TEACHING NOTES

FUNCTIONS
General :
The concept of function is of fundamental importance in almost all branches of
Mathematics. In fact they are the major toos to describe the real world in mathematical
motions. As a matter of fact functions are some special type of relations. A relation R
from a set A to a set B is said to be a function if every element of A has a unique relation
in B. Thus under a function from A to B, each element of A is associated to one and
only one element in B. Now we give a rigorous definition of function as follows.
1. GENERAL DEFINITION :
Definition-1 : Let A and B be two sets and let there exist a rule or manner or
correspondence f which associates to each element of A, a unique element in B.
Then f is called a function or mapping from A to B. It is denoted by the symbol
f
f : A B or A B
which reads f is a function from A to B or f maps A to B,
If an element a A is associated with an element b B then b is called the f image of
a or image of a under f or the value of the function f at a. Also a is called the
pre-image of b or argument of b under the function f. We write it as
b = f (a) hr f : a b or f : (a, b)

Function as a set of ordered pairs :

A function f : A B can be expressed as a set of ordered pairs in which each ordered
pair is such that its first element belongs to A and second element is the corresponding
element of B.
As such a function f : A B can be considered as a set of ordered pairs (a, f(a) )
where a A and f (a) B which is the f image of a. Hence f is a subset of A B.
As a particular type of relation, we can define a function as follows :
Definition-2 : A relation R from a set A to a set B is called a function if
(i) each element of A is associated with some element of B.
(ii) each element of A has unique image in B.
Thus a function f from a set A to a set B is a subset of A B in which each a
belonging to A appears in one and only one ordered pair belonging to f. Hence a
function f is a relation from A to B satisfying the following properties :
Every function from A B satisfies the following conditions.
(i) f A B
(ii) a A (a, f (a)) f and
(iii) (a, b) f & (a, c) f b = c.
Thus the ordered pairs of f must satisfy the property that each element of A appears in
some ordered pair and no two ordered pairs have same first element.
Note : Every function is a relation but every relation is not necessarily a function.
2. DOMAIN, CODOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION :
Let f : A B, then the set A is known as the domain of f & the set B is known as
codomain of f . The set of all f images of elements of A is known as the range of f .
Thus : Domain of f = {a a A, (a, f(a)) f}
Range of f = {f(a) a A, f(a) B}
 It should be noted that range is a subset of codomain . If only the rule of function is
given then the domain of the function is the set of those real numbers, where function
is defined. For a continuous function, the interval from minimum to maximum value of
a function gives the range. (Give domain and range of all common functions)
Note that if domain of f (x) is D1 and domain of g (x) is D2 then domain of
f(x) + g(x) = D1 D2.
3. IMPORTANT TYPES OF FUNCTIONS :
(i) POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION :
If a function f is defined by f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + ... + an1 x + an where n is
a non negative integer and a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers and a0 0, then f is called
a polynomial function of degree n .
NOTE :
(a) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an odd linear
function . i.e. f(x) = ax , a 0
(b) There are two polynomial functions , satisfying the relation ;
f(x).f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x) . They are :
(i) f(x) = xn + 1 & (ii) f(x) = 1 xn , where n is a positive integer.
2
Proof : Consider f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x + ..... + anx .n

Equate f (x) f (1/x) = f (x) + f (1/x) & equate coefficients.

(ii) ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION :
y is an algebraic function of x, if it is a function that satisfies an algebraic equation of
the form
P0 (x) yn + P1 (x) yn1 + ....... + Pn1 (x) y + Pn (x) = 0 Where n is a positive integer
and P0 (x), P1 (x) ........... are Polynomials in x. e.g. x3 + y3 3xy = 0 or
y = x is an algebraic function, since it satisfies the equation y x = 0.
Note that all polynomial functions are Algebraic but not the converse. A function that
is not algebraic is called TRANSCEDENTAL FUNCTION .
(iii) FRACTIONAL RATIONAL FUNCTION :
g(x )
A rational function is a function of the form. y = f (x) = , where
h (x )
g (x) & h (x) are polynomials & h (x) 0.
(IV) EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION :
A function f(x) = ax = ex ln a (a > 0 , a 1, x R) is called an exponential function. The
inverse of the exponential function is called the logarithmic function .
i.e. g(x) = loga x.
For f (x) = ex domain is R and range is R+.
1
For f (x) = e x domain is R {0} and range is R+ {1}.
Note that f(x) & g(x) are inverse of each other & their graphs are as shown.
(v) ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION :
A function y = f (x) = x is called the absolute value function or Modulus
x if x 0
function. It is defined as : y = x
x if x 0
For f (x) = | x |, domain is R and range is R+ {0}.
1
For f (x) = , domain is R {0} and range is R+.
|x|
(vi) SIGNUM FUNCTION :
A function y= f (x) = Sgn (x) is defined as follows :
1 for x 0
y = f (x) = 0 for x 0

1 for x 0

It is also written as Sgn x = |x|/ x ;

x 0 ; f (0) = 0
(vii) GREATEST INTEGER OR STEP UP FUNCTION :
The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function where [x] denotes
the greatest integer less than or equal to x . Note that for :
1 x < 0 ; [x] = 1 0x< 1 ; [x] = 0
1x< 2 ; [x] = 1 2x < 3 ; [x] = 2 and so on.
For f (x) = [x], domain is R and range is I.
1 1
For f (x) = domain is R [0, 1) and range is n I {0} .
[ x] n

Properties of greatest integer function :

(a) [x] x < [x] + 1 and

x 1 < [x] x , 0 x [x] < 1
(b) [x + m] = [x] + m if m is an integer.
(c) [x] + [y] [x + y] [x] + [y] + 1
(d) [x] + [ x] = 0 if x is an integer
= 1 otherwise .

(viii) FRACTIONAL PART FUNCTION :

It is defined as :
g (x) = {x} = x [x].
e.g. the fractional part of the number 2.1 is
2.1 2 = 0.1 and the fractional part of 3.7 is
0.3. The period of this function is 1 and graph
of this function is as shown.
For f (x) = {x}, domain is R and range is [0, 1)
1
For f (x) = , domain is R I, range is (1, )
{x}
Note : {x + n} = {x}
 Examples on Domain
Discuss common domains of all trigonometric; inverse trigonometric; exponential;
logarithmic; polynomials; rational functions along with special functions like [x]; {x} ;
sgn x & |x| together with their graphs.
1 5x
(i) f(x) = sin x 16 x 2 (ii) f (x) (, 1) [0, ) [T/S]
7x 7
5x x 2 5x x 2 2| x|
(iii) f(x) = log 2 or log 1 (iv) f(x) = cos1 + (ln(3 x))1 ;
4 2
4 4
(v) f(x) = cos1[x] (domain & range) [Ans. 1 x < 2, {, /2, 0} ]
1 x2 1 x
(v) f(x) = (x < 0) ; h(x) =
| x| x x2 1 x
1
g(x) = [Ans: ] ; l(x) = log 2{x} 3 (x 2 5x 13) [Ans: ]
x | x|
1 3
(vi) f(x) = log x (cos 2x) [Ans. (0, ) ( , 1) {2, 3, 4, ..... )] [T/S]
4 4
(vii) f(x) = x 2

3x 10 ln 2 (x 3) ; {4} [5, )

1
cos x 1 5
(viii) f(x) = 2 ; 6 , 3 3 , 6 = S (say) [T/S]
6 35x 6x 2

1 5
cos x
(ix) f(x) = 2 ; S 2K + < x < 2K +
3 3
6 35x 6x 2
K +1, +2, +3 ...........
x
dt
(x) f(x) =
0 x2 t2 x
[Ans. Domain is R {0} ; Range is ln ( 2 1), ln ( 2 1) ; ln t x 2 t 2
0
0
]

dt 1
Note : f (0) = | t | , as is not defined at x = 0 hence f (0) is not defined.
0 |t|
ln( 2 1)if x 0
x 2| x|
= ln = not defined at x 0
| x|
ln ( 2 1)if x 0

(xi) f(x) = log x 2 2 9 x 2

x3
1 1 1
(xii) f(x) = [x] + log1 {x}(x2 3x + 10) + + sec(sin x)
2| x|
[Ans: (2, 1) (1, 0) (1, 2)]
1 2x 1 FG IJ 1
(xiii) f(x) = sin (cos x)
sin 1


x

H K l q FG L x OP LM x OPIJ
H MN
n 1 tan
2 Q N
tan
2 QK
2x
[Hint: Start with domain of sin1

F I
[ Ans : GH 2 , 2 JK l1 , 0 , 1q
L
Note that [x] + [x] = NM
0 if x I
]
1 if x I
Asking Domain :
(1) f (x) = x + 1C2x 8 and g (x)= 2x 8Cx + 1 and h (x) = f (x) . g (x) then domain of
h (x) = {9} and range of h (x) = {1}.
Examples : Find the Range of the function
x x
(i) f(x) = 4tanx cosx; Ans. (4, 4) (ii) f(x) = cos4 sin4 ; Ans. [1, 1]
5 5
(iii) f(x) = sin x ; Ans. [1, 1] (iv) f(x) = cos(2sin x) ; Ans. [cos2, 1]
(v) f(x) = sin(log2x) ; Ans. [1, 1]
tan x
(vi) f(x) = [{x}] or {[x]} Ans. {0} & g(x) = ; Ans. {0}
x 2 3x 4
(vii) f(x) = cos2x sin 2x ; Ans. [ 2 , 2]

(viii) f(x) = cot2 x Ans. [0, ) (Asking)
4
2
4 4 4
(ix) f(x) = ln(5x2 8x + 4) = ln 5 x = ln ,
5 25 5

(x) f(x) = cot1 log 4 (5x2 8x + 4) = , fig. (x)
5
4
3
or cot1 log 5 (5x2 8x + 4) = 0,
4
4
(xi) f(x) = log 2 (2 log 2 (16 sin 2 x 1)) ; (, 1] (Asking)
1 1
Note that f is even and decreasing. Also < sin x < .
4 4
x2 x 1 2(x 2 1) 1
(xii) f(x) = 2 ; f (x)= 2 2 = f(1) = ; f(1) = 3
x x 1 (x x 1) 3

1
D : x R, Range 3 , 3 fig (xii)

ax b
[Note: Graph of f (x) = is always monotonic. ]
cx d
x
(xiii) f(x) = [Range : (, 0) U [e, )] fig (xiii)
nx

(xiv) f(x) = sin1x2 + on t cot FGH 1 12x IJK

x [ x] 1
2

F 7 I
[Ans. range : GH , JK ; Domain is (1,1) {0} ]
4 8
[Hint: Domain of function is (1, 1) {0}. because x [x] = 0 for integral value of x, hence
middle term will not be defined.
Also [{f}] = 0, whenever f is meaningful.
1 1 1
value of f (x) = sin1 x2 + tan1 (1 + 2 x2). cot x tan
x
Function is continuous and is even. when x 0

Least value of the function will occur when x 0 and is
4
3 7
maximum value = Lim f ( x) = sin1 1 + tan1 (1 + 2 ) = + =
x1
2 8 8
7
Range of f (x) is 4 , 8 ]

2x

(xv) f(x) = tan1 ; range = 4 , 4
1 x2
Examples on Domain & Range
1
(i) f(x) = ln x ; Domain : (0, 1) U (1, ) ; Range : R {0}

(ii) f(x) = sin1 (ex) D : x < 0; R : 0, 2

1
(iii) f(x) = D : x R; R : [1, 2]
sin x cos 4 x
4

sin x cos x 3 2
(iv) f(x) = log2 D: x R ; R : [1, 2]
2
5
(v) f(x) = logcosec x 1(2 [sin x][sin x]2) D : x , ; 0 < x < ; R = ()
6 6
( x 2)(x 1) 2 (2 x 1)
(vi) f(x) = x ( x 1) ; f(x) = [ x( x 1)]2
x 2 5x 4 ( x 4) ( x 1)
(vii) f(x) = 2 = ( x 3) ( x 1)
x 2x 3
3 7
[Ans: (vii) D = R {1, 3}; Range = R ,1 ; f (x) = ]
4 (x 3) 2

fig (vi) fig. (vii)

General tips for plotting the graph of a rational function :

(1) Examine whether denominator has a root or not. If no, then graph is continuous and f
x
is non monotonic. For eg. f (x) = 2 .
x 5x 9
If denominator has roots then f (x) is discontinuous. Such functions can be
non- monotonic / non monotonic.
x 2 2x 3 ( x 3) ( x 1)
For e.g. f (x) = 2 = ( x 4) ( x 2)
x 2x 8
(2) If numerator and denominator has a common factor ( say x = a) it would mean removable
( x 2) ( x 1)
discontinuity at x = a e.g. f (x) = ( x 3) ( x 2) . Such a function will always be monotonic
i.e. either increasing or decreasing and removable discontinuity at x = 2 .
(3) Compute points where the curve crosses the x-axis and also where it cuts the y-axis by
putting y = 0 and x = 0 respectively and mark points accordingly.
dy
(4) Compute and find the intervals where f (x) is increasing or decreasing and also
dx
where it has horizontal tangent.
(5) In regions where curve is monotonic compute y if x or x to find whether
y is asymptotic or not.
(6) If denominator vanishes say at x = a and (x a) is not a common factor between
numerator and denominator then examine Limit and Limit to find whether f approaches
xa x a
or . Now plot the graphs of the following functions
 x2 x 2 2x 11 x 2 2x 3
(1) f (x) = 2x 2 3x 6 (2) f (x) = (3) f (x) =
2( x 3) x 2 2x 8
x 2 3x 2 2
x x 1 x 2 1
(4) f (x) = (5) f (x) = 2 (6) f (x) = 2
x2 x 6 x x 1 x 3x

4. EQUAL OR IDENTICAL FUNCTION :

Two functions f & g are said to be equal if
(i) The domain of f = the domain of g.
(ii) The range of f = the range of g and
(iii) f(x) = g(x) , for every x belonging to their common domain.
1 x
e.g. f (x) = & g(x) = 2 are identical functions.
x x
Examples of equal functions
1
(i) f(x) = ln x2 ; g(x) = 2ln x (N.I.) f (x) = cosecx ; g (x) = (I)
sin x
1
(ii) f(x) = cot(cot1x) ; g(x) = x (I) f (x) = tanx ; g (x) = ( NI )
cot x
1
g(x) = ln ex (I) f (x) = secx ; g (x) = (I)
cos x
g(x) = eln x (N.I.)
(iii) f(x) = sin1(3x 4x3) ; g(x) = 3sin1x (N.I.)

(iv) f(x) = sec1x + cosec1x ; g(x) = (N.I.)
2
(v) f(x) = cot2x.cos2x ; g(x) = cot2x cos2x (I)
(vi) f(x) = Sgn (x2 + 1); g(x) = sin2x + cos2x (I)
(vii) f(x) = tan2x.sin2x ; g(x) = tan2x sin2x (I)
(viii) f(x) = sec2x tan2x ; g(x) = 1 (N.I.)
1
(ix) f(x) = logxe ; g(x) = log x (I)
e

1
= logex ; g(x) = log e (N.I.)
x

(x) f(x) = tan(cot x) ;g(x) = cot(tan1x)

1 (I)
(xi) f(x) = x 2 1 ; g(x) = x 1 x 1 (N.I.)
f(x) = 1 x 2 ; g(x) = 1 x 1 x (I)
(xii) f(x) = tanx cotx ; g(x) = sinx cosecx (N.I.)
x
ln e
(xiii) f(x) = e ; g(x) = ex (I)
1 cos 2x
(xiv) f(x) = ; g(x) = sin x (N.I.)
2
(xv) f(x) = x 2 ; g(x) = ( x )2 (N.I.)
(xvi) f(x) = log(x + 2) + log(x 3) ; g(x) = log(x2 x 6) (N.I.)
1
(xvii) f(x) = ; g(x) = x 2 (I)
| x|
(xviii) f(x) = x|x| ; g(x) = x2sgn x (I)
x 2n 1
(xix) f(x) = nlim it
x 2 n 1
; g(x) = sgn(|x| 1) (I)
(xx) f(x) = sin(sin x) ; g(x) = cos(cos x) (I)
1 x
(xxi) f(x) = ; g(x) = (N.I.)
1 1 x
1
x
(xxii) f(x) = [{x}] ; g(x) = {[x]} (I) (note that f(x) and g(x) are constant functions)
1
(xxiii) f(x) = e ln cot x
; g(x) = cot1x (I)
1
(xxiv) f(x) = e ln sec x ; g(x) = sec1x (N.I.) Identical if x ( , 1] ( 1 , )
(xxv) F(x) = (fog)(x) ; G(x) = (gof) (x) where f(x) = ex ; g(x) = ln x (N.I.)
5. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS :
One One Function (Injective mapping) :
A function f : A B is said to be a oneone function or injective mapping if
different elements of A have different f images in B . Thus for x1, x2 A & f(x1),
f(x2) B , f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2 or x1 x2 f(x1) f(x2).
Examples : R R f (x) = x3 + 1 ; f (x) = e x ; f (x) = ln x
Diagramatically an injective mapping can be shown as

OR

Note :
(i) A continuous function which is always increasing or decreasing in whole domain, then
f(x) is oneone.
(ii) If any line parallel to xaxis cuts the graph of the function atmost at one point, then the
function is oneone.

Manyone function : ( not injective )

A function f : A B is said to be a many one function if two or more elements
of A have the same f image in B. Thus f : A B is many one if for ;
x1, x2 A , f(x1) = f(x2) but x1 x2.
Examples : R R f (x) = [ x ] ; f (x) = | x | ; f (x) = ax2 + bx + c ; f (x) = sin x
Diagramatically a many one mapping can be shown as

OR

Note :
(i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local maximum or local minimum, then
f(x) is manyone . In other words, if a line parallel to xaxis cuts the graph of the
function atleast at two points, then f is manyone .
(ii) If a function is oneone, it cannot be manyone and vice versa.
One One + Many One = Total number of mappings.
Onto function (Surjective mapping) :
If the function f : A B is such that each element in B (codomain) is the f image of
atleast one element in A, then we say that f is a function of A 'onto' B. Thus
f : A B is surjective iff b B, some a A such that f (a) = b.
 Diagramatically surjective mapping can be shown as

OR

Note that : if range = codomain, then f(x) is onto .

Into function :
If f : A B is such that there exists atleast one element in codomain which is not the
image of any element in domain, then f(x) is into .
Diagramatically into function can be shown as

OR

Note that : If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa . A polynomial of
degree even define from R R will always be into & a polynomial of degree odd
defined from R R will always be onto.
Thus a function can be one of these four types :

(a) oneone onto (injective & surjective) (I S)

(b) oneone into (injective but not surjective) (I S )

(c) manyone onto (surjective but not injective) (S I )

(d) manyone into (neither surjective nor injective) ( I S )

Note :
(i) If f is both injective & surjective, then it is called a Bijective mapping. The bijective
functions are also named as invertible, non singular or biuniform functions.
(ii) If a set A contains n distinct elements then the number of different functions defined
from A A is nn & out of it n ! are one one.

6. GENERAL DEFINTION :
(a) Identity function :
The function f : A A defined by f(x) = x x A is called the identity of A and is
denoted by IA . It is easy to observe that identity function defined on R is a bijection.
(b) Constant function :
A function f : A B is said to be a constant function if every element of A has the
same f image in B . Thus f : A B ; f(x) = c , x A , c B is a constant
function. Note that the range of a constant function is a singleton and a constant
function may be oneone or manyone, onto or into .
Examples on classification
1.(a) f (x) = x3 2x2 + 5x + 3 is one-one-onto (as f ' (x) > 0)
(b) f : R R f(x) = 2x3 6x2 18x + 17
many one onto function
2. f : R R f(x) = 2x + |sin x| f is continuous
note that f (x) > 0 V x R
x ; y and x ; y
& f(0) = 0 oneone onto bijective
0 if x 0

3.(a) f : R R f(x) = 2|x| 2x is / e|x| ex = x x
e e if x 0

a many one into

(b) f: [1, 1] [1, 1] f(x) = sin2x is many one onto (draw graphs)

4. Let f: {x, y, z} {a, b, c} be a oneone function. It is known that only

one of these statements is true and the remaining two are false.
(i) f(x) b (ii) f(y) = b ; (iii) f(z) a find f (x):

5. Permutation based problems

6. R R f(x) = x3 + x2 + 3x + sinx (f is one one onto)

2
f (x) = 3x + 2x + 3 + cos x >0 VxR (Take cos x = 1)
x 2 4x 30
7. f:RR f(x) = is many one into
x 2 8x 18
5
(Assume f (x) = x = 0 or 26)
3
Note that the technique is True if f (x) is defined for x = 0 or x = 26
2x 2 x 5
8. f : R R f(x) = 2 is many one into
7x 2x 10
(Note denominator & numerator both +ve f(x) is always +ve )
2x 5
9. In case of discon. function consider f : R {4} R ; y = f(x) =
4x
is one-one into
3 4y 5
f (x) = (4 x ) 2 ; x = y 2 hence y 2

7. COMPOSITE OF UNIFORMLY & NON-UNIFORMLY DEFINED FUNCTIONS :

Let f : A B & g : B C be two functions . Then the function gof : A C
defined by (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) x A is called the composite of the two functions
f (x)
f & g. Diagramatically x g (f(x)) .
Thus the image of every x A under the function gof is the gimage of the
fimage of x .
Note that gof is defined only if x A, f(x) is an element of the domain of g so that
we can take its gimage . Hence for the product gof of two functions f & g, the range
of f must be a subset of the domain of g. Note that gof in general not equal to fog.
EXAMPLES :
2 log10 x 2
(a) If f(x) = log100x and g(x) = {x}. If the function (fog)(x) exists then find the
x
range of g(x).
1 1 1
0, ,
100 100 10
1
Hint: (i) 100 x > 0 & 100 x 1 x
100
1 1
(ii) x > 0 and log10x + 1 < 0 0 < x < &x
10 100
(fog)(x) exists range of g(x) domain of f (x)
(b) f(x) = Sgn (x) and g(x) = 1 + x [x] = 1 + {x} then f[g(x)] = 1; g[f(x)] = 1
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS :
(i) The composite of functions is not commutative i.e. gof fog .
(ii) The composite of functions is associative i.e. if f, g, h are three functions such that fo
(goh) & (fog) oh are defined, then fo (goh) = (fog) oh.
Associativety : f : (N) I0 f(x) = 2x
1
g : I0 Q g(x) =
x
1

h:Q R h(x) = ex
(hog)of = ho(gof) = e2x
(iii) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f and g are two bijections such
that gof is defined, then gof is also a bijection.
Proof: Let f : A B and g : B C be two bijections. Then gof exists such that
gof : A C
We have to prove that gof is one-one and onto.
One-one : Let a1, a2 A such that (gof)(a1) = (gof)(a2), then
(gof) (a1) = (gof) (a2) g [f (a1)] = g [ f (a2)]
f (a1) = f (a2) [ g is one-one]
a 1 = a2 [ f is one-one]
gof is also one-one function.
Onto : Let c C, then
c C b B s.t. g (b) = c [ g is onto]
and b B a A s.t. f (a) = b [ f is onto]
Therefore, we see that
c C a A s.t. (gof) (a) = g[f(a)] = g(b) = c
i.e. every element of C is the gof image of some element of A. As such gof is
onto function. Hence gof befing one-one and onto, is a bijection.
Examples on composite function
1. If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x 7 find gof and fog (x2 7; (x 7)2)
2. If f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 and g[f(x)] = |x + 1| find g(x) ; g(|x + 1|2) = |x + 1|
g(y) = y g(x) = x
3. If g (f(x)) = |sin x| and f (g(x)) = (sin x )2 then f(x) = sin2x ; g(x) = x
Examples on Composite of nonuniformly defined function
1 x if 0 x 2
5.(a) f(x) =
3 x if 2 x 3
find fof
 x if 0 x 1
1 x if 0 x 1 2x
if 1 x 2
(b) f(x) = x 2 if 1 x 2 find (fof) (x) [Ans: (fof) (x) = 6 x if 2 x 3 ]
4 x if 2 x 4 x 3 if 3 x 4
2 if x 2

1 x if x 0 x if x 1

(c) f (x) = 2 and g (x) = find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x)
x if x 0 1 x if x 1
x if x 0

(d) f(x) = x 0 x 1 find (fof) (x)
2 x x 1

f (x) 1 x 2 , 0 x 4
(e) find gof and fog
g(x) 2 x , 1 x 3

1 x 0 x 1

[Ans: gof(x) =
3 x 1 x 2
;
L 1
( fog) ( x) M (1 x)
x0
1 x 0 ]

x 1 2 x 3 MN x 1 0 x2
5x 3 x 4
1 x3 x 0 (x 1)1/ 3 x 0
(f) f(x) = and g(x) = find g (f(x))
x2 1 x 0 (x 1)1/ 2 x 0

8. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION :
Let f : A B be a oneone & onto function, then their exists a unique function
g : B A such that f(x) = y g(y) = x, x A & y B. Then g is said to be
inverse of f. Thus g = f1 : B A = {(f(x), x) (x, f(x)) f}.
Example: Compute the inverse of the following bijective. [Q.260 Q. Bank. F/L/C/D]
(a) f(x) = 10 x + 1 ; (b) f(x) = 1 + ln (x + 2)
2x x 1
(c) f(x) = (d) f(x) = 1 + 2 sin
1 2x x 1
x 1
x 1 sin 1
2
[ Ans : (a) y = log10 x 1; (b) y = 2 + ex 1; (c) y = log2 1 x ; (d) y = 1 x 1
]
1 sin
2
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE FUNCTION :
(i) The inverse of a bijection is unique.
Proof: Let f : A B be a bijection. If possible let g : B A and h : B A be two inverse
function of f. Also let a1, a2 A and b B such that g (b) = a1 and h (b) = a2 then
g(b) = a1 f (a1) = b
h(b) = a2 f (a2) = b.
But since f is one-one, so f (a1) = f (a2) a1 = a2 g(b) = h(b), b B
(ii) If f : A B is a bijection & g : B A is the inverse of f, then fog = IB and
gof = IA, where IA & IB are identity functions on the sets A & B respectively.
Note that the graphs of f & g are the mirror images of each other in the line y = x. As
shown in the figure given below a point (x ', y' ) corresponding to
y = x2(x>0) changes to (y', x') corresponding to y x , the changed form of x = y .
(iii) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.
Proof : Let f : A B be a bijection and g : B A be its inverse. We have to show that g is
one-one and onto.
One-one : Let g(b1) = a2 and g(b2) = a2 : a1, a2 A ^ b1, b2 B
Then g(b1) = g(b2) a 1 = a2
f(a1) = f(a2) [ f is a bijection]
b1 = b 2 [ g(b1) = a1 b1 = f(a1)
g(b2) = a2 b2 = f(a2)]
which proves that g is one-one
Onto : Again, if a A, then
a A b B s.t. f (a) = b (by defintion of f)
b B s.t. a = g(b) [ f(a) = b a = g(b)]
which proves that g is onto.
Hence g is also a bijection.
(iv) If f & g are two bijections f : A B, g : B C then the inverse of gof exists and
(gof)1 = f1og1.
Proof : Since f : A B and g : B C are two bijections,
gof : A C is also a bijection.
[by theorem the composite of two bijection is a bijection]
As such gof has an inverse function (gof)1 : C A. We have to show that
(gof)1 = f1og1.
Now let a A, b B, c C such that
f (a) = b and g(b) = c
so (gof) (a) = g[f(a)] = g(b) = c,
now f(a) = b a = f1(b) ....(i)
g(b) = c 1
b = g (c) ....(ii)
(gof)(a) = c 1
a = (gof) (c) ....(iii)
1 1 1
Also (f og )(c) = f [g (c)] 1 [by defintion]
1
= f (b) [by (ii)]
=a [by (i)]
1
= (gof) (c) [by (iii)]
1 1 1
(gof) = f og , which proves the theorem.
EXAMPLE ON INVERSE
1. f : RR f(x) = ex and g : R R g(x) = 3x 2 find fog and gof. Also find domains of
(fog)1 and (gof)1 (fog) (x) = e3x 2; (gof)(x) = 3ex 2
domain of (fog)1 = R+ ; domain of (gof)1 = (2, )
2. If f : R R f (x) = x3 + (a + 2)x2 + 3ax + 5 is an invertible mapping finda
f (x) > 0 (note that f (x) > 0 as leading coefficient f is > 0) [ Ans: a[1, 4] ]
ex ex
3.(a) f : [0, ) [1, ) f (x) = find f1(x)
2
e x/2 e x/ 2
(b) f(x) =
2
;
f1(x) = 2ln x 1 x 2
x if x 1

4. f(x) = x2 1 x 4 find f1(x)
8 x x4

x if x 1
y if y 1
y if 1 y 16 x if 1 x 16
f1(y)=x= y 2 f (x)=
1 x2
if x 16
if y 16
64 64
5. A function
3 7
f : , , defined as
2 4
f(x) = x2 3x + 4. Solve the equation f(x) = f1(x)
[Ans: x = 2]
2x 5
6. For the function f : R {4} R {2} ; f (x) = . Find
4x
(a) zero's of f (x), (b) range of f (x), (c) intervals of monotonocity
(d) 1
f (x), (e) local maxima and minima if any,
(f) interval when f (x) is concave upward and concave downward
2
(g) asymptotes, (h) f ( x ) dx ,
1
(i) nature of function whether one-one or onto (j) garph
[Ans. (a) 5/6, (b) (, 2) (2, ), (c) in its domain i.e. (, 4) (4, ),
4x 5
(d) f1(x) = , (e) no, (f) (, 4) upwards and (4, ) downwards, (g) y = 2,
x2
2
(h) 2 3ln 3

9. HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS :
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect to any set of variables when each
of its terms is of the same degree with respect to those variables.
For example 5x2 + 3y2 xy is homogeneous in x & y. Symbolically if,
f (tx, ty) = tn . f (x , y) then f (x , y) is homogeneous function of degree n.
Example on Homogeneous function
x y cos x
f (x, y) = y sin x x is not a homogeneous function and
x y y x y
f (x, y) = y ln x x ln y ; x 2 y 2 + x; x + y cos are homogeneous functions of
x
degree one.
10. BOUNDED FUNCTION :
A function is said to be bounded if f(x) M , where M is a finite quantity.
Example:
1.329/FLCD Which of the following function(s) is(are) bounded on the intervals as indicated
1
x 1 1
(A*) f(x) = 2 on (0, 1) (B) g(x) = x cos on ()
x

(C*) h(x) = xex on (0, ) (D*) l (x) = arc tan2x on (, )

 1 1
[Sol. (A) Limit f (x) = Limit 2 h 1 1 ; Limit f (x) = Limit 2 h 0
x 0 h 0 2 x 1 h 0

1
f ( x ) 0, bounded
2
x
(C) Limit
h 0
x e x = Limit h e h = 0 ; Limit x ex = Limit
h 0 x x x
0
e
x e x xe x x (1 x) 1
h(x) 0 , ]
Also y y = e
ex e2x e
11. IMPLICIT & EXPLICIT FUNCTION :
A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable is called an
IMPLICIT FUNCTION . For eg. the equation x3 + y3 = 1 defines y as an implicit function.
If y has been expressed in terms of x alone then it is called an EXPLICIT FUNCTION .
Examples on Implicit and explicit function f (x , y) = 0
x
1. x 1 y + y 1 x = 0; explicit y = or y = x (rejected)
1 x
y= x
2. y2 = x represents two separate branches.
y= x
3. x3 y3
+ 3xy = 0
folium of descartes
4. x = 2y y2
5. Find the domain of the explicit form of the function is represented implictly by the
equation (1 + x) cos y = x2
12. ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS : A function f (x) defined on the symmetric interval (a, a)
If f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f then f is said to be an even function.
e.g. f (x) = cos x ; g (x) = x + 3.
If f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f then f is said to be an odd function.
e.g. f (x) = sin x ; g (x) = x3 + x .
NOTE :
(a) f (x) f (x) = 0 => f (x) is even & f (x) + f (x) = 0 => f (x) is odd .
(b) A function may neither be odd nor even .
(c) Inverse of an even function is not defined and an even function can not be strictly
monotonic
(d) Every even function is symmetric about the yaxis & every odd function is symmetric
about the origin.
(e) Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even & an odd function.
f ( x ) f ( x ) f ( x) f ( x) 2x 2x 2x 2x
e.g. f (x) 2x = +
2 2 2 2

EVEN ODD EVEN ODD

(f) The only function which is defined on the entire number line & is even and odd
at the same time is f(x) = 0.
(g) If f and g both are even or both are odd then the function f.g will be even but if any
one of them is odd then f.g will be odd .
 f (x) g (x) f (x) + g (x) f (x) - g (x) f (x) . g (x) f(x) / g(x) ( gof ) (x) (f o g) (x)
odd odd odd odd even even odd odd
even even even even even even even even
odd even neither odd nor even neither odd nor even odd odd even even
even odd neither odd nor even neither odd nor even odd odd even even

Examples on Odd & Even function

Odd Even Neither odd nor even
x
2 1
1. ln (x + 1 x 2 ) 1. x 1. 2x3 x + 1
2x 1
1 x
2. ln 2. 3 (1 x) 2 3 (1 x) 2 2. sinx + cosx
1 x
3. x sin2x x3 3. constant
4. 1 x x 2 1 x x 2 4. x2 | x |
1 2 Kx (1 2 x ) 2
5. 5.
1 2 Kx 2x
EXAMPLES :
Ex.1 Identify whether the function given below O/E | NO NE / OE
1 1
x tan1 (even) ; x cot1x (none); x2tan1 (odd) ; x cot1x2 (odd)
x x
Ex.2 If f (x) = (a 2)x + 3a 4 is even/odd. Find 'a'. [Ans. Even (a=2), Odd (a=4/3)]

13. PERIODIC FUNCTION :

A function f(x) is called periodic if there exists a positive number T (T > 0) called
the period of the function such that f (x + T) = f(x), for all values of x within the
domain of x.
e.g. The function sin x & cos x both are periodic over 2 & tan x is periodic over .
NOTE :(a) f (T) = f (0) = f (T) , where T is the period .
(b) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist .
(c) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period .
(d) If f (x) has a period T & g (x) also has a period T then it does not mean
that f (x) + g (x) must have a period T . e.g. f (x) = sinx+ cosx.
1
(e) If f(x) has a period p, then and f (x) also has a period p .
f (x)
(f) if f(x) has a period T then f(ax + b) has a period T/a (a > 0) .
Proof: Let f(x + T) = f(x) and f[a(x +T) + b] = f(ax + b)
f(ax + b + aT) = f(ax + b)
T
f(y + aT) = f(y) = f(y + T) T = aT T =
a
EXAMPLES ON PERIODIC FUNCTION
2x 4x
1. f(x) = cos sin (15) 2. f(x) = cos(sin x) ()
3 5

3. f(x) = sin(cos x) (2) 4. f(x) = sin4x + cos4x
2
5. f(x) = x [x] = {x} (One)
6. f(x) = sinx + cos ax is a periodic function then prove that a must be rational
sin nx
7. If f(x) = has its period = 4 then find the integral values of n.
x
sin
n
8. TPT : f(x) = cos x ; x sinx and sin x + {x} are aperiodic.
 x
9. f(x) = 2cos 5
(Ans: p = 10)
10. If f (x) = (a + 3)x + 5a, x R is periodic. [Ans. a = 3]
11. Let f be a real valued function defined for all real numbers x such that for same +ve
1
constant 'a' the equation f (x + a) =
2
+ f ( x ) f 2 ( x ) holds for all x. Prove that f is
periodic.

14. GENERAL :
If x, y are independent variables, then :
(i) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = k ln x or f(x) = 0.
(ii) f(xy) = f(x) f(y) f(x) = xn , n R
(iii) f(x + y) = f(x) f(y) f(x) = akx.
(iv) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = kx, where k is a constant.

General objective on functions :

1 7
1. If 2 f (x) 3 f x = x2 (x 0) find f (2). [Ans. ]
4
1 9 1
2. Let f is periodic with period . If f (2) = 5 and f 4 = 2. Find f (3) and f 4 .
2