri-
tory in late 1674, becoming the rst Europeans to win-
ter in what would become the city of Chicago. As wel-
comed guests of the Illinois Confederation, the explorers
were feasted en route and fed ceremonial foods such as
sagamite.[6]
In the spring of 1675, Marquette traveled westward and
celebrated a public mass at the Grand Village of the Illi-
nois near Starved Rock. A bout of dysentery which he
had contracted during the Mississippi expedition sapped
his health. On the return trip to St. Ignace, he died at age
3.6. JACQUES MARQUETTE 187

37 near the modern town of Ludington, Michigan. Pere Marquette Beach, a public beach in Muskegon,
A Michigan Historical Marker at this location reads: Michigan

Pere Marquette State Forest, in Michigan

Pere Marquette Hotel, Peoria, IL

The Pere Marquette Railway

Cit Marquette, former US-City-Base (1956-

1966) built by Americans based on the NATO Air
Force Base in Couvron (38th Bombardment Wing),
Laon, France (his birthplace).

Marquette Transportation Company, a towboat

company using a silhouette of the Pere in his canoe
as their emblem.[11]

Marquette Building in Chicago, Illinois

In addition, statues in Marquettes honor have been

erected in several places, including the Prairie du Chien
Post Oce, Parliament Building, Quebec, Canada; at
Marquette University; Detroit, Michigan; and Fort Mack-
inac, Michigan. Other types of memorials were erected,
including those at his birthplace in Laon, France; and St.
Marys Church, Utica, Illinois.
The Legler Branch of the Chicago Public Library displays
The grave of Father Marquette, St. Ignace, Michigan.
Wilderness, Winter River Scene, a restored mural by
Midwestern artist R. Fayerweather Babcock. The mural
The Ojibway Museum on State Street in downtown St. depicts Father Jacques Marquette and Native Americans
Ignace is in a building that was constructed adjacent to trading by a river. Commissioned for Legler Branch in
Marquettes gravesite during urban development. 1934, the mural was funded by the Works Projects Ad-
ministration.[12]
3.6.2 Legacy and honors Jacques Marquette was honored on the one-cent Trans-
Mississippi Exposition Issue, which shows him on the
[13]
Father Marquette is memorialized in the names of many Mississippi River.
towns, geographical locations, parks, a major university, Father Jacques Marquette the seventeenth century ex-
and other institutions: plorer was honored by a 6-cent stamp issued September
20, 1968. It was the 300th anniversary of his establishing
Marquette County, Michigan,[8] Marquette County, the oldest permanent settlement in Michigan in 1668 at
Wisconsin Sault Sainte Marie. The stamp was designed by Stanley
W. Galli.[14]
The communities of Marquette, Michigan;
Marquette, Wisconsin; Marquette, Iowa;
Marquette, Illinois; Marquette Heights, Illinois; 3.6.3 Photo gallery
Pere Marquette Charter Township, Michigan;[9]
and others Sketch of Father Marquette

Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Marquette Island in Lake Huron
Pere Marquette River in Michigan
Pere Marquette State Park near Grafton, Illinois
Ca. 1681 map of Marquette and Jolliets 1673 ex-
pedition
Michigan Historical Marker: Marquettes Death
Memorial to Marquette in his birthplace of Laon,
France

Father Marquette National Memorial near St. Ig- Alfred Lalibert's Marquette sculpture at Parliament
nace, Michigan[10] Building (Quebec)
188 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

Statue of Marquette in the National Statuary Hall [13] Haimann, Alexander T., 1-cent Marquette on the Missis-
Collection in the United States Capitol sippi, Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal
Museum. Viewed March 22, 2014.
Statue of Marquette in Detroit, Michigan
[14] Father Marquette Issue, Arago: people, postage & the
Statue of Marquette at Fort Mackinac post, National Postal Museum. Viewed March 22, 2014.

Statue of Marquette in Marquette, Michigan

Statue of Marquette in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin 3.6.6 External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography
3.6.4 See also Online

Jacques Marquette (sculpture), a 2005 public art
work by artist Ronald Knepper
Pere Jacques Marquette (Queo), a 1987 public art
work by Tom Queo
Sagamite
Marquette (disambiguation) for other places, build-
ings and geographic objects named after Father
Jacques Marquette.
Chicago Portage
Chicago Portage National Historic Site
Iconographic sources of jesuit father Jacques Mar-
quette ctitious portraits, Web Robert Derome, Pro-
fesseur honoraire d'histoire de l'art, Universit du
Qubec Montral.
The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents 1610
to 1791, including Marquettes journal (Chapters
CXXXVI - CXXXVIII)
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Jacques Mar-
quette". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
Thwaites, Reuben G. Father Marquette New York:
D. Appleton & Company, 1902.

3.6.5 Notes
3.7 Indian Head cent
[1] Jacques Marquette. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[2] Catholic Encyclopedia (1913): Archdiocese of Chicago, The Indian Head cent, also known as an Indian Head
Retrieved February 23, 2012 penny, was a one-cent coin ($0.01) produced by the
United States Bureau of the Mint from 1859 to 1909. It
[3] ""Jacques Marquette, Biography. biography.com.
was designed by James Barton Longacre, the Chief En-
[4] The painting was rendered as an engraving on a US com- graver at the Philadelphia Mint.
memorative postage stamp, 1898 (Illustration) From 1793 to 1857, the cent was a copper coin about
[5] Catton, Bruce (1984). Michigan: A History, p. 14. W. the size of a half dollar. As rising copper prices made
W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-30175-3 it impractical to keep striking them, in 1857 the Mint
reduced the size of the cent, issuing a new design, the
[6] Odd Wisconsin Archive: Beer and Sweet Corn. wiscon- Flying Eagle cent. The new pieces were identical in di-
sinhistory.org. Archived from the original on 21 Septem- ameter to modern cents, though somewhat thicker and
ber 2013.
made of copper-nickel. The design caused production
[7] Michigan Historical Markers. michmarkers.com. diculties, and the Mint soon looked to replace the coin.
Mint Director James Ross Snowden selected the Indian
[8] Bibliography on Marquette County. Clarke Historical Head design, and chose a laurel wreath for the reverse
Library, Central Michigan University. Retrieved January
that was replaced in 1860 by an oak wreath with a shield.
20, 2013.
Cents were hoarded during the economic chaos of the
[9] Focus on our history: How county was named. Luding- American Civil War, when the metal nickel was in short
ton Daily News. October 3, 1987. p. 2. Retrieved 30 supply. As Mint ocials saw that privately issued bronze
April 2015. tokens were circulating, they induced Congress to pass
the Coinage Act of 1864, authorizing a slimmer cent of
[10] Term: Marquette, Jacques 1637 - 1675. wisconsinhis-
bronze alloy.
tory.org. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013.
In the postwar period, the cent became very popular and
[11] Home | Marquette Transportation Company. marquet-
was struck in large numbers in most years. An exception
tetrans.com. Marquette Transportation Company LLC.
was 1877, when a poor economy and little demand for
2015. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
cents created one of the rarest dates in the series. With
[12] Chicago Public Library. Legler Branch. the advent of coin-operated machines in the late 19th
3.7. INDIAN HEAD CENT 189

and early 20th centuries, even more cents were produced,

reaching 100 million for the rst time in 1907. In 1909,
the Indian Head cent was replaced by the Lincoln cent,
designed by Victor D. Brenner.

3.7.1 Inception

Main articles: Large cent (United States coin) and Flying

Eagle cent

The half-dollar-sized large cent was struck from 1793

to 1857, authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 which de-
ned the cent as 1/100 dollar.[1] That coin was intended
to contain close to a cents worth of copper, as people
then expected that coins contain close to their face val-
ues in metal. Nevertheless, because of the constitutional
clause making only gold and silver legal tender, the gov-
ernment would not accept copper cents for taxes or other A Spanish colonial two-reales piece (two bits) from the Potos
payments. By the early 1850s, uctuations in the price Mint (today in Bolivia)
of copper led the Mint of the United States (hereafter
Mint)[lower-alpha 1] to seek alternatives, including reducing
learned that a new pattern piece for the cent has been
the size of the cent and experimenting with compositions
struck o at the Mint [with] a head resembling that of
other than pure copper.[2] The result was the Flying Ea-
the three dollar piece and on the reverse a shield at the
gle cent, the same diameter as the later Lincoln cent but
top of the olive and oak wreath, and asking to purchase
somewhat thicker and heavier, composed of 88% cop-
a specimen.[9] Other numismatists also sought pieces: R.
per and 12% nickel. The Flying Eagle cent was struck in
Coulton Davis, a Philadelphia druggist with ties to the
limited numbers as a pattern coin in 1856, then for circu-
Mint, wrote to Snowden in June informing him of a favor-
lation in 1857 and 1858.[3]
able story in a Boston newspaper, and Augustus B. Sage
The Flying Eagle cent was issued in exchange for worn wrote to the Mint Director the same month, asking for
Spanish colonial silver coins, which until then had cir- a specimen for himself, and one for the newly founded
culated widely in the United States. These small cents American Numismatic Society.[lower-alpha 4][9]
were also issued in exchange for the copper coins they
According to Walter Breen, Snowden most likely chose
had replaced. By 1858, Mint authorities found the piece
the combination of the Indian Head and the laurel wreath
unsatisfactory in production. The high points on both
as it was the lowest relief of any of the options, and
sides of the coin (the eagles head and the wreath) op-
could be expected to strike well.[7] On November 4, 1858,
posed each other, and it was dicult to get the design
Snowden wrote to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb about
to be brought out fully in the tough copper-nickel alloy.
the Indian Head design, and two days later wrote to Lon-
Mint Engraver James B. Longacre, designer of the Fly-
gacre, informing him that it was approved. Longacre was
ing Eagle cent, was instructed to develop alternative de-
to prepare the necessary dies for production, which was
signs. He produced one, showing a slimmer eagle, which
to begin on January 1, 1859.[10]
would not clash as much with the reverse wreath. Al-
though this would have cured the production problem, the
design was not liked.[4] Mint Director James Ross Snow- 3.7.2 Design
den suggested a head of Columbus as an obverse design,
but Longacre felt the public would not approve of a his- Longacre advocated his Indian Head design in an August
toric gure on an American coin.[lower-alpha 2][5] 21, 1858, letter to Snowden:
In 1858, the Mint tested new designs for the cent.[6]
Between 60 and 100 sets of twelve pattern coins were From the copper shores of Lake Supe-
struck, consisting of the standard Flying Eagle obverse, rior, to the silver mountains of Potosi from the
a scrawny eagle pattern, and the Indian Head design, Ojibwa to the Aramanian, the feathered tiara
mated with four dierent wreaths for the reverse. Snow- is as characteristic of the primitive races of our
den would make his choice of what design would be hemisphere, as the turban is of the Asiatic. Nor
struck in 1859 from these patterns; the sets were also sold is there anything in its decorative character, re-
to collectors.[lower-alpha 3][7][8] The Indian Head design was pulsive to the association of Liberty It is
apparently prepared by April, as on the twelfth of that more appropriate than the Phrygian cap, the
month, a Mr. Howard wrote to Snowden that I have emblem rather of the emancipated slave, than
190
of the independent freeman, of those who are
able to say we were never in bondage to any
man. I regard then this emblem of America
as a proper and well dened portion of our na-
tional inheritance; and having now the oppor-
tunity of consecrating it as a memorial of Lib-
erty, 'our Liberty', American Liberty; why not
use it? One more graceful can scarcely be de-
vised. We have only to determine that it shall
be appropriate, and all the world outside of us
cannot wrest it from us.[9]
By numismatic legend, the facial features of the god-
dess Liberty on the obverse of the Indian Head cent were
based on the features of Longacres daughter Sarah; the
tale runs that she was at the mint one day when she tried
on the headdress of one of a number of Native Americans
who were visiting, and her father sketched her. However,
Sarah Longacre was 30 years old and married in 1858,
not 12 as in the tale, and Longacre himself stated that
the face was based on a statue of Venus in Philadelphia
on loan from the Vatican. He did often sketch his elder
daughter, and there are resemblances between the depic-
tions of Sarah and the various representations of Liberty
on his coins of the 1850s. These tales were apparently
extant at the time, as Snowden, writing to Treasury Sec-
retary Howell Cobb in November 1858, denied that the
coin was based on any human features in the Longacre
family.[10][11] Lee F. McKenzie, in his 1991 article on
Longacre, notes that any artist can be inuenced by many
things, but calls the story essentially false.[12]
Regardless of who posed for Longacre, the facial features
of the Indian are essentially Caucasian, meaning that a
White woman wears the headdress of a Native American
man. Longacre had, in 1854, designed the three-dollar
piece with a female with similar features (also supposedly
based on the museum sculpture) but a more fanciful head-
dress, and adapted that design for the gold dollar.[13] Of-
cials were aware of this artistic license at the time of is-
sue; Snowden, in his November 1858 letter to Cobb, char-
acterizes the two earlier coins as the artists at the Mint
evidently not realizing the absurd incongruity of placing
this most masculine attribute of the warrior brave on the
head of a woman.[13] Longacre would not be the last to
juxtapose the features of a White woman with an Indian
headdress reserved for men; Augustus Saint Gaudens, for
the Indian Head eagle (1907), produced a similar design.
Later issues depict more accurate Indians, including Bela
Lyon Pratt's Indian Head gold pieces (1908), the Bualo
nickel (1913) by James Earle Fraser, who worked from
Native American models, and the Oregon Trail Memo-
rial half dollar (1926), designed by Fraser and his wife
Laura.[14][15]
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule had mixed emotions
about the Indian Head cent: Longacre enriched the
mythology of American coinage in a pleasant if unpre-
tentious fashion. Given his pattern half-dollar designs of
CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS
Cornelius Vermeule thought the Indian Head cent was better than
Longacres 1859 pattern half dollar.
1859 as a yardstick, he could have done worse.[16] In an-
other comparison, Vermeule suggested, far from a major
creation aesthetically or iconographically, and far less at-
tractive to the eye than the [ying eagle], the Indian head
cent was at least to achieve the blessing of popular appeal.
The coin became perhaps the most beloved and typically
American of any piece great or small in the American
series. Great art the coin was not, but it was one of the
rst products of the United States mints to achieve the
common touch.[16]
3.7.3 Production
Redesign and surplus (18591861)
Production of the Indian Head cent for commerce began
at the start of 1859. As issued for circulation, the pieces
dier in some particulars from the pattern 1858 cent of
similar design; Longacre sharpened some details. The
pattern coin had the laurel leaves in the reverse wreath
in bunches of ve leaves; the issued 1859 cent has them
in bunches of six. Cents dated 1858 with the adopted re-
verse (with six-leaf bunches) are known, were most likely
struck in 1859, and are extremely rare.[17]
In 1860, the reverse of the cent was changed to feature
an oak wreath and a narrow shield; such reverses are
also known on 1859-dated pieces struck as patterns. Ac-
cording to Richard Snow in his guide book to Flying Ea-
gle and Indian Head cents, this was not due to problems
with the Laurel Wreath reverse design used in 1859,
as full details survive on many extant pieces.[13] Walter
Breen, however, suggested that the feathers and curls on
the obverse did not strike as well as they would later, and
that this may account for Snowdens decision to change
the design again.[18] David Lange, in his history of the
3.7. INDIAN HEAD CENT
Mint, states that it was to give the coin, quoting Snowden,
more National character.[6] All 1859 cents and some
from 1860 have the cuto of Libertys bust on the obverse
end with a point; most 1860 cents and all later issues have
it rounded.[19]
Tens of millions of Flying Eagle cents had been issued in
exchange for the old American coppers and small Span-
ish silver. The Spanish silver was still owing into the
Mint in early 1859 and, at Snowdens urging, Congress
on March 3 of that year extended the redemption of
these foreign coins, legal tender in the US until 1857,
for another two years. Neil Carothers, in his work on
small-denomination currency, challenged this decision as
unnecessarydeprived of legal tender status, the remain-
ing Spanish silver would have been eliminated through
sales to banks for their bullion. Those who brought the old
coins to the Mint received cents for them, at rst Flying
Eagle, and then Indian Head. In the year following the re-
newal, some forty million Indian Head cents were issued,
meaning nearly a hundred million copper-nickel cents had
entered commerce since 1857. As the coin did not circu-
late in the South and West due to prejudice against base-
metal money, they choked commerce. No one had to
take them; no law made them legal tender. At Snowdens
urging Congress in June 1860 ended the exchange. Nev-
ertheless, as Snowden admitted in his annual report that
year, there were too many cents in circulation.[20] In Oc-
tober 1860, The Bankers Magazine and Statistical Reg-
ister reported that there were ten million cents in com-
merce in New York City above what was needed, and if
anyone wished to order in bulk, they could be purchased
at a discount.[21]
Shortage and redesign (18621864)
The surplus of cents was relieved by the economic chaos
engendered by the American Civil War, which began in
1861. At the end of that year, the banks stopped pay-
ing out gold, which thereafter commanded a premium
over paper money. These greenbacks, beginning in the
following year, were issued in large quantities by the fed-
eral government. Silver vanished from commerce in June
1862, as the price of that metal rose, leaving the cent the
sole federal coin that had not entirely vanished from com-
merce through hoarding. The glut of cents had by then
abated, as merchants had stored them away in quantity
one New York City oor collapsed beneath the load.
There were other means of making change which passed
in the emergency, from postage stamps to privately is-
sued tokens, but the public demand was for the centthe
Philadelphia Mint struck record numbers, and set aside
part of the production to be transmitted to other cities.
Nevertheless, by July 1862, the cent, in quantity, could
only be purchased at a premium of 4% in paper money in
major cities in the East. The copper-nickel pieces were
nicknamed nickels, or nicks. Presentation of coins in also informed the Secretary that the United States As-
payment carried with it no obligation to make change in
191
the same. Accordingly, with a small quantity of nicks,
a shopper could make purchases with exact change, with-
out receiving such makeshifts as merchants credit slips,
that others might not accept at the stated value.[22][23]
By 1863, The Bankers Magazine reported that the pre-
mium for cents in Philadelphia had risen to 20%. There-
after, the premium decreased as there was a ood of metal
tokens issued by merchants, which were widely accepted.
Other war expedients, such as fractional currency, less-
ened the demand for the cent by taking the place of miss-
ing silver coinage. Small quantities of cents circulated
among them, though many were still hoarded.[24]
Government ocials saw that the public readily accepted
the merchant tokens. Many of these tokens were made
of bronze, and when, in 1863, they attempted to restore
coins to circulation, the use of bronze coins, which would
not contain their face values in metal, was considered.
In his annual report submitted October 1, 1863, Lincoln
Administration Mint Director James Pollock noted that
whilst people expect a full value in their gold and silver
coins, they merely want the inferior [base metal] money
for convenience in making exact payments.[25] He ob-
served that the private cent tokens had sometimes con-
tained as little as a fth of a cent in metal, yet had still
circulated. He proposed that the copper-nickel cent be
replaced with a bronze piece of the same size.[26] Pol-
lock also wanted to eliminate nickel as a coinage metal;
its hard alloys destroyed dies and machinery.[27] On De-
cember 8, Pollock wrote to Treasury Secretary Salmon
P. Chase, proposing a bronze cent and two-cent piece.[28]
Cent-sized Civil War token, which was issued privately as federal
coinage was hoarded.
On March 2, 1864, Pollock wrote urgently to Chase,
warning him that the Mint was running out of nickel
and that demand for cents was at an all-time high. He
say Commission, composed of citizens and ocials who
192 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

had met the previous month to test the nations silver and Wharton and his interests were appeased by the passage
gold coinage, had recommended the use of French bronze of a bill for a three-cent piece in 1865 and a ve-cent
(95% copper with the remainder tin and zinc) as a coinage piece in 1866, both of his proposed alloy, out of which
metal for the cent and a new two-cent piece.[29] Three the nickel, as the latter coin has come to be known, is
days later, Chase sent Pollocks December letter and draft still struck.[36][37] Despite this, Wharton and his nickel
legislation for bronze one- and two-cent pieces to Maine interests made repeated attempts to return nickel to the
Senator William P. Fessenden, chairman of the Senate cent, each time failing, both as part of the deliberations
Finance Committee. Fessenden took no immediate ac- over what became the Coinage Act of 1873,[38] and in the
tion, and on March 16, Pollock wrote again to Chase, early 1880s.[39]
warning that the Mint was going to run out of nickel, The copper-nickel cents from early in 1864 were gen-
much of which was imported. Chase forwarded his letter
erally bought up by speculators and did not circulate in
to Fessenden. Legislation was nally introduced by New large numbers. The Mint began producing bronze cents
Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark on March 22; Pollocks
on May 13, three weeks after the passage of the Coinage
letters were read and apparently inuenced proceedings Act, and they were released into circulation on May 20.
as the Senate passed the bill without debate.[26]
Dies prepared for copper-nickel pieces were used to strike
The domestic supply of nickel was at that time produced bronze. Sometime during 1864, Longacre sharpened his
by a mine at Gap, Pennsylvania, owned by industrialist design for use in striking the softer bronze pieces, and
Joseph Wharton. On March 19, Pollock wrote to Chase also added his initial L. It is not known when this was
that they had no more nickel, nor was any available from done; it may have been as early as May, with the new dies
overseas; we are thus shut up to the home supply; from used alongside the old. These bronze pieces are often
the works of Mr. Wharton.[30] Opposed to the removal referred to as 1864-L and 1864 No L.[40] The L
of nickel from the cent, Wharton published a pamphlet is known on 1863-dated pieces, in both metals, and on
in April 1864 proposing coinage of one-, two-, three-, 1864-dated copper-nickel piecessome of these issues,
ve-, and ten-cent pieces of an alloy of one part nickel to all extremely rare, were likely struck at a later date.[41]
three of copper, doubling the percentage of nickel used in The bronze cent was immediately accepted by the pub-
the cent. Despite Whartons eorts, on April 20, a select lic, and heavy production of the issue soon alleviated the
committee of the House of Representatives endorsed the shortage of cents.[42]
bill. It was opposed by Pennsylvanias Thaddeus Stevens,
who represented the mining area from which Wharton
extracted his nickel. Wharton had spent $200,000 to de- Later years (18651909)
velop his mine and ore renement machinery, Stevens
related, and it was unfair to deprive him of the major
use of his metal. Shall we destroy all this property be-
cause by coining with another metal more money may
be saved to the government?"[31] Besides, he argued, the
copper-nickel alloy for the cent had been approved by
Congress, and the new metal, which he termed brass,
would show rust. He was rebutted by Iowa Congress-
man John A. Kasson, chairman of the House Commit-
tee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, who stated that
the bronze alloy did not resemble brass, and he could not
support the proposition that the government is bound to
purchase from a supplier because he has spent money in
anticipation of sales.[32]
The legislation passed the House, and the Coinage Act of
1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April
22, 1864. The legislation made base metal coins legal
tender for the rst time: both cents and two-cent pieces
were acceptable in quantities of up to ten.[32] The govern-
ment would not, however, redeem them in bulk.[33] The
act also outlawed the private one- and two-cent tokens, The rare 1877 Indian Head cent
and later that year Congress abolished all such issues.[34]
The legislation did not allow for the redemption of the In the postwar years, the heavy production of cents was
old copper-nickel cents; it had been drafted by Pollock, scaled back, as hoarding ceased and some of the slack was
who was hoping that the seignorage income from issuing taken up by other base-metal coins.[43] Nevertheless, the
the new coins would help nance Mint operations, and he various issues of small coins, at that time not redeemed by
did not want it reduced by the recall of the old pieces.[35] the government, caused another glut in commerce, which
was not completely broken until the Act of March 3,
3.7. INDIAN HEAD CENT 193

1871, allowed redemption of cents and other minor coins base metals for production of the cent and nickelthe
in lots of $20 or more.[38] Pursuant to this act, over thirty amount expended had remained the same since 1873, al-
million copper-nickel cents, of both the Indian Head and though demand for cents had greatly increased. By the
Flying Eagle designs, were redeemed; the Mint melted Act of April 24, 1906, the Mint received permission to
these for recoinage. Fifty-ve million bronze cents were strike base metal coins at any mint, and the appropria-
also sold to the government; beginning in 1874, the Mint tion was quadrupled to $200,000.[51] Small quantities of
re-issued these in response to commercial requests for cents were struck at the San Francisco Mint in 1908 and
cents, lowering the demand for new coins.[44] Drops in 1909.[50]
the price of silver brought coins of that metal, hoarded for
a decade or more, back into commerce, also decreasing
demand. Between 1866 and 1878, production only occa- 3.7.4 Replacement
sionally exceeded ten million; the 1877 coin, with a circu-
lation mintage of 852,500, is a rare date for the series.[43] Main article: Lincoln cent
After 1881, there were few redemptions of bronze cents, Congress passed legislation in 1890 allowing the Mint to
due to high demand for the denomination, though copper-
nickel cents continued to be redeemed and melted.[45]
With the discontinuance of the two-cent piece and three-
cent silver in 1873, the cent and the three-cent nickel
were the sole survivors of the coins valued at less than
ve cents. The three-cent nickel, by this time, was un-
popular because of its odd denomination and (with the
return of silver coinage) its similarity in size to the dime.
A three-cent postage rate had been one of the reasons why
that denomination had begun, in the 1850s; in the early
1880s the Post Oce decreased the basic rate for let-
ters to two cents. This change both increased demand for
cents, and decreased the demand for the three-cent nickel,
which was abolished in 1890. In most years of the 1880s,
there were large issues of Indian Head cents.[46] The ex-
ception was in the mid-1880s, when poor economic times
led to less demand for minor coins.[47] No cents or ve-
cent nickels were minted after February 1885 until near
the end of 1886. Production of undated dies into which
the year of issue could be punched did continue, and dur- 1909-S Lincoln cent
ing the hiatus in coin production, Chief Engraver Charles
E. Barber modied the design, removing light outlines be- alter designs that had been in use for 25 years without the
tween the lettering on the obverse and the rest of the de- need for legislative authorization.[52] In 1904, President
sign, and making other changes. This led to two types for Theodore Roosevelt wrote to his Secretary of the Trea-
the 1886 Indian Head cent, which may be distinguished: sury, Leslie Mortier Shaw, complaining that U.S. coinage
on the Type I, the lowest feather on the obverse points be- lacked artistic merit, and enquiring if it would be possi-
tween the I and the C in AMERICA, while on the Type ble to engage a private artist, such as sculptor Augustus
II it points between the C and the nal A. Snow estimates Saint-Gaudens, to prepare new coin designs.[53] At Roo-
that 14 million of the mintage of 17,654,290 were Type sevelts instructions, the Mint hired Saint-Gaudens to re-
I, as were a majority of the 4,290 proof strikings.[48] design the cent and the four gold pieces: the double ea-
gle ($20), eagle ($10), half eagle ($5), and quarter eagle
The economic Panic of 1893 again caused a decrease ($2.50). As the designs of those pieces had remained the
in the number of cents produced, as coins accumulated same for 25 years, they could be changed without an act
in private hands were spent, creating a surplus.[49] Aside of Congress,[54] as could the Indian Head cent.[7]
from that, the nal years of the series before its termina-
tion in 1909 were marked by large mintages, with 1907 Saint-Gaudens [55]
originally conceived a ying eagle design
topping the hundred million mark. A healthy economy for the cent, but at Roosevelts request, developed it
in most years fueled demand, as did the increasing pop- for the $20 piece after learning that under the 1873 act,
ularity of coin-operated machines, some of which could an eagle could not appear on the cent.[56] Writer and
be found at penny arcades.[50] By the early 20th century, friend Witter Bynner recalled that in January 1907, Saint-
the cent was accepted across the nation, but by law pro- Gaudens was seriously ill with cancer, and was carried to
duction of the cent was limited to the Philadelphia Mint. his studio for ten minutes a day to critique the work[57] of
Treasury ocials sought removal of this restriction, and his assistants on current projects, including the cent.
for an increase in the annual appropriation to purchase Saint-Gaudens died on August 3, 1907, without having
submitted another design for the cent.[54]
194 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

Saint-Gaudens model for the cent obverse: with an Indian head-

dress added, the design was later developed for the $10 piece.
With the redesign of the four gold denominations com-
pleted by 1908, Roosevelt turned his attention to the
cent. The centennial of the birth of assassinated pres-
ident Abraham Lincoln would occur in February 1909,
and large numbers of privately manufactured souvenirs
were already being issued. Many citizens had writ-
ten to the Treasury Department, proposing a Lincoln
coin, and Roosevelt was interested in honoring his fel-
low Republican. This was a break with previous Amer-
ican numismatic tradition; before the Lincoln cent, no
regularly circulating U.S. coin had featured an actual
person (as opposed to idealized personications, as of
liberty).[58]
In late 1908, Roosevelt sat for sculptor Victor David
Brenner, who was designing a medal for the Panama
Canal Commission. It is uncertain how Brenner was se-
lected to design the coin, but in January 1909, Mint Di-
rector Frank A. Leach hired him to design a Lincoln The Indian Head cent was struck in large quantities and
cent.[59] This went into circulation later in 1909, putting most dates remain inexpensive: Yeoman lists all dates
an end to the Indian Head cent series.[60]
3.7.5 Collecting
'S' mint mark (designated with arrow) on the reverse of a 1908
S Indian head penny
A Guide Book of United States Coins (commonly, the Red
Book) listed only four dates for which there were varieties,
one of which, the overdate 1869/68 was in error, as the -
nal digit was actually over another 9.[61] The 2015 edition
of the Red Book lists varieties for 11 dates.[62]
Like most other denominations of U.S. coins, the 1873
may be found in two varieties, depending on the appear-
ance of the nal digit of the date: the Close 3 or Closed
3 is from early dies; but after Chief Coiner A. Loudon
Snowden complained that the 3 looked too much like an
8, Chief Engraver William Barber modied his work to
create the Open 3.[63] Some 1875 pieces have a dot ap-
pearing on the letter N in ONE on the reverse. This
may have been a secret mark, added to catch a thief within
the Philadelphia Mint.[64]
from 1900 to 1908 from Philadelphia at $2 in Good-4
condition. The record holder for the denomination is a
proof specimen of the 1864-L, of which there were an
estimated 20 struck; it sold for $161,000 in 2012.[62]

Indian Head cents were popular among coin collectors

3.7.6 References
even in the half-century when they were produced; since
then, with the growth of the hobby, interest has increased.
Explanatory notes
The 1930s introduction of inexpensive coin albums to
house the series and encourage collectors to seek a com-
plete set came at a time when the bronze version of the [1] After 1873, called the Bureau of the Mint.
Indian Head cent was still common in pocket change.
[2] Nevertheless, Columbus would be the rst historic gure
They were not widely studied until the 1960s; numismatic
on an American coin, in 1892 with the commemorative
writer Tom DeLorey, in his introduction to Snows book, Columbian half dollar.
ascribes this to prejudice among numismatists who grew
up with the Indian Head cent as a common circulation [3] This sale later caused Snowden diculties. As word got
piece. He notes that the 1960 edition of R.S. Yeoman's around the small, scattered coin collecting community,
3.7. INDIAN HEAD CENT 195

Snowden received a small blizzard of requests for pat- [27] Carothers, p. 196.
terns; an exasperated Mint Director wrote to one appli-
cant, seeking a range of pieces for a friend, that he could [28] Radeker, p. 1740.
send coins, but preferred to wait as the Mint arranged
[29] Carothers, pp. 196197.
other methods of sale so that your friend, and all other
collectors of Coins, AND THEIR NAME IS LEGION, [30] Carothers, p. 197.
can be supplied to their hearts content. See Snow, p.
223. [31] Taxay, pp. 241242.

[4] Snowden caused several of the patterns to be restruck. [32] Taxay, p. 242.
At the time, the Mint Director was seeking specimens of
medals depicting George Washington to add to the Mints [33] Carothers, p. 205.
coin collection, and newly struck specimens of past coins [34] Carothers, p. 195.
and patterns were often exchanged for them. This caused
disquiet among some collectors and dealers who saw rare [35] Carothers, p. 199.
pieces being devalued, but Snowden made no secret of
what he was doing and was undeterred. See Snow, p. 224. [36] Taxay, pp. 243244.

[37] Yeoman, p. 135.

Citations
[38] Taxay, pp. 253254.
[1] Yeoman, p. 97. [39] Bowers, p. 136.
[2] Snow, pp. 78. [40] Snow, pp. 8590.
[3] Yeoman, pp. 112117. [41] Breen, pp. 220221.
[4] Snow, pp. 2123. [42] Carothers, p. 200.
[5] Taxay, p. 239. [43] Snow, p. 35.
[6] Lange, p. 94. [44] Snow, p. 114.
[7] Breen, p. 217. [45] Snow, p. 144.
[8] Snow, p. 242. [46] Carothers, pp. 272274.
[9] Snow, p. 25. [47] Bowers, pp. 148149.
[10] Snow, pp. 2526. [48] Snow, pp. 150156.
[11] Breen, pp. 217218.
[49] Bowers, p. 149.
[12] McKenzie, p. 1980.
[50] Snow, p. 36.
[13] Snow, p. 26.
[51] Carothers, p. 274.
[14] Snow, pp. 2627.
[52] Bureau of the Mint, p. 80.
[15] Breen, p. 256.
[53] Burdette, p. 19.
[16] Vermeule, p. 57.
[54] Burdette, p. 20.
[17] Snow, p. 244.
[55] Moran, p. 264.
[18] Breen, p. 218.
[56] Moran, p. 270.
[19] Yeoman, p. 114.
[57] Moran, p. 285.
[20] Carothers, pp. 146147.
[58] Vinciguerra, Thomas (February 7, 2009). Now if Only
[21] Snow, p. 2829. We Could Mint Lincoln Himself. The New York Times.

[22] Snow, p. 33. [59] Burdette, pp. 2526.

[23] Carothers, pp. 154155. [60] Yeoman, pp. 115118.

[24] Snow, pp. 3435. [61] Snow, pp. vi, 1.

[25] Taxay, pp. 239240. [62] Yeoman, pp. 114117.

[26] Taxay, p. 240. [63] Breen, p. 220.

196 CHAPTER 3. POCAHANTAS

[64] Yeoman, p. 116. 3.7.7 External links

Bibliography Indian Head Cent Pictures

Bowers, Q. David (2006). A Guide Book of Shield

and Liberty Head Nickels. Atlanta, GA: Whitman
Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-1921-7.
Breen, Walter (1988). Walter Breens Complete En-
cyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York:
Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14207-6.
Burdette, Roger W. (2007). Renaissance of Ameri-
can Coinage, 19091915. Great Falls, VA: Seneca
Mill Press. ISBN 978-0-9768986-2-7.
Bureau of the Mint (1904). Laws of the United
States Relating to the Coinage. Washington, DC:
United States Government Printing Oce. OCLC
8109299.
Carothers, Neil (1930). Fractional Money: A His-
tory of Small Coins and Fractional Paper Currency
of the United States. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. (reprinted 1988 by Bowers and Merena Gal-
leries, Inc., Wolfeboro, NH). ISBN 0-943161-12-6.
Lange, David W. (2006). History of the United
States Mint and its Coinage. Atlanta, GA: Whitman
Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-1972-9.
McKenzie, Lee F. (December 1991). Longacres
Inuence on Numismatic Art. The Numismatist.
Colorado Springs, CO: American Numismatic As-
sociation: 19221924, 19791980.
Moran, Michael F. (2008). Striking Change: The
Great Artistic Collaboration of Theodore Roosevelt
and Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Atlanta, GA: Whit-
man Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-2356-6.
Radeker, William T. (November 1991). Those
Collectable 2-Cent Pieces. The Numismatist. Col-
orado Springs, CO: American Numismatic Associ-
ation: 17391741, 1805. ISSN 0029-6090.
Snow, Richard (2009). A Guide Book of Flying Ea-
gle and Indian Head Cents. Atlanta, GA: Whitman
Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-2831-8.
Taxay, Don (1983). The U.S. Mint and Coinage
(reprint of 1966 ed.). New York: Sanford J. Durst
Numismatic Publications. ISBN 978-0-915262-68-
7.
Vermeule, Cornelius (1971). Numismatic Art in
America. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-62840-
3.
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4.1. TEXT 199

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bin, Donald Albury, Pietdesomere, Whobot, SmackBot, Yamaguchi , Bluebot, NCurse, Rosemania, The Rogue Penguin, Avb, EOZyo,
Addshore, Sorchah, Madman2001, Steve Pucci, Lpgeen, NaySay, Bhludzin, Jarlz0r, BranStark, Joseph Solis in Australia, Courcelles,
Tawkerbot2, Fnarf999, Mellery, Makeemlighter, Pseudo-Richard, Mikhail Petin, Fluence, FastLizard4, SZadeh, Epbr123, Second Quan-
tization, Bob the Wikipedian, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Shirt58, Fetchcomms, Andonic, Panarjedde, Simon Burchell, Geniac, Wasell,
VoABot II, AVALOS714, MartinBot, Bnovack, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Icseaturtles, Katalaveno, Michaelabril, Plasticup,
Anahuac warrior, Specter01010, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Deor, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Garrondo, Taranah, Saibod, Agyle,
Cnilep, Bbcversus, Insanity Incarnate, Funeral, Steven Weston, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Luboogers25, Keilana, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83,
Hobartimus, Senor Cuete, Eldoradoimports, Thelmadatter, EmanWilm, Atif.t2, Martarius, ClueBot, PipepBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Quinxorin, Mild Bill Hiccup, DragonBot, Copyeditor42, Gwguey, Rhododendrites, MacedonianBoy, Kamerda, El bot de la
dieta, Silverring06, Versus22, XLinkBot, Nepenthes, Avoided, Unitedelephant, MystBot, Addbot, Proofreader77, Ebolasheepgirl, DOI
bot, CanadianLinuxUser, HistoricalSciencePublishing, Grae Bear, Favonian, AgadaUrbanit, Tassedethe, TriniMuoz, Tide rolls, Legobot,
Ptbotgourou, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Kingpin13, Pavenis, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation
bot, Maxis ftw, Xqbot, Capricorn42, HJPD, RibotBOT, A.Skromnitsky, Booblahbooblah, FrescoBot, Polyxeros, Xdnx, HamburgerRa-
dio, Metatron 3.1, Pinethicket, Monkeyfox, Tom.Reding, Hamtechperson, Trappist the monk, Vrenator, Danielmcg182, Reaper Eternal,
Reach Out to the Truth, DASHBot, Goldenbrook, Vanadium Zeppelin, Racerx11, RenamedUser01302013, K6ka, Djembayz, Nekami,
ZroBot, Agelix, Bollyje, Wayne Slam, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase Sigma,
MusikAnimal, Lekro, Glacialfox, Wwiiipage, Ginsuloft, Stamptrader, Miniman879, Monkbot, BethNaught, Some Gadget Geek, General-
izationsAreBad, Mistmaster45, Vvesikko, InternetArchiveBot, Tisquesusa, Freyjali and Anonymous: 298
Aztec clothing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_clothing?oldid=739133669 Contributors: Kaldari, Discospinster, Xezbeth,
MBisanz, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Smalljim, Alansohn, Snowolf, Mendaliv, Aasmith, CJLL Wright, DVdm, Ptcamn, Welsh, Pb30,
Tom Morris, SmackBot, Iridescent, Sjb72, JForget, Dgw, Missvain, Modernist, TheEditrix2, VoABot II, Allstarecho, Hbent, Artemis-
Arethusa, J.delanoy, OAC, NewEnglandYankee, Mastrchf91, Uyvsdi, Philip Trueman, Doug, Meters, Quantpole, Caltas, Mygerardro-
mance, Barkjon, ClueBot, Unbuttered Parsnip, Arakunem, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Harland1, Arjayay, 10728727missy, Revancher,
Addbot, Non-dropframe, CanadianLinuxUser, Glane23, AtheWeatherman, Tide rolls, Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, Magog the
Ogre, AnomieBOT, AdjustShift, Crommorc, Jerey Mall, JhanCRUSH, Grinofwales, HamburgerRadio, Pinethicket, I dream of horses,
FoxBot, Yunshui, Jerd10, Jamietw, Player625, Slon02, EmausBot, Racerx11, Tommy2010, ZroBot, Tolly4bolly, Holbenilord, Clue-
Bot NG, Ephert, MusikAnimal, Eddietrich, Waheewateetah, Thebigs14, Mogism, Numbermaniac, Telfordbuck, Fycafterpro, Sosthenes12,
AmAzed2025, Ginsuloft, Xoegki, Kento0825, Maryam hameedx and Anonymous: 135
Aztec Empire Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Empire?oldid=747104047 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, GCarty, Agtx,
(:Julien:), Nanahuatzin, Varlaam, Pgan002, Antandrus, Paedia, OwenBlacker, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami,
200 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Stesmo, Vizcarra, Mduvekot, Ricky81682, Woohookitty, Deeahbz, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, Cmadler, CJLL Wright, Eamon-
nPKeane, YurikBot, Caerwine, Maunus, Laszlo Panaex, Pietdesomere, 4shizzal, SmackBot, Perico~enwiki, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the
speller, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Al95521, Madman2001, Stevenmitchell, Joshua 70448, IronGargoyle, Pseudo-Richard,
Doug Weller, PKT, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Hazmat2, Marek69, Aibara, FactoidCow, Simon Burchell, Edward321, J.delanoy, Ginsengbomb,
Stompin' Tom, Oaxaca dan, Agamemnus, Black Kite, Neodymium-142, Stellarossa rivoluzionaria, Philip Trueman, Olly150, Mkpumphrey,
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dante, Addbot, Thright, Laurinavicius, CanadianLinuxUser, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cm001, Yngvadottir,
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78.26, Erik9bot, Tobby72, Winterst, Pinethicket, Serialjoepsycho, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Slon02, Goldenbrook, John of Reading, Kosz-
monaut, Look2See1, Super48paul, Dewritech, Dcirovic, Italia2006, Vicboy, ZroBot, Sundostund, Bollyje, SporkBot, Donner60, Chuis-
pastonBot, Penelope37, Herk1955, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, Van Vidrine, MelbourneStar, Wboudreau, Widr, JuanfraNY, Helpful Pixie
Bot, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, AvocatoBot, Eddietrich, Venomwind, Jcoaster2009, Achowat, Thezarablade, PantherBF3, Packer1028,
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Babitaarora, Gugvista, Ugog Nizdast, Carbon6, Johnlich, WPGA2345, Cihuaweb, David-Saurabh Sable, NativePride98, Amuseclio, As-
dklf;, Reranian, KH-1, Crystallizedcarbon, Iwilsonp, Daduxing, Cartakes, Pagesclo, Yoyo1324, Trakyslobs, Blackhat999, Greerwashere,
Eldizzino, IAmAmanis, Moo Guy, Marianna251, Stormracer7, Balsupli, Chrimas1, Mohammeddaboss, THE TANKI PRO, Thatmadden-
guy, Papaya42, Galangalang and Anonymous: 181
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Zoe, Eroseneld, TUF-KAT, Glenn, David.Monniaux, Jeq, Robbot, Jmabel, Auric, Xanzzibar, Proslaes, Eequor, Utcursch, Karl-Henner,
Trevor MacInnis, Discospinster, Guanabot, Gianluigi, ESkog, Dystopos, Robotje, Smalljim, Nsaa, Alansohn, Arthena, Jeltz, Fritzpoll,
Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Drbreznjev, Percy Snoodle, Bkwillwm, Fxer, Graham87, JIP, Margosbot~enwiki, Vayne, LeCire~enwiki, Introvert,
CJLL Wright, Mordicai, Bgwhite, Satanael, RattusMaximus, Michael Slone, Icarus3, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Ichpuchtli, Shanel, Nawl-
inWiki, Grafen, Erielhonan, Bota47, Maunus, Closedmouth, E Wing, Pietdesomere, Kubra, Katieh5584, SmackBot, Jab843, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Skookum1, Hibernian, Rosemania, Gsp8181, Trekphiler, Gamahucheur, Rrburke, Madman2001, ArglebargleIV,
Onlim, Stwalkerster, Doczilla, Lancini87, Xionbox, Hamshel, Renebeto, TwistOfCain, Tmangray, Tubezone, Dycedarg, Makeemlighter,
Pseudo-Richard, Casper2k3, Funnyfarmofdoom, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, YorkBW, The Ants Are My Friends, Vanished User jdks-
fajlasd, Thijs!bot, John254, Jimhoward72, Citizensmith, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Xuchilbara, Modernist, JAnDbot, Kerotan, Simon
Burchell, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Ling.Nut, Kevinmon, Catgut, ClovisPt, Knight2417, Patstuart, Z-m-
k, S3000, MartinBot, Dguy, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Peter Chastain, Ginsengbomb, Lapuerta, NewEnglandYankee,
Nineteenninetyfour, Deor, VolkovBot, Tewok, Philip Trueman, Pearsonlon, Melsaran, Noformation, Boongoman, Enviroboy, Insanity In-
carnate, Fanatix, BotMultichill, Sillygoose1357, Caltas, Keilana, Boyo23, Oxymoron83, Avnjay, Hobartimus, Senor Cuete, Custurd, Cyfal,
Naughtymilnion, ClueBot, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Boneyard90, Excirial, Alexbot, MacedonianBoy, SchreiberBike, Thingg,
Aitias, Florinisgreat, Editor2020, Tarheel95, Delicious carbuncle, Dark Mage, Alexius08, El Comandante, Addbot, Sabsab222, Haruth,
Neodop, Inti123456789, Ever orchid, Aspie Prefect, Glane23, LinkFA-Bot, Quietmarc, Tassedethe, Bartledan, Legobot, Cote d'Azur,
Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Citation
bot, Onesius, Carturo222, Xqbot, Mononomic, Peterdx, GrouchoBot, Sophus Bie, Dougofborg, Give me a name 123, NSH002, Tomde-
mers95, StaticVision, Pinethicket, Meaghan, Trappist the monk, Darigan, ItsZippy, Vrenator, Piandao, Reach Out to the Truth, Mean as cus-
tard, RjwilmsiBot, Amerias, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Faolin42, Mychele Trempetich, Finn Bjrklid, Wikipelli, ZroBot,
Imperial Monarch, Jimmykiyo, Werwerwer3333eeee, DaMan92, Wayne Slam, Paname-IV, Donner60, Usb10, Carmichael, Chuispas-
tonBot, Penelope37, Llightex, Petrb, ARC-77, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, TheNewt09, Snotbot, O.Koslowski, Widr, MerlIwBot,
BG19bot, BendelacBOT, Wiki13, Eddietrich, Lyrical Jesse James, Nikke6914, Glacialfox, Ipsumdolor, Mistercheif3, Waiyenoo111, Nbe-
gin, Wvpspdude, Pratyya Ghosh, Loupiotte, Dexbot, Jdcraton, Giggette, Epicgenius, Red-eyed demon, Historywiz123h, Ray Lightyear,
UY Scuti, K9re11, NightkillR123, Cihuaweb, Djudg9, Jalen1117, Artheartsoul1, Real swg119, Ollin93 and Anonymous: 379
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Safety Cap, Lacrimosus, Discospinster, Dbachmann, ESkog, Bobo192, Elipongo, ParticleMan, Sam Korn, Alansohn, Kata Alreshim,
Snowolf, Dalillama, Woohookitty, Sj, Yamamoto Ichiro, Razorfrog, Crazycomputers, GnniX, RexNL, Whateley23, CJLL Wright,
Mordicai, DVdm, Sceptre, Petiatil, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Cholmes75, Rockero, Dead-
EyeArrow, Maunus, Nick123, Closedmouth, Pietdesomere, Dspradau, Babij, DVD R W, Tom Morris, SmackBot, Moeron, Kimon,
Ozone77, Eiler7, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Kitzke, Hibernian, Baa, Gracenotes, TMFSG, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Lantrix, Addshore, Aldaron, TheLateDentarthurdent, Kukini, Soap, Akendall, Microchip08, Makyen, Waggers, General Eisen-
hower, RhoOphuichi, Narm00, JayHenry, Tawkerbot2, Cesar Tort, SkyWalker, JForget, CmdrObot, Macosx, Ale jrb, Pseudo-Richard,
Jac16888, Corpx, Christian75, DumbBOT, Narayanese, Epbr123, Daniel, John254, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Xuchilbara, Jj137, Mod-
ernist, Kaobear, PhilKnight, Simon Burchell, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Indon, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Baronsabato, Der-
Hexer, MartinBot, NAHID, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, EscapingLife, Eliz81, OAC,
Gardener of Geda, Wikieditor06, Lights, PeaceNT, Deor, VolkovBot, Morenooso, Hersfold, Uyvsdi, Je G., Soliloquial, TylerJarHead,
Philip Trueman, Someguy1221, Woilorio, Corvus cornix, Vgranucci, Jalo, Relojero Ciego, DiscoStew2, Enigmaman, Brianga, FlyingLeop-
ard2014, D. Recorder, Newbyguesses, K. Annoyomous, Weeliljimmy, RJaguar3, Yintan, Writerman315, Boyo23, Microtrombidiidae, Fan
Railer, Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83, HomestarBAD, Nn123645, Faithlessthewonderboy, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Rodhullandemu, CasualObserver'48, Der Golem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Cuttiepie11964, Blanchardb, Auntof6,
Boneyard90, Excirial, Jusdafax, Willmont95, MacedonianBoy, Ngebendi, Promethean, Razorame, Bald Zebra, Aitias, SoxBot III, Addbot,
Brinsord, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, DougsTech, Wikimichael22, Gurk123, Chamal N, LAAFan, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square,
Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, SwisterTwister, Red jello, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Ipatrol, AdjustShift,
Kingpin13, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Oasjj, 90 Auto, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Roux-HG, Frankenpuppy,
Retrofox248, Capricorn42, Cooljun, Acebulf, Maddie!, Amaury, AustralianRupert, A.amitkumar, BoomerAB, NSH002, LinseySeah, Fly-
gongengar, Kwiki, Wireless Keyboard, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Pianoplonkers, Timmeh34, Shanmugamp7, Tim1357,
Trappist the monk, Lotje, Nmnayeri, Reach Out to the Truth, Bugbug818, Vinnyzz, J36miles, Goldenbrook, Orphan Wiki, Look2See1,
Faolin42, Ajfaris, Dcirovic, K6ka, I want to, Hazard-SJ, Gatyonrew, TyA, ClueBot NG, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BZTMPS,
Ephert, PhnomPencil, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Eddietrich, Glacialfox, Anbu121, BattyBot, Brosenberger, Gazkthul, EuroCarGT, Dan-
teakira, FoCuSandLeArN, JustinLJ, Lugia2453, Giggette, Cathry, Getonmylvl, Stone420, NYBrook098, Glaisher, Zenibus, 123bobby321,
Francinum, JaconaFrere, Ezejo, Yoshi24517, Monkbot, Grade X, AKS.9955, Doggidy, Bootylover69, NQ, ShrekIsLoveSkrekIsLife6996,
Quetzalcoatl777, Cans48, Jayjaysoy1, Calebtilley, Flugs, Sro23, CAPTAIN RAJU, CLCStudent, Shirel116, Mr.pickles101, Thashaan,
Tisquesusa, Shazzathescientist and Anonymous: 454
4.1. TEXT 201

Coati Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coati?oldid=745443671 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Amillar, Michael Hardy, Dori, Arp-
ingstone, Pcb21, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Llull, The Tom, RodC, AnonMoos, Robbot, Baldhur, Altenmann, Psychonaut, Smallweed, Uther-
SRG, Xerxes314, LarryGilbert, Gadum, Gdr, The Land, Imjustmatthew, Nard the Bard, Kwamikagami, Smalljim, Ejrrjs, Marianoce-
cowski, Voxadam, TShilo12, Angr, Robert K S, Eras-mus, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Matt Deres, Ucucha, DirkvdM, RexNL, Vneiomazza, Gdr-
bot, RobotE, Rtkat3, GLaDOS, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, Voyevoda, TDogg310, DRosenbach, Caballero1967, Serendipodous,
SmackBot, Hkhenson, Bad carpet, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, Fplay, Baa, Scwlong, SimiPaalangi, Sephiroth BCR,
DMacks, RossF18, Lambiam, Eliyak, Gobonobo, Ian Dalziel, Big Smooth, Aquaimages, Renebeto, Kadenh, Andkore, Yaris678, Cy-
debot, Metanoid, MetricUSA, Altaileopard, JamesAM, Epbr123, Marek69, Rquesada, Tillman, Doca, JAnDbot, Deective, Sanchom,
Albany NY, Rothorpe, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Steven Walling, DerHexer, Anaxial, J.delanoy, Ben Skla, Vanished User 4517, Little-
How, Mufka, KylieTastic, Nat682, Psamathos, Je G., Flavio.brandani, Davidwr, Oshwah, Sandhillcrane, Seb az86556, Bunnyhugger,
Fabio heart, Rlendog, Stinkyfofo, Leoeck, Merotoker1, Not home, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Jongleur100, Hamiltondaniel, WikiLaurent,
Freepic, Jons63, Reisig, Mr. Granger, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Frmorrison, Roadkills-r-us, Phlewt,
SchreiberBike, Little Mountain 5, Jif101, Frood, Addbot, RN1970, Succu, DOI bot, CanadianLinuxUser, Tide rolls, , Yobot, Hot-
desert, TaBOT-zerem, Ruck68, Photographer2008, Jimmyg1982, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Materialscientist,
Info-farmer, Citation bot, Gigemag76, Miromodo, Gatorgirl7563, Ingii, AntonSamuel, Shirik, Txcrude, Jopimp2006, Gouerouz, Dger,
Pinethicket, Geogene, Fama Clamosa, Jerd10, Lbkbenlily, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Caoti, J36miles, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic,
Josve05a, TyA, Iatenemoagain, Egunt07, ClueBot NG, OperaJoeGreen, Calabe1992, Plantdrew, BG19bot, Mark Arsten, Andreluis7mmv,
Glevum, Minsbot, Fylbecatulous, BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, Benjaminkeen, Ulisesmorales, Clevera, Chessrat, Everymorning, Ginsuloft,
Lophiomys, JB KKH, Fafnir1, Monkbot, Vieque, Martianpug, Coreyh34, Lythronaxargestes, Kewldudeiskewl, ScrapIronIV, Edemaruh27,
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Mpntod, Alexf, Albrecht, Piotrus, Lacrimosus, Esperant, Discospinster, El C, ParticleMan, Alansohn, Ynhockey, Plange, Yuckfoo, Sci-
urin, LordAmeth, Alai, Fdewaele, Deeahbz, WadeSimMiser, Jleon, Gengiskanhg, SDC, Gimboid13, Dynamax, Deltabeignet, Tim!,
Boccobrock, Rune.welsh, Payo, CJLL Wright, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, YurikBot, Patman2648, Sceptre, A.S. Brown, RussBot,
Michael Slone, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Ntorres67, Rsrikanth05, Ptcamn, Johann Wolfgang, Howcheng, Red Heathen, Maunus,
21655, Pietdesomere, JoanneB, SmackBot, David.Mestel, M.L.Barrett, Kotra, Stormchaser, Vcrs, Madman2001, Valenciano, Harryboyles,
Xiaphias, JoJaysius, RHB, Perfect77, Woodroar, Wfgiuliano, Joseph Solis in Australia, Igoldste, Hawkian, Alexbrewer, Cesar Tort, Cm-
drObot, Pseudo-Richard, El aprendelenguas, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Cantoral~enwiki, Biruitorul, Interested2, Free Mind~enwiki,
Chalchiquetzalitzli, Marek69, Nick Number, Heroeswithmetaphors, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, QuiteUnusual, Kauczuk, Killerman2, Pa-
narjedde, Simon Burchell, WolfmanSF, Alexander Domanda, Jim Douglas, The Anomebot2, Animum, DerHexer, Angelo Somaschini,
Stephenchou0722, Berenz001, Anni anni anni, CommonsDelinker, Patar knight, Zorodius, Dinkytown, Manticore, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Pajfarmor, Sorgaros, Richard D. LeCour, Idioma-bot, Killer3000ad, Ryan032, Drunkenmonkey, Clarince63, Cajamarca ex-
press, InternetHero, SwordSmurf, Enviroboy, MRB15, Thanatos666, HiDrNick, Ozomatli-Tepoztli, Logan, Beaster77, SieBot, Greebns,
TJRC, WereSpielChequers, Amphitrita, Caltas, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, AldermanKid, Lightmouse, Briddo~enwiki, PerryTachett,
Ahuitzotl, ClueBot, Alivemajor, Der Golem, Gmariscal, Sox207, Boneyard90, Sun Creator, MacedonianBoy, RogerStaubach, Geo0910,
Aitias, XLinkBot, Randomalias, Gene Fellner, Addbot, Chzz, Rodeo90, Milks Favorite Bot, OlEnglish, Kiril Simeonovski, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Reenem, AnomieBOT, EHRice, Livven, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Addihockey10, DSisyphBot, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, Neil
Clancy, Ryryrules100, Downsize43, Fballchick, Squidwiggle, Philipjelley, Elockid, RedBot, Ongar the World-Weary, SpaceFlight89,
Dragovit, Tim1357, Jonkerz, Rixs, Vrenator, Mahuna2, Clubschmitz, Goldenbrook, Look2See1, Tommy2010, Djembayz, Italia2006,
John Cline, LWG, L Kensington, Donner60, Nebulousness, $1LENCE D00600D, Ed Dadoo, Penelope37, Yclept:Berr, ClueBot NG,
Widr, August123321, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Mad Mac, Voltacus, PhnomPencil, 0leckh, BrianBoru10, Sereniak, Vvven, Psso525,
BattyBot, W.D., Anteaterhistorian, Mrt3366, Khazar2, MadGuy7023, Wwiiipage, Mogism, Gerie.Bledsoe, Frosty, Giggette, Jodosma, An-
archistMatt, Pi3.124, Gugvista, Ripple Chip, Sam Sailor, Gooserock, Literally Satan, JaconaFrere, Worm.Win32, Liamkasbar, Vincius94,
Dee5674, Gladamas, AlphaBetaGamma01, Supdiop, Supersnack, Srednuas Lenoroc and Anonymous: 278
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bias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Paul Drye, Derek Ross, Mav, Tarquin, Youssefsan, Tsja, Rmhermen, Christian List, Karen Johnson,
SimonP, Ellmist, Heron, Montrealais, Hephaestos, Infrogmation, D, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, CatherineMunro, Angela, Jebba, Jdforrester,
Kingturtle, Cherkash, Jengod, Alex S, Rbraunwa, Bemoeial, JCarriker, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Wik, Tpbradbury, Vaceituno, Wet-
man, Secretlondon, Hajor, Debb20032003, Robbot, RedWolf, Mayooranathan, Nach0king, Sunray, Aetheling, Fuelbottle, Ruiz~enwiki,
Nanahuatzin, Dina, Haeleth, Lupin, Orangemike, MSGJ, TDC, Peruvianllama, Everyking, No Guru, Mpntod, Capitalistroadster, Mcapdev-
ila, Curps, Waltpohl, DO'Neil, Beardo, Per Honor et Gloria, Slyguy, Naufana, Wmahan, Vivero~enwiki, Gadum, Manuel Anastcio,
Utcursch, Alexf, SarekOfVulcan, Albrecht, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Eroica, Bcameron54, Benw, YankeeInCA, Jossi, HistoryBA,
PFHLai, FrozenUmbrella, Karl-Henner, Chester Collins, Marcus2, Jh51681, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Gazpacho, Grstain, Mike
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dianLinuxUser, OsotedeMonte, Cst17, Download, LaaknorBot, LinkFA-Bot, Arrowofyourdeath, Tide rolls, Coolwikiguy, Krano, Gail,
LuK3, Legobot, Cote d'Azur, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TaBOT-zerem, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, IW.HG, Againme,
MacTire02, AnomieBOT, 9258fahskh917fas, Taam, Piano non troppo, Zacherystaylor, Livven, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm
Whale, El1604, Jujomx, Eumolpo, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Tyrol5, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Neil Clancy, SD5, Al Wiseman, Nicolas Perrault
III, Io Herodotus, Downsize43, Aristeiakorps, Enki H., AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Monkeyfox, Edderso, Adlerbot, Jone-
sey95, MJ94, Santos30, GusGarp83, Jschnur, RedBot, Btilm, Serols, Danzag170, HonouraryMix, Gridejp, Tim1357, Orenburg1, Trappist
the monk, Jonkerz, Vrenator, Weedwhacker128, Tstormcandy, Tbhotch, AilurusFulgens, Minimac, DracoRex90, Jfmantis, Slon02, Emaus-
Bot, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Dewritech, Slightsmile, Dcirovic, K6ka, Djembayz, Mz7, Thewhyman, AvicAWB, Monterey Bay, Tolly4bolly,
Thine Antique Pen, Brandmeister, Donner60, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Orange Suede Sofa, Peter Karlsen, Penelope37, TYelliot, Yclept:Berr,
DASHBotAV, JonRicheld, Mjbmrbot, Petrb, Mary Elizabeth Henry, Warairarepano&Guaicaipuro, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven,
Toolen, Rickwgold, Baseball Watcher, O.Koslowski, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, Ephert, BG19bot, ProtoplasmaKid,
Flix11, Northamerica1000, Cthulhu Rising, Eddietrich, Dan653, Klilidiplomus, David.moreno72, Paramez020, Hotdog5269, Cyberbot II,
ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Mr t1231995, Hlanham, Raymond1922A, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Horation12, Evidian8, Webclient101, 365son-
nets, AMadahar, Frosty, SFK2, Nexcoyotl, AlphaZelda, Epicgenius, Isaaccurtis, Finnusertop, Noyster, Yeyinpe, Erincmoyer23, Mclarke7,
SchlongDomination, JaconaFrere, Gavleson, Monkbot, Vieque, Prof. Mc, Oglesruins, Amuseclio, Udderrukor, Evan2002, The 51st Di-
vision, MRD2014, Crystallizedcarbon, Qwertyqwas132435, Matthew.quallen, Craftdraw, Firesquirrel02, Alexand0017, Misterhaugland,
LordGlados, KasparBot, Supersnack, Joselyn6, CAPTAIN RAJU, Jdude5, Not fake swg119, Hellofromtheother, ButtonSpamm and Anony-
mous: 622
Tezcatlipoca Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezcatlipoca?oldid=745669996 Contributors: Infrogmation, Menchi, TUF-KAT,
TUF-KAT, Glenn, Netsnipe, RodC, RickK, Hajor, JorgeGG, Jeq, JackofOz, Danceswithzerglings, Nanahuatzin, DocWatson42, Gtrmp,
Jorge Stol, Alexf, Rwv37, Tkandell, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Remuel, Alansohn, DreamGuy, Drbreznjev, NuVanDibe, Bobrayner,
Woohookitty, Sburke, Marudubshinki, WBardwin, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Laubrau~enwiki, Introvert, CJLL Wright, WriterHound, Lord Jim,
GeeJo, Liastnir, Ptcamn, Rockero, Maunus, UltimatePyro, SmackBot, Frankgeo, RlyehRising, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Zsinj, WSain-
don, Ragestorm, Rykan, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Werdan7, LadyofShalott, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Palendrom, Heltec, Cydebot,
Kirkesque, Dyanega, Starsword333, Thijs!bot, Missvain, Nick Number, Mentisto, Goldenrowley, Alphachimpbot, Deective, Crazy-
boy899, Simon Burchell, T@nn, Z-m-k, Infrangible, Keizers, Miskwito, Idioma-bot, Tewok, Tempest67, Cacaoatl, Logan, Da Joe, Beastly
endevour, Spondylus.princeps, Cyfal, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Alivemajor, DragonBot, Excirial, Holothu-
rion, Better smile, Budelberger, AgnosticPreachersKid, Hombre amigo, Marrovi, Addbot, Tutthoth-Ankhre, Tassedethe, Jarble, Yobot,
Synchronism, Unara, Toshito, Citation bot, Xqbot, Transity, XZeroBot, FrescoBot, NSH002, Jonesey95, Rahlgd, Tim1357, Trappist the
monk, Miracle Pen, Ravenmewtwo, Immunize, GoingBatty, ZroBot, Brentmichaelcox, MMK GOD, Majestic Pyre, ClueBot NG, Eddi-
etrich, Tyranitar Man, Cyberbot II, Rfassbind, Ruby Murray, Derelik, Terry Stocker, CParis3567, Shelby64, Monkbot, Quetzalcoatl777,
Altenmaeren, The Wryter, The Aeronus, CAPTAIN RAJU, Reeses4500 and Anonymous: 111
Thirteen Heavens Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_Heavens?oldid=745256776 Contributors: NSH002, BG19bot, Batty-
Bot, OccultZone, Cihuaweb, MarioHerald, RGVLiterature, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Tlalocan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlalocan?oldid=745669485 Contributors: Magnus Manske, AdSR, TUF-KAT, Emper-
orbma, Gtrmp, Onco p53, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami, Dystopos, Deacon of Pndapetzim, FlaBot, CJLL Wright, GeeJo, Ptcamn,
SmackBot, CmdrObot, Escocia1, Goldenrowley, Simon Burchell, Coppertwig, Retal, Martin451, Jalo, Gbawden, Alexbot, Ykhwong, 0XQ,
El Comandante, Addbot, Colibri37, Tassedethe, Yobot, Daniel 1992, NSH002, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, EmausBot, Goldenbrook,
Ephert, Akakeimei, Giggette, Monkbot and Anonymous: 9
Tollan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tollan?oldid=672031456 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Infrogmation, Tristanb, Hajor, Low-
ellian, Wwoods, DO'Neil, Xezbeth, Anthony Appleyard, JasonAsher, Mokus, Matevzk, Tim!, FlaBot, CJLL Wright, Chobot, YurikBot,
Butsuri, Pigman, SMcCandlish, SmackBot, Hibernian, Languagehat, Thijs!bot, Simon Burchell, R'n'B, Idioma-bot, Cirdan747, WildWild-
Bil, Thelmadatter, Mr. Granger, Monfornot, El Comandante, Addbot, Grae Bear, Erik9bot, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, Look2See1,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Makecat-bot, Man of Steel 85, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
Pierre-Jean De Smet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jean_De_Smet?oldid=743642354 Contributors: Tedernst, Big iron,
JASpencer, Charles Matthews, SoLando, LHOON, D6, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Cacophony, Runner1928, Grenavitar, Gene
Nygaard, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Bushido Hacks, Tpkunesh, FlaBot, Wester, RussBot, Pigman, Stormbay, Gaius Cornelius,
Rms125a@hotmail.com, Fram, SmackBot, Davepape, Unyoyega, Gilliam, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Tve4, Glacier109, Ser Amantio
di Nicolao, Valfontis, IronGargoyle, Dl2000, WilliamJE, Iridescent, CapitalR, Billy Hathorn, CmdrObot, Mr.QXZ, Neelix, IdahoUD,
Yaris678, Cydebot, Dekkanar, Deaconbobk, Richardaedwards, Sirtrebuchet, Spiesr, Dampinograaf, Militantsalmon, Zerged, AlleborgoBot,
StAnselm, Kidmi, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Parkwells, Lartoven, Hans-Jrgen Hbner, Billwhittaker, SilvonenBot, Good Olfactory, By Lit-
tle Old Me, Addbot, Caveman1949, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, MOhistory, Xqbot, Catboy1222, Ad Meskens, Asteiner93, FrescoBot,
Pinethicket, Vkil, Lotje, Oracleofottawa, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, Andreas Philopater, Adorno rocks, FruitFlies32794, Djembayz,
DavidPersyn, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcocapelle, VIAFbot, Eyesnore, Gaelic85, Viking55, OccultZone,
1982vdven, Voltaires Vaquero, Amdetelich, KasparBot, ShannonSDavis and Anonymous: 50
Indian massacre of 1622 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_massacre_of_1622?oldid=747122271 Contributors: Bryan Derk-
sen, Rmhermen, Leandrod, Polaris999, Scott Sanchez, Dimadick, Branddobbe, Naddy, Mattaschen, Gobeirne, Vaoverland, Nunh-huh,
RScheiber, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Avihu, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Ksgant, Art LaPella, MPS, Kevin Myers, Pearle, Lt-
NOWIS, Nightstallion, WadeSimMiser, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Wachholder0, Ketiltrout, Tim!, Harmil, Mark Sublette, NekoDaemon, Bcsur-
vivor, Kjammer, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, Erielhonan, Johann Wolfgang, Rjensen, Howcheng, Awiseman, Allens, Attilios, SmackBot, David Ker-
now, Clpo13, Eskimbot, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Bluebot, SchftyThree, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Blueboar, BesselDekker, Bilby,
Gerrynobody, Yassie, Clarityend, JoeBot, D'lin, Vints, Richard Keatinge, Cydebot, NMChico24, Moilforgold, Epbr123, Yurell, John254,
QuiteUnusual, Sluzzelin, Bakasuprman, WolfmanSF, The Anomebot2, Lonewolf BC, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Richmond Falls, Pocklington-
Dan, Kesal, Filipo, Hugo999, Beatfox, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Krazytea, Editorials, Solicitr, WereSpielChequers, Quasar2112, Til
Eulenspiegel, Flyer22 Reborn, Mimihitam, Hello71, MiztuhX, Pianoman320, Mcelite, ClueBot, LAX, Rumping, The Thing That Should
Not Be, GeneCallahan, Briandockery, Arakunem, Whichiswhich, MBaran, Shaliya waya, Parkwells, Piledhigheranddeeper, Cheech1324,
Versus22, WikHead, Addbot, Freakmighty, LaaknorBot, ChenzwBot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, QueenCake, Pohick2, Eric-
Wester, Chibc, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Canuck-qw, Capricorn42, Glenmark, Beachbaby2233, FrescoBot, Tobby72,
4.1. TEXT 207

JMilty, Pinethicket, Metricmike, Sarah1607, Moonraker, Jschnur, Rumiawee, Nondscript, Lotje, Sideways713, Onel5969, Applephile,
EmausBot, Acather96, Mk5384, GoingBatty, ZroBot, Calstan7, Lateg, Donner60, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Morgan Riley, Groupus-
cule, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tupelo the typo xer, MusikAnimal, Hghyux, NorseGiant, Esszet, 331dot, Lugia2453, Rossbawse, Xx maniee,
Kinetic37, RealMadrid7580, Tokyogirl79LVA, Giorgio Traverso Coda, WannaBeEditor, InternetArchiveBot, Thechickensmoothiedoctor
and Anonymous: 148
Opchanacanough Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opchanacanough?oldid=745769338 Contributors: Kingturtle, Dimadick, Red-
Wolf, Seth Ilys, Dave6, Gobeirne, Vaoverland, Nunh-huh, Bkonrad, Jfdwol, The Singing Badger, PFHLai, TiMike, Klemen Kocjancic,
YUL89YYZ, Steerpike, West London Dweller, Kevin Myers, FeanorStar7, Deeahbz, Bkwillwm, Cyberman, WBardwin, Cuchullain, Dpr,
Rjwilmsi, NekoDaemon, YurikBot, RussBot, Syrthiss, Asarelah, Dr U, T. Anthony, SmackBot, CJLippert, Patrickneil, Hmains, Snori,
GoodDay, Tsca.bot, TheLateDentarthurdent, Iridescent, Granville Sydnor, CmdrObot, ShelfSkewed, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Natwebb,
Epbr123, Bobblehead, Waacstats, Markco1, Richmond Falls, PocklingtonDan, McMaster Guy, TXiKiBoT, Corvus cornix, Til Eulenspiegel,
Goustien, Benea, ClueBot, Parkwells, Addbot, Lightbot, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Mjasfca, FrescoBot, Sarah1607, Serols, RjwilmsiBot, John
of Reading, Djembayz, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Aswn, Widr, Oddbodz, BG19bot, Pratyya Ghosh, EuroCarGT, Ducknish, Hmainsbot1,
Opack23430, Bohemian Baltimore, Uamaol, Rationalobserver, KasparBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 59
Allegheny Mountains Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains?oldid=743504495 Contributors: Zadcat, Jaknouse,
Hike395, Jengod, Topbanana, RedWolf, Romanm, DocWatson42, Mboverload, Thpn, Stevietheman, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Ben-
der235, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, MPS, AllyUnion, Maurreen, Grutness, Great Scott, Malo, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix,
Tabletop, Schzmo, Wrh2, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Sonitus, Consumed Crustacean, DVdm, Paunsaugunt, RussBot, Fabartus, 71De-
mon, Hellbus, Badagnani, THB, Dddstone, 007bond, Kmusser, Marketdiamond, Closedmouth, West Virginian, SmackBot, Py, Ohnoits-
jamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TCY, OrphanBot, RedHillian, Slantrock, Johanna-Hypatia, BillFlis, TastyPoutine, Geologyguy,
TPIRFanSteve, Istanbuljohnm, Civil Engineer III, ShelfSkewed, Ken Gallager, Khatru2, GRBerry, B, Daven200520, Tewapack, Thijs!bot,
Marek69, JustAGal, Northumbrian, Rbch, Alleganywiki, Kariteh, Deective, Arbogastlw, Jarekt, Jvhertum, OHFM~enwiki, ClovisPt, Va-
lerius Tygart, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Bitmapped, HamStation, WOSlinker, How M, Spencethewence22, Ryuhaku, Calzarette, Falcon8765,
Fltnsplr, SieBot, BotMultichill, Hubertfarnsworth, Conaughy, Hamiltondaniel, Wetwarexpert, ClueBot, Vilaskes, SchreiberBike, Heirony-
mous Rowe, BotSottile, Ost316, Little Mountain 5, Kbdankbot, Addbot, O484~enwiki, Debresser, Kcmo1988, Tassedethe, Lightbot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, 4ing, Rubinbot, Ulric1313, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, WebCiteBOT, FrescoBot, Pepper, RedBot,
DyadTriad, Fastilysock, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Gwillhickers, CrimsonBot, SporkBot,
ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, MeanMotherJr, Jsafndklshdjkhsajkfhlsd, Enterprisey, Rubbish computer,
IvanScrooge98, InternetArchiveBot and Anonymous: 90
Pocahontas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocahontas?oldid=747171922 Contributors: Ed Poor, Rmhermen, Deb, DavidLevin-
son, Someone else, Leandrod, Lir, Patrick, Spring~enwiki, Paul Barlow, Ixfd64, Tregoweth, Mdebets, Jimfbleak, Kingturtle, Amcaja,
Jschwa1, Cherkash, GCarty, Lee M, BRG, M0mms, Sociate, Timwi, Harris7, Mowens35, Timc, AlexBrainer, Dogface, Finlay McWalter,
Francs2000, Owen, Chuunen Baka, Moriori, Chris 73, Mintchocicecream, Babbage, Bkell, Lupo, SoLando, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina,
Davidcannon, Arkady Rose, Vaoverland, Ancheta Wis, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Brian Kendig, Zigger, Bkonrad, Alison, Rick Block, Ni-
teowlneils, ZeroJanvier, Guanaco, Alensha, Yekrats, Bobblewik, Edcolins, SoWhy, Mingwangx, Junuxx, Antandrus, The Singing Badger,
OverlordQ, Brucemcdon, MistToys, Schwael, Glenn6502, DragonySixtyseven, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Pitchka, Thorwald, Gazpacho,
Venu62, Erc, Jshanmediman, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Ibagli, Dbachmann, Bender235, ESkog, Djordjes, Grice, MBisanz,
RoyBoy, Triona, West London Dweller, Rcsheets, MPS, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, Elipongo, Kevin Myers, Angie Y.,
Dogma~enwiki, B Touch, Bezbozhnik, Apostrophe, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Krellis, Nsaa, Peter Shearan, Alansohn, Gary, Bragova,
Sherurcij, Mo0, AnnaP, Gwyndon, Andrew Gray, Lectonar, Lightdarkness, Pedro Aguiar, Bart133, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Erik,
Plank~enwiki, Harej, Mcmillin24, Richwales, Mwparenteau, Jerey O. Gustafson, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Bellhalla, Yansa, Guy M,
PatGallacher, Thivierr, Robert K S, Before My Ken, TheoClarke, MONGO, CiTrusD, Bkwillwm, GregorB, Macaddct1984, Talskiddy,
Wayward, Xiong Chiamiov, Aidje, Lawrence King, Cuchullain, FreplySpang, Dpv, Coemgenus, Josiah Rowe, MZMcBride, SMC, Jef-
frey Henning, Funnyhat, Afterwriting, The wub, Toby Douglass, Yamamoto Ichiro, Serie, Titoxd, FlaBot, Weebot, Dan Guan, Nihiltres,
Nivix, Hottentot, Gurch, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, Maltmomma, Alphachimp, Shauni, Sharkface217, Benlisquare, DVdm, Bgwhite, Ea-
monnPKeane, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Wisekwai, Xihr, SpuriousQ, VMarinelli, Fabricationary, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Pseudomonas, VulcanTrekkie45, EngineerScotty, NawlinWiki, Joshdboz, Ptcamn, Iruka~enwiki, Korny O'Near, Joelr31, Irishguy,
Brian Crawford, Moe Epsilon, DeadEyeArrow, Sesshy, Asarelah, Jtc, Fallout boy, Tuckerresearch, Paul Magnussen, Homagetocatalo-
nia, Barryob, Closedmouth, Brian a lee, Donald Albury, E Wing, Pb30, BorgQueen, Petri Krohn, Alias Flood, Xil, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Jack Upland, Spaceboy492, John Broughton, Philip Stevens, KNHaw, SkerHawx, West Virginian, Mhardcastle, JerryOrr, SmackBot,
CJLippert, Brian Patrie, KnowledgeOfSelf, WilyD, Patrickneil, Itobo, Eric.d.dixon, JoeMarce, Srnelson, Expatelec, Macintosh User,
Gilliam, Finduilas 09, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Andy M. Wang, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Miquonranger03, SchftyThree,
Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, KissFist, Gutworth, Whispering, Kungming2, Baa, Cassivs, Couillaud, Darth Panda, Kotra, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, HoodedMan, Chlewbot, Ww2censor, Rrburke, Konczewski, KerathFreeman, Addshore, Gmcole,
Stevenmitchell, Davidmacd, Reid A., NoIdeaNick, Tinctorius, Cybercobra, Nibuod, Bigturtle, Makemi, Nakon, Beboots, Blake-, Nick125,
Dreadstar, Mini-Geek, BinaryTed, BryanG, Jitterro, Dogears, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Yohan euan o4, Bcasterline, MarcT~enwiki, Deb-
orahdotk, Kuru, John, General Ization, Gobonobo, Lazylaces, Butko, Linnell, Ospinad, Accurizer, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Georey
Pruitt, MarkSutton, BillFlis, Davemcarlson, Noah Salzman, Yvesnimmo, Kyoko, Frollo, Waggers, Plattler01, Neddyseagoon, Ryulong,
Peyre, Caiaa, Cnbrb, Cats Tuxedo, Iridescent, CapitalR, DavidOaks, Courcelles, JLCA, Radiant chains, Tawkerbot2, Mookiepunk,
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RedRollerskate, Banedon, Benwildeboer, Dgw, Jeralan, Juhachi, ShelfSkewed, Neelix, Ken Gallager, Location, Art10, RobertLovesPi,
Colorfulharp233, Nighend, Hfdapuirhdk, Doctormatt, Cydebot, Codex Sinaticus, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, Anthonyhcole, Corpx,
Chasingsol, Lugnuts, JanisCortese, Studerby, Airviper, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Asenine, Garik, The 80s chick, Omicronper-
sei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Saintrain, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, AJN, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, Mojo Hand, Anupam, Unholy healer,
Marek69, Missvain, John254, A3RO, James086, Itsmejudith, Perdrix, JustAGal, RFerreira, Dfrg.msc, Stevvvv4444, Bilbo pingouin, Igor-
windsor~enwiki, Johnbg, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto, DarkAudit, Jj137, JEH, Dawsonr, Sjledet,
Zidane tribal, Gkhan, Res2216restar, DOSGuy, RG Walsh, Leuko, MER-C, NE2, Awien, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Bencherlite, Snack-
magic, Io Katai, Magioladitis, Connormah, Ramirez72, WolfmanSF, Billmckern, Thatjeopardygirl, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot,
Xn4, JamesBWatson, Mbc362, Livingdeaddolls, Tedickey, Gabe1972, Voloshinov, Jim Douglas, Twsx, Froid, SparrowsWing, Avicen-
nasis, BrianGV, Fabrictramp, Catgut, WhatamIdoing, Awwiki, Animum, Cgingold, Ali'i, Trevgreg, P.B. Pilhet, DerHexer, Hbent, Pat-
stuart, WriterArtistDC, Jonomacdrones, Phoogenb, MartinBot, Anaxial, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, EdBever, Manticore,
Bitmapped, DogNewTricks, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Hondo77, PCock, Davidmcarson, DrKay, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, Karanacs, Ex-
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Chapin, Excirial, Jusdafax, Eapierce, Bigbuks999, Chapmlg, Fatcat555, Cheech1324, Bchaosf, Sebi817, NuclearWarfare, Peter.C, Sbfw,
McSquidwich, Saebjorn, Muro Bot, Taranet, Thingg, Aitias, Lord Cornwallis, Tessjagusch, Versus22, Mhockey, Phynicen, Kellymterry,
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rent, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Tarheel95, Storm Dewleaf, Origamiemensch, NellieBly, Jasynnash2, PL290, PouyaMj, MarmadukePercy,
WikiDao, Dubmill, Thatguyint, HexaChord, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Twaz, Jojhutton, Mamisita, Fyrael, Non-dropframe,
Freaky twat, Lithoderm, Binary TSO, DougsTech, TutterMouse, Feneon, Fieldday-sunday, Schamilt, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernut-
ter, Kjgen 18, Download, Morning277, Mbs575, JoshiDx, Ccacsmss, Glane23, Clinity Kane, Chzz, LinkFA-Bot, Bigboy34, Nanzilla,
Candyman777, Goldpetal, TriniMuoz, Tide rolls, Jojocool117, RenataElliott, Krano, Gail, Zorrobot, LuK3, Genius101, MissAlyx,
Frehley, Math Champion, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpu, Kartano, Fraggle81, Cm001, Altwab, Bdog9121, Jimidriver, THEN WHO WAS
PHONE?, Nallimbot, Jjfreestyle23, Tinkerbellafterdark, South Bay, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Wasen, Jim1138, IRP, Tucoxn, Ad-
justShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, RandomAct, Aaronzr, Materialscientist, Aceecaecaace, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, NurseryRhyme,
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Grim23, Jmundo, Locos epraix, Cyphoidbomb, AbigailAbernathy, Srich32977, Vector space model, GrouchoBot, Morningdue52, Abce2,
Lia123KyLia, MushyMooMoo, FrummCaro, Frankie0607, RibotBOT, Mathonius, Amaury, Doulos Christos, Cyfraw, Erik9, Trailertrash-
oosy, A.amitkumar, 13shaledn1, Nmgart, Changeitnow, Legobot III, Blablu va1, FrescoBot, Pepper, VS6507, TheVirginiaHistorian, Ben-
zolBot, Angel7531, Xhaoz, Citation bot 1, MBellmount, Redrose64, Bozwaldo, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, TheCoeeBean, Jonesey95,
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tivExpression, Kgrad, Longliveemomusic, D climacus, Margo&Gladys, Throwaway85, SilverChrono, Lotje, Adamjackson77, Vrenator,
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Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Mediator Scientiae, WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, Jsedelman, BG19bot, Ab22394, Shanektheone25, Flax5,
Scout003, PTJoshua, ISTB351, Nitronoobic, TeresaBalin, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, Atomician, Lukeytyt, Altar, Flix Wolf,
Pacicnwest, CitationCleanerBot, Showersap12, Kelly.myers, Ausrox214, Jray321, DARIO SEVERI, Purplewhale, GMA7 Powers 2008,
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Bot, David.moreno72, SkywardSwordLink114, Kool historian, Seanbigs0300, Eldvno, Margieonthemoon, Allexe11, Footballswager, The
Illusive Man, Mathias124, ChrisGualtieri, Muafukas.sumbeych, Suspiciousmiddleeastern, Sumbeych,muafukas, Malsawmdawngzuali, IP
898.345.825.993, DasMuafukas.dasSumbeych, Khazar2, Texasstorm, AbhishekChakravartty, Ducknish, Locutus6, Tahc, EagerToddler39,
Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Geremy.Hebert, Makecat-bot, Michael Anon, MarioZelda128, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Hair, Techdude3331,
Zziccardi, Lumpman23, Elevatorrailfan, Derp47, The Anonymouse, Ahnight, Nimetapoeg, Sjjohn5997, HuckleColors, Richpolo, Epicge-
nius, TestMaster, Maximumsums, Ruby Murray, Ashna.n.h, I am One of Many, Joliv, Kaigew, BobbyJoe994, Eparness, Ranwulfs, Ev-
ergreenFir, Cebr1979, Backendgaming, NYBrook098, DavidLeighEllis, Levithedude, Bobbyjoehigglebottom, Santyclawz, Liathejudge,
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Lordshertzeroavender, ShannonXD, Makkkkkk, Ajmarquez14, TheG3NERAL John 3:16, Monkbot, Justin15w, Prof. Mc, Dadysineas,
Glitter grace415, BethNaught, Jade8sparrow, Pocahontasswag, Amortias, NQ, Nickmorosky, Wokswokswoks, Barbiekaela, MRD2014,
Furibaby21, Bohemian Baltimore, Alexwilson1558, Mndata, Weezz, SA 13 Bro, ASHKOOL, Rationalobserver, Gladamas, Sonicwave32,
Ianakoz, VeronikaGajer, Me3154a, Dg0959a, Arm19, GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Hujhhh, Kylep96, Yabish2323, I love elephants
1121, Madula onlangata, Toooebbsnba, ProprioMe OW, Sro23, Skkal8, Rmroble, Chelb, Elliott531, Daedae300, Nasty.Roaches, Rodri-
mari10, Minecreator11, CLCStudent, Steshome, Matoaka.Gravesend, Hiiampop, Pnk uy unicorns dancing on rainbows, Editbotvince,
Txgraduate17, MistaJ90, JaneSwifty, Entranced98, Miamya2, Snappleface101, Marianna251, Woodstop45, B3081639, Webbies04, His-
toric31, Quackdaddy92, Empireames, Flowers bloom, Toni Fortissimo, Billynn, Bender the Bot, Alex63847574, Joshuasamuel123,
GrammarHead, Uber driver, Dr.Rumington, Sarah alzubairrr, 0000, Noone176938, Elijah 01, FroggyR7, Acid Fox and Anonymous:
2096
Eusebio Kino Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebio_Kino?oldid=743760254 Contributors: Andre Engels, Deb, AntonioMartin,
Michael Hardy, Rbraunwa, Joy, Hajor, Gentgeen, Pjedicke, Utcursch, Marine 69-71, Carptrash, Byrial, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Bill
Thayer, Bobo192, DCEdwards1966, Polylerus, Nsaa, Erri4a, Arthena, JoaoRicardo, Ish ishwar, Woohookitty, Pol098, SDC, Gryndor,
Lockley, BlueMoonlet, Lordkinbote, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, RussBot, DanMS, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Grafen, PTSE, Rms125a@hotmail.com, RickReinckens, Jm546, JoanneB, Spliy, Attilios, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Joaquin Murietta,
StefanoC, Jsch, Hmains, Betacommand, Cs-wolves, Oatmeal batman, Labattblueboy, Tridentinus, Dreadstar, Kukini, BrownHairedGirl,
Kuru, DouglasCalvert, Dakart, Joseph Solis in Australia, WolfgangFaber, CmdrObot, Drinibot, Cydebot, Peppage, Mdhennessey, Asiati-
4.2. IMAGES 209

cus, Thijs!bot, Lopakhin, Mojo Hand, Missvain, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Koibeatu, BoatMesa, JNW, LorenzoB, Edward321, Martin-
Bot, RhymeNotStutter, J.delanoy, Belovedfreak, Diecastfast, TreasuryTag, Amikake3, Vipinhari, Falcon8765, AlleborgoBot, Michaelsbll,
Ponyo, Mikemoral, Hxhbot, Monegasque, Mr. Granger, ClueBot, TransporterMan, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Unbuttered
Parsnip, Parsnip25, Excirial, Lartoven, Elizium23, EstherLois, Jmanigold, RogDel, Dthomsen8, Good Olfactory, Bgag, Addbot, Ronhjones,
LaaknorBot, West.andrew.g, Irishellen, Lightbot, David0811, Yobot, Yngvadottir, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Amit6, Ma-
niadis, JimVC3, Aristarchus314, FrescoBot, Lee B Croft, Full-date unlinking bot, Lightlowemon, Daniel the Monk, Altes2009, Deagle AP,
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, GoingBatty, AsceticRose, Hoygan!!, AvicBot, Josve05a, Isinbill, Yoki11, Novelln, Akasseb, Rolf
acker, Andrea Jagher, Wikiwind, Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Widr, BG19bot, Graham82, Vvven, ChrisGualtieri, TravellerQLD,
Xochiztli, RichardFoster1, VIAFbot, Quiquimas, Kahtar, OccultZone, GMexicana, KasparBot, Amazonqueenmo and Anonymous: 121
Jacques Marquette Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Marquette?oldid=746142069 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen,
Danny, Shsilver, Rmhermen, Deb, SimonP, Daniel C. Boyer, Olivier, EvanProdromou, Ronz, Jebba, Darkwind, LouI, Big iron, JASpencer,
Zoicon5, Indefatigable, Wetman, Dimadick, Psmith, JB82, Jasenlee, Dave6, Decumanus, Bkonrad, Fo0bar, ALargeElk, Stevietheman,
Antandrus, Madmagic, Jesster79, Necrothesp, D6, Diagonalsh, Carptrash, Arthur Holland, Mwng, Bender235, ESkog, STGM, Closeap-
ple, Kwamikagami, Jolomo, Darwinek, SPUI, Alansohn, Miranche, Free Bear, JohnAlbertRigali, Fawcett5, BrentS, Dhartung, Baron-
Larf, Yuckfoo, RainbowOfLight, Woohookitty, Kmg90, Alcoved id, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, WBardwin, Funnyhat, Harmil, Neko-
Daemon, Kmccook, RussBot, Thane, NawlinWiki, Bachrach44, Cryptoid, Grafen, Megapixie, Howcheng, Bobak, FF2010, Emijrp, Ma-
mawrites, Gtdp, Closedmouth, Mike Selinker, Sulfur, Josh3580, AdBo, Elliskev, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Marcusscotus1, Skeezix1000,
Flux.books, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Elagatis, RayAYang, Todd Volker, Ramas Arrow, MJCdetroit, Georey Gibson, Rrburke,
VMS Mosaic, Amazon10x, RFD, Bigturtle, Nakon, Rklawton, Shlomke, Rawmustard, Dabrown, Mr. Vernon, JHunterJ, BillFlis, KDET,
RyJones, Dl2000, DwightKingsbury, Levineps, Clamum, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Rnb, Civil Engineer III, Petfalcon, Cydebot,
MKil, Dragomilo, Chrislk02, Lewisskinner, Victoriaedwards, Krylonblue83, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, TonyTheTiger, N5iln, Lopakhin, Vasco
nunez, Vertium, James086, JustAGal, E. Ripley, Nick Number, Salmoxis, Dawnseeker2000, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Fayenatic
london, MJHankel, LonesomeMoon, Connormah, Bakilas, VoABot II, Doug Coldwell, Waacstats, BrianGV, Rattis irrittis, Lady Monde-
green, Jonnyhabenero, STBot, Rhino131, Rettetast, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Ginsengbomb, Bluesquareapple, Acalamari, Yeduri, 2help, Del-
parnel, U52983, Rauglothgor, Walrus 5, Packerfansam, SoCalSuperEagle, Idioma-bot, Piopumba, Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Je G., EN-
Scroggs, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Martin451, LechoZX, LeaveSleaves, Ripepette, HuskyHuskie, Vgranucci, RiverStyx23, Madhero88,
Mario1952, Esotericus, Ponyo, Jauerback, Rob.bastholm, Ra'ike, Chris Light, Prof .Woodru, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Blondie9012,
Sponge1987, Illinois2011, Pinkadelica, Elassint, ClueBot, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ltf1, CounterVandalismBot, Parkwells,
Dylan620, Puchiko, Jusdafax, Eeekster, 7&6=thirteen, Lwyx, Calor, Floul1, Versus22, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, RogDel,
Billwhittaker, MystBot, Robotpandazombie, Clintpickard, Kbdankbot, CalumH93, Addbot, Thefuzzies1, Some jerk on the Internet, Boot-
boy41, LaaknorBot, Favonian, Saraszafranski, Tassedethe, Alanscottwalker, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Yobot, Cm001, Max Density,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, BirdieGalyan, Eric-Wester, Nostrix, Daniashley02, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Ulric1313,
Vb60, PowerUserPCDude, Intelati, Jmundo, Jjj87234, Xyzwik, RibotBOT, Sift&Winnow, Bo98, FrescoBot, Sludgefudge23, Fatal1ty4,
TheVirginiaHistorian, Gene-va, Rushbugled13, Kalmbach, Jujutacular, RazielZero, Lehar47, North8000, Dinamik-bot, Chnou, Brittnieni-
cole, Mcmooneyham, Hornlitz, Razer2115, Acsian88, Bossanoven, Look2See1, WingedSkye, Gwillhickers, Wikipelli, Djembayz, Tanner
Swett, Savh, ZroBot, Antigrandiose, Claritas, Wayne Slam, Thine Antique Pen, Donner60, Damirgrati, ClamDip, Petrb, ClueBot NG,
Frietjes, Mannanan51, Oddbodz, Wbm1058, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Mesconsing, Chicastle, Snow Blizzard, Mesame1234, Pilotmkn,
Pinkwinter, Webclient101, VIAFbot, Perrywattleworth, They call me nasty, RandomLittleHelper, Nimetapoeg, Lemnaminor, Bobfromthe-
Beltway, Romello12, Howicus, NYBrook098, DavidLeighEllis, Haminoon, Paul2520, OccultZone, Treymcclain, TesfaldetG, TropicAces,
Vieque, JoeHebda, Tymon.r, Esquivalience, Dohle123, HappyfuntimewithsomestrangerCAPTCHUA, Herede, Yohan Anthony Sunanda,
KasparBot, KSFT, CAPTAIN RAJU, MeowQC, Blasher, Deicey and Anonymous: 402
Indian Head cent Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Head_cent?oldid=737459390 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Fred
Bauder, Delirium, DaveHinz, Moriori, Merovingian, Bobblewik, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Swid, Brian0918, Ardric47, Gbeeker,
Dave.Dunford, Richard Weil, Kbdank71, Timmay911, Crotalus horridus, Rsrikanth05, Hawkeye7, Brian Crawford, Cholmes75, Searchme,
Crisco 1492, J S Ayer, Deville, GraemeL, SmackBot, Haymaker, CJLippert, Wehwalt, Clpo13, Hmains, ERcheck, Mirokado, Chris the
speller, Sbharris, Kukini, Michael J, John, Hawjam, Kefra, IronGargoyle, Peyre, Hu12, Twas Now, Bobby131313, Cydebot, Bob Stein
- VisiBone, TonyTheTiger, Dawnseeker2000, Joshua, Bongwarrior, RBBrittain, MartinBot, Xasz, Johnpacklambert, A Nobody, NewEng-
landYankee, EricSerge, Vtbr~enwiki, DJFrankie2468, Nibios, Truthanado, Sophos II, Harry-, Mountainviewcoins, ImageRemovalBot,
John.D.Ward, Piledhigheranddeeper, SchreiberBike, Dank, Tezero, Little Mountain 5, Cmr08, Addbot, Special dude, IndianCent, Tide
rolls, Yobot, AnomieBOT, JeDG, Baileymoore, Pepper, Pinethicket, Wickland, BrandonBigheart, Gwillhickers, Tatufan, ClueBot NG,
Frietjes, SergeantHippyZombie, Hewittn, ChrisGualtieri, MadCowpoke, Godot13, Scottron12 and Anonymous: 52

4.2 Images
File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark
File:066-Tezcatlipoca-Lord_of_the_Night_Winds.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
79/066-Tezcatlipoca-Lord_of_the_Night_Winds.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://archive.org/details/
mythsofmexicoper01spen Original artist: Lewis Spence
File:1000_pesetas,_12_de_octubre_de_1992,_Hernn_Corts.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/
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Original artist: HombreDHojalata
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jamestown_de_Bry.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.virginiaplaces.org/graphics/1622attack.jpg Original artist:
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cense: Public domain Contributors: Photographed from actual coin Original artist: Coin: not known. Wehwalt took the photograph
File:1859_P50C_Half_Dollar_(Judd-241)_(obv).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/1859_P50C_
Half_Dollar_%28Judd-241%29_%28obv%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Heritage Auctions Lot 3928, 25 April 2013 Orig-
inal artist: U.S. Mint (pattern coin), Heritage Auctions (image)
210 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:1877_1C_Proof_Red_and_Brown_(obv).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/1877_1C_Proof_

Red_and_Brown_%28obv%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Heritage Auctions Lot 3256, 7 January 2015 Original artist:
Heritage Auctions (image); U.S. Mint (coin)
File:1909-S_VDB_Lincoln_cent_obverse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/1909-S_VDB_Lincoln_
cent_obverse.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cointalk.com/threads/1909-s-v-d-b.71761/ Original artist: Coin: Vic-
tor David Brenner, Image by Lost Dutchman Rare Coins
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Buffalo_Nickel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original
uploader was Bobby131313 at English Wikipedia
File:2009-0618-StIgnace-JacquesMarquetteGrave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/
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CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benjamin Keen
File:Acatl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Acatl.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Codex
Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
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machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided.
Sue in az~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
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cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stan Shebs
File:Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/cf/Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola lesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='128' data-le-
height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/16002' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Alfred Jacob Miller
File:Alvarado.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Alvarado.jpeg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.motecuhzoma.de/alvarado.html Xavier Lpez Medelln Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
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File:Atl3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Atl3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Codex
Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
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svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Azcapotzalco_ZP.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Azcapotzalco_ZP.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: XcepticZP
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4.2. IMAGES 211

File:Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Aztec_Indians_

Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Allgemeine Landeskunde: Amerika (1895-1897) Original artist: Wil-
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page_023.png License: Public domain Contributors: Codex Magliabecchi, XIII, 11, 3. http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/compoundobject/
collection/Aztec/id/238 Original artist: Berkeley, University of California, 1903
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huipil_ear_ring_page_55.png License: Public domain Contributors: Codex Magliabecchi, XIII, 11, 3. http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/
compoundobject/collection/Aztec/id/238 Original artist: Berkeley, University of California, 1903
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herd_grazing_at_the_National_Bison_Range.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fws.gov/digitalmedia/FullRes/
natdiglib/34A47D47-AD13-4C14-B3AE89E9E9D181DD.jpg Original artist: PD-USGov-Interior-FWS
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cense: Public domain Contributors: Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library Original artist: Photo edited by User:PaweMM
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Original artist: Alan & Elaine Wilson; original uploader was Outriggr at en.wikipedia
212 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Spontaneouscombustion
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tributors: Codex Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
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4.2. IMAGES 213

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File:Codex_Borgia_page_48.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Codex_Borgia_page_48.jpg
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href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_49.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Codex_Borgia_page_49.jpg
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href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_50.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Codex_Borgia_page_50.jpg
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href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_51.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Codex_Borgia_page_51.jpg
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_52.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Codex_Borgia_page_52.jpg
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href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_55.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Codex_Borgia_page_55.jpg
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File:Codex_Borgia_page_56.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Codex_Borgia_page_56.jpg
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cense: Public domain Contributors: The original maps are on le in St. Louis, copies of this map have been widely published. See Journal
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4.2. IMAGES 215

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tributors: Codex Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
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Ildefonso Mendoza Higuera (como recopilador, no como creador)
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216 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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218 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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220 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/coatl?language=de_DE Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.crystalinks.com/quetzalcoatl.html Original artist: Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
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File:Quiahuitl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Quiahuitl.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Codex Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
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File:ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg Source: https://upload.

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg
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of_Tenochtitlan2006.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/354092027/in/
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File:Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Rose_Amber_Flush_
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3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yavidaxiu
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domain Contributors: Image by Wehwalt of model by Augustus Saint-Gaudens (died 1907) Original artist: Image by Wehwalt of model by
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lic domain Contributors: https://nupocahontasproject.wordpress.com/2013/03/12/representations-of-pocahontas/ Original artist: Un-
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4.2. IMAGES 223

File:Tochtli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Tochtli.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Codex

Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
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Z-m-k
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224 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:William_T._Hornaday_Extermination_of_the_American_Bison_1889_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1102_01.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/William_T._Hornaday_Extermination_of_the_American_Bison_1889_
Cornell_CUL_PJM_1102_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hornaday, William T. 1889. Extermination of the North
American Bison With a Sketch of Its Discovery and Life History. In Report of the National Museum Under the Direction of the
Smithsonian Institution 1887, pp. 367-548. Washington: Government Printing Oce.
Cornell University: Persuasive Cartography: The PJ Mode Collection Original artist: William T. Hornaday
File:Wind_Cave_bison_herd_2003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Wind_Cave_bison_herd_
2003.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Downshifter
File:Xipe_Totec_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Xipe_Totec_1.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.famsi.org/research/loubat/Borgia/thumbs4.html'>Page 61 of the
Codex Borgia</a> Original artist: Joseph Florimond, duc de Loubat (1837 - 1921)
File:Xiuhtecuhtli_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Xiuhtecuhtli_1.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Xochicalco_Serpiente_Emplumada_GR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Xochicalco_
Serpiente_Emplumada_GR.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovani V
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lic domain Contributors: This raster graphics image was created with Adobe Photoshop CS Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Xochitl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Xochitl.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Codex
Magliabechiano Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
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data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
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BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Michel wal (Own work) Original artist: ?

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