Professional Documents
Culture Documents
~ x
Vair = mair Vair = 0.211 s
m3
0.8553 kg= 0.1805 s
m3 7rD2LN
= -4-
m3
-X 4
or D = s (60 s]
0.152 m
400 str~ke[min
m1n
APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS
A tutorial text to Final Honours degree standard
G. Boxer
Senior Tutor in Mechanical Engineering
University of Aston in Birmingham
G. Boxer 1979
Boxer, George
Applications of engineering thermodynamics.
1. Thermodynamics - Problems, exercises, etc.
2. Heat engineering - Problems, exercises, etc.
I. Title
621.4'021'076 TJ265
ISBN 978-0-333-24354-1 ISBN 978-1-349-04041-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-04041-4
This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net Book
Agreement.
Preface vii
Nomenclature X
v
9 Variable Specific Heat Capacities 91
Analytical and Graphical Methods - Cycle Analysis -
Effect on Power Output and Mean effective Pressure -
Effect on Efficiency
10 Dissociation 105
Mol fractions in dissociation - Equilibrium Constant -
Isentropic Index calculation
vi
PREFACE
vii
Dimensional reasoning, as pointed out in the earlier book, is
vitally important, and again I stress the foolproof method of the
use of Unity Brackets as a means of resolving dimensions in a cal-
culation. Dimensions are by far more important than the numbers
preceding them and all teachers face the ever-present problem of
instilling into the minds of the students they take the vital need
to check the dimensional balance of the equations they use. A
physical equation is true in any system of units but a numerical
equation must be checked for dimensions as in the following exam-
ple.
ho = h + ~u 2 for deriving stagnation enthalpy of a compress-
ible fluid.
Assuming the fluid is a perfect gas and has a specific heat capac-
ity at constant ~ressure cp,
then To - T = ~~
Cp
and the normal substitution of dimensions in
SI gives mz
A number
52
To - T
kT
kg K
which is not obviously a change of temperature in this form.
However, with the use of Unity Brackets we can transform this cal-
culation quickly and unerringly so that it is so.
m2 kg K [N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
Thus To - T = A number 52 kT [kg m] [kN m]
1
A number x 1000 K (all others cancelling)
viii
The solutions are very nearly exhaustive but some elementary
work is assumed as being first year level which can reasonably be
expected to be carried through at this stage.
The last chapter on availability and combined cycles covers ex-
amples of plant in current practice and does not examine the poss-
ible plant of the future. I have included one example on a fuel
cell since although only small scale units have been made so far,
the device holds out promise of rich rewards in the future.
Furthermore the type of combined plant that can be used in prac-
tice is very much a balance between capital and running costs and
matching the steam and gas turbine plant is extremely important
here. In all total energy systems the most effective use of fuel
will be achieved when the energy delivered is divided appropriate-
ly between process heat and electrical power, the subdivision vary-
ing with each plant.
The advent of fluidised bed combustion boilers gives an opport-
unity to effect heat transfers at considerably lower temperatures
with obvious benefits in corrosion but suffering the penalty inas-
much as it is 1 Anti-Can10t 1 It is a very active research area at
present.
Most other attempts (e.g. Organic Rankine cycle) whicn aim at
raising the availability output and reduce the inefficiency and
therefore running costs suffer from the considerable increase in
capital costs due to the expensive fluids involved.
Once again the choice of question and solution for such a book
as this is a compromise between that which will adequately cover
a reasonable range of material and that which will not prove too
expensive to purchase.
I must mention here the omission of any heat transfer calculat-
ions since these form a subject in their right and have their own
distinctive laws of radiation, conduction and convection.
Further reading around the subject is always advisable when att-
empting tutorial work both for consolidation and final revision and
there is a wide choice among the several notable text books that
have been published in the last ten years or so in England and in
the Systeme International. Among these, those by Rogers and Mayhew
and by Goodger are both excellent.
The University of London have once again been kind enough to
allow me to draw on the examination papers of the now discontinued
external degree in engineering and the responsibility for the sol-
utions is my own.
Inevitably, I presume, there will be errors, particularly, as
has been pointed out to me in the past, when a work of this kind
is attempted single-handed. The ideal way is of course to use
only problems which have been tried by a large body of students
and are fully warranted as a result. Unfortunately, the time-scale
for this book has not permitted this. I will, tnerefore, be most
grateful for any correction that comes to light in the use of this
volume. I would add that I am already in debt to those who have
been good enough to send me their suggestions on the introductory
volume and I hope that the second edition of this will embrace all
of these.
My thanks go to Dr.J .R.Howard for an illuminating discussion on
combined cycles and to Professor K.Foster for his encouragement and
patience in a time of most pressing developments in our department.
ix
NOMENCLATURE
X
Suffices
a Dry air
c Compressor
f Liquid state (saturated)
g Vapour state (saturated)
i Constituent or intermediate
m Moist air
o Reference state (also as a superscript)
p Pressure constant
s Entropy co~stant or steam
t Total
v Volume constant
w Water
(a) Liquid?
(b) Liquid/Vapour Mixture?
(c) Saturated Vapour?
(d) Superheated Vapour?
(e) Perfect Gas?
(f) Semi-perfect Gas? (i.e. with variable cp and cv sometimes
referred to as an ideal gas)
(a) Non-flow?
(b) Steady-flow? (remembering also the reduced form which
is most common i.e. 1q2 - 1w2 = h2 - h1)
(c) Unsteady flow?
mv = uA
7. Have you used the correct language? (i.e. symbols AND units)
Figure 1 .1 refers.
Ta
Ti" =
(&.)'
P1
where r = n - 1
n
1
p/bar
7.9
3.25 figure 1 .1
1.0
'---+----.,.---- v
1 Vs 1
"'(LP cyl)
or n = 1.193
Thus T2 = Tb (p2f pb )' 295 K (7.9/3.25) 0 ' 162 = 340.6 K (b)
Now
.
Wind
n r n r
mr~RTl[(pa/Pl)- 1] + mrn:-fRTb[(p2/Pb)- 1]
100 kN X 0.58 ~
And mr= PlVasp_ = ~ s = 0. 709 ~
RTl 0.287 k~JK X 285 K s
. 0.709 ~(1. 193 ) 0.287 ~} 285 K(3.25 162 1)
kg K I
Thus Wind X -
s \0.193
+ 29 5 K [ ( 7 . 9 I 3 . 25) 0 1 6 2 - 1] f
132.8 kW
rev [2TI rad]
Also Wshaft = 4.7 kN m x 6.3 s X
[--reY]
186.0 kW
132.8
Thus l'lmech = 186 0 = 0.714
2
to the high pressure cylinder is 30 C.
The delivery process in the low pressure cylinder and the induc-
tion and delivery processes in the high pressure cylinder are iso-
thermal. Pressure losses except during induction in the low press-
ure cylinder are negligible.
The relationship between pressure p, and volume v, for the com-
pression and expansion processes in each cylinder, which may be ass-
umed to be reversible, is pv 1 28 =constant.
Determine:
(a) the Free Air Delivery (i.e. the air volume flow rate at inlet
to the compressor)
(b) the compressor shaft power, for a mechanical efficiency 75%,
(c) the diameter of the high pressure cylinder.
(London University 1973 modified)
~
P2
Pi figure 1.2
Pl 1
~---------------v
.Vswept
Figure 1.2 refers.
= TI x 0.15 2 m2 x 0.16 ~l = 0.01131 m3 (L.P.stage)
eye e cycle
m3
Vc = 0.04Vswept = 0.04 x 0.01131 = 0.000452 - -1- (L.P. stage)
eye e
m3
Vswept + Vc = 0.01176 - -1-
cyc e
0 . 94 x 01.0
96 x 298
288 = 0.875 (referred to atmos.conditions)
96 kN X 0.943 m3
Pl Vasp = m2 0.875 x 0. 396 min
Also mr=
RT1 0.479 ~
min (at Pl, Tl)
0.287 k~JK X 298 K
Thus Wind
n
= me~ R { T1 [(P,/pt)'- 1] + T; [ (pzl P,t - 1)}
3
Thus
.
Wind 0.479 ~X
m1n ---
1---
0.219 X ~{298
0.287 kg K K((3/0.96) 0 219 - 1]
1.3
4
n
If !I = ii'"-=""T for expansion
Pl(~~) = y
... .,~:t ..,vZ) ,.....,..,
P2 = 3.5 bar(:277 33
= 2.307 bar
Vs = 0.06V2 - 0.06Vs
v5 = ~:~:v2 = o.064v2 (= o.088v1)
Thus v2 - v 5 = (1 - 0.064)V2 = 0.936V2
V1 v2 1
And V2 - Vs = T:3'7'8 x 0.936V2 = O. 775 (a)
!!.....:__!. = ln Ts/T,.
n ln PsiP'+
ln ( 305 1275 )
ln 3.5
0.0826 (since p,.v,." = PsVs")
n = 1.09
Wind = Pl cV1 )
- Vs +
(P1vn1 -_ P
1
v2) - v,.)
- Ps (V3 _fpsvs
\ _ p,.v,.'\
n - 1 l
v,. = vs(~)'" o.o88h(3.5) 0 917 = o.278h
.
Wind 350 ( 1 _ 0 . 088 )v1 + [350vl - 230.6(1.378vl)]
0.3
- loocl.378 - o.278)vl
[(350 x o.o88v1) - c1oo x o.278vl)]
+ 0.09
kN m
319.2vl + 107.4vl - 11o.ov1 - 33.3vl = 283.3vl min
4.5 ~X 0.287 ..!:!__X 305 K
h _ Vs = lllaspRl'1 = mm kg K
P1 350 kN
m2
aspirated volume flow rate
1.125 m3
Thus v 1 1 _ 0 . 088 1.234 min
and :.',nd =
,., 283.3 x 1.234 = 349.5 kN_m [min ] - 5 82 kl'' (b)
run [60 s] - '
or he - h1 = -7Jm~hW.nd
mr
- 7Jmech X Wind - 0.88 x 5.83 kW [..!:!.J
[s kW]
or + T1 -~-----""'i:"';.l-.,~-~ + 32 C
mrcp
4 5 !...
min
x 1 005 kJ ~()An ]
Kg"K s
68 C + 32 C =- 36.0 C (c)
s
4. A single-acting, single stage air compressor is designed to
operate in accordance with the following specification:
Inlet pressure = 1 bar; Inlet temperature 19 C;
Delivery pressure = 5 bar; Clearance/Swept
Index of compression volume ratio 0.05;
and expansion = 1.28; Air mass flow
Speed = 400 rev/min; rate 7 kg/min;
Determine the necessary cylinder swept volume.
If the compressor is run at the same speed as above and operates
with the same index of compression and expansion, but is used to ex-
tract air from a region where the pressure and temperature are 0.21
bar and 19 C respectively and delivers it at 1.05 bar, determine:
(a) the mass flow rate of air extracted,
(b) the ratio of the driving power required under these condit-
ions to the design driving power. (Aston University)
p/bar p/bar
5 K
~
1.05
0.21
._________
4 3 v
!-i---....,...---v
I I I
0 .05vs_.: 1,. Vs ., 1
figure 1.4
Aspirated volume = V1 -
.
rnRT1
V4 = 1.05Vswept - 0.176Vswept 0. 874Vs\\ept
PIN
7 ~X 0.287 kgkJ K X 292 K m3
m1n
l'swept 0.0168 cycle
0.874 X 100.kN x 400 cy~le
m2 m1n
P1V..sp =
21 g
m
x 0.0147 ~l
eye e
x 400 cy~le
m1n
1.472 ~
min
RT1 0.287 ~X 292 K
kg K
6
m; n - 1
W'ind n ~ l RT1 [ (p2/PJ 1] where y
n
and
. m ---
n RT1 [ (p2fpi)y - 1]
.
Wind
f n - 1
. . ~= -1.472
Thus !!i'!J.O.. = -
Wind m
7 - = 0.21
p/bar
3
17.25
3.8
figure 1.5
0.95
~----------------------V
n - 1
where y n
7
W~a "~:~~ x 0.287 k~JK {314 K(3.8/0.95) 0 18 - 1]
299.5 ~~
~- 299.5 kJ
m 0.86 kg
p/bar
0.45Vs
tJ'
7
figure 1.6
1 I 3
4 :
.,
I
v
0 . 05Vs----..l
I
...
I Vs
p 2 = P1Cvdv2)
{o 05
:r = 7 bar\1: 45) 1 " 4 2.138 bar
1
T3 T2(P31P2) = 240.8 K x 2.138 = 112.6 K (since Vis const.)
8
*
~(:ooco. 45 _ 0 _05 ) + (700 x o.45)
0 ~ 4 (213.8 x 1.05)
383.8 ~
m
Assuming that the overall machi-ne cycle is adiabatic and using
the first law of thermodynamics
0 = 0 = zb 0 - hi ) + Wind (where o = outlet, i :: inlet)
0 mfcp(T0 - Ti) + Wind
K]
RT!
- 700 x 0.05 ln 7
443.8 ~
m
g
(b) On a sketch, show the relationships between P; and the deliv-
ery temperatures in each cylinder as P; varies from p 5 to Pd
Hence, derive an expression, in terms of the same quantities as
in part (a) which will give the value of P; for which the highest
temperature attained by the gas is as low as possible.
(London University 1967)
I \.
7'i B A
Pct K
P;
Ps Ts
A
v P; P;
figure 1. 7a figure 1.7b figure 1. 7c
and dwtotal
~
p; Y Yfl_Yl + T; .!"(!_y ( -YP;Yl ) ]
R [ T5 0
-Y lin 1 - 2n
or T
sPsP; = T _ypq
I Yct I where q = --n----
or P;
_/
= "PsPct ,T;
f.T )ljY
after simplification
Also when P; = p 5
when P; pd
10
corresponding to point Bin figure 1.7(c)
Also the curve of T; against P; is concave upwards since the
rate of change of~ with P; is getting less negative asP; increases.
The highest temperature attainable by the gas is as low as possible
when
T= ~/ when( T)dl~Y T;
and P; = 1 Ps Pd ~~
Further Examples
11
2 RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
12
p/bar
so
f\1' d
1
~5
1
L---------------------v
Figure 2.1
n-1
Ts ..
T ( v .. )
-Vs
5. 357Tl 2.741Tl
13
m 3 N 'ITD2
Thus 0.1789 S =4 X 2 X - 4- X 1.25D
figure 2.2
4
~-------------------v
14
Thus for the Otto cycle shown the mean effective pressure is
mep
Vl
Wind
- V2 ( 'Y - 1) (v1
Vl
- v2)
~3
r (1
- ri-'Y ) - Pl (r'Y-I - 1~
1 [P3(1 - ri-'Y ) - Pl (r'Y-I -
('Y - 1)( 1 - ~) r
1)]
or mep 0.4
8.5
X 7.5 8.5(l
~5 - 8.50.4) - 1(8.5' 4 -
1~
6. 708 bar
Thus the actual mean effective pressure is given by
mepactual 0.55 x 6.708 bar = 3.69 bar
mf = mSf x
.
WB = 0.306 ..!L
kWh X 44 kW 13.464 ~g
~
. 49.64 kW [ kJ ] m3
l'swept 0.135
mep 369 kN [s kW] s
m2
Vswept =
0.135 .!!!.._
S
'
2250 cycle[ min]
min [60 s)
15
Determine (a) the mean effective pressure and (b) the ratio of
the fuel mass flow rate to the indicated power.
Assume that both the unburned and burned mixtures behave as per-
fect gases for which R = 0.28 kJ/(kg K) and~= 1.33, that the vol-
umetric composition of air is oxygen 0.21 and nitrogen 0.79, and
that the internal energy of reaction for the fuel is -45 MJ/kg.
(London University 1973)
p/bar
100 3
figure 2.3
4
2 ~--....;;;:-.1
ltJt=~====~c~--v
Figure 2. 3 refers.
'Y 1. 33 {. kJ ) kJ
Cp = ;y:--r R = 0.33\0.28 kg K = 1.128 kg K
kJ
Cv = Cp - R = 0. 848 kg K
(rl
Tc T1& = !!_
P1 2
7'2 T 1V1
- 323 K(5) 0 ' 33 = 549.4 K
V2
P2
p{~~r 2 bar (5) 1 33 = 17 bar
T3 7'21. = 549.4 K
P2
X ~~ 0 = 3231.8 K
( r-1
T4 = T 3V3
-
V4
3231.8 K (0.2)0,33 = 1900.1 K
"'n;t Wnet
mep
Vl - V2
V1 (1 - V2)
Vl
= Pl (
RT1 1 - :~)
then after dividing the last brackets by v 1 , substituting RT 1 for
P1v1 and (RTI/2) for PcVl and rationalising we get
mep P1
16
where z 'Y - 1
,,..
and Wj ll'!nwi = C~a + ~f)w,
Thus ~=
[1 ~} RT1 [l _ V2]
.
+ rnf
rna mpl Vl
~ = ~f x ~a = .!;L x ~a
fii Jl1i rna rna h'i
t:.E 0 = [!!!--rn
af +
0
1] Cv (T3 - T2)
45 X 10 3 kJ
~ = f;E - 1 = ------....,-;,...-----___:.k:..________ - 1
~f cv(T3 - T2)
0.848 kgkJ K(3231.8 - 549.4) K
18.783
.
and !!!!..-- 0.0532
rna
kJ
323 K
w
,..L
n>a
= (1 + 0.0532) X 2690 gm X
0.28 kg K X
200 kN
(0. 8)
~
1024.9
1 5.19 10- 5 ~
Thus ~= 0.0532 X------=
1024.9
x
Wt kJ
figure 2.4
1
1.06
0.84 ~2 13
1
I
v
I I
---+! 1 .__ 8
or HR:l + HF = HT3
or mRcp(T:l - To) + mFcp(T - To)
or T3
1 + !!!.E.
mR
kN
84 jjj2 X (8V 1 - 1 .183Vl)
kJ 7 .128v1
0.277 kg K X 290 K
18
!!l.E = 7.128
mv 8.424 = 0 846
p/bar
1~
t1 'D:
66 1
figure 2.5
s
f ~iy
Figure 2.5 refers.
300 kJ
s3 - s2 = = 2q3 = ~ - 0 4910 kJ _v3
T2 611 K - ' K kg = R 1n v 2
2
kJ
v:
V
= antiln\
{s 3
; 52
~
/= antiln
0.4910 K kg
kJ -
0.287 kg K
5.53
P2 1 bar(~;~y. 5
= 7. 86 bar
P2v2T3 = 7. 86 bar
P3
V3T2 5.54 1. 419 bar
19
T~ = T3(~:)" = 611 K(l.~l9r 286 = 552.8 K
V2 = ~ = 0.164
v~ - v2 6.12v2
.......___ _ _ s
.:::lE29s.s
figure 2.Sa
Trc
and
SA
TA
TA
- s1
(sA - sl)
= 571.5
= Cp ln ~
= 2q3 = 300 ~~ = TA Cp
K (298.5 C)
ln * for which
20
figure 2,5b
21
(i) The pressure ratio r is given by the equation
r = 0.0013N - 0.530v
when the blower speed N is measured in rev/min and the air flow by
volume v is measured in m3 /min at 1 bar and 15 C.
(ii) For blower speeds between 2000 and 6000 rev/min and for val-
ues of pressure ratio between 1.3 and 1.8, the isentropic efficiency
of the blower is constant at 0.78.
Determine the pressure in the inlet manifold at an engine speed
of 1000 rev/min given that the volumetric efficiency, based on man-
ifold conditions, is 76% and that the blower takes in air at 1 bar
and 15 C.
Also make an approximate estimate of the ratio of the indicated
power of this engine to that of a similar unsupercharged engine op-
erating at the same speed. State any assumptions made.
For air take cp as 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and R. as 0.287 kJ/(kg K).
(London University 1966)
2
Engine
Engine
Inlet
Manifold
Figure 2.6
'II
or
22
m3 1000 stroke m3
v1 = 0.898P'5 = 0.898 x 0.015 stroke x -2 -~ = 6.736 min
and r = 0.0013(4000) - 0.530(6.736) = 1.63 (cf.l.3 assumed value)
Trial 2 r = 1.8
T2 288 K(l.8) 0 286 = 340.7 K
340
T2 288 + 0:7~ 288 = 355.6 K
m3
1.108 x 0.015 x 500 = 8.310 min
r 0.0013(4000) - 0.530(8.31)
0. 796
and plotting a straight line graph of r (estimated) against r (cal-
culated) we find that
r = 1.42 is the correct value satisfying the stated conditions.
Thus P2 = 1.42 bar
[ PI h]
RT! ]spchgd
[RT1
~
J _vt(supercharged)
(uncharged)
unchgd - 1
23
p
s
PO 1
~------------------v
Figure 2.7
T!
Ts T4
V4]n-l
[Vs = qT3 L7s
rqV3Jn-l qTsl?J
~ ]"-1
OW net
J
Wnet
and mep RT1(r- 1)
RT1 1 - ~
Srpownet SpoWnet
RTsr(r- 1) RTs(r - 1)
and
by
mepunchgd 21.9lpo
24
Spo 4
5
2po
PO
,....----.-..11
....__ _ ___,1
~----------v
Figure 2.7a
qT3 as before;
Ts = 7'~[::J-I = q7'{;]"-l
(r- 1)R7'1L ~ 3 n- 1 VT
+ Po (v1 - v2~
rpo {R(T _ 7' ) + R(T~ - 7's)
(r - 1)R7'1 ~ 3 n - 1
~J}
r
+ RT1 [ 1 -
!l.ln-1
rpoS
(r - 1)R7't
{cq7' 3 - 7'
3
) + ..,..;.."---n""""---"T1;...o..._
qT3 - qTs r]
+ s Ts
2r 1n !r
+ T~r 1 _ ~]}
1 _ i. n-1
= ~ { (q - 1) + q r + 2r 1n! +
r - 1 n - 1 S r
25
and substituting the given values the supercharged mep becomes
120po ~
~0 8 +
r r1. 8]o. 31
1 81 - [Ts
0.3
J+ ~
120
.!__
ln 18
+ ~~o ~ - ~8]}
21.6Spo
Thus mepunspchgd 21.91
mepspchgd 21.65 = 1. 012
Further Examples
8. The specific fuel consumption of a spark-ignition engine at
full load is 0.335 kg/(kW h) when the calorific value of the fuel
is 44 200 kJ/kg. The mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the
indicated thermal efficiency.
Calculate the brake and indicated mean effective pressures of
the engine at this load if the gravimetric air-fuel ratio is 18,
the volumetric efficiency is 82% and the ambient conditions are
1 bar and 20 C.
The engine has a compression ratio of 6. Determine the effic-
iency of the comparable air standard Otto cycle and thence the ind-
icated efficiency ratio for the engine.
Calculate the indicated mean effective pressure, the maximum
pressure and the maximum temperature for the Otto cycle if the
temperature and pressure at the beginning of compression are res-
pectively 20 C and 1 bar and the heat supplied per kg of air is
equal to the energy supplied by the fuel in the engine per kg of
air drawn in.
(0.304, 5.82 bar, 7.28 bar, 0.512, 0.594, 18 bar, 3747 C, 82.3 bar)
26
induction pressure is 1.455 atmosphere and state the new compress-
ion ratio under this condition.
Assume that:
(a) a 10% increase in induction pressure produces an 11% increase
in indicated power when the compression ratio and other factors are
unchanged;
(b) the compression ratio of the engine itself must be reduced
by 1.8 x the boost pressure in atmospheres;
(c) mechanical efficiencies are 88% without and 85% with the
supercharger;
(d) the indicated thermal efficiency ~ is given by
~ = 1 - (1/rf where r = compression ratio and c is a constant.
(Supercharged compression ratio= 9.181)
27
3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN
DUCTS
*
353 K = 330.7 K 1]
130 kN
p = ~ kJ iii2 1. 37 (a)
0.287 kg K X 330.7 K
~R kJ kJ
Cp = ~ = 3.5 X 0.287 kg K "' 1.005 kg K
Energy equation
28
Ma E._= 21 1. 7 0.58 (c)
Ua 364.5 =
POl
7'01
20 bar:
40o c
~I Figure 3.2
P02 = 15 bar
kJ
ho 2 = 3148 kg (page 7)
44 kJ
and h 2 = 2944 + 50 (3052 - 2944) = 3039.0 kg (page 7)
Energy equation relating static and stagnation states at point 2:
29
2
Eye
Figure 3.3
2
P2 = P02[T7'02 J/k 2-
= POl -7'02
[T ]'/k for reversible flow
100 cm 2 [ m2 ~ x 120 -m
~ = _A2_u_2 = ___ _...~[..:l;.::O_"--=cm:::.2:"''----~s 1.34 ~
v2 m3 s
0.895 kg
(b)
u2 120 2
,. 2~p 2 x 1.005 x 1000 .. 7.16 K as before
150 2
7'01 = Tatmos + 8150 "' 291 + 2 x 1000 x 1.005 302.2 K
30
T2 302.2 - 7.16 = 295.03 K = 22.03 C
- [~Jt/k
,Po 1 - .Patmos Tatmos
- 10 s jjjf"
-
Nx [ 302.2]
291
5
= 1.14
3'
10
s
x
N
m2
1.048 X 10 5 ~
Rl'2 = 0.287 X 295.03 X 10 3
P2 1.048 X 105
-
figure 3.4
31
h2 h1 - iu~
2765 kJ - [685] 2 m2 [N s] [ kJ ]
kg 2 ST [kg m] [103 N m]
2765 - 234.6 = 2530.4 ~~
hl - h2 234.6 ~~
234.6 =
and hl - h2 0.84 279.3 ~~
or kJ
= 2765 - 279.3 = 2485.7 kg
h2
and p 2 = 1.4 bar approximately (reading from the chart)
kJ
s 1 s1 6.709 kg K (page 4 of tables)
32
Assume air to be a perfect gas for which R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
and 'Y = 1.4.
The critical pressure ratio for the reversible flow ~f a perfect
gas through an adiabatic nozzle is equal to [2/('Y + 1)] where k
is equal to [('Y - 1)/'Y] (London University 1968 recast)
0.6 m3 0.6m 3
200 bar 1 bar 1 bar
2
1
423 )( 2 bar
Figure 3.5
20 QQQ ~X 0.6 m3
m
P1V1 =
m1
RT1
98.8 kg
0.287 k~JK X 423 K
200 X
m2. = P2.V2. =
RT2. 0.287 X ~i~.3 = 3.69 kg
m1 - m2. = 95.11 kg
Pc = [ 2- ]3.5 0.528 (where Pc = critical pressure)
P2. 2.4
and h
P2.
= .!.2 = 0 . 5 (where Pa = atmospheric pressure)
Thus Pa < Pc always and ~ is always at constant maximum value.
= 376.3 ~
0.528 X 20 000 kN
0.528pl =
2 ~
_.EJ._ =
Pt
RTt RTt kJ 104.4 ~
0.287 kg K X 2.4 X 423 K
kg m [ m2 ]
104.4 iT x 376.3 5 x 130 mm 2 [loti mm2)
5.11 ~ constant
s
33
95.11 kg 18.61 s
and t
5.11 ~
s
2 ~I (kg/s)
- 0.672
0.606 -t
,"""t-o-~--0.66
0.475---t
Figure 3.6
/ t
0.875
0.90 '
0.95
X
0.88
Figure 3.6 refers.
Pt = 7 X 0. 58 4. 06 bar
Thus P2 < p 1 and the mass flow rate rn is a maximum (u 1 u81 )
rn = uA]
[-v 1
450
= 106
X
X
645 = 0. 66 ~
0.44 S
34
h2 = 302 + kJ
0.9(2328) = 2397.2 kg
kJ [~] [kN m]
U2 = ~2 (hl - h2) =~2(2764- 2397.2) kg
[N s ] [ kJ ]
856.5 .!!!.
s
m3
V2 = X2Vg2 = 0.9 X 4.649 = 4.184 kg
Assume x2 is 0.95
h2 2513.6
U2 707.7
V2 4.417
m = 707.7
106 X
X 2967
4.417
0.475 ~
s
(cf 0.66)
Assume x2 is 0.875
h2 2339
U2 922
V2 4.068
X2 0.88
h2 302 + (0.88 X 2328) = 2350.6 kJ/kg
hl - h2 = 413.4 kJ/kg
and from the enthalpy-entropy chart for steam
hl - h2 = 484 kJ/kg
413.4
""""484 = 0. 854 (c)
35
For the gas~= 1.3, R = 0.296 kJ/(kg K), cp = 1.281 kJ/(kg K)
and the critical pressure ratio is 0.546. (London University 1969)
T2 T1 [p 2]
Pt
k
= 707 K[ ~r231
3.82
(1)
Figure 3.7
Method of solution
36
and ~ = 645 X 541.3 X 382 = O 637 ~ (ch k)
RT1 10 6 x 0.296 x 707 s ec
Now if the other value of p 2 is 6.22 bar
Tz 707 K (6.22/3.82) 0 " 231 = 791.3 K
uz 277.6 m/s
and Azuzpz = 864 x 277.6 x 622 _ ~
RTz 10 6 x 0.296 x 791.3- 0 637 s (check)
Figure 3. 8
Energy equation
= h1 + iu~
h1 [since 1q2 = JW2 = UJ = (gzl - gzz) 0]
For steam initially saturated the polytropic index n 1.135
.i 35r,.
and the critical pressure is given by
Pc = P{:n: 1
1]' " = 5[2 07
= 2.89 bar (say 2.9 bar)
and since Pex; 1 < Pc then p 1 = Pc = 2.9 bar approximately
and the mass flow rate is a maximum.
Thus u1 = ~2 (h 1 - h 1) and in the convergent portion where the flow
is reversible and adiabatic i.e. isentropic
kJ
6.822 K kg (page 4)
37
Thus xl [~] = 6.822 - 1.66 = 0.966
Sfg I 5.344
kJ
h 1 (hr + xhrg) 1 = 556 + 0.966(2168) = 2650.3 kg
,., = u~ - ht - h2.
~- ht - h2.s
52.s St = 6.822 kJ/(K kg)
h2.s = (h r + xhrg)
2.S
467 + 0.931(2226) 2538.8 ~~
and for the real flow
38
is reversible from the inlet to the throat.
For the gas R = 0.209 kJ/(kg K), y = 1.33.
The critical pressure ratio for the reversible and adiabatic flow
of a perfect gas is equal to (2/ (Y + 1) ]I /k where k = (Y - 1) /Y.
(London University 1966 recast)
- Figure 3.9
Pc = Pl [ m
2 ]1/k = 5.5 bar x 2 . 33l
-_2 ]4.03 2.972 bar
39
and A2 = ~X A2 = 1473.5 = 2 . 69
At At m 2.68
When the vessel pressure is 4.8 bar the entire flow is reversible.
Further Examples
10. Air flows through a duct of constant cross-sectional area
16.4 x 10- 3 rn 2 and at a certain cross-section (1) its velocity is
30 rn/s, its pressure is 1.38 bar and its temperature is 93 C.
At a subsequent cross-section (2) its pressure is 1.35 bar.
Assuming frictionless flow, calculate:-
(a) the mass flow rate along the duct,
(b) the total temperature at (1),
(c) the velocity at (2),
(d) the total temperature at (2),
(e) the heat transfer between (1) and (2).
(0.646 kg/s, 366.5 K, 106.2 rn/s, 1273.8 K, 589 kJ/s)
40
Area of delivery pipe 25 cm 2
Temperature of air at impeller eye 4.5 C
Assume isentropic flow from the atmosphere through the intake
duct to the impeller eye and that the air velocity is perpendicular
to the plane of the impeller eye.
Calculate
(a) the mass flow rate of air,
(b) the air power required by the compressor.
(c) the cross-sectional area of the impeller eye.
(0.88 kg/s, 101 kW, 53.6 cm 2 )
13. The nozzles in the first stage of a steam turbine are fed
from a steam chest of large cross-sectional area, in which the steam
pressure is 110 bar and the temperature is 400 C.
Calculate
(a) the exit velocity if the exit pressure is 40 bar and the
overall nozzle isentropic efficiency is 0.96.
(b) the throat area to pass 20 kg/s of steam assuming that flow
is isentropic between inlet and throat.
(670 m/s, 0.00141 m2 )
41
4 RADIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Vector velocity diagrams appear for the first time here and
the convention is summarised as follows.
u, ---------- absolute velocity of fluid at section x,
uw, ur ------ whirl and flow components of ux,
ub ---------- blade velocity,
ux-b -------- relative velocity of blade to 1vector ux,
a ---------- angle made by ux with positive sense of Ub,
~ ---------- angle made by Ux-b with positive sense of ub,
(the last two taken in clockwise rotation).
The kinetic energy term is often appreciable and stagnation
quanti ties are generally used.
m= ~
RTo2
where va is the actual volume aspirated
42
Figure 4.1
L---------------------------9
~~7~ = 40.93 K
and To2 288 + 40.93 328.9 K
.
3
kN 0.43 .!!!...._
150 m2 x 0.82 X
s
m 0.585 ~
s
0.275 k~JK X 328.9 K
Cp
'YR
= -;y:--r = 1. 33 [0.275
0.33 kg K
kJ~= kJ
l.l kg K
Energy equation
W ~Cp(T02 To!) 0.585 ~X 1.1 _!:!__X 40.93 K 26.3 kW
s kg K
Momentum equation
W= ~ub~Uw = ~u~ and from the energy equation above
D2 = 2r2 =~5P.~T~ x 2 (since the slip and power input factors
w are to be taken as unity)
Thus D2 2 [rev ] [60 sLL 1 __!:!...._ x 40 9 K[~] [103 N]
8 x 2800 r7v [21r c] [min Jl. . kg K [N s ] [ kN ]
m1n
D2 0.181 m
43
.
or .!!!E!! = 1. 5
Wna
Now Wna = 800 X 0.43 g
m x ~
s = 344 kW
Figure 4.2
44
2ub2 = ~_/lili = 2 33.1 kJ [~[kN m1
w w1pfa 10 000 r7v 1.05 x 0.95 kg [N s 1 [ kJ 1
m1.n
x [60 s1 [rev ]
[min ] [2'11" c]
D2 0.348 m
l
Impeller2--
j0.038 m
Tip
Figure 4.3
0. 2 86 1 . 005 ..!:!..__ X
388 K
RT3 = C.!....:.....!J T3 -
X
kg K
P3 ~ CpP3 -
246 kN
jjjT
12 . 72 ~
x 0 . 45 3 km
3
Uw3 Uw2r 2
r3
= Uw2.!:L
r3
= 0.95 X 427.6 !!!_X 0 2475
s 0.266
= 378 !!!_
s
45
388.7 2 ~
~= 5 {N s 2 ] ( kN ] _
Bug= kg m] (103 N] - 7S.2 K
2cp
2 X l.OOS k~JK
Tog = Tg + Bug = 388 + 7S.2 = 463.2 K = 190.2 oc
lSO
TI-uuw-=-=---:~----+-1
mm
t *
Cross-Section ~r
1 41
through u1
Impeller Eye Ul-b
Figure 4.4
Figure 4 .4 refers
From the equations of conservation of energy and angular momentum
- UblUwl)
46
To 2 5 = ToJ[Efl21k 290 K ( 4) o 2 a 6 431.1 K
PO!j
= 141.1 K
------------~--------------~~
UUb2~
or 0.2356N = - 168 800 + 0.0009376N 2
or N =
0.2356 :!: 0.0555 + 633.44 = 13 544 r7v
0.0018752 m1n
O.lroot
47
5. A single-sided radial flow compressor is stationary relative
to the atmosphere and takes in air at the rate of 7.93 kg/s at am-
bient conditions of 1 bar and 288 K. The inlet eye has inner and
outer diameters of 127 and 279 mm respectively and fixed guide
blades give the air a pre-whirl angle of 65 (relative to the
blade velocity direction) at mean eye diameter. Assuming uniform
axial velocity at inlet and neglecting losses in the guide blades,
show that this axial velocity must be equal to approximately 153
m/s. If the pre-whirl angle varies radially in such a way that
equal work is done on the air irrespective of the radius at which
it enters, calculate the tip and root angles of the guide blades.
Also find the Mach number and the correct angle at the tip of the
rotor eye for a rotational speed of 16 000 rev/min. Calculate the
power absorbed if the outer diameter of the rotor is 527 mm taking
a slip factor of 0. 9 and a power input factor of 1. 04. Assume free
vortex flow across the impeller eye.
Mean Radius
Velocity Triangle
Figure 4.5
Ubl
168.82 m2 [N s2]
T1M To1 - _u_1M_2_ = 288 K - _ _ _ _..;:sc...2'T"":-+[k:,:.g~m~]':T-
2cp 2 x 1 005 _!L(los N]
' kg K[ kN )
T1M = 288 - 14.2 273.8 K
PlM = Po lM[Tl
TO!
]k r273.8J 3 5
1 barl""""288 0.838 bar
kJ
0.287 kgK' X 273.8 K
V!M = RT!M =
PlM 83.8 kN
m2
48
and substituting back in equation (1) above where
Ar 1 = ~(0.1395 2 - 0.0635 2 ) = 0.0485 m2
o 7.93 ~X 0.938 ~
u f1 mv1M - s g - 153.5 .!!!. (check)
Ar1 0.0485 m2 - s
Ua
=/'"YRT =./1.4 x 0.287 kkgJK x 273.8 K
1 1 [~ [kN m]
[N s ) [ kJ )
331.7 .!!!.
s
~Pr(UUbz 2 - Ub1Uw1)
7.93 ~
s
x 1.04{0.9 x 16 000 2 r7v 2 ["""Te'V2]
m~n2
[ 4 ~ 2 c][[6ifTST]
min 2 ](0.2635 2
Further examples.
49
a mass flow rate of 1.5 kg/s and atmospheric conditions of 1 bar
and 15 C.
The impeller vanes are to be radial at the tip and the slip fac-
tor (or ratio of whirl speed at impeller tip to impeller tip speed)
is 0.95.
Assuming zero pre-whirl, a power input factor of unity and an
isentropic efficiency based on stagnation conditions of 0.8 calcu-
late:-
(a) the impeller tip radius,
(b) the power required to drive the compressor.
Sketch curves showing how you would expect
(i) pressure ratio and
(ii) isentropic efficiency
to vary with mass flow rate for such a compressor running at con-
stant speed. Show clearly the limits of operation.
(0.1289 m, 233.8 kW)
so
5 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
60
Figure S.l
I
and the trigonometry of the velocity triangles
Wstage
Cp
_ IJ.To = Uubur [tan 'Y2 - tan 'Y3]
Cp
I
I nubu r [tan ;~ - tan &2] 1
51
0. 86 X 392.7 .!!!_X 226.7 .!!!.
s s [tan 30 - tan 60 0]
I::J.To o
kJ
1.005 kg K
[N s 2 ] l kJ ]
x [kg m] [103 N m]
I
I::J.To 88 K
To3 To2 + I::J.To = 290 + 88 = 378 K
I::J.To s = 'l)oi::J.To = 0. 9 x 88 79.2 K
To3s = 290 + 79.2 = 369.2 K
P03 = [To3s]J/k [369.2] 3"5
290 = 2.328
Po 2 To 2
Figure 5.2
k 1n E..Q..!z.. 0.286 1n Po 4
Thus 0.9I2 PQ3 Po3
1n To 4 1 [290 + 176]
To3 n 290 + 88
52
Thus Po = 1.949 X 2. 328 = 4.538
Po 2
= 254.4 K
Tons= 254.4 K(12) 0 " 286 517.8 K
t1To 5 (10 stages) = 263.4 K
53
Conservation of energy and angular momentum gives
W = Cpf1To stage = f2ubfluw = f2ub 2
K [kg m] [kN m]
ub =~frpliTostage =~ 0 .~ 5 x 1.005 k~JK x 30.28 [N'ST] [ kJ ]
or ub 189.2 .I!!.
s
Ar ~= ~T
Uf PUr
m
Now ur uri igh t = 250 -s
189.2
and 02 tan
- 1
---zso = 37.1
0
{33 90 0 for X = 0. 5
10 ~X 0.287 ~X 223.3 K
s kg K
0.0967 m2
Ar
26.5
m
g
X 250 .I!!.
s
80
54
Ua = ~"'( RT = ~ 1 . 4 X 0 287 ~
. kg K
X 275 2 K [kN m] (~]
[ kJ ] [N s 2]
= 332 5 .!!!_
. s
E.l=JL _ ~ sin 80 m sin 80 1 0. 723
Ma 0 = 200 s sin 55 a
ua -s.,..i.;_n---:-5-:-5-...-
ua 332 . 5 .!!!_
s
Figure 5.5
Wstage 24.1 ~~
I:J.Tos tage w
Cp
l~kJ
1.005 kg ~I=
kJ 23.96 K
55
To
ns
= To1[~]k
Po 1
= 290 K (4) 0 286 431. l K
6To = 14 1. 1 = 166 K
0.85
166
N = 23 . 96 = 6.9 say 7 stages
[N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
290 K -
kJ [kg m] [103 N m]
2 X 1.005 kg K
= 275.2 K
For free vortex conditions
where T refers to the tip of the blades
and R refers to the root of the blades.
or 0.2 (A)
2ubR EI.
IR
or t Uw! + Uwz]
2 ub R
0.8 (B)
Or ER..
IT
=~Q.:2
0 . 8 = 0.5 (C)
Mass Continuity
IT 2 - rR 2 0 \~ 37 = 0.0362 m2 (D)
Solving equations (C) and (D) simultaneously
IT = 0.2197 m; IR = 0.1098 m
56
365 !!!.
and w = ~- = s [60 s] [rev ] 15 865 rev
rT 0.2197 m [min ][21r c] min
Now (uwr + Uw2)T = (1 - AT) X 2ubT = 0.2 X 2 X 365 !!!.= 146 !!!.
s s
200
= 180 - tan -r 365
flr = 180 0
- tan -r ~
Ub = 151.3
0
fJz = 180 0
- tan- I [-uJ __J = 180
ub - Uw
0
- t
an
-r 200 _ 137.6
219 -
0
h. To ~-
Cp Cp
53.02 K
2
Tentry Uentry
Toentry + 2Cp
2
200 2 .'!!__
s2 [N s 2 ] [ kJ ]
220 K + ---_;:.---:k-:J:-
[kg m] [103 N m] 239.9 K
2 X 1.005 kg K
To2 = Toexit = 239.9 + 53.2 = 293.1 K
Further Examples.
6. Derive an expression, in terms of the total pressures and
temperatures at entry and delivery, and the isentropic index, for
the total small-stage polytropic efficiency of a rotary compressor.
The following data refer to a bench test on an axial flow air
compressor.
Atmospheric pressure and temperature at inlet 1 bar, 15 C
Total temperature in the delivery pipe 160 C
Total pressure in the delivery pipe 3.5 bar
Fluid pressure in the delivery pipe 2. 9 bar
Inside diameter of the delivery pipe 220 mm
Calculate
(a) the isentropic and small stage efficiencies based on total
properties,
(b) the air mass flow rate.
Discuss briefly the use of small stage efficiency in the prelim-
inary design of an axial flow compressor.
(0.879, 0.856, 19.98 kg/s)
57
7. An axial flow air compressor has 9 similar stages in which the
work done in each stage is the same and the axial velocities are
constant throughout at any given radius.
The following data is available, reference being to mean blade
height where applicable.
Overall total pressure 3.5
Total inlet temperature 280 K
Relative air angles at rotor inlet 130
at rotor exit 100
(Both measured in same sense from the blade
velocity vector)
Degree of reaction 0.5
Work done factor 0.86
Small stage polytropic efficiency (total) 0.89
Calculate:
(a) the overall isentropic efficiency (total),
(b) the required mean blade velocity.
(0.869, 166.1 m/s)
58
6 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
U2 = Uf
(235)
Figure 6.1
~--------------5
59
(vi) From the velocity diagram {31 37.5
Conservation of angular momentum
W = ~ubb.uw
and from the velocity diagram b.uw = 955 m
5
.
w
m = uJ~uw = 500 !!!_ 2.095 ~
X 955 !!!_ ( kJ J N 52 J 5
s s [103 N m][kg m]
Conservation of linear momentum in the flow or axial direction
m(U1f - U2f) (since P1 = P2 giving zero pressure
thrust)
2.095 ~(350 235) !!!_ [N s2]
5 s [kg m]
240.9 N
u1 1017 m/s (uo =0 in a single stage machine)
Conservation of energy
ho - h1 iu12 = 10172 !!!.._ [~ [ kJ ]
2 s [kg m][lo3 N m]
517.1 ~~
ho - h1 = 5 ~:9 9 = 574.6 ~~
60
left hand end of Ub to cut u 2 -b direction.
(viii) Complete uz and measure 11uw (uz = 390 m/s, 11uw = 1308
m/s)
Figure 6.2
1200 2 m2 [N s 2 ] [ kJ ] 720 kJ
~u1 2 --2-52 [kg m] [103 N m] kg
550
Thus 11d 720 = o. 764
ho 3158 kJ/kg (Tables page 7).
ho - hl = ~u1 2 = 720 kJ
kg
61
0.95 X 358 340.1 ~~
Figure 6.3
'All
I. (1155)
Conservation of energy
430 !!!.
s
62
ocity is 0.8. For the second stage the blade speed is 220 m/s, the
stator blade outlet angle is 20 , the ratio of wheel to jet speed
is 0.5, the rotor blade outlet angle is 18 and the static enthalpy
drop in the rotor is 20 kJ/kg. All angles are measured relative to
the circumferential direction.
Determine, either by calculation or by measurement from scaled
vector diagrams, the nozzle efficiency and the power output from
each stage.
Show, on a sketch of the enthalpy-entropy diagram, the state
points for stagnation and static conditions at entry to and exit
from each blade row. (London University 1974)
Figure 6.4
ho = 2944 kJ
kg so Ss -- 6 "926 ~
K kg
kJ kJ
his= 2732 kg S! = 6.941 K kg ; T1 = 138.9 + 273 = 411.9 K
kJ
Thus h! = 2732 ~~ - 411.9 K(6.941 - 6.926) K kg= 2725.8 ~~
ho - hl 2944 - 2732
and "'N = ho - h! s 2944 - 2725.8
0.972
63
Conservation of energy (nozzle)
_ 2732 ) kJ [kN m] [kg m]
u1 =~2(h 0 - hi) = ~2(2944 kg [ kJ ] [N"ST]
651.2 m
s
Ul- b
530 Sm
= 40 kJ [kg m] [kN m]
h4) kg [NS"T] [ kJ ]
2
U4-b 2 = 40 000 + 250 2 = 102 500 ~ 2
64
cal. Calculate the enthalpy drop through each stage.
Given that the total isentropic enthalpy drop through the tur-
bine is 670 kJ/kg determine the stage efficiency for an overall
reheat factor of 1.04.
The turbine develops 7.5 MW. Estimate the blade height at the
outlet from the sixth stage where the specific volume of the steam
is 1.03 m3 /kg. (London University 1970)
Figure 6.5
ub = wr
= SO
s [[ ~rev]
~ 2 c] x 0.6 m = 188.5 ~
s
Conservation of angular momentum
Conservation of energy
m=
w 7500 kW ( kJ ] 15.64 ~
llhstag e x 12 39 96 kJ 12 (s kW] s
kg X
Conservation of mass
mv
15.64 ~X 1.03 ~3
-= 5 g = 0. 224 m2
Uf
72~
s
0.224 m2
L 0.059 m
~x 1.2 m
65
6. An axial flow steam turbine is to be designed in accordance
with the following data:-
Blade height 100 mm
Mean blade ring diameter 1 m
Rotor speed 3000 rev/min
Degree of reaction at mean blade height 0.5
Absolute steam velocity at stage
in let and exit 100 m/s
Stage isentropic efficiency 0.9
Steam pressure at stage inlet 7 bar
Steam temperature at stage inlet 300 C
Steam pressure at stage exit 6 bar
The axial velocity is constant throughout the rotor which is of
free vortex design. Find
(a) the following blade angles at mean blade height:
(i) stator exit, (ii) rotor inlet, (iii) rotor exit,
(b) the degree of reaction at the blade root.
(Aston University 1977)
X
Figure 6.6
/l,uw
7.298- 7 182
hgs = 2958 + 7 . 373 _ 7 : 182 (3062 - 2958) 3021. 2 ~~ (p. 7)
h1 - hgs = 38.84 ~~
kJ
h1 - hg = T//l,hs = 0.9 X 38.84 = 34.95 kg
3000 ~ [ 2 ~ c][min] x 0.5 m = 157.1 m
ub = wr = min [ rev] [60 s] s
Conservation of energy
1w3 = 1/:;h 3 (since u1 = ug) = 34.95 ~~
Conservation of angular momentum
kJ
34.95 Fg [~ [kN m]
222.5 m
157.1 ~ [N s ] [ kJ ] s
s
66
U2-b = U3 = 100 m/s
ur =~(u 2 - b 2 - x2) =~(100 2 - 32. 72 ) 94.5 ~
s
By symmetry
~3 = 180 - 2 = 153.5
XR = l _ [Uw2 + Uw3J
2ub R
Uw 3 R =
uw:LEM
-MrR
= xEM
IR
= - 32.7 x -5
4.5- = - 36.3 ~S (opposite to
Ub)
67
J
Figure 6.7
fJ3 = 130.6
From the symmetry of the above
U2b = U3-bj fJ2 = 180 - {33; U3 = Uf3 = Uf2j Ub X.
ll:!R =
tan- 1 ~
Ub + X
= tan- 1 2 75
235.6 X 2 =
30 3
Uw3T= 0
275
fJ2T 180
0
- tan - 1 141.7
0
549.7 - 201.9
275
fJ3T 180 0
- tan - 1 549.7 = 153.4
0
275
a2T tan - 1
201.9 = 53.7
AR =1 - fuw2 + Uw3]
[ 2ub R
= 1 _ Kdr + K3/r = 1 _1!2 + K3][.!_]
2wr [ 2w r2 J
where K2 and K3 are constants (free vortex condition) and also
ub = wr (where w is a constant)
, K4
Thus "R = 1 - r2 where K4 is a constant
or
68
1 - AT E..IC_ 1 - [0.75]2(1- 0)
~= rT2 1. 75
AT=0.816
h 2T - h 2R = 90.6 kkJg
Further Examples
8. A steam turbine rotates at 3000 rev/min and the first stage
is a single row impulse wheel. Steam enters the turbine at 100 bar
and 600 C with negligible velocity and expands, with a nozzle is-
entropic efficiency of 0.95, to 80 bar in the first stage.
The nozzle exit angle is 18 , the blade speed ratio is that for
maximum blading efficiency and the rotor blades are symmetrical a-
bout the wheel plane.
Determine the blade ring diameter and the rotor blade angles
for the first stage neglecting friction in the rotor blades.
Calculate the area of the annulus required to pass the exhaust
steam from the first stage wheel if the stage develops a power of
10 MW. (1.18 m, 33 , 147 , 0.0608 m2 )
10. One stage of an axial flow gas turbine, having a single row
rotor, is to develop 10 MW at 3000 rev/min when supplied with gas
at total conditions 170 kN/m 2 and 450 K and exhausting at a total
pressure of 100 kN/m 2 with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.85.
Assuming the gas velocity at exit is axial and uniform at 120
m/s, determine the mean blade ring diameter and the blade height if
the blade tip speed is 300 m/s. Neglect blade thickness and assume
69
free vortex conditions to exist at rotor entry.
If the nozzle isentropic efficiency based on total conditions at
inlet is 0.95 and the fluid pressure at nozzle exit is 140 kN/m 2 at
the mean blade height, calculate for this section the value of the
degree of reaction assuming the gas to be air at normal pressure.
(1.528 m, 0.382 m, 0.705)
70
7 GAS TURBINE PLANT
T 3
. G}B"'
3
4
1
cw:: Compressor
.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s
w:Heater
T: Turbine Figure 7.1
c: Cooler
T2 - T1 = ~~ (rk - 1)
T4 5 = T3r-k
71
Ta - T4 5 = Ta (1 - r")
Ta - T4 = "1TT3 (1 - r-Ic)
Conservation of energy (in the absence of heat -transfer and apprec-
iable changes in kinetic and potential energy)
Wnet = m[(ha - h,.) - (h2 - hl)] = mcp[(Ta - T,.) - (T2 - Tl)]
(1)
0 for a stationary
value
(2)
In (1)
Wnet 20 !.[
s X
kJ j
1.00 kglK10.8 X 1073 K[1 - 4.6480.286
1 ]
- ~~~5K(4.6480.286- 1) K
= 2169.9 kW
72
fore it enters the combustion chamber.
The pressure ratios for both the compressor and turbine are 5:1
and the isentropic efficiencies are 0.85 and 0.80 respectively.
The increase in the temperature of the compressed air in the heat
exchanger is 80% of the difference between the turbine and compres-
sor outlet temperatures.
The temperature and pressure of the air at inlet to the compres-
sor are 15 C and 1.013 bar, the air mass flow rate is 15 kg/s and
the fuel mass flow rate 0.2 kg/s.
Assuming combustion to be complete, determine:-
(a) the temperature of the products of combustion leaving the
combustion chamber and
(b) the net shaft power.
The heating value of the fuel at a temperature of 15 C is 42 x
10 3 kJ/kg.
The effects of heat transfer, except in the heat exchanger, and
of velocity of the fluid may be neglected. Assume air and the pro-
ducts of combustion to be perfect gases with the following proper-
ties: Air: cp 1.00 kJ/(kg K), Y = 1.4
Products: cp = 1.13 kJ/(kg K), ~ = 1.33.
(London University 1971)
Figure 7. 2 refers.
T2. 5 T{~~]"c = 288 K(5) 0' 286 456.3 K
T2. 5 - T1 = 168.3 K
T2. -
Tl = 168.3 = 198.1 K
0.85
T2. 486.1 K
T3 - 80(Ts - T2.)
T2. = 0. (1)
mr x C.V.
.
and for the burner B (or combustion chamber)
(C.V. = calorific value of fuel)
0.2 ~ X 42 000 kJ
s kg 552.6 K
15.2 ~X 1.00 k~JK
T4 - 552.6 K
73
Tss = T4[~:JkT = T4[t] 0 248 0.671T4
T4 - Tss = 0.329T4
Ts = 1165.2 K
wnet WT - We = mTcPp(T4 - Ts) - lila Cpa (T2 - Tl)
Figure 7. 3 refers.
In the above figure
t = T3. r = P3 = P3. k = ..!...:...J...
T1' Pl P4' ~ '
w cp[(T3- T4) - (T2- Tl)] (net work transfer)
Now
74
p T
1
~-----------------v ~-----------------5
Figure 7.3
rk - 1
+---
11c
T~ s = T3[p~Jk
P3
= T3r-k
T3 - T~s = T3(l - r-k)
T3 - T~ = 1ITT3 (1 - r-k)
1 - T~ = 11T ( 1 - r-k)
T3
T~ = 1 - 11T ( 1 - r-k)
T3
or 11T11ctr-k1 = rk1
or r = (11T 11c t) 1 /2k
75
or in the limit
17r17ct(1 - rk) = rk - 1 and expanding and rearranging
r 2k - rk (1 + 17r17c t) + 111 llc t = 0 for which the solution is
1 + 17 1 17ct v'(l + 17r17ct) 2 - 417 1 17ct
r = 2
Figure 7. 4 refers
T2 s - T1 = 142 .6 K
76
I = Intercooler
10 9
T
-
2_.- ..........
c CM1 __.._.- -- 10
~--------------------------5
Distance Along HE
Figure 7.4
T2 - Tt = 0.
142 6 = 167.7
85
K
T2 460.7 K
Now T4 T3 = 167.7 K; T4 460.7 K (since P4 = P2 and T3 Tl)
P3 Pl
or T5 T7 = ~(T4
CpT -
T
3 +
T
2
- Tt) = 1.15
l.0 1 (2 X 167.7) K 294.6 K
T6 - T7 5 = 294
0.9' = 327.3
6 K
T7 5 = 1073- 327.3 = 745.7 K
Ta - Ts 5 = 269.2 K
Ta Tg = 0.9 X 269.2 242.3 K
Tg 730.7 K
In the heat exchanger HE
Ts = T4 + 0.75(T9 - T 4) = 460.7 + 0.75(730.7- 460.7) 663.2 K
and CpT(Tg - T1o) = cpc(Ts - T4)
77
or Tg - T1o = ~:~~(663.2 - 460. 7) 177.9 K
242.3
(1073 - 663.2 + 973 - 778.4) = 0 401
and the specific work output is given by
Wnet = 1.15 X 242.3 = 278.6 kJ/kg
Joule cycle k
TB = TA[~] C= 293(16)0.286 647.5 K
Tc = 1073 K
To= 1073[{ 6] 0 . 248 = 539.5 K
cer(~Tr) - cpc(~Tc)
"'Jou I e cpr~Ts
Further Examples
5. A simple single shaft gas turbine plant takes in air at total
conditions of 1 bar and 15.5 C and compresses it through a total
pressure ratio of 5:1 with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.85.
The air then passes through the combustion chamber and the post
combustion gases enter the turbine at a total temperature of 540 C
and expand to 1 bar with a total isentropic efficiency of 0.8.
Estimate the mass flow of air required for a net power output of
1500 kW assuming that the fall of total pressure through the com-
bustion system is 7 kN/m 2 and taking cp and ~ for both air and com-
bustion gases as 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and 1.4 respectively.
Neglect the additional mass flow due to the fuel. (37.4 kg/s)
78
7. List the relative advantages of open- and closed-circuit gas
turbines. Sketch the simple gas turbine cycle on an enthalpy-ent-
ropy diagram. Describe how the efficiency of the simple cycle is
affected by the inclusion of a heat exchanger.
In an open gas turbine plant air is compressed from a pressure
of 1.0 bar and a temperature of 20 C through a pressure ratio of
4:1. The combustion gases leave the burner and enter the turbine
at a temperature of 700 C and after expansion pass through a heat
exchanger in which the compressor delivery air temperature is raised
by 75% of the maximum rise possible. The exhaust gases leave the
heat exchanger at a pressure of 1.0 bar. Neglecting transmission
losses, pressure losses in combustion chamber and heat exchanger,
and differences in compressor and turbine mass flow rates, find
the specific work output and the cycle efficiency when the compres-
sor and turbine isentropic efficiencies are 0.80 and 0.82 respec-
tively. During compression take cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K) and~= 1.4.
During combustion and expansion take cp = 1.156 kJ/(kg K) and~=
1.33. (89.3 kJ/kg, 25.8%) (London University 1971)
79
8 TURBO JET ENGINE, RAMJET AND
ROCKET
.-------1 B t - - - ,
!----1 B t----4,
I
1 2 3 4 5
ol
N = Nozzle Figure 8.1
~-------------------s
80
~:~ = critical pressure ratio= ['Y; 1] 2
= [ 2 4] 3
85
2.018
To 2 - To 1 = 0 328
. 85 = 385.9 K
po~ 2.018 x 1.013 = 2.044 bar
Pos 0.97poz 0.97 X 14 X 1.013 13.76 bar
Now We= 11mWT since there is no external work done by the engine
cpc(To2 - To1) = CpT(To 3 - To~) X 11m
1 (385 .92
Tos - To" 394.8 K
1.15 0.85
394.8
To s - To~s = 0 . 85 = 464.5 K
.!ll_ = [PosT
To1t PO It
= p3 . 76] 0 2.. 8
2.044 1.605
81
2
R =:: Ram Intake
3 4 5 --
o1, oA
L--------------------5
-- 5
Figure 8.2
m2
210 2
To A = TA + 8uA = 265.4 K s ](
+ _______;:s:_2--:--=-(N kJ ]
2 x 1.005 k~JK[kg m] [103 N m]
= 265.4 + 21.9 = 287.3 K
= To 1
POA = PAr~r/k =
f287 .3]
0.6578 barl265 . 4
35
= 0.869 bar= p 01
since the ram efficiency is unity and the conditions for the int-
ernational standard atmosphere (ISA) may be found on page 19 of
tables.
P02 = P03 = 5pol 4.343 bar [llp 0 = 0 in the burner)
82
or To4s = To3
- (To 3 - To 4) = To3- 219.6 K
'loT
1 716 _ To3(To3 - 197.6)
- (T 03 - 219.6)(To 3 - 290)
or 0.716T 03 2 - 676.9To3 + 109282
22 kN
and Economy 35.6 kN per kg/s of fuel
0.617 ~
s
1 2 3 4 T
0 Figure 8.3
1
~---------------s
83
ka 1....::__!_ = 0. 2 86
1'
1' - 1 1 kJ
Ra = cp-,- = 1.0 - 1.4 = 0.286 kg K
kcomb , - = 0.
1' - 1
=-
35
1 . 35 = 0. 259
[ k1 = 3. 861 for combustionj 1
a1 aatmos =~'YRTatmos =~1.4 x 0.286 k~JK x 288 K ~~gsW~
339.6 m/s
u1 M1a1 = 0.8 x 339.6 = 271.7 m/s
u 2
T1 1-
+ -- = 288 K +
2cp 2 X 100 ~[~]
. kg K[N s ]
= 288 36.9 = 324.9 K = To2
+
P4
p0
-
3 -
t
The critical pressure ratio in the exhaust nozzle is given by
2 ] 1/k
-;y:;:-r
[2 r861 = 0.537
2.35
P4 = 0.537 1.395 = 0.748 bar (i.e.< Pa)
X
Thus the mass flow rate is less than the maximum and
P4 = Pa = 1.013 bar
[1. 0
T4, = To3rP 4 ]k = 15oo K[l.395]
0 131 2 59
1380.7 K
LPo 3
To 3 - T4 = 71N (To 3 - T4 ) = 0.95(1500 - 1380.7) = 113.3 K
T4 = 1500- 113.3 1386.7 K
= 501.5 ~
s
Momentum equation gives the positive thrust as
F = ~(u4 - Uf!ight) = ~(u4 - ul)
84
F m (N s 2 ] N
and ...-=
m u4 - u1 = 501.5-271.7 = 229.8-
s [-k-] I
gm = 229.8 -gs
k
Note that since the pressure in the plane of the exit section of
the exhaust nozzle is zero there is no pressure thrust.
The overall efficiency is given by
'I = thrust power F(u 4 - ul)
rate of fuel energy supplied mrC.V.
229 82 m2 [N s2]
s2 [kg m]
0.85 X 1.11 k~JK X (1500 - 324.9) K
0.048
dA =
A
A
pu
[1 - M2]dp
where M is the Mach number and pis the static pressure of the gas.
Comment on the consequence of this result on the shapes of nozzles
designed for subsonic and supersonic efflux velocities of the gas.
The nozzle of a rocket motor is to be designed for a thrust of
0.2 MN when the propellant gas is expanded reversibly and adiabat-
ically from a combustion chamber stagnation pressure and temperat-
ure of 35 bar and 3500 C, respectively, to a back pressure of 1
bar. The gas may be assumed to be perfect and to have a mean rel-
ative molecular mass of 25.8 and~= 1.25. Estimate the propellant
mass flow rate and the exit area of the nozzle.
(London University 1973)
0 = 2 du + dA + dp = du + dAA + dpp
u A P u
85
(B)
(C)
For the steady flow of a fluid in the absence of heat and work
transfers and with negligible change in potential energy we get
Energy equation
h + iu 2 = constant C3
or dh + udu = 0
From the combination of the first two laws of thermodynamics
Tds = dh - vdp (and for isentropic flow ds = 0)
dp
or dh= vdp p
dp
or -p+ udu 0
du
or -u= -~ (E)
"-
1 i! ..,. Figure 8.4
T2 = Tot[P.L]k
Pot = 3773 Kn-]
L35
0
'
2
= 1853 K
c _ 'YR _ "fRo 5 x 8.3143 kJ/(mo1 K) kJ
P - Y"=1 - mw('Y - 1) 25.8 kg/mol 1.611 kg K
86
Energy equation
rl _(~ _Jr
A2 = ___ P2. 1
where z = -;y:-r
At {~ ~ ~ 2
Figure 8.5
87
Energy equation
=~2(ho- ht) =~2cp(To- Tt) =~2cpTo[l- i': 1]
n
u1
=~2cpTo[~:
Characteristic gas equation
p =E.!_
1 RTt
or Pt
Po [
RTo Li' +
2
1
Jz
.
Mass continuity equation
At = _m_
Pt Ut
Po[i': 1 ]~2cpTa[~: i]
- h2) =~ 2cp(To - T2) = ~2opTo [1 - (~~)k]
and
0.326 m2
88
u1 =~2cp(To - Tt) =~2 mw(~R~ l) (To - Tt)
=-'2
1 X 5 X 8 3143 _J_ 1001 (3330 -
25.8 mol K g
2960)K(~] 1092 m
s
{N s ]
_ u 1At _ 1092 x 0.065 m m2 kg _ 144 . 6 ~
m- -v;-- 0.491 s m3 - s
Further Examples
1r
gent-divergent nozzle the maximum mass flow rate is
89
A rocket-motor generates gas at a constant pressure Po and a
constant temperature, in the combustion chamber. This gas, which
may be assumed perfect, exhausts through a convergent-divergent
nozzle to atmosphere. Assuming that p 0 is very much greater than
the ambient atmospheric pressure pa, and that frictional effects
t )
may be neglected, show that the thrust F of the motor is given by
F _
PoAt - ~ -::y:--f Y+1
2 2
m[
l
-
Pe
( Po )kJ + 'At"
Ae Pe
~Po - Pa
Po J
where Pe is the pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle and Ae is
the cross-sectional area at this plane. (London University 1973)
90
9 VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES
The material of this chapter has been the subject of much ab-
use by various authors in the past.
Problems which merely tax the student's ability to integrate
and differentiate expressions for variable specific heats while
bearing little relation to practical values are both misleading
and pointless.
Real variation in specific heat capacities for the generality
of gases is complex and a graphical method (for air in this case)
is proposed in this chapter which will allow rapid application of
the laws of thermodynamics to cyclic calculations with variable
cp and Cv entailing only a small loss in accuracy.
Of course every different fluid (or air to fuel ratio) needs
its own energy chart but the production of this is no great matter
since the writing of a simple computer program for the purpose is
easily carried out using the known values of specific heat capac-
ity and their variation with temperature.
if_pdT
JT~ T
where T is the absolute temperature, To a datum temperature and cp
is evaluated at temperature T.
Show how values of the above function can be used to determine,
for an isentropic process, the ratio of the initial pressure to
the final pressure when the initial and final temperatures are
known.
0.5 kg of an ideal gas occupies initially a volume of 0.05 m3
at a pressure of 40 bar and a temperature of 1000 K. The gas ex-
pands reversibly and adiabatically to a final temperature of 500 K.
Determine the final pressure and also the change in internal
energy of the gas.
For the gas cv = (0.653 + 1 x 10-~T) kJ/(kg K) where Tis the
absolute temperature in K. (London University 1963 modified)
From the first two laws of thermodynamics
ds = dqrev = dh - vdp = cp dT _ ~
T T T p
91
T2. P2.
or (cpdTT = (Rdp = R ln P2. since R is a constant
}T~ {-1 p P1
which is an expression which gives values of the ratio PliP2.
pV = 40 bar x 0.05 m3 [10 5 N ][ kJ ] kJ
R = mT 0.5 kg x 1000 K [bar m2.)[10 3 N m] 0.4 kg K
f:;T~T = ~[~~053
}~
(10-4)T) dTT =
+ l.OS 3 l 500
n 1000 +
(500 - 1000)
104
t
0 1000 kJ
= - o. 7799 - -
kg K
T2.
ln P2 = .!_ CpdT = _1_~(- kJ
Pl R T 4 kJ o. 0.7799}kg K =- 1.9498
T1
P2. = 0.1423
P1
or p 2 = 0.1423 x 40 = 5.69 bar
T2. r.oo
T1 f
m~vdT = 0.5 kgj~0.653
10 0 0
(10- 4 T))dT
OO 2.
0.5 kg 0.653(500 - 1000) + 5 2 - 104
+
1000 2. ] ~
kg K
l<J
0.5 kg(- 326.5 - 37.5) kg K
182 kJ
kg
in which q stands for the heat transfer between the gas and its sur-
roundings.
At the beginning of the compression stroke in an internal com-
bustion engine the cylinder contains a 10% weak mixture of octane
(C 8H18 ) and air, at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 50 C.
Compression follows the relation pv 1 36 =constant. Determine the
value of dqrev/dv when the pressure in the cylinder is 12 bar.
Molar specific heats at constant pressure in kJ/(mol K) are as fol-
lows:
Temperature ( 0 C) Octane Oxygen Nitrogen
288 285.5 31.8 30.1
454 352.5 33.1 31.0
(London University 1964 modified)
92
First Law
dqrev = de + pdv
or dqrev = de + P = CvddTV + P
dv dv
Characteristic gas equation
1
T = R{pv)
1
or dT = R-[pdv + vdp]
= ~Cp
R
- nev + R) = l!..(cp
R
- ncv)
0265
T{~~)r
rfx .~
T2. = 323 K(l2) 624 K = n 1 = 0. 2651
(351 C) ~
- (351 - 288) kJ
cp(oxygen) = 31.8 + ( 454 _ 288 )(33.1- 31.8) = 32.3 mol K
- . (351 - 288) kJ
cp(n1trogen) = 30.1 + ( 454 _ 288 )(31- 30.1) = 30.4 mol K
For a 10% weak mixture of octane and air the combustion equation is
93
C8H18 + (0.9 x 12.5)0 2 + (3.76 x 0.9 x 12.5)N 2 +products
or CeH1e + 11.2502 + 42.3N2+ products
Thus the mean value of cp for the mixture of octane and air is
1
Cpmean = 1 + l1. 25 + 42 . 3 [(1 x311.2) + (11.25 x 32.3)
+ (42.3 X 30.4)]
kJ
35.93 mol K
94
(e) sv - isochoric entropy change [kJ/(K kg))
(f) sp -isobaric entropy change [kJ/(K kg)]
Notes
(i) Reversible isothermals are horizontal on the chart.
(ii) Reversible adiabatics are isentropics and are verticals.
(iii) Any isochore can be found from the reference isochore
(see later) and also any isobar can be found from the reference
isobar.
(iv) The fluid is AIR and is assumed to be semi-perfect i.e.
pv = RT but cp and cv are variables.
The data used in the construction of the chart is taken from
page 16 of tables.
(1) Internal energy curve.
de cvdT and for a small increment in T (liT)
lie cv(mean)liT
Thus e2 oo e1 75 cv (mean) (200 175) lle17s-2oo = lie 1
Also e22s - ezoo cv (mean) (225 200) lle2o0-22s and adding
lle11s-22s "' lle2 (and so on up to 3000 K)
The cumulative values lle1, lle2 are plotted using an arbitrarily
chosen scale for energy and the resultant curve is the internal
energy curve.
(2) Enthalpy curve.
h = e + pv = e + RT for a semi-perfect gas
Since R is a constant for a semi-perfect the h line is very eas-
ily obtained by drawing a straight line to the left of the T axis
such that at any level of temperature T, the value of h at that lev-
el is given by the total distance drawn horizontally between the
e curve and the straight line which is drawn at a distance RT to
the left of the Taxis.
(3) Reference isochore (sv).
dSv = dT
cv~ an d ~ntegrat~ng
f or a sma 11 but f.~n~te
ch ange
200
Sv200-11S cv(mean) ln 175 = (a) = llsv 1
225
Also sv22s-2oo ov (mean) x ln 200 = (b)
95
dT
dsp = CpT
For ~p
and for constant temperature
dv _ ~
dsr = ~ = np
Thus horizontal movement from one isochore to another is given by
Svl-2 = R ln V2
Vl
R ln E.!..
P2
Thus in both cases we need an R ln x scale where x represents eith-
er the volume or the pressure ratio involved. Note, however, be-
cause of the different signs, that when v2 > v1, sv1-2 is positive
(left to right movement), and conversely when p 2 > p 1 , sp 1 - 2 is
negative (movement right to left). That is volume increases from
left to right on the chart and pressure increases from right to
left.
The accuracy ofthe chart is largely dependent on the use of the
R ln x scale and, given careful use of this, temperatures can be
determined to within 50 Keven at the highest levels.
Note that normal isentropic relationships for a perfect gas do
NOT apply here.
96
Energy Scale
2500
1500 I I
7/ rI 7/
5 7 15
C T I l IIIITIIIIIIIUII R ln X (x = 1, 2, 3 ... 20)
1 2 3 4 6 10 20
1 2 3 s/ (kJ/K kg) 4
Net specific work transfer in cycle
Total positive heat transfer in cycle
LJ
3
1
1----------v
Figure 9,3
Refer to figure 9.3 showing the cycle (the OTTO cycle with variab-
le specific heat capacities) and also a representation of the ener-
gy chart.
Since the last process in the Ccle is isochoric it will be sen-
sible to begin the cycle representation on the reference isochore
since this implies automatically that the last process will be on
this curve.
Step 1. Plot point 1 at a temperature of 300 K on the reference
isochore.
Step 2. Compression is isentropic with increasing temperature such
that point 2 is distant R ln 8 to the left (horizontally) from the
reference isochore. Thus locate 2 vertically above 1 in this way.
Step 3. Combustion is isochoric and thus point 3 will be the same
horizontal distance from the reference isochore and the maximum
cycle temperature.
The other piece of information enabling us to locate point 3 pre-
cisely is given by the energy addition. From the first law:
dqrev = de + pdv and integrating between 2 and 3
2q3 = e3 - e2 since there is no work transfer in this process
Thus e3 = e2 + 2q3 = e2 + 2000 kJ/kg
Reading the value of e2 at the temperature level T2 and adding the
energy transfer of 2000 kJ/kg gives the value of e 3 whi~h when set
against the internal energy curve decides the temperature level of
point 3, and this together with the previous information fixes 3.
Step 4. Expansion is isentropic (vertical movement on the chart)
and thus 4 lies vertically below point 3 and on the reference iso-
chore. The cycle is thus complete.
From the chart:
T = T3 = 2780 K.
0)
98
e1 - e 4 (first law from 4 to 1 with no work transfer)
- 1000 kJ/kg from the energy chart
and w 2000 1000 = 1000 kJ/kg
w 1000
Total q+ve 2000 = 0 5
2 3
~--------------v
Figure 9.4
99
Thus reading the total distance between the e and h curves at the
temperature T 2 gives the value of h 2
then h3 = h2 + 2q3 = h2 + 1600 kJ/kg
Thus point 3 lies on the same isobar through 2 and at a temperature
level where h 3 = h 2 + 1600 kJ/kg.
Step 4. Point 4 is vertically below 3 and on the reference isobar
since expansion is again isentropic.
From the chart:
T = T3 = 2120 K
710
1'/ = 1600 = 0 44
--------vFigure 9. 5
Figure 9.5 refers (showing the cycle and a representation of the
energy chart for this problem).
Step 1. The last process in the cycle is isochoric- thus plot 1
on the reference isochore at a temperature of 350 K.
Step 2. Compression is isentropic and the volume ratio is 12 and
100
thus point 2 lies vertically above point 1 with 2 distant R ln 12
to the left of the reference isochore.
Step 3. Point 3 lies on the same isochore through 2 and the latter
can be lightly sketched in until point 3 is firmly located.
Step 4. (v 4/v 3) = 2. Thus draw in the v4 isochore to cut the temp-
erature of 2500 K in point 4.
Step 5. p 3 = p 4 and using the reference isobar and point 4 the iso-
bar through point 4 can be sketched to intersect the isochore pass-
ing through 2 in point 3.
Step 6. Expansion is isentropic and point 5 lies vertically below
4 and on the reference isochore.
From the energy chart:
Ps "' .!! using the R ln x scale
Pl 4
101
p
3
Figure 9.6
1 ]0.2
2100 K[ 4sj 980.8 K
102
The mean effective pressure (mep) is given by
Wnet Wnet
mep RT., _ RT2
Vlt - V2
P'+ P2
3.16 bar
Further examples.
7. A steady flow of air and methane CH., enters a combustion cham-
ber at a temperature of 380 K and the products of combustion leave
at a temperature of 1500 K. There is 20 per cent excess air and
the exhaust gases consist only of carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen
.and oxygen.
Determine the heat transfer per kilogram of methane. Discuss
briefly how a more realistic assessment of the heat transfer might
be made.
Assume that air consists of 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by vol-
ume: The enthalpy of reaction for methane and air at a temperature
of 298 K, with water in the vapour phase, is - 802 300 kJ/mol of
CH.,. The variation in the isobaric molar heat capacity cp with
temperature T may be assumed to be represented adequately by the
expression
Cp = A+ BT X 10- 3 + CT 2 X 10- 6
103
9. A reciprocating piston engine may be assumed to operate on
the cycle depicted in figure 9.9 in which the operations are:
(a) reversible, polytropic compression from 1 bar, 140 C with
a volume compression ratio of 9:1 for which pv 1 3 =constant,
(b) energy addition (wherein pressure and volume are linearly
related) to 40 bar (the maximum pressure) in which the volume in-
creases by 50%,
(c) reversible, polytropic expansion to the initial volume in
which pv 1 25 =constant,
p
3
4
Figure 9.9
~--~---------------v
104
10 DISSOCIATION
Also
Xza
1 + 4 . 76 x _
-
ia
_
- 0.08 (percentage by volume of 0 2)
105
30
~\ EQ~ILIBkiUM l:oNSJANTSI
\
20
10
8
6
"' ' I'
~
~
~
\ '
'0
,)...."""" ~
4 ......
\ ..... 1og1o K2
v
3
I'<
~
~',
""
/
1og10 K1 ' I'
' ', "'
2
:.::
.. \ 1og!o K3
I'
y
0
negative
1:>0
0
......
1.0 \
\ ~
0.8 \ ....l
\ ~
0.6 . /1-"'"
1\ / [\
\ / 1oglo K3
0.4
v ' '
\
positive
I
7
0.3
0.2
\
~
0.1 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
0 Absolute Temperature
(100 K)
106
From the chart of equilibrium constants against temperature
T = 2606 K
mai r
mco
= 1 mol 02[32 g 02][ mol CO] g air
X mol CO[ mol 02] [28 g C0]0.233 g 0 2 3.63 ! ~~r
2. Benzene (C6 H6 ) was sprayed into a constant volume combustion
chamber and burned with air. When the mixture was at a temperature
of 1400 K it was rapidly cooled to room temperature and the prod-
ucts analysed. The concentrations by volume for the dry products
of combustion were
C02 : 12.3%, CO : 8.3%, 02: negligible.
Derive an expression for the heat transferred to or from the gas
during the combustion process given that the reactants were all at
the standard reference temperature 298 K and the products were at
a tempera.ture of 1400 K.
Determine the concentration of benzene in the original mixture
assuming:
(a) that the products represent the equilibrium mixture at a
temperature of 1400 K which contains only C0 2 , CO, N2 , H20 and H2 ;
(b) that the chemical equilibrium constant (K) is equal to 0.43
at a temperature of 1400 K for the reaction CO+ H20 + C0 2 + H2 ,
(c) that air contains 21% oxygen by volume.
(London University 1969)
107
In the original combustion equation
Carbon balance
6 a + b (1)
Hydrogen balance
3 c + d (2)
Oxygen balance
x = a + ~b + lc (3)
Nitrogen balance
3.76x = e (4)
Exhaust Gas Analysis
nco2 =a 12.3 1. 482
nco b = """8':3 = (5)
Equilibrium Constant
ad
be = 0.43 (6)
1 1
0.034
1 + 4. 76x 1 + 28.34
1100
and log1oK3 = 1.2065 - T , where K3
Pco2PH2
with all partial pressures in bar and T in K.
108
Kz = PHzO _ PHzOPCO PCOz ]
z ~
r
_ K3(Kt) -~
PHz/Poz - PHzPCozlPco2Poz -
Thus logtoKz logtoK3 - and at 3000 K
~logtoKt
log 10 Kz
uoo 28 6ool
1~
1.2065 - 3000 - 2L8.593 - 3000 J 1.3095
Kz = 20.4
Let z mol Hz use ~z mol Oz to give z mol HzO per mol Hz originally
There will be (1 - z) mol Hz remaining as Hz per mol Hz originally
The products are (z)(HzO), (1 -z)(Hz) and ~(1- z)(Oz)
and n = 1.5 - ~z total mols in the products
Kz = 20.4
from which
416.2(1- z) 3 zz (3 - z) (A)
Now i f
z 0.785 we get
1.5 - lz
z = 0 846
and substituting this value in (A) we get balance.
0
4. Describe the Van't Hoff box and the arguments used to arrive
at the concept of an equilibrium constant. Use the COz, CO, Oz
reaction as a vehicle for your reasoning.
Ammonia gas dissociates according to the equation
NH3 + 1.5Hz + ~Nz
At 400 K, logtoK = 0.778 where, with partial pressures in atmos
PNH3 atm -t
K = ~PHz 3pNz
Calculate the percentage by volume of ammonia in the products
at 400 K, if the total pressure is 1 atmosphere.
(Aston University 1975)
logtoK = 0.778 (at 400 K)
or K = 5.998 (say 6)
Let z mol NH 3 dissociate giving 1.5z mol Hz and 0.5z mol Nz
per mol NH 3 originally
Then there are (1 - z) mol NH3 in equilibrium with (1.5 - z) mol Hz
and 0.5z mol Nz in the products per mol NH3 originally
and the total mols are
1 - z + 1.5z + 0.5z 1 + z = n
109
RoT
PNH _ . nNH3V
K - ~-;p-~--:-3..:.p-N2-- ~[nH~RoTJnN(oT
~where p 1 atmosphere
p
or 7.794z 2 = 1- z 2
or z = 0.337
(l - z) x 100 0.662 X 100 49.6%
(1 + z) 1.337
xc 02 = 0.142
1100
1.2065 - 2500 = 0. 767
PcoPH20 (1 - b)(a - b)
K3 = 5. 848 = giving
Pco2PH2 b
5 .848b 2 = a - b - ab + b2
110
or 4.848b 2 = a - b(l + a) and substituting from above
b = 0.142(1 + a) we get
4.848[0.142(1 + a)]2 = a - 0.142(1 + a) 2 giving
0.24a 2 - 0.52a + 0.24 =0 or
0.52 10.27 - 0.23 2 3
a = 0.48 3 or 2
111
02 left= 7.5 - [3 + l(b +a)] = 4.5 - l(b +a) mol
N2 (assumed inert) = 28.2 mol
Thus after combustion the total number of mols will be
41.7- l(b +a) = n3
Before combustion there were 1 mol C6 H6 , 7.5 mol 0 2 and 28.2 mol N2
giving a total of 36.7 mol (n 2 ).
V2 = V3 = 0.2v1 = 227.6 m3 = n 3 R 0 T 3
P3
We now substitute the values of a and b in the second K to get a
]i
value for P3.
Then we try the values of a, b and P3 in v2 for a check.
~
(2.862/ 4.5)]p 3
Thus 0 . 313 b arl 6 - 4 5 -5-----,-:--.,.,-,::-----:--"-'="'-
4.5 41.7 (2.862 + 4.5)
2
0.313-- 3
lf9.819
~ 8 . 02 pJli which gives
p 3 = 40 . 9 3 bar
112
Further examples.
7. Consider the reaction H2 + i02 + H20.
(a) If at a products pressure of 1 atmosphere and some temperat-
ure T 10% of each mol of H20 is dissociated, calculate K and hence
find T.
(b) The total pressure is now raised to 5 atmospheres at the
same temperature. Calculate the new value of percentage dissociat-
ion of H20. (40.8, 2830 K, 0.06)
8. A mixture of CO and air in proportions to be determined burns
at a mixture pressure of 1 atmosphere. Because of dissociation the
resulting products are CO, C0 2 , 0 2 and N2. A gas analysis of these
products shows th4t the percentages by volume of C0 2 and N2 are
respectively 25 and 60. Calculate
(a) the percentage dissociation of C02 into CO,
(b) the value of K with all partial pressures in atmospheres,
(c) the mixture temperature using the chart provided.
(d) the mass ratio of CO to air in the reactants.
(31.6%, 11.62, 2650 K, 0.464)
(Aston University 1972)
9. A homogeneous mixture of iso-octane (CeHie) and air was burnt
in a constant-volume bomb. After the products had been rapidly
cooled to room temperature, they were analysed. The analysis showed
that the concentration, by volume, in the dry products was
C0 2 : 5.4%, CO : 14.8%, 02 : negligible.
No other determination was made.
The products of combustion may be assumed to be in 'frozen' eq-
uilibrium corresponding to a temperature of 1700 K with respect to
the following reaction:
CO + H20 + C02 + H2
and to contain only the following gases in significant concentrat-
ions: C02, CO, N2, H20 and H2.
Determine the concentration of iso-octane in the charge.
It may be assumed that the chemical equilibrium constant (K) of
the above reaction is equal to 0. 350 at 1700 K. (0. 028)
(London University 1966)
113
11 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES
114
T
B::: Boiler
s= Superheater
R::: Reheater
T= Turbine
4
c= Condenser
p= Pump
6
L-------------------5
Figure 11.1
w 750.8 ~~
w
. 1500 kW [ kJ ]
m 2 ~
w [s kW] s
750.8 ~~
.
w 1500 kW
'I 0. 229
m[ Ch1 - hs) + (h3 - hz)] 2 ~(2857.5 + 419) kJ
s kg
The given cycle has a higher thermal efficiency than that em-
bracing a single turbine but at the expense of a bigger capital
outlay (to pay for the reheat section). Furthermore the steam at
turbine exhaust in this cycle is drier (less chance of blade eros-
ion).
2. A steam power plant has turbine inlet conditions of 100 bar
and 600 C and a condenser pressure of 0.2 bar. The turbine isen-
tropic efficiency is 0. 85 and the "condition line" on the enthalpy
entropy diagram may be assumed straight.
Steam is bled from the turbine at a pressure of 10 bar and is
then passed to a single open feed heater where it mixes with the
boiler feed water and raises the feed water temperature to 165 C.
Neglect feed pump work and calculate
(a) the fraction of the steam entering the turbine which must
be bled off to the heater,
115
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(c) the thermal efficiency of the cycle which has no feed heater
but has the same steam inlet steam conditions and turbine isentropic
efficiency.
Comment briefly on the reasons for the difference between the
answers to (b) and (c).
h p/(bar)
~--------------------s
Figure 11.2
H ::: Feed Heater
116
1148.4
33'74 = 0.34
A check on the above values will show that.the value of net work
transfer decreases less rapidly than the value of energy supplied
and thus consequently the efficiency will rise with feed heating.
Feed heating is recuperative of energy and moves the cycle nearer
to ideal Carnot cycle by reducing the temperature gradient in the
boiler heat transfer.
3. Steam at 70 bar and 550 C is supplied to a turbine in which
it expands adiabatically to a condenser pressure of 0.7 bar with
an isentropic efficiency of 0.8. Assume the process line for the
expansion to be a straight line on the enthalpy-entropy diagram.
A feed heater is incorporated in the plant and the bleed off
pressure is such that equal work is developed by each section of
the turbine on either side of the bleed-off point when 10% of the
mass flow entering the turbine is bled off and mixed with the feed
water.
Determine the pressure at which the steam is bled from the tur-
bine. Also calculate the efficiency of the plant and the work out-
put per unit mass of steam generated assuming the condensate to
leave the condenser as a saturated liquid. Neglect feed pump work.
p/(tar)
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.3 refers.
h1 3530 (chart)
h1 - h3s = 1040 (chart)
h1 - h3 = 71(hl - h3s) = 0.8(1040) 832
h3 2698
h~ hrat 0.7 bar= 377 (page 3 of tables)
hs (since feed pump work is negligible)
Balance on heater
O.l~(h2 - ho) + 0.9~(hs - ho) ~(hs - ho)
h2 + 9hs = lOhs (A)
117
Work output
;,(hi - h2) 0.9;,(h2 h3)
l.9h2 =hi + 0.9h3 (B)
1 1
Thus h2 = IJ9Ch1 + 0.9h3) 1.9(3530 + 2428.2) = 3135.9
118
Energy Balance
.
HP Heater
B
-~
m m
10 mA
9
.
m
.rnAft
Energy Balance
LP Heater
.
m
.
fflA + ms
Figure 11.4
h
p/ (bar)
~
<;:)'
hss = 2320
3llhs s = 1335
3llhs = 0.9 x 1335 1201.5
hs 2453.5
h4 3257 (from straight line 3-5)
hG h7 = 192 for saturated liquid at 0.1 bar (page 3)
Te (Tsat" at 10 bar) - 10 K = 179.9 - 10 = 169.9 C (page 4)
he 697 + (4.9/6.4)(721- 697) = 715.4 (page 8)
(Tsatn at 40 bar) - 10 K = 250.3 - 10 240.3 K (page 4)
1025 + (2.9/3.5)(1042- 1025) = 1039.1 (page 4)
1087 = h11 (Throttling- page 4)
763 = h13 (page 4)
119
Energy balance on heater in high pressure bled stream
~aCh2 - ho) + ~(ha - ho) = ~(hg - ho) + ~aCh1o - ho)
ma _ hg- ha 323.7
;;;-- - ht - h 1 0 = 20 87 . 3 = 0 . 15 5
120
B
Figure 11.5
~-------------------------5
121
Energy balance on feed heater
~(h1o - hg) = ~FH(h2 - h6)
If the feed pump work is negligible and we assume
h1o = h6
and ha = hotwell enthalpy = hs = hg
thus ~(h6 - hs) = ~FH(h2 - h6) (B)
In (A)
~(351.2) + [~ - 0 .13~ 2700] (312.4)
- 3600 = 1500 kW (~ in kg/s)
1500
and 7463.9 = 0 2
(Note that this efficiency which is low takes no account of the
energy recuperated in the process which would appear in an avail-
ability balance).
122
Discuss briefly which scheme might be preferred and why.
Extract from tables: (A) Saturated steam (B) Superheated steam
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy Entropy
hr hg Sf Sg
bar C kJ/kg kJ/(K kg)
(A) 25 224 962 2802 2.554 6.257
1.5 111 467 2693 1.434 7.223
0.05 33 138 2561 0.476 8.394
h s
(B) 25 300 3016 6.655
(London University 1975)
T
B
M:: Mixer
Figure U.6a
Figure 11.6a refers
with specific enthalpy in kJ/kg and specific entropy in kJ/(K kg)
Scheme (A) (figure 11.6 A)
s:~.s Sl = 6.655
X2s
- S[
s:~.s 6.655 - 1. 434 = 0 902
Sfg 7.223 - 1.434 .
h2s hr + x:~.s(hrg) = 467 + 0.902(2693 467) 2474.9
hl - h2s = 541.1
hl - h2 = 0. 75 X 541.1 = 405.9
2610.1 (i.e. wet vapour)
2610.1 - 467 =0 963
2693 - 467 .
X3s
S3s - Sf_= ~::...!_(. = ~655 - 0.476 = O 780
Sfg Sfg 8.394 - 0.476
hr + x3 5 (hrg) = 138 + 0.780(2561- 138) = 2028.8
h1 - h3 5 = 987.2
h1- h3 = 0.75 X 987.2 = 740.4
h3 2275.6
h~ 138 = hs (assumed)
h& 467
123
Mass flow through Process heater P
m = Qp 6000 kW [ kJ ] 2. 8 kg
P hz - hs
(2610.1 - 467) kJ [s kW] s
kg
Mass flow through boiler B
~(h1- hz) + (~- ~p)(h 2 - h 3 ) = 3500 kW
~(405.9) + (~- 2.8)(2610.1 - 2275.6) = 3500 (~in kg/s)
4436.0 5.99 kg
m = 740.4 = s
Energy balance on Mixer M
~p(hs - ho) + (~ - ~p) (hs - ho) = ~(h7 - ho)
h7 = 2.8(467) + (~:;;- 2.8)(138) = 291.8
B B
Figure 11. 6b
T
T
hE hz
A
1...--------- s
(in scheme A)
ho h3 (in scheme A); hF hs (in scheme A)
he
.
h .. (in scheme A);
3500 kW [ kJ ]
m = -:--....;.w'-:-- 4. 727 ~
hA - ho 740.4 ~~ [s kW] s
.
Qp 6000 kW [ kJ ] 2.8 kg
m
(2610.1 - 467) kJ [s kW] s
kg
124
Thus the total ideal heat transfer to the steam in the boiler is
;(hA - ho) + Op = ;(hA - he) + Op
4.727 kg (3016 - 138) kkJ + 6000 kW
s g
= 19 604.3 kW
(a) The hottest carbon dioxide is at the top for the HP superheat-
er, the coolest at the bottom for the LP economiser etc.
(b)
14
3017 + 50(3097 - 3017) = 3039.4
6.091 14 = 6.125
51 + 50 (6.213 6.091) Szs sg at 35 bar
125
r-
1 L..--r---,~
I ~-.....I
I
I
L-------- ---------
R. C. :: Reactor Core E ::: Eeonomiser
Figure 11.7
126
h4 2222.9
X4 (2222.9 - 121)/2433 = 0.864 (page 3)
Ignore the feed pump work effect on the steam properties
hs = hs = 113.1 at T = 27 C (page 2)
h 7 1087 at 40 bar saturated liquid (page 5) = he
hg 1408 at 100 bar saturated liquid (page 5)
h1o 2801 at 40 bar saturated vapour (page 5)
h11 2725 at 100 bar saturated vapour (page 5)
Blower
Tas
p
TA ( ~"j
\k
= (243
+ (19.
273) K\1 8 6
3)0 .23/!. 23 519.6 K
- TA = 3.6 K
Ta - TA = g:~ = 4.5
Ta = 516 + 4.5 = 520.5 K
(3228.6 - 113.1)
.
mLP
or 1.018 x (410 243) 53.89 + - . - (3115.5)
mco2
~- 170 - 53.89 0.037
mco2 - 311 5 . 5
127
temperature is 540 C and the condensate leaves the condenser as
saturated liquid. Expansion is reversible.
Calculate the cycle efficiency, the work per unit mass of steam
leaving the boiler and the dryness fraction of the turbine exhaust
steam for each of the following cases, neglecting pump work:-
(a) A regenerative system of feed heating is devised whereby the
boiler feed water is raised to saturation temperature by heat tran-
sfer from the expanding steam, the temperature difference between
the two fluids being negligible at all points where heat transfer
takes place.
(b) A single, open, feed heater is used, in which steam bled from
the turbine at 2.5 bar is used to raise the feed water temperature
to the saturation temperature at 2.5 bar.
Calculate also the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating be-
tween the boiler and condenser saturation temperatures.
(0.557, 1039 kJ/kg, 0.437, 0.86, 12.4 kJ/kg, 0.405, 0.406)
Figure 11.9
10 11 12
9. The arrangement of a steam plant using two closed feed heat-
ers in cascade is shown in figure 11.9.
The conditions at 1 are 140 bar, 500 C and the steam expands to
a pressure of 0.09 bar at 4 with an isentropic efficiency of 0.8.
The "condition line" on the h-s diagram may be assumed straight.
Steam is bled from the turbine at pressures of 50 bar and 7 bar and
the condensate drain from each heater is saturated liquid at these
respective pressures. The feed water leaves each heater at a temp-
erature which is 5 K less than the saturation temperature of the
steam in the heater, and the feed water at 5 is at 40 C.
Calculate the cycle efficiency making an approximate allowance
for the feed pump work.
Figure 11.9 refers. (0.35)
128
Part of the bled steam passes to industrial process heaters where
it is condensed but not undercooled. The remainder of the bled
steam passes to a single closed feed heater which raises the feed
water temperature to 100 C whilst the bled steam is condensed but
not undercooled.
The condensate from the process heaters and the feed heater en-
ters a common drain and is returned by a pump to the boiler feed
line just downstream of the feed heater.
Evaluate for a power output of 3750 kW and a process heating
load of 3500 kW, the mass flow rate of steam through
(a) the process heaters,
(b) the feed heater,
(c) the turbine stop valve.
Assume a straight "condition line" on the h-s chart.
(1.66 kg/s, 0.368 kg/s, 4.796 kg/s)
11. Explain, briefly, what is meant by (a) reheating and (b)
feedwater heating when used in the context of steam power plant.
Indicate the advantages which may arise from their use.
A certain steam power plant has two turbines and a single open-
type feedwater heater. A boiler supplies the high-pressure turb-
ine with 50 000 kg/h of steam at an enthalpy of 3350 kJ/kg. The
steam leaves the high-pressure turbine at a pressure of 10 bar and
with an enthalpy of 2830 kJ/kg at which condition some of the steam
passes to the feedwater heater while the remainder is returned to
the boiler for reheating at constant pressure to an enthalpy of
3370 kJ/kg. The steam from the reheater is expanded in the low-
pressure turbine to 0.04 bar and 0.95 dryness fraction. Saturated
liquid at 0.04 bar leaves the condenser and is pumped to the feed-
water heater where it mixes with the bled steam to form saturated
liquid at 10 bar for supply to the boiler feed pump.
Sketch the layout of the plant and show on an enthalpy-entropy
diagram the processes undergone by the steam. Neglecting the work
of the feed pumps find:
(a) the power output of the plant,
(b) the mass flow rate of the bled steam, and
(c) the cycle efficiency.
The enthalpy of saturated liquid at 10 bar is 763 kJ/kg. At
0.04 bar the enthalpy of saturated liquid and saturated vapour are,
respectively, 121 kJ/kg and 2554 kJ/kg. (London University 1974)
(17158 kW, 11 850 kg/h, 0.478)
129
12 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATORS
4 1
C : Condenser
CM::: Compressor
E ::: Evaporator
V = Throttle Valve Figure 12 .1
130
h3 = 352.3 = h4 (Throttling process: w = q = ~u 2 = ~gz = 0)
1q4 = h1 - h4 = specific refrigerating effect = 1080.7 kJ/kg
m = 401 = 2 kJ/s 1.851 X 10- 3 kg
4ql 1080.7 kJ/kg s
Figure 12.2
Figure 12.2 refers.
Values of specific enthalpy etc are taken from a pressure-enthalpy
diagram which is not based on precisely the same data as that giv-
en on page 13 of tables and there are consequently slightly diff-
erent answers depending on whether the chart or tables are used.
In kJ/kg
hl = 191
h2s = 206.5
1~h2s = 15.5
1M2. = 15.5/0.9 17.22
h2 208.2
h3 h4 = 75
116
17.22= 6 74
131
.
401 = 401
5 kJ
_ _s_ = 0.043 kg
m =
4q1 h1 - h4 116 kJ s
kg
.
1W2 ~(h2 - h1) = 0.043 ~g [17.22 ~~] 0.742 kW
mv 1 = 0.043 kg
s
X 0.042 mk 3
g
= 1.806 X 10- 3 ~
s
But
.
V1
7rD2
2 x - 4- x D x N x 'lvol where D = bore = stroke
N = frequency (s- 1 )
'11vol = volumetric efficiency
1.806 X 10- 3 X 4
2 X 7r X S~~ X 0.7
D = 0.058 m = 58 mm =L
3. A vapour compression refrigerator uses Refrigerant 12 as the
working fluid and its compressor is driven directly by a turbine
which is part of a simple Rankine power cycle, also using Refrig-
erant 12 with negligible feed pump work.
The design data is as follows:-
Power cycle:- Boiler pressure 39.79 bar
Vapour temperature at turbine inlet 125 C
Refrigerator cycle:-
Evaporation temperature - 20 C
Saturated vapour at compressor entry
Saturated liquid at condenser exit
The condensing temperature is 30 C in both cycles and expansion
and compression are both isentropic.
Determine, for a refrigeration effect of 1 kW
(a) the mass flow rate in the refrigerator,
(b) the mass flow rate in the power cycle,
(c) the heat transfer rate to the boiler,
(d) the total energy rejection rate.
132
B
Figure 12.3
hs 232.4 7
ss 0.6964 ss
.
0.246 kW
Wpower
.
Wpowe r 0. 246 kW = 8 . 38
mpower = ~ = hs - hs 29.41 ~~
2.406 kW
133
ion capacity by returning the fluid from the delivery pipe of the
compressor back to the suction pipe through a throttle valve. At
a particular condition of operation one quarter of the discharge
from the compressor is returned while three quarters goes on to the
condenser. The pressure and enthalpy of the ammonia leaving the
evaporator are 2.5 bar and 1442 kJ/kg respectively while the pres-
sures entering and leaving the compressor are 2.5 bar and 10 bar
respectively. The compression process is assumed to be reversible
and adiabatic following a path defined by the relationship
pv 1 3 =constant
where p is the pressure and v is the specific volume.
Determine the temperature of the ammonia leaving the compressor
and the coefficient of performance given that the enthalpy of the
liquid leaving the condenser is 296 kJ/kg.
Data for ammonia at a pressure of 10 bar:
TemEerature 100 110 120 130
oc 80 90
v
v
= n ~ l (p3V3 - P2V2)
-\PSJ\n-tjn]
2 2 2
or h3
n
h2 + :;;---:-y(P3V3 - P2V2) = h2 + ~e
n r, (P 2
134
4 n [ (p 2~" -1/n]
or h 3 = h1 + 3(n - l)p 3 v 3 1 - P7J and substituting
h3 ={1442 + i_(~
3( 3)
X 1000 gm X V3 !!!..:Jl
kg~
{2 5)
~10
0
3/!. 3]}
0. 75 (h 1 - hs) 0 . 75 (h 1 - h 5)
COP
h3 - h2 h3 - 0.25(h3 + 3hJ)
0.75(1442- 296) -
1715 - 0.25[1715 + 3(1442)] - 4 2
!t: 1.204
T3
T2 1.204 x 273 = 328.6 K
kJ
hz - h3 = Cp(Tz - T3) = 2.4 kg K(328.6 - 273) K 133.5
136
0.769(1405.6- 181.2)
0.769(1577.9- 1405.6) + 1630.9- 1444.4 2.95
0.69
137
p
~--------------------h
Figure 12.6
138
300 rev/min with a volumetric efficiency of 75%, calculate the bore
in mm if the refrigerating effect is 20 kW.
Use the pressure-entha lpy chart exclusively.
(Aston University 1977)
Figure 12.7 refers.
~--------------------h
Figure 12.7
.
Energy balance on receiver
mEbh2 + 2mEbha = 3mEbh3
.
or h 3 = h2 +
3 2ha = 191.5 +32(182) = 185 . 1
and reading off values of specific enthalpy in kJ/kg from the chart
State Point h State Point h
1 163.0 6 65.0
2 191.5 7 182.0
3 185.1 8 182.0
4 216.0 9 65.0
5 65.0
7.3 kJ
work transfer rate s
specific work transfer 0.0602 kg
s
121.2 ~~
m3
0.43 kg (chart)
139
Vswept (CM )
v 1
= ''lvol =
0. 0259
~ =
m3
0.0345 S =
v3
~
where D = bore = stroke and N = speed
0.0345 ~[ 60 . s] x 4] 1 / 3
Thus D = [ s [ mm] 0.206 m
11' x 300 st:oke
m1n
Further examples
8. A refrigeration plant uses Freon-12 which is compressed ad-
iabatically to 10.84 bar and 60 C by a twin cylinder, single-ac-
ting compressor running at 500 rev/min. Liquid refrigerant at 25
C enters the expansion valve and at entry to the compressor the
Freon is saturated vapour at - 20 C. Take cp for Freon liquid at
10.84 bar as 0.989 kJ/kg K and calculate
(a) the coefficient of performance,
(b) the dimensions of the cylinders of the compressor if the
bore equals the stroke, the volumetric efficiency is 80% and the
Freon mass flow rate is 0.1 kg/s.
Sketch the cycle on a temperature-entropy field indicating the
important values of temperature. (3.13, 101 mm)
140
F :: Flash Chamber
3 (separating
liquid and
vapour)
F
Figure 12.10
I :: Intercooler
v
Figure 12.11
Calculate also the suction pipe diameter for the low pressure
compressor if the entry velocity to this component is 15 m/s.
In figure 12.11:
C Condenser
CM Compressor
E Evaporator
V Throttle Valve
I Intercooler
State 1 Saturated vapour, 0.9 bar
State 3 Saturated vapour, 3.0 bar
State 5 Undercooled liquid, 10 bar, 30 C
The working fluid is Freon-12 and the pressure-enthalpy chart
should be used. (Aston University 1974)
Figure 12.11 refers.
141
13 HYGROMETR Y, AIR CONDITIONIN G AND
EVAPORATIVE COOLERS
Figure 13.1
2
ma
Val Ra T1 RaT1
142
280m~
m1n
[100- 0.8(3.778)) kN2
m 314.3 k?
m1n
0.287 k~JK X (273 + 28) K
. .
Energy equation from 1 - 2
. . .
.
maha1 + m s 1h
.
s1 = maha2 + ms2h s2 + mw3hw3 + 102
.
102
.
~a (ha 1 - h 2) + m51h51 - ms2hs 2 - mw3hw3
~aCpa(T1 - T2) + m 3 w1h s 1 maw2hs2 - mw3hw3
.
314.5 k?a x 1 005 kJ (28 7) K
m1n kgaK -
Calculate
(a) the temperature of the air after mixing, and
(b) the heat transfer to the cooling coil of the heat exchanger.
Values for the saturation pressure pg, of water vapour at tem-
perature T are:
143
1 3 10 22
0.006566 0.007575 0.01227 0.02642
(London University 1973)
Figure 13.2
0.00833
0.287 ~X 295 K
RaTa = 0.858
PaA 98.679 ~
m
0.287 X 275 0.792
99.59
m3
4-
!:.L= s 4.662
VaA m3
0.858 kg
Vo 2
Vao = 0. 792 = 2.524
2541.2 (page 2)
hs 8 2506.2 (page 2)
maAhaA +
.
Energy before mixing is given by
msAhsA +
.
maohao +
.
msohso
~aACpATaA + ~aAWNJsA + ~as cpsTaB + ~aswohss
= ~aA[cpATaA +wAhsA] + ~a 8 [cp 8 Ta 8 + w0 hss]
144
Also maA'"A + mao"'s = (4.662 x 0.00833) + (2.524 x 0.00410)
"'c = maA + mas 4.662 + 2.524
0.00683
and cpc = 1.005 + 1.88(0.00683) = 1.018
Now for adiabatic mixing the energy before mixing = energy after
Thus ~achac + ~schsc = ~accpcTc + ~acwchsc = 2231.9 kW
or (7.186 X 1.018 X (273 + Tc)]+[7.186 X 0.00683hsc]= 2231.9 kW
and Tc = 15.1 C satisfies this equation (using page 2 of tables)
145
Figure 13.3
3
4
1 Water
PSI ]Ra _
[
Pm - Ps 1jRs
0.6 X 0.287
[o.o~ 063 - o.6Jo.462
1 X 0.287
0.0275
w2 [o.0~242 - 1]0.462
Mass continuity
mw3 mw4 = ~a (w2 wJ)
0.727 ~
kg a
146
RaT2 = RaT2
Pa2 Pm - Ps2 Pm - </>2Pg2
2
Reject
.
QR
(use separate psychrometric chart for properties)
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.4 refers.
Energy balance on the Room
~ahl +
.
OR = ~aM
OR
kJ
so 000 h L_il_]
ma = M - hi 0.971 kga (from chart)
s
(37.3 - 23)kJ ~]
kga
147
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
10 15 20 25 30
148
0.971 kga (1 + 0.0062)kgm = 0.977 kgn, (a)
s kg a s
ma1 + ms1
Figure 13.5
149
~w3 (hwlt - hw3) -
.
xhw~t
ma (A)
hl -M
X
and ma (B)
"'2 - "'1
or X = ~w3(hw1t
hl -M
- hw3)
+ hw~t
"'2 - "'1
2 10 6 ~(104.8 - 209.3)kJ
X
----n- kgw 0.058 X 10 6 kgw
X = --------~--~~--------~~- h
(32 - 101.5)~
_ _ _ _ _ _.:.:.k2.ga:.,...._ + 104.8 kJ
(0.0276 - 0.0076)kgw kgw
kg a
0.062 = 2.9\
and Percentage loss = ---2--- x 100
Referring to the chart in figure 13.5 and taking the minimum area
position to be approximately given as shown
m3
v8 = 0.9 -ga
k
" m3
10 II [ h l
3.39 ~
ma = :~ 1 = O. 82 ~[3600 s] s
kg a
Also hl 16.5 kJ
kga
150
"'
Figure 13.6
Mass Continuity at 4
2 m2
50 !!!. x _ll"_x_o_,.,...2_7_2_
~= s 4
ma 3.39 ~
s (h4 = 40.5 kJ/kg )
Energy equation 3 - 4
30~ = ~a(h4 - h~) 3.39 ~(40.5 33.5)kJ = 23.7 kW
s kg a
Reynolds Number at 4
4 x 3.39 ~ x 10 5 ms
Re = -/J.--
puDm _ ~a4A 4~a =
S
8.8 X 10~
A/JP = JJ.rll"
x 0.272 m x 1.8 kga
1r
151
omary the air conditioned room has given dimensions and a fixed
number of changes of air per hour then a direct solution is not
possible as is shown by the following example.
7. Figure 13.7 shows diagrammatically an air-conditioning plant
supplying a light machine shop. The air drawn in from outside at
state 1 at 5 C with a relative humidity of 25%.
The air is first of all heated at the rate of 1 MW and then hum-
idified isothermally with a water evaporation rate of 1550 kg/h.
If the machine shop measures 40 m by 40 m by 10 m and undergoes
10 complete changes of air every hour, calculate the final state
(T 3,w 3) using the psychrometric chart. (Aston University 1972)
12t
J
~ w
1 I
--,t;-----+j..., +r-4---+i-
Figure 13.7
The initial difficulty lies in the fact that we do not know the
value of va3 and cannot calculate the mass flow of dry air directly
from the room dimensions and air changes.
The procedure is assume a value for va3 (say val) and work to-
wards a first, approximate value for the state at 3. Then with this
condition a new more correct value of va3 may be assumed and the
entire calculation may be repeated until no change is found in the
final state.
m3
Thus va3 = val = 0.8 --k assumed pro tern
g.
and ma
h_ = 10 X 40 X 40 X 10 m3 /h [ h ] 55.56 kg.
Va 3
h~ _ hi
.
0.8 m3/kga
102 _
[3600 s]
1000 kW [ kJ ]
s
18 kJ
rna- 55 . 56 kga[s kW] kg a
s
hi 8.2 ~
kg a
M 18 + 8.2 26.2 kJ
kg.
w2 W}
Thus T2 23.1 oc
Now ~. (w3 - w2) = ms3 - ms 2 IDW4
152
or Wg IDW4
wz
1550 k~w/h (_h_]
= 55.56 + 0.00125 kgw = 0.009 kgw
~+ kga/s(3600 s] kg a kg a
Also Tg Tz = 23.1 oc
Thus Wg 0.5 using the chart
With these values of temperature and relative humidity at point 3
we can now select a new value for the specific volume at 3 and re-
peat the whole calculation and iterate until no change is obtained
in the final condition. In this case only one iteration is needed.
Further examples.
153
14 FURTHER WORK ON AVAILABILITY AND
COMBINED CYCLES
~0.28 MN/m
0.42 MN/m 2 2
290 K 485 K
Ul "' 0 U2 '"' 0
Solution (2nd Part)
Figure 14.1
Solution (First Part)
Figure 14.1 refers.
Availability is defined as the maximum reversible work transfer
that can be realised when taking a fluid from its given state to
a 'ground' or 'dead' state which is at lowest energy potential.
This ground state may be defined by:
p = po, T =To, z zo and u = 0.
In this example suffix 0 is the same as suffix A.
154
Reference to many modern textbooks gives the derivation required
and the expression is
B- BA m[(h- TAs) - (hA - TASA)] = m[(h - hA) - TA(s- sA)]
155
---------
Figure 14.2
or ln PI + n ln v1 = ln P2 + n ln v2
or n = ln PI - ln p 2 ln (pdp2) ln (50/ 3)
1. 353
ln v2 - ln v1 ln (vdvl) ln 8
kJ
R( T _ T) 0.275 ~K (2500 - 1199.9) K kJ
JW2 = n - 1
l 2 = __.......:.:..s!.......:.:...-=-=------
0.353
= 1012.8 kg
R{T~ -
-
~2 .,
I
To 1 1n !J_ - To ln
- T2
~
V2
+ ~~
PI
- ~2}
P2
+ 25~~ K_ 119;.9 K}
0.275 k~JK{S200.4 K- 875 K + 619.7 K +50 K- 400 K}
1263.7 ~~
1i2 JW2rev - JW2 = (e1 - e2) - To (5J - 52) - 1W2
156
This is the irreversibility that arises despite the internal revers-
sibili ty of the process and because of the unwanted heat transfer
from the cylinder in expansion.
.
Bgas - Bo
.
Availability rate in the engine exhaust gas is given by
~gas(bgas - bo) = ~gas[(h- Tos)gas (ho - Toso)]
Vair [~TJ.ir
RT
= 0.287
kJ 298 K m3
0 . 0611 kg
or Vai r - - X -~'-7..-;-
k K kN
P g 1400 m2
rna i r
(B - Bo)ga s
(b _ bo)air for equivalent availability in the air
47.3 kJ
s 0.211 ~
s
224.6 ~~
157
and = 0.211 ~
s m3
x 0.0611 kg= s
0.0129 m3 =
m3
D=}/ 0.0129sx4 [ 6 0s)
or 0.118 m
l~ x l. 5 x 400 str~ke [min ]
m1n
Figure 14.4
158
h3 - h4s = 615.1
h3 h4 = 0.87 X 615.1 535.1
h4 2196
hs 138 = hs
Correspondingly
5! 6.632 (chart)
52 6.737
53 6.941
54 7.202
5s 0.476 56 (tables page 2)
Tabulate h 5 To5 b
Point
(kJ/kg) (kJ/K kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
1 3287 6.632 1943.2 1343.8
2 3287 6.737 1973.9 1313.1
3 2731.1 6.941 2033.7 697.4
4 2196 7.202 2110.2 85.8
5 138 0.476 139.5 - 1. 5
6 138 0.476 139.5 - 1.5
assuming that there are negligible changes in kinetic and potential
energies.
Throttle
b) b2 loss in available energy in throttle 30.7 ~~
Turbine T
b2 - b3 + 2W3 b2 - b3 + h2 - h3 To (53 - 52) 59.8 ~~
Turbine T
b3 b4 + 3W4 To(54 - 53) 76.5 ~~
Condenser C
kJ
b4- bs = 85.8- (- 1.5) = 87.3 kg
Note that there are terms allowing for work transfer in both tur-
bine expressions, since work production is available energy pro-
duction and this must be included in the availability balance.
Little can be said about both turbines whose efficiencies are
already approaching optimum values with present day practice and
the metallurgical limitation on turbine inlet temperature which is
inevitable with presently available materials.
It is bad thermodynamically to throttle a fluid since the proc-
ess is irreversible, gives no work and wastes availability.
The condenser has the largest loss in available energy of those
calculated because of the non-recoverable heat transfer to the cool-
ing water. One obvious possibility of improvement lies in the use
of this waste energy in some other process - for example in space
heating.
159
In fact the most serious source of availability loss is in the
steam generator with the very large temperature gradient between
the primary combustion gases and the secondary fluid (water/steam).
The success of any method of reducing this gradient and thus the
associated irreversibility of this process will be judged by the
balance between capital and running costs. It is quite the most
worthwhile area to examine as witness the attempts (e.g. in fuel
cells) to eliminate the secondary fluid altogether and generate
eJectricity directly from chemical energy. This is very much a
long term prospect.
160
B
Figure 14.5
h1 - h2s = 599.6
h1 - h2 = 0.9 X 599.6 539.6
h2. 2782.4
X2.
82.
2782.4 - 798
2784.0 - 798 999
2,216 + 0.999(6.523
2.216) 6.520
h3 = hl = 3322
h,. = 3068
Energy balance on Mixer M (see figure 14.5a)
(;, - ;,2.)h3 + ;,2.h2 = ~.. (A)
739
and S3 su + Cp ln .!.L
Tu
= 6.523 + 1. 74 ln 429.8 = 7.466
7.083
Xss
7.083 - 0.649 =0 858
8.149 - 0.649 .
hss 192 + 0.858(2584 - 192) 2244
h,. - hss = 824
h,. hs = 0.9 x 824 741.6
hs 2326.4
2326.4 - 192 0. 892
xs 2584 - 192
161
55 0.649 + 0.892(8.149 - 0.649) = 7.341
hs 192; 5 6 = 0.649 (assuming saturated liquid at 6)
h1 hs = 192; 5 7 = 5 6 = 0.649 (neglecting feed pump work)
Power
~2Ch1 - h2) + ~(h4 - hs) 15 MW
or 539.6~2 + 741.6~ = 15 MW (B)
In (B)
539.6(0.471~) + 741.6~ = 15 MW 995.6~
15 X 10 3 kJ
s
m = ---..,-=-- 15.07 kg
s
995.6 ~~
7.10 kg
5
Point h 5 To5 b
= 15.07 kJ
kg (124.1
s
+ 2.7)kg = 1910.6 kW
.
The feed pump is reversible (assumed) and
0
. . .
IFP =
162
(15.07 - 7.1) kg (2239.8- 1917)kJ = 2572.7 kW
s kg
IM = Wrev (since w = 0)
522 K
T2s - T1 = 234 K
234
T2 - T1 = 0. 8 l = 288.9 K
T2 576.9 K
Energy addition in fuel 1. 26 ~ X 30 X 10 3 kJ
s kg
37 800 kW
163
Turbine Plant
Heat Boiler
Figure 14.6
660.1 ~J
---.-kJ'!!-g- = 584. 2 K
1.13 kg K
690.4 K
.
Wnet [57.26 ~g X 1.16 k~\ X 400.1 KJ
l
- r56 kg X 1.005 _!LX 288.9 KJ
s kg K
10 316 kW
164
. ~steam llhs learn
= 6.53 kg X 891.8 kkJ = 5822 kW
.
Wsteam S g
165
Heat
Exchange 160.
L-~---1;......,
maas
3
Xss
S5s - Sf = 7.464 - 0.649 = 0. 909
S(g 7. 5
166
For an ideal fuel cell which operates with propane and oxygen
determine:-
(a) the reversible electric potential when operating at a temp-
erature of 25 C and a pressure of 1 bar, and
(b) the heat transfer per kmol of propane consumed.
Extract from tables of properties giving molar enthalpy (l'lho)
and molar Gibbs function (tog 0 ) of formation at a pressure of 1.0
bar and a temperature of 25 C is as follows.
Mo togo
Substance Symbol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol
Oxygen 02 0 0
Water H20 - 286 042 - 237 310
Carbon Dioxide C20 - 393 768 - 394 648
Propane C3He - 103 916 23 484
Note: l Faraday = 96.5 X 10 6 coulomb/kmol. (London Uni ve?.' 1974)
167
and for a fuel cell operating at constant pressure and temperature
between initial state 1 and final state 2, integrating (3)
ER~Z = (Ez - E1) - T(Sz - S!) + p(Vz - V1) = Gz - G1 (4)
where G = Gibbs Function =H - TS
Note that when the cell discharges ~z is negative and G1 > Gz
and when the cell charges Gz > G1.
Now the electrical work dwE for positive work by cell is
dWE =- dG and from equation (1)
- dG = jFdn
dG dng
(5) and for const.p,T and chemical pot-
or - jFdn = - jFdn
ential J.L
dG =- ~J.Lidni or
Enllho
kmol C0 2 { kJ } H20 C3Ha
3 kmol C3Ha 393768 kmol COz + 4 (286042) 1 (103916)
- 8(0)
02
2 221 556 kJ
kmol C3He
168
Further examples
1
G
Figure 14.9
8
169
1 kg
G 2
y kg
Figure 14.10
1
Data:
State 2 ---------------------------------- 30 bar, Satd.Vapr.
P3 --------------------------------- 2.8 bar
P4 --------------------------------- 0.04 bar
State 5 ---------------------------------- Satd.Liqd .. 0.04 bar
State 7 ---------------------------------- Satd.Liqd., 2.8 bar
(0.181, 76.2 kJ, 109.7 kJ, 48 kJ, 38.6 kJ)
11. Explain briefly how a normal steam boiler and turbine system
would have to be modified to incorporate it in a combined cycle
where the exhaust gases of a gas turbine are used as the combustion
air in the furnace of the steam plant.
A gas turbine operates on a simple open circuit using air as the
working fluid with a compression ratio of 6:1.
After compression the air is heated indirectly to 800 C and,
after expansion in the turbine, the air exhausts into a waste heat
boiler producing saturated steam at atmospheric pressure for fac-
tory heating.
Calculate, using tables of properties of air, the percentage of
heat converted to electrical power assuming that:
1. Compressor work is -------------------------- 226 kJ/kg
2. Compressor outlet temperature is ------------ 238 C
3. Overall turbine isentropic efficiency is ---- 88%
4. Electrical generator efficiency is ---------- 98%
5. Air heater efficiency is -------------------- 85%
6. Air heater pressure loss is ----------------- 3%
7. Waste heat boiler pressure loss is ---------- 2%
If the initial water temperature is 27 C and the approach temp-
erature of the waste heat boiler is 10 C, what is the percentage
of the original heat that can be converted to steam? Atmospheric
pressure is 1 bar. (Aston University 1970)
(20.9%, 54.5%)
170