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Chapter 1
Introduction and History
1.1 Introduction:-
The term "biometrics" is derived from the Greek words bio means life and
metric means to measure.
There are levels of security from the most basic to the most robust with biometrics
being the most secure:
Something which you are - such as biometric data fingerprints, iris, voice or
face scans.
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Biometrics Technology .
1.2 History:-
When we talk about biometric history, we would realize that since time
immemorial people always tried their best to use some way or the other so that they could
identify one person from another, whether it was through footprints or tattoos or
photos. Biometric history indicates that the science did not originate at a single place.
People all over the world were using the basics for mainly identifying individuals from
each other.
The ancient Egyptians and the Chinese played a large role in biometrics' history.
Although biometric technology seems to belong in the twenty-first century, the history of
biometrics goes back thousands of years. Possibly the most primary known instance of
biometrics in practice was a form of finger printing being used in China in the 14th
century, as reported by explorer Joao de Barros. Barros wrote that the Chinese merchants
were stamping children's palm prints and footprints on paper with ink so as to
differentiate the young children from one another. This is one of the most primitive
known cases of biometrics in use and is still being used today.
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Chapter 2
Block Diagram of Biometric System
(a) Universality, which means that every person should have the characteristic,
(b) Uniqueness, two persons should not have the same term or measurement of
Characteristic.
(d) Measurability, the characteristic can be quantified that is the origin of the Cameras
used in biometric systems are generally either CCD (charge couple device) or CMOS
(combined metal oxide semiconductor) image sensors. CCD is comparatively more costly
than CMOS.
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Biometrics Technology .
The main operations a system can perform are enrollment and test. During the
enrollment, biometric information from an individual is stored. During the test, biometric
information is detected and compared with the stored information. Note that it is crucial
that storage and retrieval of such systems themselves be secure if the biometric system is,
robust.
The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and the system; it
has to acquire all the necessary data. Most of the times it is an image acquisition system,
but it can change according to the characteristics desired. A sample of the biometric trait is
captured, processed by a computer, and stored for later comparison.
The second block performs all the necessary pre-processing: it has to remove
artifacts from the sensor, to enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to use
some kind of normalization, etc.
In the third block features needed are extracted. This step is an important step as
the correct features need to be extracted and the optimal way. A vector of numbers or an
image with particular properties is used to create a template. A template is a synthesis of
all the characteristics extracted from the source, in the optimal size to allow for adequate
identifiability. All Biometric authentications require comparing a registered or enrolled
biometric sample (biometric template or identifier) against a newly captured biometric
sample.
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Biometrics Technology .
Chapter 3
Classification of Biometrics
Biometrics encompasses both physiological and behavioral characteristics. A
physiological characteristic are related to the shape of a body. A relatively stable
physical feature such as finger print, hand geometry, iris pattern or facial features.
These factors are basically unalterable without trauma to the individual.
Behavioral tracts, on the other hand, are related to the behavior of a person. The
most common trait used in identification is a persons signature. Other behaviors used
include a persons keyboard typing, gait and speech patterns. Most of the behavioral
characteristics change over time.
3.1 Fingerprint:-
Humans have used fingerprints for personal identification for many centuries and
the matching accuracy using fingerprints has been shown to be very high. Fingerprinting
is probably the best-known biometric- method of identification used for 100 years. There
are a few variants of image capture technology available for such commercially oriented
fingerprint sensor, including optical, silicon, ultrasound, thermal and hybrid.
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furrows on the surface of the finger as shown in the fig 3.1.1. The uniqueness of a
fingerprint can be determined by the pattern of ridges and furrows as well as minutiae
points. Minutiae points are the local ridge characteristics that occur either at a ridge
ending or a ridge bifurcation. A ridge ending is defined as the point where the ridge ends
abruptly and the ridge bifurcation is the point where the ridge splits into two or more
branches.
When a user places their finger on the terminals scanner the image is
electronically read, analyzed, and compared with a previously recorded image of the same
finger which has been stored in the database. The imaging process is based on digital
holography, using an electro-optical scanner about the size of a thumbprint. The scanner
reads three-dimensional data from the finger such as skin undulations, and ridges and
valleys, to create a unique pattern that is composed into a template file.
Figure 3: Fingerprint classification of 6 categories (a) arch, (b) tented arch, (c) right loop,
(d) left loop, (e) whorl, and (f) twin loop
attacks, some systems employ so-called liveness detection technology, which takes
advantage of the sweat activity of human bodies. High-magnification lenses and special
illumination technologies capture the fingers perspiration and pronounce the finger dead
or alive.
3.1.1 Advantages:-
Fingerprints are unique to each finger of each individual and the ridge
arrangement remains permanent during one's lifetime.
3.1.2 Disadvantages:-
Despite the fact that there are more reliable biometric recognition techniques such
as fingerprint and iris recognition, these techniques are intrusive and their success
depends highly on user cooperation, since the user must position her eye in front of the
iris scanner or put her finger in the fingerprint device. On the other hand, face recognition
is non-intrusive since it is based on images recorded by a distant camera, and can be very
effective even if the user is not aware of the existence of the face recognition system. The
human face is undoubtedly the most common characteristic used by humans to recognize
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Biometrics Technology .
other people and this is why personal identification based on facial images is considered
the friendliest among all biometrics.
Face has certain distinguishable landmarks that are the peaks and valleys that sum
up the different facial features. There are about 80 peaks and valleys on a human face.
The following are a few of the peaks and valleys that are measured by the software:
Width of nose
Cheekbones
Jaw line
Chin
These peaks and valleys are measured to give a numerical code, a string of
numbers, which represents the face in a database. This code is called a face print. Face
recognition involves the comparison of a given face with other faces in a database with
the objective of deciding if the face matches any of the faces in that database.
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In addition, a face recognition system usually consists of the following four modules:
2. Face detection and feature extraction module. The acquired face images are first
scanned to detect the presence of faces and find their exact location and size. The
output of face detection is an image window containing only the face area.
Irrelevant information, such as background, hair, neck and shoulders, ears, etc are
discarded.
4. Sometimes, more than one template per enrolled user is stored in the gallery
database to account for different variations. Templates may also be updated over
time, mainly to cope with variations due to aging.
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texture and other characteristics of facial features (such as eyes, nose, chin,
eyebrows) and relationships between them (relative positions and distances). A
hierarchical approach may be used, which examines the face at different
resolution levels. At higher levels, possible face candidates are found using a
rough description of face geometry. At lower levels, facial features are extracted
and an image region is identified as face or non-face based on predefined rules
about facial characteristics and their arrangement.
2. Feature invariant approaches aim to find structural features that exist even when
the viewpoint or lighting conditions vary and then use these to locate faces.
Different structural features are being used: facial local features, texture, and
shape and skin color. Local features such as eyes, eyebrows, nose, and mouth are
extracted using multi-resolution or derivative filters, edge detectors,
morphological operations or thresholding. Statistical models are then built to
describe their relationships and verify the existence of a face. Neural networks,
graph matching, and decision trees were also proposed to verify face candidates.
3. Template-based methods. To detect a face in a new image, first the head outline,
which is fairly consistently roughly elliptical, is detected using filters or edge
detectors. Then the contours of local facial features are extracted in the same way,
exploiting knowledge of face and feature geometry.
More recently, techniques that rely on 3D shape data have been proposed. 3D face
recognition is a modality of facial recognition methods in which the three-dimensional
geometry of the human face is used. 3D face recognition has the potential to achieve
better accuracy than its 2D counterpart by measuring geometry of rigid features on the
face. This avoids such pitfalls of 2D face recognition algorithms as change in lighting,
different facial expressions, make-up and head orientation.
4.2.1 Advantages:-
No contact required.
4.2.2 Disadvantages:-
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3.3.1 Advantages:-
Easy to capture.
The major advantage is that most people can use it and as such, the acceptance
rate is good.
3.3.2 Disadvantages:-
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The Iris Code creation process starts with video-based image acquisition. This is a
purely passive process achieved using CCD (Charge Coupled Device) Video Cameras.
This image is then processed and encoded into an Iris Code record, which is stored in an
Iris Code database. This stored record is then used for identification in any live
transaction when an iris is presented for comparison.
Eyeglasses and contact lenses present no problems to the quality of the image and
the iris-scan systems test for a live eye by checking for the normal continuous fluctuation
in pupil size.
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Biometrics Technology .
The inner edge of the iris is located by an iris-scan algorithm which maps the iris
distinct patterns and characteristics. An algorithm is a series of directives that tell a
biometric system how to interpret a specific problem. Algorithms have a number of steps
and are used by the biometric system to determine if a biometric sample and record is a
match.
Iris is composed before birth and, except in the event of an injury to the eyeball,
remains unchanged throughout an individuals lifetime. Iris patterns are extremely
complex, carry an astonishing amount of information and have over 200 unique spots.
The fact that an individuals right and left eyes are different and that patterns are easy to
capture, establishes iris-scan technology as one of the biometrics that is very resistant to
false matching and fraud.
The false acceptance rate for iris recognition systems is 1 in 1.2 million,
statistically better than the average fingerprint recognition system. The real benefit is in
the false-rejection rate, a measure of authenticated users who are rejected. Fingerprint
scanners have a 3 percent false-rejection rate, whereas iris scanning systems boast rates at
the 0 percent level.
3.4.1 Advantages:-
Iris recognition is very accurate with very low false acceptance rate
3.4.2 Disadvantages:-
Complex procedure.
High cost.
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Biometrics Technology .
Voice recognition technology utilizes the distinctive aspects of the voice to verify
the identity of individuals. Voice recognition is occasionally confused with speech
recognition, a technology which translates what a user is saying (a process unrelated to
authentication). Voice recognition technology, by contrast, verifies the identity of the
individual who is speaking. The two technologies are often bundled speech recognition
is used to translate the spoken word into an account number, and voice recognition
verifies the vocal characteristics against those associated with this account.
Voice recognition can utilize any audio capture device, including mobile and land
telephones and PC microphones. The performance of voice recognition systems can vary
according to the quality of the audio signal as well as variation between enrollment and
verification devices, so acquisition normally takes place on a device likely to be used for
future verification. During enrollment an individual is prompted to select a passphrase or
to repeat a sequence of numbers. Voice recognition can function as a reliable
authentication mechanism for automated telephone systems, adding security to automated
telephone-based transactions in areas such as financial services and health care. Certain
voice recognition technologies are highly resistant to imposter attacks, means that voice
recognition can be used to protect reasonably high-value transactions.
Speech samples are waveforms with time on the horizontal axis and loudness on
the vertical access. The speaker recognition system analyzes the frequency content of the
speech and compares characteristics such as the quality, duration, intensity dynamics, and
pitch of the signal.
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Biometrics Technology .
Voice recognition techniques can be divided into categories depending on the type
of authentication domain.
Fixed text method is a technique where the speaker is required to say a predetermined
word that is recorded during registration on the system.
In the text dependent method the system prompts the user to say a specific word or
phrase, which is then computed on the basis of the users fundamental voice pattern.
The text independent method is an advanced technique where the user need not
articulate any specific word or phrase. The matching is done by the system on the basis of
the fundamental voice patterns irrespective of the language and the text used.
3.5.1 Advantages:-
3.5.2 Disadvantages:-
Voice and language usage change over time (e.g. as a result of age or illness).
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Signature data can be captured via pens that incorporate sensors or through touch-
sensitive surfaces which sense the unique signature characteristics. Touch-sensitive
surfaces are increasingly being used on ICT devices such as screens, pads, mobile phones,
laptops and tablet PCs.
3.6.1 Advantages:-
Main uses of signature biometrics include limiting access to restricted documents
and contracts, delivery acknowledgement and banking/finance related
applications.
3.6.2 Disadvantages:-
A persons signature changes over time as well as under physical and emotional
influences.
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being seen. These can be effective for detection of hand gestures due to their short
range capabilities.
Stereo cameras: Using two cameras whose relations to one another are known, a
3d representation can be approximated by the output of the cameras. To get the
cameras' relations, one can use a positioning reference such as
an infrared emitters.
Single camera: A normal camera can be used for gesture recognition where the
resources/environment would not be convenient for other forms of image-based
recognition. Although not necessarily as effective as stereo or depth aware
cameras, using a single camera allows a greater possibility of accessibility to a
wider audience.
4.8.1 Advantages:-
A new interactive Technology.
4.8.2 Disadvantages:-
Complex
High costs
Multimodal biometric systems are those that utilize more than one physiological
or behavioral characteristic for enrollment, verification, or identification. A biometric
system which relies only on a single biometric identifier in making a personal
identifications often not able to meet the desired performance requirements. Identification
based on multiple biometrics represents on emerging trend. A multimodal biometric
system is introduced which integrates face recognition, fingerprint verification, and
speaker verification in making a personal identification. This system takes advantage of
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the capabilities of each individual biometric. It can be used to overcome some of the
limitations of a single biometrics.
Chapter 4
System Accuracy and Comparison
False acceptance rate is also known as Type I error. It measures the percentage of
impostors being incorrectly accepted as genuine user. Since almost all biometric systems
aim to achieve correct identity authentication, this number should be as low as possible.
False rejection rate is also known as Type II error, this measures the percentage of
genuine users being incorrectly rejected. In order to minimize inconveniences (or
embarrassment) to the genuine user, this number should also be low.
FAR and FRR are inversely related and a consolidation of the FAR and FFR is the
point at which accept and reject errors are equal. This is described as the equal error rate
(EER), sometimes also known as the cross-over error rate (CER). Low EER scores
generally indicate high levels of accuracy. This is illustrated in Figure 9. FAR and FFR
can often be adjusted by changing system parameters (rejection thresholds) or better
control of conditions under which systems are used (dust free, good lighting and so on).
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Face H L M H L H L
Hand M M M H M M M
geometry
Iris H H H M H L H
Voice M L L M L H L
H-High, M-Medium-Low
In the above table, universality indicates how common the biometric is found in
each person; uniqueness indicates how well the biometric separates one person from the
other; permanence indicates how well the biometric resist the effect of aging; while
collectability measures how easy it is to acquire the biometric for processing.
Performance indicates the achievable accuracy, speed and robustness of the biometrics
while acceptability indicates the degree of acceptance of the technology by the public in
their daily life and circumvention indicates the level of difficulty to circumvent or fool the
system into accepting an impostor.
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Chapter 5
APPLICATIONS
calibration procedure. The user calibrates the system by fixing his gaze on a small circle
displayed on the screen, and following it as it moves around the screen. The calibration
procedure usually takes about 15 seconds, and the user does not need to recalibrate if he
moves away from the Eye gaze Edge and returns later. A user operates the Eye gaze System
by looking at rectangular keys that are displayed on the control screen. To "press" an Eye
gaze key, the user looks at the key for a specified period of time. The gaze duration required
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Hitachi launched a high-end TV panel working with the Canesta 3D sensor, which
allows viewers interact with the TV controls via hand gestures. While the TV
displays 3D images we can wave our hand to power up the TV or move our hand circularly
to change the channel. Canestas 3D sensor is immune to lighting extremes and works in
any environment, whether it is indoors or outdoors, with the condition that we have to be
within the 3-meter working range. It also distinguished between one hand and two hands
and offers multiple commands depending on your hands motion. As we move our hands,
the 3D sensor developed with CMOS chip technology sends a stream of 3D data at 30
frames per second to the TVs micro-controller, where the gesture-recognition software
translates the depth maps into gestures and then into commands.
Mimi switch uses infrared sensors to measure movements inside the ear, which are
triggered by various facial expressions, and then transmits signals to a micro-computer that
controls electronic devices. Its pretty much a hands-free remote control for anything
electronic. It stores and can even interpret data, allowing it to customize itself to individual
users, if it judges that we arent smiling enough, it may play a cheerful song. In addition to
its usefulness in controlling music devices or cell phones, it can also be used as a safety
measure, providing hearing aids for the elderly, or health monitors: It could measure, say,
how often someone sneezes, and if it senses a serious health problem, it could send a
warning message to relatives.
Project Natal is the code name for a "controller-free gaming and entertainment
experience" by Microsoft for the Xbox 360 video game platform. Project Natal enables
users to control and interact with the Xbox 360 without the need to touch a game
controller through a natural user interface using gestures, spoken commands or presented
objects and images. The depth sensor consists of an infrared projector combined with a
monochrome CMOS sensor, and allows the Project Natal sensor to see in 3D under
any ambient light conditions. The sensing range of the depth sensor is adjustable, with the
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Biometrics Technology .
Project Natal software capable of automatically calibrating the sensor based on game play
and the player's physical environment, such as the presence of chairs.
Biometrics is basically used in door lock systems and can be used to prevent
unauthorized access to ATMs, cellular phones, desktop PCs. It has largely used in access
control and identity verifications, including time and attendance
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Biometrics Technology .
Future works:-
The future of biometrics holds great promise for law enforcement applications, as
well for private industry uses. Biometrics future will include e-commerce applications
for extra security on the checkout page, and biometrics will guard against unauthorized
access to cars and cell phones. In the future, biometric technology will further develop 3-
D infrared facial recognition access control, real-time facial recognition passive
surveillance, and visitor management authentication systems. Already A4Vision, a
provider of 3-D facial scanning and identification software uses specialized algorithms to
interpret the traditional 2-D camera image and transfer it into a 3-D representation of a
registered face. This makes it almost impossible to deceive the biometric system with still
photos or other images. Strengthening existing biometric innovations for future growth all
of these security innovations will make biometric technology more accurate and make its
usage more widespread.
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References:-
1. S. Prabhakar, S. Pankanti, and A. K. Jain, Biometric Recognition: Security and
Privacy Concerns, IEEE Security and Privacy Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 33-
42, 2003.
2. Jain, A. K.; Ross, Arun; Prabhakar, Salil (January 2004), "An introduction to
biometric recognition", IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video
Technology 14th (1): 420, doi:10.1109/TCSVT.2003.818349
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