INDIAN MATHEMATICS RELATED TO

ARCHITECTURE
AND OTHER AREAS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA

Thesis Submitted to the

COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Under the Faculty of Science

By
P.RAMAKRISHNAN

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
COCHIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COCHIN - 682 022, KERALA, INDIA.

SEPTEMBER 1998
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the thesis entitled -INDIAN

MATHEMATICS RELATED TO ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER AREAS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA- is a bonafide record of work

done by Sri. P. Ramakrishnan under my gu idance in the

Department of Mathematics, Cochin University of Science

and Technology, and that no part of it has been included

anywhere previously for the award of any degree.

Kochi - 682 022 Dr. T. Thrivikraman

September 25, 1998. Supervising Guide
Professor & Head of
the Department of Mathematics
Cochin University of Science & Technology
 DECLARATION

This thesis contains no material which has been

accepted for the award of any Degree or Diploma in any

University and to the best of my knowledge and belief,

it contains no material previously published by any other

person, except where due references are made in the text

of the thesis.

Kochi - 682 022

September 25, 1998. P. RAMAKRISBNAN
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am most grateful and deeply indebted to

Prof. T. Thrivikraman, Head of the Department of

Mathematics, Cochin Universi ty of Science and Technology,

for his patient supervision and valuable guidance

throughout my research. Timely suggestions and

encouragement of Prof. A. Krishnamoorthy, Department of

Mathematics, are greatly acknowledged wi th heartfelt

gratitude

I also place on record my thanks to my colleagues

in Cochin University and in the Cochin College,

Kochi 2, for their cooperation in carrying out my

research.

Finally, I wish to thank Mrs. Kochuthresia for

her good typing.

Kochi - 682 022

September 25, 1998. P. Ra.akrishnan
 CONTENTS

Pages

INTRODUCTION (1-9)
Chapter I RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE (10-32)
1.1. Int roduct i on 10
1. 2. Selection of Site 11
1. 3. Solar Path and Shadow Method 13
1.4. Formation of the Square Ma~9ala 14
1.5. Location of a domestic building 15
1.6.1. Determination of Grhav~dika using
Grid system 15
1.6.2. Vithi Systems 17
1. 7. The Concept of Marma 18
1. 8. The Concept of V~stupuru~a 19
1.9.1. Units of Measurements 20
1.9.2. Units in Manu~yalayacandrika 21
1.10.!. The Concept of YOni 22
1.10.2. Modular Coordination in Traditional
Architecture 25
1.ll. Method of finding Perimeter and length 26
1.12.1. Proportions in Traditional Architecture 27
1.12.2. Gunam~a Method 28
1.13. Types of Salas 29
1.14. Vertical Elements of the building 31

Chapter 11 ~BMPLB ARCHITBCTURB (33-46)

2.1. Historical Background 33

2.2. Selection of Site for a temple 34
2.3. Geometrical Method of Determining 35
Cardinal Directions
2.4. Classification of temples 36
2.5. Alpaprasada 37
2.6.I. Garbhagr ha 38
2.6.2. The Thickness of the Walls 38
2.6.3. The Disposition of Garbhagrha 39
2.7. Vertical Components of a Prasada 39
2.8. Vertical Proportions 43
2.9. Disposition of the doors 43
2.10. Pa1\caprakaras 44
2.11. N~tyamary9apam 45
2.12. Talamana 46
Chapter III THE CONCEPT OF - (47-58)
VARIOUS APPROXIMATIONS

3.l. Introduction 47
3.2. Value of ~ in the Construction of
Vrttapr~sada
48
3.3. Value of ~ implied in the construction
50
of Gajapr~tha Shape
3.4. Value of ~ in the construction of a
circle with perimeter equal to 53
that of a Square
3.5. Approximation to ~ in 'Thaccusastram 55
Bhasa'
3.6. App~oximation to ~ in finding the 57
Radius of a Circle

Chapter IV THE GOLDEN RATIO IN TRADITIONAL (59-71)

ARCHITECTURE

4.l. Introduction 59
4.2. The Concept 'Golden Ratio' 60
4.3. Golden Rectangle and its property 61
4.4. Golden Rectangles and Fibonacci Numbers 64
4.5. Golden Ratio and Arddh~dhika 66
4.6. Golden Ratio and Natyama~9apam
66
(Kuthampalam)
4.7. Construction of Bimba (idol) and
Golden Ratio 69

Chapter Y TRAlRASIKA (THB RULE OF THREE) (72-92)

IR ~RADI~IORAL ARCHITBCTURE
5.1. Introduction 72
5.2. Definition of Traira~ika 73
5.3. Vyasta - Trairasika 75
5.4. Method of finding the inclination of 76
the Collarpin on an inclined rafter
5.5. Determination of heights of the 80
roof for different pitches
5.6. Some other proportions of height 83
and width
5.7. Determination of the length of 84
the side of an Octagon
5.8.!. Determination of length of Rafters 86
using Traira~ika
5.8.2. 8th Postulate (Ettam Prama~am) 87
and length of rafters
5.8.3. 4th Postulate (Nalam Prama~am) 89
Chapter VI GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION AND RELATED (93-135)
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

6.1. Introduction 93
6.2.I. Square 94
6.2.2. Construction of a Square 95
6.3. Construction of a Rectangle whose
perimeter equal to that of a square 96
6.4.l. Circle 98
6.4.2. Construction of a circle whose
perimeter is equal to (approximately) 98
that of a given square
6.s.I. Gajapr~tha and Vrttayata 102
6.5.2. Method of Construction of Drrghav~tta 103
(Elongated Circle)
6.5.3. Determination of the perimeter of 106
the DirghavFtta
6.6.I. Triangle 108
6.6.2. Construction of a Triangle whose 109
perimeter is equal to that of a
given square
6.7. Construction of a hexagon whose
perimeter is equal to that of a 112
given square
6.8. Construction of an Octagon whose
perimeter is approximately equal 114
to a given square
6.9. The method of inscribing an Octagon 118
(Et~u~attam) in a given squar~
6.10. Method of construction of 'Srlcakra' 120
(or Sr"iyantra)
6.11. To find the length of the Diagonal
of a square without using Pythagoras 124
theorem
6.12. Construction of Lamba and Vitana 126
(vertical and horizontal direction)
6.13. Geometrical method of finding 129
the length of rafters
6.14. Geometric method o determining 132
the width of a rafter

APPENDIX

ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF (136-229)

MANUSYALAYACANDRIKA

SANSKRIT TEXT (230-272)

BIBLIOGRAPHY (273-284)

GLOSSARY (285-295)
 INTRODUCTION

Indian Mathematics in its broad sense is as old as

at least Indus Valley Civilization which is also true in the

case of Indian Architecture (V~stuvidya). The earliest texts

on Indian Mathematics are the Sulba (or Sulva) Sutras (800-

500 B.C.) which are compilations of mathematical principles

that have developed in India during ancient times.

Several geometrical principles are either explicitly

mentioned or implied in the construction of altars,

platforms, sacrificial halls and other things with a

( 11)
measuring rod and thread or rope (raj ju) . Since rope was

used for measuring length and breadth, in course of time,

geometry was called Rajju s8stra in the early period of

. (17)
Indian Mathematics (gaoita) . The dev elopmen t of geomet ry

_ay just as well have been stimulated by the practical needs

of construction and surveying and this explains the relation

between geometry or mathematics and architecture in ancient

India.

th
The period extend ing from the 5 century A. D. to l7 th

century was one of general prosperity for scientific

development in India. ~ryabhata I (b. A.D.476) was the first

among the top ranking mathematicians of ancient India, as

he had not only introduced many new theories and formulae

but also anticipated discoveries of modern times. He has

 2

also laid the foundation of different branches of

mathematics. Var~hamihira (A.D.SOS), Brahmagupta (A.D.628),

Sridhara (A.D.7S0), Mahavlra, Sripati and Bhaskara (b.

A. D.1114) are some of the scholars of th is per iod who made

notable contributions to the twin disciplines of Mathematics

and Astronomy.

It was an evolutionary period of Indian architecture

and the historical evolution of architectural theory is

traceable mainly from manuscripts and published treatises,

from critical essays and commentaries, and from the surviving

buildings of every epoch. According to P.K. ~carya there

are about 300 texts on architecture in India in different

languages. Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita of century A.D.

gives an authoritative treatment on building temples and

houses, in two separate chapters. Is~nagurudevapaddhati,

"
'Klmik8gama, Samaranga~asutradhara, Mayamata, and M3.nasdra

are some of the compilations on Indian architecture

(Vastuviaya). All these works are comprehensive and masterly

compilations in highly technical Sanskrit. Even though,

Mayamata and Manas3.ra were treated as reference texts all

over India, some variations in details were adopted in

regional texts because of the geographical and climatic

differences of different regions.

In Kerala the Mah~dayapuram(2) period (9 th century

A.D. to 12 th century) marked an all pervasive transformation

 3

in the pol it i cal, social and cuI tu ral fields and the earliest

known structural temples in Kerala rose in the first quarter

th
of the 9 centu ry (A. D. 823) . Even t hough the temples were

constructed according to v:"!!!"stu principles that was prevalent

in India, a unique style of architecture was evolved in

Kerala and attained perfection during the late medieval and

early modern periods century A.D. to century) .

Stella Kramrisch(38) calls them purely Kerala shapes with

their high sloping roofs and angular silhouet tes, in temples,

mosques, palaces and churches. There had been an effusion

of mathematical, astronomical and architectural

investigations during this period. As a result of this, a

large number of treatises were formulated in these

disciplines. We concentrate our investigations on Indian

mathematics related to architecture to this period only, with

special reference to Kerala.

V@ovaroha and other works of Sa~gamagrama Madhava

(GOlavid) (1340-1425), DrggaJ;li ta of Parame~wara (1360-1455),

Tantrasaugraha of Nilakar;t tha S~may~j i (1443-1545), Yukt ibhaliSa

or GaoitanyayasaQgraha of Jy~~tadeva (appr.1500-1610) etc,

are some of the contributions of mathematicians and

astronomers of Kerala during this period.

(Rationale in Malayalam language) which is composed in

Malayalam language deals with several branches under

mathematics and astronomy and even ci tes examples from

traditional architecture of Kerala for the verification of

some of the mathematical results(66)

 4

Further, several treatises on architecture were

formulated during this period. Tantrasamuccaya of Cenn~s

N!r~yanan Namboothir ippad (A. D .1428), Si lpara tna of trikumara

(16 th centu ry) , Vastuv idya (Anm. ) , Manu ~yalayacandr i ka of

th
Thirumangalath Neelakant;.han (16 century) etc, are some of

the we1lknown architectural texts of Kerala. These are

compilations of vastu principles composed in Sanskr i t verses.

The first two. texts deals with temple architecture and the

other two explains the details of domestic archi tecture of

Kerala. Here we mainly consider the two texts

Tantrasamuccaya and Manu~yalayacandrika. There are many

versions of Manu~yalayacandrika and most of them contain

about 245 verses arranged in seven chapters. But the one

which was published by the Kochi Ma1ayalabh~9a Pari~kara~a

Committee in 1125 M.E(56)contains only 173 verses without any

chapterwise classification. This may be considered as the

"\
earliest of all the commentaries on Manu~yalayacandrika.

One of the contributions of Indian mathematics to

architecture is the method of representation of numbers.

In v3stu texts, the system of representation of numbers is

a combination of Sanskrit names for numbers and the word

numerals (BhutasaQkhya system) with place value. The

Sanskrit names for the first nine numbers are eka, dvi, tri,

catur, pafica, ~at, sapta, a~ta and nava respectively. In word

numeral system, numbers are expressed by means of words as

in the place value notation which was developed and perfected

 5

in India in the early centuries of Christ ian era. In this

system the numerals are expressed by names of things, beings

or concepts which are very familiar to the people and

therefore the system is also known as the bhGta saQkhya

system. Thus the words, !kaf:la, baQa and nanda represen t the

numbers zero, five and nine respectively. The ka tapayad i

system is also employed for representing numbers in

traditional architecture of Kerala. The terms used for

fraction are 'bh~ga' and lamsa l meaning part or portion.

The words padam, arddha~, and padOnam are used for denoting

1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 respectively. The fractions are frequent ly

employed in defining the proportionate measures of the

elements of the building.

The ratio and trairasika or Rule of Three (proportion)

play an important role in traditional architecture. The

e" different parts of a building are proportionate to each other

and hence, if the measure of anyone of the elements is

known, the measures of other elements can easily be arrived

at by proportion. The celebrated ratio known as 'the golden

ratio', belongs to the I arddh~dhikam' ratios in traditional

architecture. In a 'golden rectangle I, the ratio of length

to its width is approximately equal to 1.618:1 or simply

1.618. This is the limiting value of the fraction F n+l/ F n I

where F denotes the nth term of a F ibonacci series (4) The
n
inclination of the roof (amippu) is def ined in terms of the

ratio of rise to the run by considering an elemental right

 6

angled triangle of base of unit length. It is implied that

when the sides of a right triangle are increased

proportionately, the ratio of height to base remains the

same.

Geometr ical principles are imp 1 ici tly made use of in

determining the cardinal directions and forming the square

vastumat;lQala on a si te. The vc:stupuru~amat;l9ala, the

intellectual foundation of a building, is derived graphically

with respect to two perpendicular axes named Brahmasutra and

Yamasutra intersecting at the centre of the vastumat;l9ala.

The grid system and the vlthi systems are geometrical methods

of determining the exact position of the grhav~dika

(foundation). The geometrical constructions of a triangle,

rectangle, circle, hexagon and an octagon whose perimeters

are the same as that of a given square have contributed many

major results to mathematics. It is significant to note that

in these geometrical constructions (or conversions) the

perimeter is kept as a constant instead of their area. This

is due to the fact that the perimeter is considered as the

prime dimension of a vastu which defines the yOni, the vital

air (pr!Qa) of a building. This is one of the difference

of Kerala architecture from that of other parts of India.

Further, an independent method is derived for finding the

length of diagonal, approximately, of a square wi thout using

the Pythagoras theorem. Several approximations are obtained

by implication for ~f an irrational number which is the ratio

 7

of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Another

contribution is the implication of the value of another

irrational number 12. The idea of I imi t is impl ied in the

construct ion of the image of I inga (sival inga) . Apart from

these, various practical methods are formulated for

determining accurate dimensions of different types of rafters

by the traditional architects of Kerala (perumtaccans). The

principles of vastusastra were made available to the common

man through these local 'thaccans' and therefore vastusastra

was often known by the name "thaccus~stram" in Kerala.

The chapterwise content of the thesis is given below

Chapter I, deals with the domestic architecture of

Kerala. The selection of site, geometrical determination

of the cardinal directions, formation of square mar;tdala, the

grid system and the vithi systems for fixing the grhavedika,

the concept of marma, Vastupuru~amal)9ala, un its of

measurement, the concept of yon i, different types of "salas'

and vertical elements of a building are explained with

appropriate figures.

In chapter 11, an outline of the temple architecture

of Kerala is given. The characteristics of different types

of temples, construction of the garbhagrha, classification

of temples depending on their plan-shape, tal a (storey) and

 8

perimeter, pancaprakaras, vertical components of a temple,

natyamaQQapam (kuthampalam) etc, are explained briefly.

Chapter I I I, gives various approximations to the

irrational number ~ implied by the architectural texts. The

value of ~ (approximate) assumed in the construction of

vrttapr~sada and in "Thaccus~stram Bh~~a" is 3.1416 which

is the (~sanna' value of ~ given by ~ryabhata I (b. A.D.476).

Another value impl ied in I Tan trasamuccaya' is 3.125

approximately, in the construction of gajaprstba shape.

Some other values adopted for ~ are 3.2 and 22/7.

Chapter IV explaines the ex istan ce of 'golden rat i 0'

in traditional architecture of Kerala. The method of

construction of natyamaodapa and its length to width ratio,

uddhidhikam ratios and 'golden ratio', construction of golden

etangle .and its properties, relation between the terms of

the Fibonacci series and golden rectangle, application in the

idol construction etc, are given in this chapter.

Chapter V explains the Ru le of three (t raira-si ka) and

its applications. Trairasika and inverse trair!~ika (vyasta

trairlsika) are given in detail. Theorems on similarity of

right triangles and their applications in determining the

inclination of the collarpin (vala) in roof construction are

explained with figures. Application of trairaika in

determining the heights of the ridge from the level of the

 9

wallplate (u t taram) and the corresponding leng ths of ra f ters

for different aviccil (pitch), determination of the length

of the side of an octagon, the lengths of rafters using

EttampramaQam (sth_Postu la te) and NaTampramal)am (4th_poS tu 1 ate) I

various proportions of ridgeheight to semiwidth etc. are also

included in this chapter.

Chapter VI explains geometrical construction of

various plan shapes adopted in the tradi tional archi tecture

and deductions of mathematical values which are used or

implied in them. The arch i tectural val ues ass igned to the

shapes of a square, circle, vrttctyatam (elongated circle),

gajaprstl;ta (apsidal) and the methods of construction are

given in detail. The practical method of determining the

approximate length of the diagonal of a square without using

Pythagoras theorem and a very close approximation to J2 are

explained. Further, the methods of construction of a

triangle, rectangle, hexagon, octagon and circle each of

which having the same perimeter of a given square and the

method of inscribing an octagon in a given square are

included in this chapter. The method of construction of

'Sricakram', geometrical method of determination of lengths

of different types of rafters and the demarcation of lamba

and vi t'!na (vertical 1 ine and horizontal 1 ine) on them are

also explained in this chapter.

A translation of 'Manu~yalayacandrika' in English

language is given at the end of this work as an appendix.

 Chapter I

RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Residential or Domestic architecture forms an

important branch of V~stuvidya. It is produced for the

social unit: the individual, family and their dependents,

human and animal. It prov ides shel ter and securi ty for

the basic requirements of life and Vastuvidya is the

ancient rnd ian knowledge of plann ing I des ign ing, bu i Id ing

and maintaining artefacts to meet man's physical and

metaphysical needs.

The word vas tu is derived from the Sanskrit root

( ~ ) 'vas t which means 'to dwell'. In general, it

covers the earth suitable for human habitation (Bhami),

the buildings for different activities (Harmya), the

movable artefacts required for human use and conveyance

(Sayana and YSna). The principal vastu is of course the

Bhumi, others have been included as they rest upon the

BhOmi and are also used for resting upon.

There are several texts on Vastusastra which deal

with the residential architecture of Kerala. 'vastuv idya'

and 'Manu~yalayacandrika' are still used as reference

 11

texts on residential architecture. Though they are

compilations of vastu principles which were prevalent

before 15th centu ry A. D. , they def ine a un ique style of

architecture which is harmoniously blending with the

geographical and climatic conditions of Kerala.

1.2. SBLBCTION OF SITE

For the construction of a building which is a

residence for man or god, the first and foremost

requirement was considered to be the sel ect i on of site.

The characteristics of an ideal site is given in

Manu~yalayacandrika{56}. The site must be suitable for

the living conditions of human beings, animals and plants.

'lb. presence of fruit-bearing trees, flowering plants and

_ _inal herbs, gentle birds and animals, fertile soil,

und.~round spring and congenial climate were considered

good omens in the selection of the best site.

Sites of irregular shapes, like triangular,

al:eDpted, segmental and circular were to be avoided for

~ruction of houses and rectangular shapes were

~red. In the case of scattered settlements

(a..bh~agrima) as in Kerala, the location and extent of

the aite was often not so rigidly restricted. But there

were restrictions in constructing houses in agricultural

 12

fields, mountain slopes, and very close to hermitage,

temple, river and sea. Mounds and depression may require

extensive levelling and may cause water logging or

drainage probl ems. A gentle slope towards north or east

was recommended in Vas tu tex t s. Before the construction

work is to be started, the soil is to be examined by

taste, colour, touch, and smell, by the trees standing

thereon, by the situation of the underground spring, by

birds and animals that frequent there and by the test of

germination of seeds in the soi 1. ManU~yalayacandrika(54)

prescribes simple experiments to ascertain the qualities

of the soil like ferti 1 i ty, humid i ty and compactness. The

imperviousness of the substrata could be tested by pouring

water in a pit of 1 Hasta (72 cm) square and 1 Hasta depth

~and watching the fall in the water level An intelligent

. ,:!,'Stbapati' (traditional architect) can detect the hollow

ground made by termites or rodents by gently "tapping"

the ground by foot and listening the sound. Thus the site

is selected accordingly and the ground is levelled and

cleansed properly. Then the next step in the process of

construction of building is the determination of the

cardinal directions for the correct orientation of

buildings and roads in the site. 'Tantrasamuccaya' and

'Manuqyalayacandrika' provide geometrical methods based

on solar path and shadows.

 13

1.3. SOLAR PATH AND SHADOW MBTHOD

This is a geometrical method based on the

solarpath (56) . In this method a pole (sanku) of height

~ Hasta (36 cm) is fixed vertically on a properly levelled

ground. With the foot of the pole as centre and radius

equal to 1 Hasta a circle is drawn on the ground. The

points where the shadows of the tip of the pole touch the

circle in the forenoon and afternoon are noted. The line

joining these two poin ts gives the approx irnate East-West

direction. To get the correct E-W direction at a place

the following procedure is adopted.

The shadow of the tip of the pol e does not fall

at the same point on the forenoon of the subsequent day

due to the northerly and southerly declination of the Sun

(Uttarlyanam and Dak~inayanam). This point will be to

the south or to the north of the shadow point in West,

noted on the first day, according as the Sun is in

Ottarayana or Daksinayana. In ei ther case the arc-length

between these points is trisected. The point of

trisection nearer to the first day's shadow point is

joined with the shadow point on the East side to get the

correct W-E direction as shown in Fig.l(a).

 l3(a)

DIKNIRANAYAM (SANKUSTHAPANA METHOD)

5
Fig.l(a)

W1 Tip of the shadow of the Sanku on first day

"2 Tip of the shadow of the Sanku on second daY2
r,- Peg
11 Evening shadow point on first day
Pll : Radius of the circle
I" Bast-West line
SR South-North line
 14

The argument behind this correction is that the

displacement of the points on West side is due to the

movement of the sun Southward or Northward during the

twenty-four hours that have elapsed between the two

markings in the forenoon. The actual correction that is

necessary is for the displacement between the markings

of the forenoon and afternoon, ie, for about 8 hours.

The forenoon marking therefore is shifted by one-third

of the total displacement for one whole day and that is

connected with the point for the afternoon.

1.4. PORMATION OF THE SQUARE MANDALA

The line in the W-E direction is known as the

ec.hmaeutra. To determine the S-N direction. consider two

. ~.l intersecting circles with their centres on the

BrahmasOtra. The line join ing the poin ts of intersect ion

-of the circles will give the S-N direction. This line

is called the Yamasutra and the point of intersection of

the Brahmasatra and Yamasiltra is named as the Brahmanabhi

(origin).

With respect to these axes the boundaries of the

.ita were demarcated to form a square of required

dimensions. The diagonals of the square are known as

'Kar~asQtras'
 15

It is to be noted that the requisites for selection

of site for a domestic building are different from the

requisites for other buildings since the functions of a

human residence are en t i rely di f feren t from the funct ions

of a temple or such other buildings.

1.5. LOCATION OF A DOMESTIC BUILDING

If the size of the site is small (ie, between

168 x 16H and 32H x 32H), the entire site is taken as the

house-plot (g~hamaf}9ala) (58). If the site is of large size

then it is divided into four quarters (quadrants) by the

Brahmasutra and Yamasutra. The N-E quadrant named as

manufyakhaQ9a and the s-w quadrant called as devakhaQ9a

are taken for gFhamal)9a1a. If the size of the KhaQ9as

a&fe still large, these two khandas are again subdiv ided

into' 4 upakhaf}Qas and the s.w upakhaJ?9a of the

.anufyakhaQ9a and the N. E upakhaQ<;'1a of the devakhar,JQa are

taken as grhama~Qala.

1.6.1. DBTERMIWATIOR OF G~BAVEDIKA USING GRID SYSTEM

In the grid system (or Padaviny~sam), the square

maQ(ja1a is divided into a grid of cells (Padas).

Manu,yl1ayacandrika prescribes A~tavarga (8 x 8) ,

Navavarga (9 x 9) and Dasavarga (10 x 10) types of grid

 16

systems for the planning and design of houses, maQ9apas

etc and Navavarga is considered to be more acceptable than

others. The mapdala determined by 9 x 9 grid system is

called the Paramasayika maQqala. It is defined by 10

lines each in the W-E direction and S-N direction

producing 81 cells (Padas) in the square maoQala. In the

centre, the region of 9 cells is called the pada

of Brahma where all kinds of constructions are to be

avoided. Surrounding this region is the region covered

by two envelopes of square cells which is def ined as the

space for const ruct ing the S~las (homes). The ou termos t

envelope of square cell s def ines pos i t ions of subs id iary

constructions like cattleshed, well, tank, kitchen etc.

With respect to the Brahmapada, four side spaces

and four corner spaces are available for building Salas

(homes). The width of the spaces is the measure of 2

cells (Padas) and the length is the measure of 2, 3, or

4 cells depending on the vastu divisions of 8 x 8, 9 x 9

or 10 x 10 grid systems respectively. The corner spaces

are square spaces wi th side of the measure of two cells.

In the case of 9 x 9 grid system, the total ground

coverage is restricted to 40 out of 81 cells or a little

less than 50 percent of the grhamaOQala and this is

acceptable according to the modern building code also.

 17

The outermost cells form a permanent open space around

the building, having a width equal to l/9 th of the

site-width (57) .

1.6.2. VITHI SYSTEMS

In vithi system, the site is divided into 9 vIthis

or concentric square envelopes around the B~ahmanabhi,

which is the point of intersection of Brahmasutra and

Yamasiltra. The innermost vithi is known as the
Brahmavithi. The other envelopes around the Brahmavlthi

are named as Vinayakavlthi, Agnivfthi, Jalav Ith i,

Sarpavithi, Yamavrthi, Kub~ravrthi , D~vavithi and

Pi~acavlthi in order. The width of the vithi depends on

the length of the al)kalja or t~lam, the height of owner

of the house. Suitable mUltiples of this length is taken

as the width of the v I t h i and the reg ion comprising the

BrahmavIthi and Gan.~avlthi is considered to be the

appropriate space for the gfhav~dika. If the site is too

small then the grhavedika is determined by combining

the Brahmavithi, Gane~avithi, Aqnivithi and Jalavithi.

In any case the outermost envelope, the pisacavithi is

to be avoided for construction of madn building .

...">.--<

There is another method of dividing the site into

four vrthis, namely, Brahmavlthi, Devavithi, Manu~yavIthi
 18

and PHsacavlthi. The reg i on compr is ing of Dev av It h i and

Manu~yavrthi forms the buildable area of the building.

This method is used where the site is small.

Both the grid system and Vlthi system broadly give

the same floor area coverage leav ing the inside courtyard

and the outermost peripheral envelope.

1.7. THE CONCEPT OF MARMA

The set of orthogonal lines dividing the

VastumaQQala into grids are known as nadis (padasutras)

and the diagonals of the square maOQala are known as

Rajju. The lines parallel to these Rajjus (Kaqla Sutras)

and . passing through the corners of 3 cells, or 6 cells

are also known as Raj jus. The nodal points of the n~9 is

and diagonals (Rajjus) are called 'marma' (57). Out of these

100 murmas, there are 4 important murmas called

rMah~marmas' [Fig.l(b)~ At the points where two na9 i sand

two Rajjus intersect constructions such as wall, pillar

etc, are to be avoided. The rule stipulates that

constructions can be done on either side of the nodal

points leaving half the width of the sutra on either side.

Matlufyalayacandrika defines the width of the sGtra as

1/12, 1/8 and 1/16 of the dimension of a pad a (cell) when

the VAstumal}Qala was d i v ided in to 81 padas, 100 padas and

 18(a)

SALAS AND MAHAMARMAS

KarnnaSUtra
,-

~*--~ ___Rajju

Navavarga (9 x 9 pada) System

Fig.l(b)

.. Mahamarma E East Sala

* Marma
"',1- Nadisandhi
S South Sa la
W : West Sala
fi:' Karman tam N : North Sala
)( Rajju sandhi NE,SE,SW,NW : Corner Sala
~ Rajju Nadi Sandhi
 19

64 padas respectively.

These marmas or nodal points are important because

they def ine the exact posi t ion of the bu i Id ing in the

Viistumao9ala. The Mahamarmas may be used as the referral

points for further constructions, rectifications and

repairs of the building in future. Hence the

intersections (vedha) of any element of the building with

these points are to be avoided.

1.8. "lHE CONCEPT OF YASTUPURU~A

The vastumaQQala is divided into 81, 100 or 64

cells. Then 45 regions (padas), one at the centre, 12

in the surrounding two envelopes and 32 in the outermost

envelope, are determined and 8 positions outside the grid

are also defined. These 53 positi.ons (padas) are called

by the names of 53 deities. Now a two dimensional

figure of a man is superimposed on this square maQQala

in such a way that he 1 ies along the KarQasQtra wi th his

head in the N-E corner and legs in the S-W corner. Thus

~the square VastumaQ9ala becomes the Vastupuru9amaQ9ala

,Wiich is symmetric about the Karoasutra and the size of

~e Vastupuru~a varies according to the size of the

.
Yletumar;tdala. But the relative positions of the spaces

in a V~stumal}<;'lala will not be changing and this property

 20

enables to bring a standardisation in the positioning

of different spaces in a building. Hence the

Vlstupuru~amaOQala is the metaphysical plan of a

building, a temple or a site plan of a house which

completely defines exact positions of specific spaces

in a building and is closely related to Vastuma~9ala

based on grid system (Padavinyasam).

1.9.1. UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

Measurement is an important factor for any

architectural construction. A system of measurement

developed from a basic unit is called a scale. At

different stages of construction the necessity of small

and large measures will occur and the scale is to be

selected in such a way that it su its the requ iremen ts .

The early linear measurements indicate that the units

of linear measurements used were mainly derived from the

parts of the human body. The finger, the palm or hand-

breadth, the foot and the cubit were the principal

aaures. The anthropometric module of one vyama (span)

:j.. -divided by 8 to give a pada. Angula was considered

". . the smallest practical linear measure in ancient

India. Eight angulas define a pada.

flt :
 21

1.9.2. UNITS IN RANU~YALAYACANDRIKA

Manu~yalayacandrika defines 3 types of angulas

based on the measure of 8 yavas I width of 8 Navara grain

and length of 4 Navara grain. Each type is again

classified into 3 categories of Uttama (good) I Madhyama

(medium) and Adhama (bad) depending on the number of

seeds. The smallest unit of measurement is called

Param~nu (smallest .atom) which is defined as the size

of the minute aerosol particles seen in a dark chamber

when the sun I s rays creep into it. The units which are

the multiples of this unit are given below(13).

8 Paramanu 1 Trasarenu or Ratha dhuli

8 Trasarenu 1 Romagra

8 Romagra 1 Liksha

8 Liksha 1 Tila ( Yu ka) : (0.47 mm)

8 Tila (Yuka) 1 Yava 3.75 mm

8 Yava 1 Angula 30 mm

8 Angula 1 Pada 240 mm

3 Pad a 1 Hasta (Kol) : 720 mm

8 Pada 1 Vyama 1920 mm

Thus it is possible to unify the two dimensional

system, one based on grain size and the other based on

human size.
 22

The measure of 24 angu la (72 cm) is the standard

Hasta which is known as Ki~ku, Aratni, Bhuja, or Kol.

By successively increasing the length of Ki~ku by 1

angula each upto 31 angula there will be 8 types of Kol

(cubit) and each is used for specific purposes. Thus

the 9 types angulas give rise to 72 types of Kols. The

measure of 4 Kols is defined as a daQdu and 8 daQdu

produces a Raj j u wh i ch is 1/100 th of a yojana. The octal

system is used in defining the units in traditional

architecture which may be used in computers easily.

In traditional architecture of Kerala incorporates

different scales to serve measurement at different levels

of uses. The perimeters of quadrangle (courtyard), well,

tank, houses etc, are measured in Kol. Door, seat

(pidam) etc, are measured in Angula and Ornaments are

measured in Yava where as clothes are measured using

Vitasti (Mu~ham). Weapons and other small quantities

are measured using by breadth of fingers and Mu~ti. The

perimeters of the viII age, town, city etc I are determined

by daJ;ldu.

1.10.1. THE CONCEPT OF yONI

Yeni is an architectural device which defines a

proper orientation and dimension of the vastu. For

 23

buildings (for domestic or temple) yoni is considered

to be the vital air (pr~Qa). with respect to the

Brahmapada, a g Fhav~stu can take eight posi t ions four

in the cardinal directions and four in the corner

directions. These positions and directions are

considered to be the birth places of the vastu on earth

and denoted by the names Dhwaj a, Dhiima, S imha, Kukku ra,

VF~abha, Khara, Gaja and Vayasa in eight directions from

the East direction onwards in cyclic order.

In VastusSstra, the orientation of the building

is defined from its prime dimension. Regarding the prime

dimension there are differences of opinion.

I Brhatsamhi ta', recommends the area, Raj avallabha accepts

the height, Manal!Ara pt"escr ibee the width,

Tantrasamuccaya and Manu~y~layacandrika adopts the

perimeter as the prime dimension of the vastu. The

method of finding the y~ni is given in

Manul?y~layacandrika(54t chapter 3, verse 30) as "I~tatana

vitana mana nicaye trigne/iltabhir bhajite ~es(:)
I
y~ni" i e,

mUltiply the perimeter by 3 and divide it by 8. Then

the remainders will represent the 8 yonis. Thus if P

is the perimeter then 3P:::8q+r where q is the quotient and

r is the remainder, which varies from 1 to 8 (0). When

r=1, the yoni is known as Dhwaja and it defines the

 24

orientation of the building on the East side of the

Brahmapada (or Ankar;ta). If r=2, it represents DhGmayoni

in S-E direction. Similarly, all the other six yonis

are def ined. Since the vastu var ies from large to small,

the basic units of prime dimensions also vary with the

size of the vttstu. For the computation of yeni

perimeters are expressed in different units. The

perimeter of a building is expressed in Hasta or Kol

whereas the perimeter of a door is given in angula and

the measure of details are presented in Yava.

In the case of 'gFhavastu, the least perimeter

of Dhwajayoni is 3 Kol which is equal to 9 padas. (8

angula = 1 pada and 1 angu la = 3 cm). Simi lar1 y the

least perimeters of other yon i s are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,

15 and 16 padas respectively and the subsequent

perimeters are got by incrementing 8 padas to each

category of perimeters. Thus the yoni system classifies

the perimeters into eight categories and each of these

eight sequences of numbers form an Ari thmetic Progression

with first term as the least perimeter and the common

difference 8 pada in the case of buildings. This system

of numbers may be represented on an Archimedian Spiral

of an initial radius 3 Ko! (cf. Fig.l(c.

 24(a)

ARCHIMEDIAN SPIRAL OR YONI SPIRAL

N
31

27 l. E. DHWAJA ONI
2. SE. DHUMA YONI
S 3. S. SIMHA YONI
4. sw. KUKKURA YONI
Fig.l(e)
5. w. VRSABHA YONI
6. NW. KHAM YONI
7. N. GAJA YONI
8(O)NE. VAYASA YONI
 25

1.10.2. MODULAR COORDINATION IN TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

Originally, the y~ni concept was formulated for

determining the orientation of the grhavastu and to

standardise the construction of buildings. But later

ycni was attached to all artefacts, fixed or movable.

The standardisation in the building construction was

attained by selecting a small basic unit of size or

module in the horizontal direction. In the traditional

architecture, the basic module adopted was the minimum

thickness of the wall which was about 1 pada (8 angulas).

This module has a greater significance in Kerala than

in other parts of the land because here the prime

dimension is accepted as the perimeter which should be

a multiple of pad a so that when it was divided by 8,

leaves integral remainder. Further it is stipulated that

for any building the prime dimension could be taken as

the perimeter measured along ins ide, cent reI ine or

outside the walls(54). It was considered auspicious that

both the inside and outside perimeters yield the same

ymt i number. This is possible only if the wall thickness

is 8 angulas (1 pada) or multiples of it. I t is to be

noted that in ancient times the size of the brick was

8x4x2 angula (58). This module may be derived from the

height or span of a man as a reference measure which is

equal to one Vyama (;;;; 8 pada). Hence 1 pada is the most

 26

appropriate basic size to be considered as a module. For

vastus of smaller sizes, modules of preferred sUbunits

are accepted. Thu s i t is ev iden t tha t the modern idea

of modu 1 ar coord ina t ion was not a novel concept to the

traditional architecture of Kerala.

1.11. RETHODOF PINDING PERIMETBR AND LENGTH

Methods of finding the perimeter when the

appropriate length is given and the length when the

. (54)
perimeter is given are explained in Manu~y~layacandr1ka

(chapter 4, verse 2-4) According to this method, if

P is the perimeter (in kol and angula), 1 kol is the

chosen length, y the yoni number then

P = (8 1 + y)/3

and 1 = (3 P - y)/8

_ . (54)
Another formula for P is given (Manu~yalayacandr1k~

as P = 2 1 + 2 1 + y which can be reduced to the

3 3

first one.

For determin ing the y(5n i corresponding to a

perimeter of a bu ild ing, t he per imeter is to be expressed

in Padas (1 Hasta = 3 Pada). In texts on traditional

architecture, tables of perimeters of buildings belonging

 27

to each yoni are given in Hasta (kol) and angula units.

Here the angulas are in mul t ipl es of 8 (i e. 8 angula or

16 angula). Even though there are 8 classes of

perimeters representing the eight yonis, four of them

are not accepted for houses. They are the per imeters

representing the corner yOnis or the perimeters of even

number of padas. Sometimes the y~nis are represented

by the numbers 1 to 8. For buildings, only the prime

dimensions yielding odd yoni numbers were preferred.

Further, even these perimeters were restricted by

astrological canons (Ayadi~a9varga) as ut tama, madhyama,

or adhama. Thus the words, "y~ni: praQa ~vadhm-nm~

about yOn i becomes true since it def ines the or ienta t ion,

the basic module of the prime dimension and dimensions

of all other elements of a building.

1.12.1. PROPORTIONS IN TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

In traditional architecture proportion plays an

important role in the construction of buildings from the

foundation to the last plate. The qualities like

horizontalness, verticalness and stability of an object

are produced by the proportion. The buildable area

(. gfhavt!dika) is determined in proportion to the area

of the plot and it is so stipulated that the ratio of

 28

the bui 1 t area to the area of the plot must be less or

equal to hal f For domestic buildings, rectangular

shapes are accepted and the dimensions of width and

length are compu ted from the pr ime dimension (per imeter)

Manuljlylayacandrika prescribes three methods for finding

the width, namely, padayOni, i~tadrrga, and gUl)am!>a

method.

1.12.2. GU,i8SA METHOD

In gunamsannethod the semiperimeter of the building

is divided into 8 to 32 equal parts and in each case the

width is fixed as the measure of 4 parts and the measure

of the remain ing parts becomes the 1 ength of the

building. Here, the ratios of width to length are

divided into four categories. When the length is an

integral mul t iple of width, the ratio is known as

Samatata. If a quarter of the width is added to this

length, then it is known as padadhika, and when the

length is increased by half the width, the ratio is known

as ardhadhika. If the length is diminished by a quarter

of the width (except in the 1 at case) in the samata ta I

it is called padona. Evidently, the ratio 1:1 of width

to length belongs to the samatata category.

 28(a)

WIDTH-LENGTH RATIOS Perimeter = 24 units

6 units Width:Length = 6:6 = 1:1

(W:L)

8 units

4 units Width:Length = 4:8 = 1:2

9 units

3 units Width:Length = 3:9

= 1:3

10 units

2 units Width:Length =
2:10 = 1:5

't
1"2 units
lO~ units

~------------------------------------------~
IWidth: Length =
1~:10~ = ):7

Fig.l(d)
 29

It may be noted that the ratios of width to length

of a rectangle varies from 1:1 to 1:7, the efficiency

of space enclosure decreases so that further ratios of

width to length are deleted, Fig. 1 ( d) . The four

categories of ratios are given below.

Samatata Padadhika Arddh~dhi ka Padona

1:1 1:1.25 1: 1. 5 1: 1. 75

1:2 1:2.25 1:2.5 1:2.75

1:3 1:3.25 1:3.5 1:3.75

1:4 1:4.25 1:4.5 1:4.75

1:5 1:5.25 1:5.5 1:5.75

1:6 1:6.25 1:6.5 1:6.75

1:7

It is stipul a ted, wi thou t any ev iden t reason I that

the ratios of padona are not acceptable for any building.

1.13. TYPES OF SALAS

Manu~yalayacandrika describes nine types of central

courtyard houses. Basically they are divided into two

types - separated salas (Bh inn a salas) and non-separated

 29 (a)

BHINNA AND ABHINNA BALAS

BHINNA 'S~IA

Sutra

Brahma Sutra w

Patinjattini
Kizhakkini

The ini

Yama
ABHINNA SALA
North

Corner Vadakkini Corner

house house

East
West ANKANA
,
Patinj ttini Kizha cl<. ini

Corner Corner
house Thekkini
house

South
Fig .l( e)
 30

s~las (Abh inna sa-Ias) [F ig.l ( e )1. If the four side- houses

(diksalas) stand separa ted around the courtyard (or

a~kaQa) satisfying the conditions such as yoni, gati,

width etc, prescribed for each of them, it is called a

I Bhinnasala I When the four side houses (diks~nas) are

structurally combined as one unit together with the

corner houses (vidiks~las) is called Abhinnasala.

Depending on the methods of joining the roof frames,

interconnecting the sid6houses and corner- houses using

passages (aliodas), and computation of yoni etc, the

Abhinna s~las are again classif ied into 8 types so that

there are 9 types of catussalas in total.

In Kerala the catussala is known as Nalukettu,

generally built for the elite group, which is a

combination of four side houses along the four sides of

the centralyard, or nadumuttam. This form is extended

horizontally to Ettukettu, Patinarukettu etc, by

adjoining suitable number of courtyards or vertically

by const ruct ing su i tabl e number of storeys (tala) exactly

as that of the ground plan. Depend ing on the needs, one

may build anyone of the 4 salas (Eakasala), a

combination of two (dvis~la) or a complex of three

(Trisala) according to the rules stipulated in the

Vastusastras. The common type of s~Ua (house) accepted

 31

in Kerala is the Ekasa1a which consists of a core unit

containing three rooms connected to a front passage

(Alinda). This may be extended horizontally by adding

corridors on four sides and vertically by constructing

upper storey.

1.14. VERTICAL BLBMENTS OF THB BUILDING

The height of the building from the ground level

upto the level of wallplate (Ut taram) is termed Pdamana,

which is taken equal to or proport iona1 to the width.

The height of the foundation (adhi~tana) is a fraction

of the padamana and the thickness of the wall is also

proportional to the p~damand. Deleting the height of the

adhi~tana from the p~damAna gives the height of the

pillar. The wall is topped wi th the wallpla te (Ut tara)

which is considered to be the most important (Uttarn~nga)

component of a building. The uttara (wallplate) is placed

over the pOt ika at the upper end of pillar. There are

three types of ut taras namely, KhauqOt tara, Pa throt tara,

and RupOttara (the definitions are given in the glossary)

depending on the thickness of the uttara in relation to

its width.
 32

The roof frame consis ts of ridge (mOntayam) ,

rafters 'and the ut taram (wallplate) or the arih}am. The

rafters are held in position by collar and collar pins.

(Bandam;, and Vala). The rafters are seated on an

additional annular wooden member (cittuttaram). The

indiv idual elements of the building are fabricated

independently and joined together in position by using

wooden wedges. The individual members can be dismantled

by removing the wedges wi thou t damage to them and may

be reassembled. The pi tch of the roof is taken as 45 0

The Perumthaccans of Kerala were responsible for the high

degree of perfection achieved in construction of

traditional buildings.

*********
 Chapter 11

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

2.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The history of archi tecture is concerned more wi th

religious building than with any other type because in

most civilizations the univer8al and escalated appeal

of religion made the church or temple the most

expressi ve, the most permanent and the mos t i n t luent ial

building in any community. In India temple was

considered the residence of the deity and it is the most

significant and typical monument of Indian architecture.

The earlier shrines were simple enclosures or plain

structures 1 ik~ .. p~a tf orm wi th or wi thou t a roof. The

elaborations of the temple structure followed the firm

establishment of image-worship and the accompanying

development of the ritual, which took time to

crystallise.

In Kera1a the earliest temples so far discovered

date from the eighth century A. D. The Kulasekhara period

(800-1102 A. D.) marked the rapid establ ishment of templ e

complexes and Kerala's peculiar temple architecture owe

much resemblance to N1Hukettu and Ettukettu of the

 34

(2)
traditional houses It attained perfection during

the late medieval and early modern periods. Several

vastu texts were formulated during this period and

'Tantrasamuccaya ' of C~nnas Narayanan Namboothirippad

explains the compl ete detai Is of templ e const ruct ion and

the methods of offerings to seven deities in 2896

sanskrit verses comprised in 12 chapters. The first step

in the construction of temple is the selection of

appropriate site.

2.2. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A TBMPLE

The sites for temples are described in

Tantrasamuccaya elaborately. They are defined on the

h ill tops, on the banks of rivers and seas, along lakes,

near the holy waters, grooves of trees and such other

locations which will prov ide mental happiness and peace.

The sites of types of Supadma, Bhadra, and Poorna are

auspicious for temples whereas the type of 'Dhumra ' is

inauspi c i eus for the pu rpose. The sites for temples in

villages or cities may be located at the centre or at

different positions according to the nature and power

..
of the dei ty.
 35

After selection of appropriate site, the soil is

to be tested for its compactness as in the case of

domestic buildings and sanctification of the site should

precede temple construction in accordance with the

stipulations given in the texts. The cardinal directions

are to be determined accordingly.

2.3. GEOMETRICAL METHOD OF DETBRMINING THE CARDINAL

DIRECTIONS

For the determination of the cardinal direction~

a simple geometrical method is given in Tantrasamuccaya.

Here also, consider a wooden peg (~~nku) of length half

hasta. It is fixed vertically on a properly levelled

ground. Draw three concentric circl es wi th radii lz, 1

and llz hasta respectively and with centre at the foot

of the saoku. The points at which the shadow of the tip

of the "Saoku just touches the circles are marked on the

circles. Then, with these points as centres draw three

circles having radii equal to lz hasta. The two lines

through the points of intersection of the circles will

meet at a point and the line joining this point and the

foot of the ~aQku will determine the North-South

direction. The perpendicular line will represent the

East-West direction as given in Fig.2(a).

 35 (a)

SANKU-SHADOW METHOD (AS

GIVEN IN TANTRASAMUCCAY
A)
N

S
Fig .2( a)

San ku of he igh t 12 an gu l a
Ci rcl e wi th rad ius 12 an gu la
Ci rcl e wi th rad ius 24 an gu la
Ci rcl e wi th rad ius 36 an gu la
Tip s of the sha dow s on
the cir cle s
(C en tre s of eq ua l cir cle
s)
S-N sou th- No rth dir ec tio n
 36

2.4. CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES

Temples are classified from different viewpoints

such as thei r size, number of storeys they possess and

their regular shape in des ign . According to their size

they are broadly treated under two heads, known as

Alpaprasada and Mahaprasada. Mahapras~das are again

classified as Jati, Chandas, Vikalpa and 1\bh~sa (15) .

Depending on the number of storeys they are named as

Ekatala, Dv i tala, Tri tala etc, and on the bas is of thei r

shape and design they are classified as Caturasra

(square), Catura'Sradirga (rectangular), Vrtta (circular),

HastipF~~ha (apsidal), Vrttayata (elliptical), 9adkone

(hexagonal), and A~tara (octagonal). In Kerala, most

of the temples are of the Alpaprasada cl ass and those

under the Mahapr~sada class are very few in number.

Based on the regional styles, temples may be classified

mainly in to three types N~gara, Vesara and Drav i9 a (15) .

This differentiation is made from the point of view of

shapes and their combination. N~gara is purely square

throughout from the basement to the finial: but with

regard to Drav i9a and V~sara, the shapes may be both pu re

and mixed. The shape of the Dravida shrine may be either

purely octagonal or octagonal mixed wi th square and the

shape of v~sara temple may be either wholly circular or

combined with square.

 37

2.5. ALPAPRASAoA

In Kerala most of the temples belong to

Alpaprasada class. This class varies from a beam

(uttara) length of 2 hasta 18 angula to a beam length

of 15 hasta 10 angula and correspondingly the perimeter

varies from 11 hasta to 61 hasta 16 angula. Their widths

are grouped into 3 hasta type, 4 hasta type etc, each

width differing from the other in the measure of 8

angulas. Temples which come under the type of 3 hasta

(comprising the widths 2 hasta 18 angula, 3 hasta 2

angula and 3 hasta 10 angu la) will have pi lIars measur ing

2 hasta for their height and f or that of 4 hasta type,

the height will be 2 hasta 4 angulas. The height is to

be increased by 4 angulas for each type of temples in

the increasing order upto a maximum of 4 hastas.

The total height of a temple from the lowest

member (pC[duka) of its basement to the finial (stupika)

is prescribed in the following 4 ways. The height is

proportional to the breadth (or width) and is defined

3 3
as 1 - B, 1 ~ B, 1- B or 2 B where B represents the
7 4
breadth.
 38

2.6.1. GARBHAG~HA

The garbhagrha occupies the central portion of

a temple complex containing other accessory structures

such as Agrasala (halls), NatyamaQ9apam (Kuthampalam),

Upadevalayas etc. Garhbagrha is of square shape even

if the prasada is of circular, octogonal or of other

shapes. The width (breadth) of the garbhagrha is

determined in proportion to the width of the prdsada.

In tan t rasamu ccaya, the n in e proport ions are 9 i v en

as 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 5/9, 6/11, 7/13, 8/15, 1/2 and 5/8 of

the breadth of the prasada.

2.6.2. THE THICKNESS OF THE WALLS

The thickness of the wall of the garbhag~ha is

one-eighth of the width of the garbhagrha and the

thickness of the wall of pr!s~da is defined as one-eighth

of the width of the pras~da. The passage between the

two walls is the Nadi (Etanazhi). If the structure is

too small, the two walls are combined into one thick

wall.
 39

2.6.3. THE DISPOSITION OF GARBHAG~HA

In the case of Alpapr~s~da divide the length and

breadth of the prasada each into 5 equal parts forming

25 padas. Then the central pada will form the

disposi tion of the piFha or pedestal of the seat of the

dei ty (Murth i) The immed iate eight quarters tha t

surrounded the central pada will form the garbhagr ha .

The sixteen quarters that surrounded beyond the

garbhagrha will provide disposition for the thickness

of the ghanabhitti or thick wall.

In another method(15) , divide the length and

breadth of the prasada into nine parts each forming 81

padas. The innermost pada prov ides for the pitha, the

eight padas surrounding will constitute the garbhagr ha

The surrounding 16 padas will constitute the division

for the inner wall, the wall of garbhagr ha The

outermost padas will provide for the wall of pr~s~da.

The space between the two walls is known as the Ndi

(Etan~zh i) .

2.7. VERTICAL COMPONENTS OF A PRASADA

In general, there are six main parts of a temple,

namely, Adhi~tana (basement), pada (pillar), Prastara

 40

(entablature), Gala (neck), 'Sikhara (roof), and Stupika

(f in ial). The Kerala temples in thei r simplest form have

only the four essential parts instead of six of the

simple vimana (temple). The Prastara and Gala (grlva)

below the 'Sikhara are avoided. These parts bear fixed

and relative proportion to one another.

The Adhi~t~na (base) is the lowest portion of a

building. It is the strongest, firmest and the most

solidly built, and carries the weight of the remaining

parts of the structure above. Adhi~tana is classified

into different types on the basis of difference in

dimensions of its mouldings or the presence or absence

of one or other of its mould ings. The various mouldings

of the adhistana are P~duka, Jagati, Kumuda, Gala,

Antari, Kampa, Pattika or Patta, Prati and Vajana. There

are four types of adhistanas explained in

Tantrasamuccaya (15) as given below.

 41

Height of the Adhi~t~na is divided into

( c) 12 parts (d) 12 parts
(a) 24 parts (b) 21 parts
(Pratikrama) (padabandha)

Paduka - 3 Paduka - 3

Jagati - 8 Jagati - 7 Jagati - 4 Jagati - 4

Kumuda - 7 Kumuda - 6 Kumuda - 4 Kumuda - 4

Gala - 1~5 Kumuda Kumuda Kumuda

Pat i - 1 Pa~i - 1 Pati - 1

Kampa - 11
5
Gala with Gala - 1 Gala - l~
Pada - 2

Gala - li5 Gala Pati- ~ Vajana - 1 Vajana

with Pat i - l~

Pati - l.!.
5
Pati with Pat i - 1
Vajana - l~

Total - 24 Total - 21 Total - 12 Total - 12

The garbhagrha is constructed on the adhi~t8na.

Among the structural divisions of a temple, the

columns come above the Prati and below the Uttara

(Wallplate) The pillars are spaced at equal intervels

apart so that the weight supported is equally distributed

among them. Col umns d i ff er in their shapes and

architectural ornamentations. Geometrical shapes like

square, octagonall sixteen-faced and circular are used

 42

in the construction of pillars. Pillars of mixed shapes

are constructed depending on the type of prasada.

The sikhara corresponds to the roof of the temple

or garbhagrha. In small temples, the garbhagrha and the

prasada will be the same and the garbhagrha will have

corbelled roof. The inner side of the garbhagrha being

made into an octagon by putting up corbels at the corners

from above half the height of the door and gradually

clossing the gap wi th stones, or br icks accord ing to the

I Kadal ikakarana I process (16) The he igh t of the ceil ing

from the level of door will be half the width of the

garbhagrha.

To construct the roof of the temple, the rafters

are to be so placed that their lower end must rest on the

uttarapattika, while their upper extremity must be secured

on a kuta of suitable shape and dimensions. Then the

rafters should be covered all around with wooden planks

or metal-sheets. Tiles are used for covering the pyramidal

roof of wooden planks.

The ~ikhara is surmounted by a finial (StOpika).

It bears dis t inct proport ion to the he igh t of the temple

 42(a)

VERTICAL COMPONENTS OF A SRIKOVIL

- --- S Jlll' ,

2 - - - - - - - S Il'\. HH k R;

--I-

2 - -- Bltl T TJ oR.. PILLtH<

- ~ .
7t.{) HI .s, nH1 N r~

Fig.2(b)
 43

and in general, its height will be equal to that of the

height of the basement (adhistana). It consist~ of 4

parts, namely, Padma (full-blown lotus), Kumbha (pot),

Nala (lotus stalk) and KU9am~la (lotusbud).

2.8. VERTICAL PROPORTIONS

Tantrasamuccaya prescribes the simplest and most

commonly accepted proportions. The height of the temple

is determined in anyone of the ways as prescribed

earlier. Divide this height into 8 parts. Then the

height of adhi~tana, pillar (or wall), prastara, gala,

aikhara and finial will be given by 1 part, 2 parts,

1 part, I part, 2 parts and 1 part respect i vely. Thus

each element of the temple will be in the ratios

1:2:1:1:2:1 of the height of the temple (Fig.2(b. But

the height of the temple depends on the width of the

temple and hence each vertical component of the temple

is proportional to its width.

2.9. DISPOSITION OF THE DOORS

The main door of the sanctum sanctorum, is placed

in front of the image (deity). Divide the thickness of

the wall into 12 parts and mark I ine separating 7 parts

 44

inside and 5 parts outside this line. The door should

be so placed that the middle of the door must coinside

with the above line. There are other three doors known

as 'false doors' or 'ghanadvAras' on the other three

sides. They possess all the ornamental details of the

main door along with the decorations of T6ranas on their

upper side.

In front of the entrance is a flight of

stone-steps (sopana) flanked by stone side-slabs or

balustrades, which contain rich relief sculptures, the

banister or coping being shaped in the form of an

elephant trunk issuing from a vyalimouth.

2.10. PARcAPRAKARAS

These are the bounding limits of five regions

surrounding the pr~sada or Srikovil. These 1 imi ts are

defined in proportion to the width (breadth) of the

pras~da and the outer-width of the pr~sada is known as

daQQu. The Pancaprakaras, AntarmaQ9a1a, Antahara,

Madhyahara, Bahyahara and Mary~da are determined at ~,

1 or l~, 2, 4, and 7 dalJQu from the ex ternal side of the

pr3sada accordingly, Fig.2(c). The AntarmaQQala and

Maryada are of square shape while the other three are

 44(a)

PANCAPRAKARAS
~I' .,

r
I
I
I
I
1 2 3 4 5
0

"
r'
\.1-'
A mt.
- nu
L.J
.r&.
L..J
E

,
S
Fig.2(c)

A. Pitham
B. Namaskaramandapam
C. Balikallu
O. Prasada (Srikovil)
1. Antarmandalam
2. Antahara
3. Madhyahara
4. Bahyahara
5. Maryada
 45

of rectangular shape with front side elongation

(Mukhymam)

The innermost boundary line denotes the positions

of a~tadikpalakas. The namaskaramaQQapa is located

within the region of Antahara. The open court is

surrounded by a Nalampalam (or Cuttampalam) in which the

front hall (Valiyampalam) is used for special sacrificial

activities. The Madhyahara represents the position of

dipamala (Vilakkumatam), the trellis construction

carrying rows of lamps in nine or eleven rows. The

position of the Balikallu (altar stone) is in the region

of B!hyahara. The dhwajastamba is also located in this

region. The maryada is to be constructed accordingly

with g6puras on four sides.

In large temple complexes NatyamaQqapam is

included for the performance of dance (Natyam) , Kuthu,

Kathakali etc. In Kerala NatyamaQQapam is known as

Kuthampalam, Fig.2{d). Their shapes are of square,

rectangular, circle, elliptical and triangular. The

square or rectangular shapes are preferred in Kerala.

It is to be noted that the foundation of the incompleted

 45(a)

NATYAMANDAPAM (KUTHAMPALAM)

f
0 0 a Cl 0 g Cl

[j 0 0 0 0 tJ 0 D

0
2 (I

I 0 5
0

0 0 0

6I(
0 c 0 0 0 0 Cl d
,s
,

Fig.2(d)

l. Rangarn
2. Nilavilakku
3. Mizhavu
4. Aniyara (Makeup room)
5. Hall (sabha)
6. Pillars
7. Entrance
 46

KiIthampalam in Chengannur temple is of ell ipt ica1 shape.

2.12. TALAIIINA

This is a proportionate scale based on t~la which

is used in sculpture. The appropriate height of an idol

(bimba) is divided into 10, 9, 8 etc, equal parts. Then

each part is known as a t~la. When one ta1a is divided

into 12 parts, each part is known as angula. The measure

of 2 angula is a I kala I or I gOlaka' Depending on the

number of divisions, the bimbas (images) are named

Da~ata1a, Navatala, AstatlUa etc. In Navat~la system

the length of the face of the idol is fixed as one tSla.

*******
 Chapter III

~BE CONCEPT OF - VARIOUS APPROXIMATIONS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The rat io of the cl rcumf erence of a circle to its

diameter, has fascinated mathematicians through the

centuries and the realisation that this ratio remains

the same for all circles is a great event in the history
of mathemat ics. It was Will iam Jones (l 706) who first
used the notation ( Pi) , a Greek letter, for
representing the ratio of the circumference of a circle
to its diameter and gained popularity by the adoption

of the symbol by one of the greatest mathematicians

Leonard Euler (1707-83) (12) . In 176"1 Lambert proved that

is irrational and C.L.F. Lindemtlnn, a German

mathematician, in 1882, established that is a

transcendental number which cannot be expressed as a root

of an algebraic equation with rational coefficients.

Various approximations to are implied or

explicitly stated in texts on V~stusastra, Sulbasutras
and in most of the mathematical works of Indian
mathematicians ranging from Aryabhata I to Ramanujan.

NIlakar;tt.~a even stressed the irrationality of 'V in his

 48

'BhaI?Y~' on Aryabhatiya and Madhava{75) expressed ~ as an

infinite series. Many approx i mati ons to ~ are impl ied

in text s on t rad it iona 1 arch i t ectu re of Keral a such as

'Tantrasamuccaya' of Cennas Narayanan Namboothirippad,

'Thaccusastram Bha~a' (Gadyam) (author un known) ,

'KuzhikJditu Pacca' (47) of Mah~swaran Bhattathirippad etc,

in the construction of temples and altars. In this

chapter we deal wi th the approx ima te va lues of ~ wh i ch

are given in the available architectural texts.

3.2. VALUE OF IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF V,TTAPRASADA

A method of construction of VFttaprClsada is

(11; )
explained in Tantrasamuccaya - . Since the prasada

(Srikovil) is having a circular plan-shape, a circle of

the desired circumference is to be constructed. The

method is described in the verse given below:

swabhr~tamane dasayuktasaptasatam~it~
viswalasacchatam~a:

yastena manena paribramayya vFttatmakam

v~sma samatan~tu.

(Tantrasamuccaya, patalam 2, sloka 65)

This means that divide the desired perimeter of the

circle in to 710 parts and then draw a c ircl e wi th rad ius

 49

equal to the measu re of 113 parts. This will be the

circle whose circumference is equal to the perimeter of

the VFttapr~s~da.

Let C be the e i reumferenee of the c ire! e. Then

accord ing to the above verse, the rad ius of the c i re1e

C C
is 710 x 113 and therefore its diameter is 710 x 226.

But ~d :::;
C

.. . ~
C
d

:::;
C T
. 226C
7IO
:::;
710
226

:::;
355
113

:::; 3.1415929, approximately

or ~ ;;;; 3.1416, correct to four places of decimals. This

approximate value of ~ is implied in ~ryabhatiya of

~ryabhata I (A.D.499) as giv~n below:

Caturadhikam ~atama~tagu~am

dvda9thistatha sahasr~nam

ayutadvaya vi9kambhasy~-

sann~ vrttapari~aha:
(Aryabhatiyam, GaQitapadam, s16ka 10)
 50

The rule reads "The circumference of a circle of diameter

20000 is close (asanna) to 62832". This implies the fine

approximation

~ = 62832/20000

= 3.1416

Thus the value of ~ a~sumed in the construction of

Vrttapr~s~da is more accurate than the Aryabhatian value.

3.3. VALUE OF IMPLIED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF GAJAr~~rHA

SHAPE

Another value of ~ is implied 1n the construction

of Gajapr~t;:ha (apsidal) type of temples. The plan shape

is a combination of a square and a semicircle. The

measurements of the sides of the Gajaprl}t;:ha shape are

given in the verse below:

sw~bhI~t~ pariuaham~nanicaye dh~mnaBca tu~~a~tibha-

gon~t~tadaBadha krteJrQQavamitairamBai:
prthakkalpay~d

p~rswadvandva sam~yati mukhatatim ca, dvyamta

sutrabhramat

praya: s~mghrira8amsan~hamapi p~?~ham hasti

p!="?~hatmana:

(Tantrasamuccayam, patalam 2, sloka 67)

 51

The rule states that the desired perimeter of the

gajapr~thaprasada is to be divided into 64 equal

d i v is ions and delete one d i v is j on from it. The remain ing

length is further div ided into 18 equal parts. Then the

front and the two sides are to be constructed with the

measu re of 4 parts each. The fourth side (rear side)

is completed by drawing a semicircle with the fourth side

of the square as d iamet er. Then the per imeter of the

semicircle will be approximately (pr~ya:) equal to the

measure of 6~ parts.

Let the perimeter of the pras~da be 64 units. When

it is divided into 64 divisions the length of each

division will be 1 unit. After deleting one division,

the remaining length of 63 d i v is ions is again d i v ided

into 18 equal parts. Then the length of each part will

be 3\ units. According to the above rule the length of

front and lateral sides of the prasada are of 4 parts

each. The rear side (ppHha bhga) is in the shape of

a semicircle whose Cl iameter is equal to the length of

the side, 4 parts. Ther.efore its radius will be of 2

parts wh ich is equal to 7 un its and hen ce the per imeter

of the semicircle is 7Q. But it is given that the

perimeter of the semicircular portion is approximately

(praya:) equal to 6~ parts which is equal to 21.875 units

approximately.
 52

Perimeter of the semicircle:: 21.875 units, approximately

ie, 7'" :: 21.875 units, approximately

21.875
7 I approximately.

:: 3.125, approximately.

But the desired perimetf>r of the prasada is taken

as 64 units. The length of the front and lateral sides

equal to 42 units. Therefore the remaining perimeter

is 22 units. Hence the perimeter of the semicircle lies

between 21.875 units and 22 units. Thus the value of

lIT lies between 3.125 and 22/7. Further, the above rule

gives an important idea regarding the nature of the

number represented by "'. The radius of the semicircle

is stated to be 2 parts or 7 units whereas the

semiperimeter 7 lIT is defined as approximate (praya:) .

This implies that the value of lIT is only approximate or

it is not a rational number.

The above value of 11 have been found implied in

the M~nava Sulba Satra where the value of 1T is

1
approx ima tea to 25/8 or 3-
8 . This value 1T = 3.125,

approx imately, also implied in the data found in ancient

Babylonian tablet (22) Chih of China is said to have used

it in third century A.D. This value of 11 is used in

tradi tional architecture of Kerala for practical

purposes.
 53

3.4. VALUE OF IN THB CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCLE WITH

PERIMETER EQUAL TO THAT OF A SQUARE

According to the rule of construction

(construction and rule is given in chapter VI) of circle

given in 'Tantrasamuccaya', the radius of the circle is

a a
defined as 2 + 8' where a is the side of the square.

the perimeter of the circle = 2~(~ + ~)

2 8
5~a
-;r-

If this perimeter is equal to the perimeter of

5~a
the square then -4- .- 4 x a

5~ = 16

16
~ =
5

3.2

This value is greater than the other values of 11" given

in the above two cases. This approximation may be seen

in some of the eat"lier works on mathematics.

Bhaskara I(22) (early 7th century A.D.) has given the

approx imat ion,

 54

41)(180 -M
Sin 61 = 40500 - -~-:-(1'-8~O---$~)

Where is in degrees. For the radian measure of the

argument, we shall have

Hi 1>(11 - cp)
Sin ~ =
511 - 4 ~(1f - cp)

For very small angles, we have

Sin cp = (l6/51f)CP

When q tends to zero and using that the limit of

Sin CP/CP is unity, we get the approximation of

16/5 == 3.2

This value of ~ is found implied in the Manava Sulba

Sntra and in the medieval Tamil work Kanakkadikaram of

Kari (after 12th century A.D.).

Another method is explained in 'Tantrasamuccaya'

and Kuzhikk~ttu Pacca and accor-ding to this method the

radius of the circle is determined as

(1 + fi)a
r
4

where a is the length of the side of the square. (The

rule and method of con st ru ct i on is explained in

chapter VI).
 55

Then the perimeter of the circle (circumference) will

be

2~(l + J2)a = 11(1 -+- l2)a

4 2

When a = 4, the circumference of the circle is equal to

211(1 + /2) and that of the square will be 16.

If they are equal then,

211(1 + /2) 16

16 8
=
1 +72

= 3.314, approximately.

This implied value of 11 differ much from the approximate

value of 11.

3.5. APPROXIMATION TO , IN 'THACCUSASTRAM BHA~A'

'Thaccusastram Bhd~a' (gadyam) (5) is a book on

tradi tional archi tecture of Kerala, whose content is

similar to that of the 'Silparatna'. It deals with the

 56

calcu lat ions and dimensions related to the temple

construction. A method of construction of a circle is

given at the end of the book. It is explained in the

lines given below:

'Vrttaprasadattinte cuttinekkondu ezhupattionnu

kurit~al atilorukuru kondu pattu karit~atil munnu kuru

ezhupattionnittatileppatinonnum kutakku~iya nilamulloru

kaiyurikondu vIcump61 vrttattinte suk~mam varum'(S).

The rule states "The perimeter of the Vrttapra'sada

(circular srlkovil) is divided into 71 divisions. The

length of one division is again subdivided into 10 parts.

Add the length of 3 parts to the length of 11 divisions.

The required circle is got by drawing the circle with

the above length as radius.

Let the perimeter of the Vrttaprasada be 71 units.

Then by the above rule the radius of the circle is equal

3
to 11 +10 = 11. 3 un its. . the perimeter (circumference)

of the circle = 22.6~. But it is assumed to be 71 units.

22.6 ~ 71

71
22.6
 57

3.1415929, approximately

= 3.1416, correct to 4 places

decimals

This is the same value of ~ impl ied in .&:ryabhat iya and

Tantrasamuccaya.

3.6. APPROXIMATION TO IN FINDING THE RADIUS OF A CIRCLE

A method of finding the radius of a circle whose

circumference is known is given in 'Balaramam', a book

(34)
on traditional architecture of Kerala
The method
is given below:

'Kupaparivrtalarddhflm

arddhake vim~ati dvayam

sapt3m~akam prabhGrikku

nTlamkolluka buddhiman ' .

(Bal~ramam, Vrttapramaoam, page 39)

ie, the radius of the circle will be the length of 7

divisions when the semiperimpter is divided into 22

divisions.
 58

If C is the c i rCl1mference and r represents the

radius then

C
r = 2 x 22 x 7 --------(1)

But the circumference of the circle = 2~r

C = 2~r

C
= r --------(2)
~

From (1) and (2) we have,

7C C
2x22 2~

7
=
72

22
Thus the value of ~ assumed in this rule is
7
 Chapter IV

THE GOLDEN RATIO IN TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The Golden Ratio (or Golden section) which is

known as tKanakamuri t in traditional architecture is an

important concept in both ancient and modern artistic

and arch i tectu ra1 design. It is the geomet r i cal

proportion in which a line AB is divided into two parts

by an interior point P in such a way that AB/AP = AP/PB

(ef Fig.4(a)].

t
P
A B
Fig.4(a)

A rectangle whose length is in this ratio to its

breadth is called a golden rectang le. In this chapter

we illustrate the existence of golden ratio in

traditional architecture, relation between golden ratio

and arddhadhika, and its application in the constructions

of NatyamaOQapa (Kuthampalam) and idols of deities

. (bimb~ .
 60

4.2. THE CONCEPT 'GOLDEN RATIO'

Dividing a segment into two parts in mean and

extreme proportion, so that the smaller part is to the

larger part as the larger is to the entire segment,

yields the socalled Golden section and the ratio

IS + 1
=
2
1.618 (approximately) designated as ~, is known as the

golden number. The ratl'o J? -2 1 0.

618
, app r 0 x'lm atel y I

is the reciprocal of ~. This number has many fascinating

qual it ies and the anc i ent Greeks cons idered the regu lar

pentagon which includes a number of 'golden ratio'

relat ionships, as a holy symbol. In a regular pentagon

PQRST there is a g olden rat io rela t ionsh i p between any

diagonal and any side of it, namely,

PR:PQ = 1.618 ....

Further, all the diagonals intersect each other

in golden ratio such that, [.cf Fig.4(b)],

S

Fig.4(b)
LR = ~, MR =
MR LM ~, when ~ = 1.618, approximately.
 61

In a regular decagon (10 sided polygon) the ratio

of a side to the radius of the circumcircle is also ~.

4.3. GOLDEN RECTANGLE AND ITS PROPERTY

A rectangle in which the ratio of the length to

width is equa 1 to 1. 618 approx i matel y, is ca 11 ed a golden

re c tan g 1 e [c f Fig. 4 ( c ) 1 Th is number ~ produces a set

of nesting rectangles.

PQ
PQRS is a rectangle such that == ~, and PTUS
QR
QR
is a square such that -- ~.
TO
S U R

6
5

T Q
Fig.4(c)
 62

This is a representation of the so called 'golden

rectangle' . If the 1 arg est square in a golden rec tang 1 e

is cu t away, the f igu re remain ing wi 11 also be a golden

rectangle. Such rectangles are characterised by a length

to width ratio of (1 + /S}/2, the golden ratio(4). It

is believed that the ancient Egyptians may have used this

ratio in the construction of Pyramids. This ratio recurs

often in number theory; for example

lim Fnl =
1 + Is
n~OO Fn 2

= 1.618 approximately,

where Fn is the nth Fibinacci number(4). This is an

irrational number which is the solution of the equation

o.

Solving the above equation we have,

1 15
x = -----
2

The golden rectangle whose sides are in the ratio

l:~ has the following property that the ratio of the

length of the smaller side to the greater side is equal

 63

to the ratio of the length of the greater side to the

sum of the lengths of the two sides(49)

1
ie, = or is the mean proportion
~
between 1 and ~ + 1.

ie, 1 + ~ =

ie, ~2 _ ~ _ 1 o

If we divide the golden rectangle into two parts

such that one of the smaller. resulting rectangles is a

square then it follows that the proportion of the second

re eta n g 1 e i s 1: ~ its elf {c f (;'.1 q t1 ( d) ] .

---~

('-<;_ _ _ . 1 ~~-,--_l_~~
Fig.4(d)

The proportion is <P - 1 and multiplying by we

1
get ~
~-- But ~2 - q> = 1.

~
~ -- }'f which is the same as the original

proportion.
 64

4.4. GOLDEN RECTANGLES AND FlBONACCI NU"BERS

A sequence of numbers each of which, after the

second, is the sum of the two preced ing numbers is known

as Fibonacci numbers. The sequence I, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,

13, is a F ibonacc i soquence of numbers. This

sequence was discovered by Leonardo Fibonacci, also

known as Leonardo of P isa (1170-1250). The formula for

generating the sequence is

x
n
= x n- 1 + X ~,where
n-.-;
x
n
is the

term of the sequence, n) 2.

Another formula for generating the Fibonacci

numbers is attributed to Lucas(4). It is given as

xn =

Further, the sequence of numbers(49),

I, 1.618, 2.618, 4.236, 6.854, 11.090,

(correct to three places of decimals only) have the

property that if we add the first two terms together

(l + 1.618) we get the third, 2.618. In the same way

the sum of the second and third 1.618 + 2.618 gives the
 65

fourth, 4.236; and so on. Thus each sllccessive term is

the sum of the preceding two. Therefore it is a

Fibonacci sequence of numbers. In the above sequence

the ratio of any term to its preceding term is 1.618

which is the golden ratio.

The Fibonacci numbers can be used to make a golden

rectangle. Cons ider a un it square represent ing the first

term of F ibonacc i sequence. Then add a second square.

Add a third square to fit the longest side. Again add

a fourth square with its side as the longest side of the

above square. If we continue the process we will

eventually get a golden rectangle [cf Fig.4(e)].

1
~ - 2
1

Fig.4(e)

Thus the Fibonacci numbers and the golden

rectangle are closely related.

 66

4.5. GOLDEN RATIO AND ARDDHADHIKA

In Vastusastras, four types of width to length

ratios are defined in determining the width of the house

in gUl')am~a method. They are Samatata, padCidhika,

Arddhadhika, and PadOna (explained in Chapter I). They

define four categories of ratios of width to length in

rectangular buildings. The arddhadhika ratios are(58)

1:1.5, 1:2.5, 1:3.5, 1:4.5, 1:5.5, 1:6.5. I t is to be

noted that the ratios from 1:1.5 upto 1:1.75 are also

considered as arddha:dhika. According to

Manu~y~layacandrika (54), pad~dhika ratios are most suitable for

domestic buildings and arddh~dllika ratios are accepted

for buildings, idols, n~tyamat;lQapa etc, which have

aesthet ic values. Thus the golden ratio belongs to the

arddhCldhika ratios in traditional architecture. The

existence of golden ratio in traditional architecture

may be understood from the const ruct ion of KG. thampalam

of Kerala.

4.6. GOLDEN RATIO AND NATYAMA,DAPAM (KUTHAMPALAM)

'Tantrasamuccaya' (Silpabhagam) (16) of Kanippayyur

Damodaran Namboothirippad, gives a special method of

const ruct ing a Natyamal,.1Qapam (Kuthampalam) in temple

 67

complexes of Kerala. The method is explained in the

verse given below:

paryante pratiyonibhaji b~hirlltth~ v6ttarasya thava

maddhyasthe dalite, tat6 vibhajite samyak caturvvarggakai:

syadamsa: pada, m~yatistu vitaterdwa.bhyam padabhyam yutam,

tacchi~ta tati, ruttaram natanadhamnam dwitrisamkhyam matam

(Tan t rasamuccaya UH 1 pabh agam), Chapter 10, sI (jka 1)

This states that the pet:" Imeter along the uttara (beam)

of the natyamar;l<~apa must be of the 'pratiy6ni' (opposite

yoni) of that of the prasada (Srikov il) . [This is due

to the fact that the na tyamandapam and the Sr ikov i 1 are

facing each other]. This perimeter may be measured

either along the central line or along the boundary line

of the uttara (beam). Divide the semiperimeter into 16

equal parts and each part is called a 'pada'. The length

of the maOQapa (along uttara) is obtained by adding 2

pada to the half of the semiperimeter (to % of the

perimeter) and the width is determined by subtracting

this length from the semiperimeter.

Let us examine the ratio of the length to width

in the above construction of rectangular NAtyamaoQapa.

 68

Let the perimeter of a Natyamal')Qapa be P and a be the

side of a square of the same perimeter.

Then P == 4a
P
Semiperimeter :::
2"
== 2a

P
Dividing by 16, we get, == This is the unit
32
'Pada' defined in the text. .". by the above verse we

have,

a
Length of the Natyamandap,lm ::: a + x 2
8

a
::: a +
4

:::
5a
4

a
Width of the Mandapa :: a - x 2
8

a
_.
a - -
4

:::
3a
4
3a
Width 4
=
Length Sit
4

3
== S-
ie, Width:Length ::: 3:5
 69

or L:W 5:3

5
= 3

= 1 . 66 ......

But the golden ratio is 1.618 (approximately). Hence

the above ratio is very close to the golden ratio.

4.7. CONSTRUCTION OF BIMBA (IDOl.) AND GOLDEN RATIO

It is significant to note that the bodies of many

living beings (natural organisms) including man (the

human body) , are really based on golden ratio

relationship. For exampl e, the rat io of the he ight of

the navel from the feet to the height of the head from

the navel (of a man of standard height) is ~. In the

construction of Navatala or Da~atala bimba (idol), the

ratio accepted in Tantrasamuccaya(lS) is 1.6, approximatel~

which is very close to ~.

In the case of Nava tala bimba, the total height

of the bimba (idol) is divided into 108 equal parts and

each part is called an angula. Two angula form a 'Kala'

or 'Golaka ' and 12 angula conRtitute a 'Tala'. Since

 70

the height of the bimba is 9 Tala, it is known as

N.iwatala bimba. The height of the idol is divided into

two parts at the navel point in such a way that 66

angulas are below the navel point and 42 angulas are

above it. Then the ratio of these lengths is equal to

66
42 = 1.6, approximately, which is very close to the

golden rat io. Further, the ratio of the total length

to the height of the bimba upto the navel is

108
= 1.6363, approximately.
66

This is also very close to the golden ratio and belongs

to the arddhadhika.

Similarly, in the case of Dasatala bimba, the

total number of divisions is 120. The ratio of the

height of the navel from the feet to the height of the

head from the navel is 73/47. The value of the ratio

is approx imately equal to 1.6 and the rat io of the total

height to the height of the navel from the feet is 1.64,

approximately. Thus these two rat i os are very close to

the golden ratio and they belong to the arddhadhika.

 71

Thus the golden ratio which is a special case of

arddhdhika ratios is used for constructing artefacts

having aesthetic values, in the traditional architecture

of Kerala.

*********
 Chapter V

TRAIRA~IKA (THE RULE OF THREE) IN TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The traira~ika or direct proportion was used as

an effective tool in solving problems of Astronomy,

Ari thmet i c, Geomet ry and Arch i tecture. Th is method may

be traced in BCikh0)3h:Il i Manuscr i pt (32) (abou t 1 st century

A.D.), Aryabhatiya (A.D. 499) and in all other works on

mathematics. According to Bhaskara 11 (A.D. 1511), the

Rule of Three is the essence of arithmetic(17) and it

pervades the whole of the science and calculation. The

Rule of Three is largely appreciated because of its

simplicity and its universal application to ordinary

problems.

In this chapter we explain the application of

trairatdka in determining the length of the side of an

octagon, sixteen sided polygon etc, and in making the

holes for collarpins (vala) on rafters. It is also used

in calculating the lengths of .ra fters.

 73

5.2. DEFINITION OF TRAIRASIKA

Trairasika is defined in Yuktibha 9 a (66) as in the

lines given below:

"tray6 ra~aya: sam~hrt: karaQam yasya,

sar~si: k~rye karaQopacar~l

trir~sirbhavati, sapray~janam

yasya tal ganitam traidisikam"

(Yuktibhd9a, Chapter 4, page 45)

Here three quantities are needed in the statement and

computation. So this rule is known as Trair~sika (The

Rule of Three terms). If four quantities are in

proport ion, then anyone of them may be determined by

knowing the values of other three quantities. Since

there are three known quantities, it is called

Trairatika. Similarly, there are Pancarasika,

Saptara.s ika, Navarasi ka et c, depend ing on the number of

known quantities used for calculating the unknown. In

traira~ika, the method of calculating the unknown is

given in lines below:

 74

Iccham phal~na samhatya pram~Qena vibhajayel

Icchaphalam bhav~l labdhamevam trair~~ikam matam!!

(Yuktibh~~a, Chapter 4, Page 46)

ie, Icchaphalam is got by d i v id ing the produ ct of I ccha

and PramaQaphalam by Pramaoam.

ie, Icchi3phalam = Iccha x Pramaoaphalam

PramaJ;lam

where Icch.. the desired antecedant, term in

a proportion

Icchaphalam the desired consequent / the fourth

proportion

Pramanam the antecedant, the first term of a

proportion

Pramanaphalam: the consequent, the second term in a

proportion

The above relation may be expressed as

PramaJ;laphalam =
Icchaphalam
PramaQam Iceh..

The pramaQam and Iccha must be of the same denomination.

 75

If x and y are the magn i tude of two quan tit ies of the

same kind measured in thp ."lamp. un i ts, the ratio x: y or

x/y may be used to compare the magn i tudes. It gives the

number of times y is contained in x. Here the number

of times of pram~Qa in pramaQaphalam will be equal to

the number of times of Icch~ in Icch~phalam. If the

Iccha becomes larger than Pram~l')am then Icchaphalam

becomes larger than pram~~aphalam and vice versa.

5.3. VYASTA-TRAIRASIKA

The inverse proportion (Inverse Rule of Three)

is called Vyasta-trair~1:!ika. According to Sridhara, the

method is to multiply the middle term by the first and

to divide by the last, in case the proportion is different

(inverse) (17).

The inverse proportion is defined in lines below:

"Iccha vrddhauphalahr!sa Icch~hras~dhikam phalam!

Yatra tatra hikarttavyam Vyastatrairasikam budhai:!!

(YUktibh~~a(66), Chapter 4, Page 48.}

ie, when the Iccha increases than pramal)am, the

Icchaphalam decreases than thp. pram~Qaphalam and vice

 76

versa. This rule is known as Vyastatrairallika (Inverse

proportion). The computation is explained as

"Vyastatraira~ikaphalamicch~ bhakta: pram~oaphala gh~ta:!"

Pramanam x Pramanaphalam
ie, Icch~phalam =
Iccha

or this may be expressed as,

Iccha Pramanaphalam
Pramar,lam Icchaphalam

5.4. METHOD OF FINDING THE INCLINATION OF THE COLLARPIN

ON AN INCLINED RAFTElt

Consider the rafters (lupas), collarpin (vala),

Eaves-reaper (V~mata) on the roof of a square maoQapa.

The collarpin (vala) will be perpendicular to the sides

of straight rafters and therefore the holes on them for

collarpins will be perpendicular to the sides so that

the 1 ength of the hole is equal to the th i ckness of the

rafter. But in the case of inclined rafters, the

collarpin is not perpendicular to the rafters and

correspondingly the holes on them are inclined at an

 77

angle which may be determined as in the method given

below using trairaika. [cf Figs.5(a) and 5(b)].

A B c

Fig.5(a) Fig.5(b)

Let 0 be the pos i ti on 0 E the Kootam on wh ich an

end of each rafter is fixed and OA, OB, OC represent the

positions of rafters. Let ~B~ represents the

eaves-reaper at the lower end of the rafters and t, B' e'

be the collarpin (vala).

A---rt' 11 AB and A--rt' 1 Cf'A, the straight rafter.

Let.t be the ang le between 6A and OC, the incl ined rafter.

Then the incl ination of the hole on 6C will be

 78

proportional to the angle: [Fig.5(b)], gives an

enlargement of the rafter and the angle~ on it.

From the figures above,

A OAC and ~PQR are similar, by the rules of

similarity of two right angled triangles given in

Yuktibha:;;a (66)

The first rule states that the two triangles

(right angled) will be similar if there is "parallelism

between the hypotenuses and aside of each". This rule

may be proved as below.

6 OAC and 4PQR are r.ight angled triangles.

PR A-C

~
"
11 QC

Le == I.B

Further, M.C :::

\QEE and

~ ::: (Q

= 90
 79

Therefore the two triangles are equiangular and

by AAA-theorem, the above two triangles are similar.

Since the triangles are similar, by Rule of Three,

we have

Icchak~etrabhui~ Icchd'k g etrakoti

PramaQak$etrabhuja = Pramanak~etrakoti

Icchak$etra Karoam
=
Pramanak~etra KarQam

where,

desired region

Pramanakl?etra given region

bhuja base of the triangle

k6ti attitude

karQam hypotenuse

QR PQ
ie, =
AC OA

:::
PH
QC

PQ
QR x AC
OA
 80

PO is the thickness of the in cl ined rafter, OA is the

length of the straight rafter and AC is the distance of

the incl ined rafter from the Rtraight rafter. lQ!'R is

the angle of inclination of the hole for collarpin. Thus

the incl inat ion of the call a rpin to the side of the

inclined rafter is determined by OR.

Note: It is to be noted that in traditional architecture

the slope is not expressed in terms of degrees. For

example, the pi tch of a roof is not expressed in degrees

bu t a r a t i 0 0 fir i s e I and I run I ( V er tic a l p r 0 j e c t ion and

horizontal projection). Usually, the rise is expressed

as a certain number of angula per kol of run thus, a

rise of 6 angula means that the roof rises 6 angula for

each 24 angula that it runs horizontally. Here the pitch

is 6 to 24. In the above resul t OR is known as the

length of the inclination of the hole on the rafter.

5.5. DETERMINATION OF HEIGHTS OF THE ROOF FOR DIFFERENT

PITCHES

The idea of Trair~sika is made use of in the

calculation of the pitch of the roof. Consider a

gabled(18) roof of a building which is a 3-dimensional

 81

space-fr-ame. The er-OBe Rect.ion of the roof will be in

the for-m of an isosceles tr.ianqle whose base is the width

of the house and the sides ar-e the r-afters on either

sides of the roof. The altitude of this triangle which

is the he igh t of the r-oof fr-om the 1 evel of the

wallplate, divides the tr-iangle into two right-angled

triangles. In gener-al, the normal height of the r-oof

was taken to be equa 1 t r) the sem i -widt h of the house

so that the angle of incl inat ion of the r-oof with the

horizontal was 45. But cer-tain variations in heights

of the roof were adopted depending on the aesthetic

considerations and the materials used for covering the

roof.

In t radi t ional arch i tecture the decrease in height

from the normal height was defined as 'aviccil' or

'amippu' (dip) . It was expressed as a ratio of the

height to unit length of the semiwidth of the house.

Multiplying this ratio by the corresponding semiwidth

we get the height of the roof for that 'aviccil'. In

this method, an elemental rightangled triangle of unit

base (l kol) was cons idered for each av ice i 1. The height

correspond ing to each width were calculated using

Trair~sika The principle behind this is given by GaniHsa

 82

(1545) (17) as "if the upright, base and hypotenuse of a

rational rightangled triangle be mUltiplied by any
arbitrary rational number there will be produced another

rightangled triangle with rational sides". It is implied

that when the sides of a right triangle are increased

proportionally, the rat io of the height to base remains

the same ie, the slope of the roof wi 11 be the same for

the same aviccil (dip).

In traditional system the height is said to be

24 angula if the roof rises 24 angula for each 24 angula

of semiwidth, and the aviccil is expressed as 24/24,

called 'thankurmam' (71) The av iccil is named as 1/4

angula, 1/2 angula, 3/4 angula etc, corresponding to the

ratios 22~/24, 21/24, lY~/24 etc. In each case the

height is diminished by l~ angula and each can be

expressed in non-recurring decimals.

In a similar way corresponding to each aviccil,

the lengths of the rafters may be determined using

traira~ika, by knowing the length of the hypotenuse of

the elemental right angled triangle with unit base (1

kol) . The accurate 1 ength of the common rafter is got

by multiplying the length of the hypotenuse by the

 83

semiwidth of the bu i Id ing and add ing hal f the width of

the rafter to it.

5.6. 80ME OTHER PROPORTIONS OF HEIGHT AND WIDTH

The height of the ridge from the level of

wall pIa te depends on the w id th of house. Th is is ev ident

from the following lines in Vastuvidya(13).

Uttarasyanurap~~a

tasam taramudlritam

(Vastuvidya, Chapter 10, Verse 1.)

ie, the height is prnpor-t iona I to the semiwidth of the

house. The proportions of height to semiwidth are

defined as 1:1,7:8,6:7,5:6,4:5,3:4,2:3 and 1:2 [ef

Fig.5 ( e) ] These proportions are named as Ambaram,

Viyat, Jyot is, Gaganam, Vih~yas, Anantam, Antarik~am,

.
and Puskalam respeetively(33) .

l~ 7~6~ 5~
1 8 7 6

4~ 5 4
l~
3 2
Fig.5 (c)
 84

Manu~yalayacandrika stirulates the height of the

ridge equal to the semiwidth of the building. In this

case the incl ination of the roof will be 45 0 The

proportion 2:3 is accepted for practical purposes in

later construction <)f buildings where the inclination

of the roof is about 33~o.

5.7. DETERMINATION OF THE LENGTH OF THE SIDE OF AN OCTAGON

A given square may be transformed into an Octagon,

Six teen sided polygon, Thi r ty two sided pol ygon etc, and

finally to a circle by the successive division of the

sides of the squa re and del et ing the t r i ang I es at the

corners. The principle of trair~ika is applied in

determining the length of sides of the regular

(66)
polygons

Consider a square ABCD of side a. Let the two

lines through the midpoints of the sides intersect at

o forming 4 small sqUAres 1n the given square [cf

Fig.5 (d) ]
 85

D~ ____________~~~~____~C

B
"'ig .IJ(d)

Join 0 and C. Let PQ meets 6c at R and OS = OP OQ.

60PC is an isosceles triangle. ~ 1 QC and TS 1 oc

CR PramiQam

CP PramaJ)aphalam

OC - os cs

Icca

Iccaphalam eT

CP x cs
CR
 86

Mark points on each side of the square at a distance of

eT from each corner. ie, eT = CU. Delete 4 triangles

at the corners each equal to ~CTU to form the required

octagon. TU will be n side of the octagon = a-2CT. Let

s' be a point on 6T such that OP .., OS'.

Draw aline WV J 6~1 through S'. Then using

trairasika as above we 'let,

TV TS x TS', where SL lOT.

TL

Delete triangles at the corners of the octagon each equal

to A TVW to form a regu lar l(3-,8 ided polygon. Continueing

this process, we wi 11 reach a pos i t i on when the polygon

approximately becomes a circle. The idea of 1 imi t is

implied in this process.

5.8.1. DETERMINATION OF LENGTH OF RAFTERS USING TRAIRXSIKA

The idea of Traird~ika is used in determining the

lengths of rafters. In V~9tus~stras, there are many

methods def ined for find i nq t. hf' lengths of rafters. The

process may be different tn each method due to many facts

such as tradition, regional difference etc, but the

 87

result will be the same. 'l'hp.se methods and rules are

evol ved through years of continuous practice and

evaluation. Tedious computational process was a

hindrance to the trnd i t iona 1 architects and so they

formu lated simple and PflSY methods for finding the

measurements of various plpments of building.

The traditionill architects of Kerala have

developed some practical methods for finding the lengths

of rafters. They defined suitable 'scales' (proportional

units) and named as Pram~nas. (Postulates) in terms of

the scales which are used for finding the true lengths

of rafters. The Postulates (PramaQas) are known as 8 th

Postulate (Ettam Pramat;lam) I Postulate

Prama':lam ) , 6 th Postu 1 ate ( Ar~m

- _ . ) etc. (33)
Pramar;tam

TH
5.8.2. 8 POSTULATE (ETTAM PRAMANAM) AND LENGTH OF RAFTERS

In this method the requirements are a wooden

board, an ax e and a measu ring rod. This wooden board

is named as measllrement board (Prama~appalaka).

Construct a right angLpcl t.rianqle OAB on this board in

such a way that the proportlonal.e scale is 1 kol (72 cm)

=3 angula (9 cm) or 8 angula '" 1 angula (3 cm). 6A is

called the bhuja and OB is called the koti. [cf Fig.S(e)]
 88

Bhuja Z
0r-----~~--------
x
__~--~~ C

A'
Fig.S(e)

Let x angula be the width of the house. Mar-k a point

x
A on the bhuja such that OA =~ . x
2 angula = 16 x 3 cms.
Let y angula be the height of the r-oof suppor-t. Put a

mar-k at B on the koti such that OB = ~ x 3 cms. Let

z angula be the eaves pr-ojection (kazhukkol chat tarn)

3
Mark another point C on the bhu:ia such that AC = - x
8
3 ems.

Draw a line parallel to koti through C. Join the points

B and A and produce it to meet the parallel through C

at A' Then BA I is the l/sth of the length of the st.

rafter ie, 8BA' gives the length of straight rafter from

the ridge to the tip of the eavesprojection. 8BA

represent the length of the rafter from the ridge to the

 89

notch on the wallpl~tp for fixing the rafter on it.

Since the scale is tak(~n as 8: I, this method is known

as 8 th Postulate in Kerala.

The advantage of this method is that the space

used for drawing the figure is diminished to l/sth of

the usual method. But calculations and figures are

different for different situ~tions. This problem is

th
solved in the 4 Postulate (Nal~m Pra~ct~am).

5.8.3. 4 TH POSTULATE (NALAM PRAMANAM)

Here the requirement is a small rectangled wooden

board which is known as 'Mattappalaka' or simply

'Mattam'. This is used aA a key instr.ument for measuring

and marking several minute elements of a building [cf

Fig.5(f)]
-
t
B
- - - - - _... -. ----- - --,

! 7.5 cm

O-----------lr~~------------~~
'- - L
Fig.5(f)
 90

Consider a right angled triangle with base (bhuja)

4 angula (12 cm) a.nd altitude (koti) 2~ angulam (7.5 cm)

on this board. The length of the hypotenuse is defined

as the I scal e I or un i t of measu rement in this method.

The true length of the straight rafter (common rafter)

from ridge to the outer 8dIJe 0 f the wallpla te is got by

taking 6 times of this , sCill e ' per 1 kol (72 cm) of the

semiwidth of the house.

For an illustration, let 2x kol be the .width of

the house and 1 be the 'scalp' (unit of measurement).

Then the length of the strAight rafter is 6xY. By giving

differen t values for x, w{~ qet the correspond ing 1 engths

of the rafters from the Hbove formula, provided the

height remains the same. One of the features of this

method is that the 'scale' used in this method is

independent of the width of the house and may be used

for all widths having the same height. Even though this

method is not given on any pages of Vastusc!stra texts,

this was used by the traditional architects and the idea

was transmitted from generation to generation through

teacher-student relationship and verbal teachings.

 91

(7.5 an)

o .12 cm)

F'lg.'i(g)

By an extens ion of t his met hod, the 1 ength of the

hiprafter may be calculated. For this, consider the

diagonal of a square wi th side 4 angu la (12 cm) and mark

this length on the bhuja at D. Then BD will be the

'scale I for calculating the length of the hiprafter from

ridge to the outer edge of the wallplate [cf. Fig. 5 (g) J

If we have to increase or d~crease the pi tch of

the raf ters I then the lengt h OB is to be increased or

decreased accord ing 1 y Thus this was a universal method

formulated by the traditional ar.chitects of Kerala.

 92

In all these methods t.he principle of trair~~ika

is applied. Further it is convenient to have the width

of the house in multiples or submultiples of pada (8

-angula) units.

**""*******
 Chapter VI

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS AND RELATED MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The plan shape, determined by a bounding

perimeter (paryanta sutra), is known as the ma~Qala.

In the traditional architecture of Kerala seven

geometrical shapes are definpd for ma9~ala which are

given in the following lines.

"Vrttam vFtt~yatamapy~yata ~aturam ca samacaturam

ezhunt~krti
. sadan~ sadastakon
. - hastiprstha
- ...
mennittham".

(Balaramam, page 66)

The plan shapes are circl~, elongated circle, rectangle,

square, hexagon, octag on and gajap!="~tham (apsidal) .

Usually triangular shape 11'3 not accepted for buildings

of domestic purposes. Most C)f these shapes are used

in vedic period for constructing different types of

yajna-vedis and mantra-yantras.

In this chapter we illustrate the method of

construction of these shapes and their architectural

 94

values implied in vastu'slistras. The constructions of

a triangle, rectangle, hexag on, octagon and circle each

of which having the same perimeter of a given square

and deduction of mathematical values assumed in them

are explained in detail. The geometrical method of

determining the lengths of rafters are also included

in this chapter.

6 2 1. SQUARB

The square is literally the fundamental form of

Indian architecture. The form of a Vastupuru~amar:t9ala

is a square. Earth is symbolically represented by

square and it is known as the Brahmamal')qala. The square

mal')gala has the highest efficiency of space enclosure

when compared to other quadrilaterals. It can be

converted into a circle, triangle, hexagon, octagon and

a rectang 1 e The method of construction of a square

is given in Tantrasamuccaya (15) A rectangle may be

obtained from a square by elongation (ayamam) and

~

regular polygons of 8 sides / 16 sides etc, are derived

from the square.

 95

6.2.2. CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE

The method of construction is given below:

Pragagram sutramurvya mrjGtara mabhikalpyasya

mGlagragabhyam

aGtrabhyam matsyayugmam yamasasiharit6: kalpayi

tva trafsiltram

krtva dik~vankayitva samamiha vihitai ssGtra kai:

kOQamatsyan

k;-tva f sphalyai~u sutram racayatu caturasram pura:

kl?etraknuptau

(Tantras~muccaya, patalam 12, slokam 23)

To construct a square, draw a line segment in

the plane of the earth in the East-West direction wi th

the help of a rope (about 1 kol in length) [cf Fig.6(a)].

n'
- ......
'6
.r f'\ ..-
C

\
\

,/
0

\
I . \
~ \. !i' "-,
A ",'- B
Fig.6(a)
 96

Then draw two circles with their centres at the

extremities of the 1 ine segment and radii equal to 3/4th

of the length of the 1 ine segment. The intersection

of the circles will be in the shape of a fish (fish like

line) and the 1 ine through the poin ts of intersect ion

of the circles will determine the North-South direction.

Draw four equal circles with their centres on four

directed line segments at a fixed distance from the

point of intersection of the two lines. Join the points

of intersection of the circles (tips of fish like lines)

to get the required square.

6.3. CONSTRUCTION OF A RECTANGLE WHOSE PER~METER EQUAL

TO THAT OF A SQUARE ( 58)

Consider a square of the given perimeter. Divide

the square into 64 cells (pada) (8 x 8 gr ids) Delete

a row of cells along a pa i r of opposl te s ides of the

square. A column of equal square cells is adjoint to

the other two s ides of the squa re. Then the resulting

figure wi 11 be a rectang I e whose per imeter is equal to

that of the square and whose sides wi 11 be in the rat io

3:5 [ef Fig.6(b)].

 97

0' C'

o c

A jj

A' B'
Fig.6(b)

ABeD is a square of 8 x 8 (pada) space module and

A'8'C'0' is a rectangle of to pada x 6 pada module. The

perimeter of the square is equal to 4 x 8 units and the

perimeter of the rectangle is (10 + 6)2 unit, ie. 32

units. Hence the perimeters are equal where as the

(areas are different. Th i s pr inciple is made use of in

,the construction of NatyamaQQapa.

 98

6.4.1. CIRCLE

A circle may be def ined as the locus of a point

which moves such that its distance from a fixed point

always rema in s a constant. It was considered the most

perfect shape in Va~tuB~stra. In Tantrasamuccaya(15)

a method of drawing a circle is given (explained in

Chapter Ill) . Square and circle are coordinated in

architecture from the vedic period.

6.4.2. CONSTRUCTION 01' A CIRCLE WHOSE PERIMETER IS

EQUAL TO (APPROXIMATELY) THAT OF A GIVEN SQUARE

The method is given In thp following lines.

KarQQarddha sutrasya bhuj~rddhatoti

riktam~akarddham bahi rankayitva

madyastha sutram parivarttya kUQgam

kurvita ca~9adyuti ma~9alabham

( 15 )
(Tantrasamuccaya , patalam 12, sloka 29)

This rule states that take the half of the

difference between the semidiagonal and semiside of the

qiven square. Add this quantity to half the length of

 99

the side. Then draw a circle with this length as radius

and centre at the centre of the square. This will give

the required circle.

Fig.6(c)

Let a be the length of the side of a square ABCD.

Let the diagonals A-C and BD intersect at 0, which is

the centre of the square. Take a point P on Cl> such

that OP == a/2, hal f of the length of the side of the

square. Let Q be the midpoint of Pn. Draw a circle

with centre at 0 and rad ius equal to OQ. Then this wi 11

be the required circle whose perimeter is

(approximately) equal to that of the square [cf Fig.6(c)].

 100

Since a is the length of the side of the square,

OD =
ha
2

a .!.( l2a ~)
r =
2" + 2 2 - 2

= ~ + ~(r2 - 1)
2 4

(1 + !2) a
=
4

When a = 4, the perimeter of the square is 16 units and

the perimeter of the circle is 2~(1 + )2).

Another method is stated for circling the square

of the same per imeter. According to this method we have

to add a quarter of the half length of the side of the

square to the half length of the side, ie, add 1/8th

of the side length to half of the side length. This

will give the radius of the circle.

_
ie, radius of the circle is a2 + a8

perimeter of the circle = 2~(~ + ~)

2 8
 101

If we take the value of 4IJ' as 3.14, the perimeter of the

circle, in the first case, will be

= 2 x 3.14 x a(12 + 1)
241J'r
4

where a is the side of the square.

When a = 4,

Perimeter, C = 2 x 3.14(/2 + 1)

= 15.16126 units

But the perimeter of the square is 16 units. Similarly

in the second case per imeter of the ci rcle is 15.7 when

, is 3.14.

Thus in both the cases the value of 4IJ' was assumed

to be greater than 3.14.

Further it may be seen that the perimeter of the

circle will be approximately equal to that of the square

if we take the radius of the circle as

r =

ie r = ~ + !!( [2 - 1)
2 3

3a + 2[2a - 2a
=
6
 102

a(212 + 1)
=
6

Perimeter, C = 21Tr

21T[a(2~ + 1) ]

When a = 4,

C = 41T(212 + 1)
3

If c = 16 units

= the perimeter of the square, then

16 x 3
1T = 4( 212 + 1 )

12
= 2/'J. + 1

= 3.13445 (approximately),

which is very close to the value of 1T and the per imeter

is 16.000017, approximately equal to th~ perimeter of

the square.

6.5 .1. GAJAP~~1HA AND Y~TTAYATA

There are two shapes whi ch are un ique in Ind i an

architecture. They are (apsidal) and

'rttay!ta (elongated circle) or Ayatav!="tta shapes. The

 103

The apsidal shape, resembling the rear side of an

elephant, is a combination of a square and a semic ircle.

The vrtt~yata shape consists of a square with two

semicircles at the ends. Generally these two shapes

are used for temple construction. The method and

measurements of constructing gajapr9~ha and vrttayata

. . (15)
maQQalas are glven In Tantrasamuccaya and Kuzhikkat
Pacca (47) . Vrttayata is sometimes called by the name

Dirghavrtta. The method of construction of gajapF9tha

shape is explained in chapter I l l .

6.5.2. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF DIRGHAV~TTA

(ELONGATED CIRCLE)

The method of construction of Di rghavrt ta is

explained in the verse below:

bh~gadvay~ dviradapF9~ha samuktanitya

v~ttikrt~, tadubhayantarabhagadairghyam

sweddhmamsato virahit~na gUQ~msakena

vrttayat~ vitanuyat suravaryadhi~ftye

(Tantrasamuccaya(lS), patalam 2, sloka 68)

Constru ct sem i ci rcles at the front and rear side with

radius equal to 2 parts as described in the case of

 104

Gajapr~tha shape. Then divide the length of 3 parts

into 21 divisions and delete one division from it. The

remaining length will be the length of the middle line

segment (lateral sides) join ing the two semi circles on

either sides [cf Fig.6(d)].

Divide the desired perimeter into 64 equal parts.

Then the semicircles are determined wi th diameter equal

to the length of 14 parts and the lateral sides of the

rectangular portion in between the semi ci rcles are

defined by 10 parts.

C
I
I
I
I
I
I
dl
I

Fig.6(d)

After di v id ing the per imeter into 64 parts, delet e

one part from it. Then divide the remaining length into

18 divisions and length of each division will be 3~

 105

parts (of the former division) .

. radius of the semicircle = 2 divisions

= 7 parts

diameter = 14 parts

The length of the lateral = 3 divisions

side
- 123 d' . .
IVISIOnS

10~
= lO~ parts - 21 parts

= (lO!z - ~) parts

= la parts

Thus the perimeter of the elongated circle is equal to

the sum of the perimeters of two semicircles and two

lateral lengths of the rectangular portion.

ie, Perimeter = ~ x 14 + 2 x la parts

If the perimeter is 64 units, then

64 = 14 x 22 + 20
7

= 64 units which is true.

Here the value of ~ is implied to be 22/7.

 106

6.5.3. DETERMINATION OF THE PERIMETER OF THE DfRGHAV~TTA

Let P be the perimeter of the elongated circle.

Then P = 2 x perimeter of the semicircle + 2 x length

of the lateral side of the rectangular portion

= 2 x ~r + 2 1, r, the radius of the semicircle

= ~d + 2 1, d, the diameter of the circle

and d = width between the lateral sides

From above,

the width= d

P
= x 14
64

d 14
and =
1 10

d x 10
1 =
14

Perimeter,
d
P :: ~d + 2
1.4

1
= d(~ + 0.7)
 107

When d = the diameter of the semicircle is known,

P may be calculated.

IfP = 64,

1
then P = l4(~ + - -)
0.7

64 1
= ~ + 0.7
14

64 1
14 .7
= ~

2.2 = ~
-:7

22
=
7"

22
When ~ =
7'

p = d{22 + ~)
7 .7

32 d
= 7

Thus the perimeter of the elongated circle is

determined when the width (max. width) of the

rectangular portion is known.

Note: In some texts it is seen that the length of the

rectangular portion is taken as the radius of

the semicircle.
 108

6.6.1 TRIANGLE

A triangle appears to be a mystic shape in tantric

rites and architectural ornamentations, but not much used

as grha-vastumaf)Qala. The inscription of triangles in

a 'Sricakram' is an example for this. Bharata Muni in

his 'NatyasCistra 1 describes triangle as a suitable shape

for the construction of 'Natyagrha' (Kuthampalam) .

Throughout history the commonest covering of the building

is the trussed roof, constructed upon a frame composed

of triangular sections spaced crosswise at intervals and

made rig id in length by beams. The truss is based on

the geometric principle that a triangle is the only

figure that cannot be changed in shape without a change

in the length of its sides. Thus a triangular frame of

strong pieces firmly fastened at the angles cannot be

deformed by its own load or by external forces such as

the pressure of strong wind or rain. This principle is

made use of in the construction of Malabar gable a

triangular projection at the top extremities of tiled

or thatched roofs. It is the characteristic feature of

Kerala style of architecture which is noted for its

!beauty and utilitarian simplicity.

\

\ The higher derivatives of triangles regular

 109

polygons of 6 sides, 12 sides etc, were rarely used

except for ornamental works and temples.

6.6.2. CONSTRUCTION OF A TRIANGLE WHOSE PERIMETER IS

EQUAL TO THAT OF A GIVEN SQUARE

The method is described in the following lines.

.
sasthamsakam
"
yamahimamsudiso: pratIcya

sotre suy~jya haridigbahirankayitva

t~naiva te~u suvidhaya ca sutrapatam

kuryattrikoQaparimaOQita vahnikuQqam

(Tantrasamuccaya, patalam 12, sloka 28)

Divide the length of the side of the square into

6 equal parts. Extend the western side of the square

by adding one part each to the Southern and Northern

ends. Put a mark on the exterior side of the square at

a distance of 1/6 th of the length of the side of the

square from the Eastern side. Draw 1 ines join ing th is

mark and the ends of the Western side. The resul ting

~triangle will be the required one.

 110

Let ABeD be the given square with side a. Divide

the length a into 6 equal parts and add one part each

to either end of the side ~.

Fig.6{e)

Let PQ be the extended side and R be the point

at a distance of 1/6 th of AB from CD. Join PT{ and ~.

Then PQR is the required triangle [cf Fig.6{e)].

From Fig.,

AB = a cm

PQ =
 III

4a
=
3

RS = a + -6a

7a
==
6

PR 2 ::: (2a) 2 + (7a)2

3 6

4a 2 49a 2
== g- + 36

== 65a 2
~

2165 a 4a
Perimeter of i\PQR == + 3
6

:::
/65 a + 4a
3

;;;;; -a (8.062 + 4)
3

12.062 x a
==
3

== 4.02 x a cm

When a == 6 cm, Perimeter == 4.02 x 6 = 24.12 cm.

But the per imeter of the square when a == 6 cm is 24 cm.

Hence the perimeter of the triangle 1S greater than that

of the square by .02 x a units.

 112

6.7. CONSTRUCTION OF A HEXAGON WHOSE PERIMETER IS EQUAL

TO THAT OF A GIVBN SQUARE

This method is given in the verse below.

ankau prakalpya haripancamadikpadikthau

~a~~hamsat~ bahi rate nijamaddhyatasca

dvau dvau jha~au paradisorapi matsyacihna-

~atsGtrakairvviracaye
T
drasakonakundam
(15) ..
(Tantrasamuccaya ,pata1am 12, s10ka 30)

Draw a line in the East-West direction through

the middle points of the side and take two points on this
th
line on either side at a distance of l/6 of the length

of the side. Draw three equal circles with their centres

at the extremities of this central line segment and at

its mid point and radius equal to the semilength of this

line segment. Join the points of intersection of these

circles (two fish like lines) and the end points of the

line segment successively to form the required hexagon

[ef Fig. 6 ( f) ]

Instead of taking the East-West line we can take

the South-North line and proceeding in the same method

we get the required hexagon.

 113

'/
\
0 R
0

/,
/ \
~

Fig.6(f)

Let ABCD be the square and Rand U be points on

the 1 ine through the midpoints of AD and BC. Let P, Q, S

and T be the points of intersection of the circles. The

PQRSTU is the required hexagon.

Let a be the length of the side.

a
Length of UR ::: a + 2. 6

:::
4a
T

radius of 2a
the circle
= 3
 114

AOPQ is an equilateral triangle, since the sides

roe radii of equal circles.

the side of the hexagon = the radius of

the circle

2a
= 3

2a
perimeter of the hexagon = 3" x 6

= 4a,

which is the same as the perimeter of the square.

6.8. CONSTRUCTION OF AN OCTAGON WBOSE PERIMETER IS

(APPROXIMATELY) EQUAL TO A GIVBR SQUARE

The method of constructing an octagon is given

in the following lines.

k~~tre tatra samantato dinakaram~am nyasya turyasrit~

kOn~bhy6 bhujasGtrake~u nihitai: svai: karQQasutrarddhakai:

dvau dvau dik~u jha~~n prakalpya makar~~vasphalitai

..
rastabhi:

aOtrai riswaradinmukhe vi racaye da9Ui~rakuQQam sudhI:

(Tantrasamuccaya(1S), patalam 12, sloka 32}

 115

ie, construct another square circumscribing the given

square by extending each side by 1/12th of the length

of the side of the given square. Put two marks on its

each side by drawing circles with centre at the corners

and radius equal to half the length of its diagonal.

Form two fish 1 ike 1 ines (intersect ing ci rcles) on each

side by drawing 8 circles with centres at these points

and join these points successively to get the required

octagon [cf Fig.6(g)].

Fig.6(g)
 116

Let ABCD be the given square and A'B'C'D' be the

circumscr ibing square. A'C' is the length of the

diagonal and OA' is the half the length of the diagonal.

Let the circles with centres at A',B',C' and D' and

radius OA' cuts the sides at P,Q,R,S,T,U,V and W. The

circle with centre at P and radius PR passes through R

and V. Similarly, by drawing circles with centres at

the other seven points will give 8 points of intersection of

circles (four fish like lines). Joining these points

successively we get the required octagon.

Let the length of the side of the square ABCD be

a. Then length of the side of the square A'B'C'D' will

be

a
A'B' = a + 2.
12

= 7a
""6

12 .~
a
Length of the diagonal A'C' =

.- 7 a
OA' = '/2. 12

PO = Length of the side of the

= A'B' - 2A'P
Octagon
 117

AP = QB'

== A'B' - PB'

== A'B' - OAf

7a 7 a
[2
6 -
=
12

==
7 a(2 - (2)
12"
7a(0.586)
2A'P == "6

7a 7a(O.586)
PQ == -
6 6
7a(0.414)
== "6

when a == 6 cm,

PQ == ~ x 6(0.414)

Perimeter of the octagon= 8 x 7(0.414)

= 23.184 cm

But the perimeter of the square is 24 cm. Hence the

perimeter of the octagon is less than the perimeter of

the square.
 118

6.9. THE RETHOD OF INSCRIBING AN OCTAGON (ETTU PATTAM)

IN A GIVEN SQUARE

The method is described in the following lines.

yasya vistaramarkk~msam

baQ~m~am pattam~va Ca

saptarn~~na dvibhagattu

karttavyarn k~Qabh~gikam

(Balaramam, page 59)

Divide the side of the square into 12 equal parts.

Retain five parts in the middle and delete 3~ parts on

either end of the sides of the square to get the required

octagon [cf Fig.6(h)].

E R

Fig.6(h)
 119

Let PQRS be the given square of side a. Divide

each side into 12 equal parts. AB 1S the middle portion

Sa
of PQ having a length 12 PA = BQ = 3~ parts each.

Similarly we get CD, EF, and GH on each side of length

Sa
12 Draw line segments BC, DE, FG and HA to get the

octagon ABCDEFGH inscribed in the square.

Let the leng th of the side be 12 un its. Then

AB =5 units. From triangle BQC, we get,

BQ2 + CQ2 = BC 2

3.5 2 + 3.5 2 BC 2

12.25 + 12.25 = BC 2

BC :;:::
j 24.5

= 4.949, approximately

Or from the right angle triangle BQC,

3.5
Sin 45 =
BC

1 3.5
= BC
12
BC = 3.5 x J2

= 4.949, approximately.
 120

This value of BC is very close to 5. For practical

purposes the above value is acceptable.

6.10. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF 'SRICAKRA' (OR SRfYAHTRA)

From the mathematical point of view, Sricakra

is an ancient geometrical portrayal consisting of a

bindu, ang les formed by the intersect ions of tr iang les,

8 and 16 petalled lotus, circles and squares (bhupura).

The method of construction of 'Sricakra' is explained

in Tantrasamuccaya (Silpabhagam) (1 6 ) in three verses.

The first verse describes the method of drawing lines

for bhiipura (squares), circles and the required number

of petals 'of lotus. The rule is stated in the verse

below.

~aQQavatyamgulay~mam sutram prakpratyagayatam

caturbhiramgulai: i~tai: suvrttani ca bhGpuram

antarnavangulam proktam maddhye patram, tu ~o9a~a

~kadasamgulOp~tama~tapatram vidhiyate.

(Tantrasamuccaya (Silpabhagam), Annexure I(F), sloka 1)

This means that draw a line of length 96 angula

(about 288 ems) in the East-West direction on a plane

 121

where the Sricakra is to be constructed. Draw three

squares for bhupura through the ends of the line and

three circles inside the square with the diameter of

the outermost circle is equal to 46 angula. The squares

and circles must be within a width of 4 angula (1 angula

= 3 cm). Then 16 petals of width 9 angula and 8 petals

of width 11 angula are to be constructed inside the

circle.

The next verse describes the method of drawing

the angles at the middle portion. The 'Katapayadi'

system is used in representing the numbers in this

verse. The verse is given below (16) .

vy~s~ 'de, vi' kfte ta, tta, ma, la, la, vi, ga, te, ca,
~a, bhage 'jha' sOtran

kFtv~ 'pu, ri, da, ~a, 'nt~ ga, va, va, la, mubhayo
'rvva', ta 'ye stoya bhagan

'dhanyam' 'nme' pravrjya grathayatu varuQa sadi

sGtradvay~ni

pr~kpotam' r~,dhi' g~nam vi,di ma,tha dhuginam di,vya sunum

ciram prak

The diameter (remaining part of East-West line)

of the circle inside the 8 petals is divided into 48

parts. Draw 9 lines ln the North-South direction

 122

(perpendicular to the East-West line) cutting the East-

West line at widths of 6 parts, 6 parts, 5 parts, 3

parts, 3 parts, 4 parts, 3 parts, 6 parts, 6 parts and

6 parts in order from the west side. Delete segments

of 1 ines of length 3 parts at both the ends of 1 st and

th nd
9 lines, and remove 4 parts from both the ends of 2
th
and 8 lines. Remove 16 parts each from both the ends
th
of 4th and 6 lines and delete 19 parts at the ends of

5 th l'Ine.

st
To form the angles, join the ends of 1 line

segment to the midpoint of 6 th line from the west.

nd
Similar 1 y, join the ends of 2 line to the midpoint
th rd
of 9 line. Join the ends of 3 line to the point

on the circle when the East-West line meets the circle

and join the ends of 4th 1 ine to the midpoint of 8 th

line and the ends of 5 th 1 ine are join ed to the midpoin t

of 7th line.

th
From the other side join the ends of 9 line
rd th
to the midpoint of 3 line. The ends of 8 line are
st 7th
joined to the midpoint of 1 line and the ends of

line are joined to the point of intersection of the East-

th
West line with the circle. The ends of 6 line are
 1 2 2 (a l

SRICAKRAM

!w

I:'

- -----_. -,-

I ah up ur a tr ai (3
sq ua re s)
v~ttatrai (3 ci
9oda~adala (1 6 rc le s)
p et al s)
A 9t ad al a (8 p et
al s)
42 A ng le s
Bindu
T ri an gl e

F ig .6 (i )
 123

joined to the mid point of 2 nd line. Then the East-West

line is rubbed off. Then we get the angles at the

middle of the Sricakra [cf Fig.6(i)].

The resulting Sricakra consists of the following

elements as given in the third verse(16).

bindu, trik0l}a, vasuko~a, das~rayugmam

manvasra, nagadala, ~~9a~a, kar~oik~ram

vfttatrayam ca, dharani valayatrayam ca

SrIcakram~taduditam parad~vataya:

The cakra consists of a point at the centre which

is inscr ibed in a tr iang le. This triangle is surrounded

by 8 angles, 10 angles, 10 angles and 14 angles 1n

.order. Then there are 8 petalled and 16 petalled lotus

All these are enclosed in vrttatria and in the three

squares (bhupura) . This is known as the

bhuprastaracakra.

Sricakra 1n the three dimensional form is called

Merucakra.
 124

6.11. TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE DIAGONAL OF A SQUARE

WITHOUT USING PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

The method is given in the following lines.

Yasya vistaram suryamsam

paneamsam yuktam~vaea

tasya yOga~satOssutram

karQoamanam vidhiyate

(Balaramam, page 56)

Div ide the length of the side of the square into

12 parts. Add the length of 5 parts to the length of

the side of the square wh i ch give the 1 eng t h of the

diagonal of the square (approximately) [ef Fig.6{j)].

r -____________________ ~.c

Fig.6(j)
 125

Let a be the length of the side of the square

ABeD. By this method, the diagonal of this square is

5a 17a
given by a + 12 :: 12
When a :: 12 cm, the length of

the diagonal is 17 cm. By using Pythagoras theorem,

the length of the diagonal is 12 a :: /2 x 12 ie,

d = 16 9705 cm . The difference between the two values

is very small.

By the above method the length of the diagonal is

5a
a + 12 = 12 + .416 x 12,

(when a == 12)

== 12 + 4.999

= 16.999, nearly.

Hence the difference between the two values is

nearly .029 which is very small for practical purposes.

17 a,
Further, if fia :;: 12

17
then !2 ==
12

:= 1.416,

which is a very good approximation of the value of the

irrational number Ji.

 126

6.12. CONSTRUCTION OF LAMBA AND VITANA (VERTICAL AND

HORIZONTAL DIRECTION)

Let PQ and represent the dhwaja sutra

(kotinGl) on the rafter and the wallpla te respectively.

Consider a rectangular wooden board ABeD whose width

AB is 5/9 the w id t h 0 f the r aft er, ie, eq u a 1 tot h e

width of the rafter above the dhwaja sutra. This board,

known as 'mattam', is placed along the dhwaja sutra with

its long side coinciding with it [cf Fig.6{k) ](~3)

Fig.6{k)

It is pushed upward until its vertex B just

touches t he wall p 1 at e a t B Put a mark Q' on the upper

edge of the mattam where it meets the point of

 127

intersection of the dhwaja sutra and wallplate.

Let I be the point on the dhwaja sutra at which

the lamba and vitana are to be determined. The Imattam l

is pI aced along the dhwaj a Sll tra in such a way that its

vertex B is at I and its upper edge coincides with the

line (Lamba)
Pitch line. ---
(Kotinool)
-Horizontal line
(~'itana rekha)

Seat cut - - -
(birdls mouth)

Birdls

Straight rafter (Common rafter)

Fig.6(l)
 128

upper edge of the ra f ter. Put a mark at E on the edge

of the rafter when the point QI on the mattam coincides

with the rafter. Join Er and produce it to meet the

lower edge of the rafter at F. Then EF will be the

horizontal line (vitanam) and the line perpendicular

to this 1 ine is the li'l.mba (perpendi cular 11 ine) through

I [cf Fig.6(l)].

Thus the horizontal line (vit~nam) and vertical

line (tukku) are drawn with the help of a mattam and

an axe. The simplicity of this method is that

mathematical computations are completely avoided.

However, the length that is to be cut off from

the lower edge of the rafter in order to fix it wi th

the ridge may be cal cula ted from the above f igu re. Let

XZ represent the plumbcut and .I... be the incl ination of

the rafter with the wallplate YZ in the length to be

cut off from the lower edge of the rafter. rt can be

seen tha t lYXZ and ~ XYZ is a right angled

triangle.
 129

YZ tan .,.
=
Xy

YZ XY tan.l

XY is the width of the rafter and ifr:i= 45, then,

YZ = XY

In Manu~yalayacandr ika, the incl ina tion is stipulated

as 45

6.13. GEOMETRICAL METHOD OF FINDING THE LENGTH OF

RAFTERS

The method given in Manusyalayacandrika (54) is

explained below. Consider a square wi th side equal to

half the breadth of the house on a smooth plane or

ground. Let the horizontal side of the square represent

upper side of the cittuttaram and the vertical side be

the koti. Draw three lines parallel to the base of the

square representing the lower sides of cittuttaram,

wallplate and eaves one below the other in order. If

the house is a square one, the roof will be in pyramidal

shape. Now determine the number of rafters and gaps

between them on one side of the roof and mark their

 130

positions on the wallplate in such a way that a gap

occurs exactly at the centre of the wallplate. The

number of gaps (pan t i) wi 11 be one less than twice the

number of rafters. Hence they will be in odd number

and the number of rafters will be in even number. Since

there is no rafter perpendicular to the wallplate, all

the rafters will be inclined rafters on each side

together with the four hiprafters.

pt---------------------~

Ar---~----~----~~~
G~----~----~------~~~J
C~----_r------~------~~
O~ ____ ______ ________
~ ~ ~~ __ ~~----~

Fig.6(m)
 131

To find the length of the inclined rafters the

procedure is given in the following lines.

Iti vik~tilupanam pafikti makalpyatattal-

sthitiniyamakrtanko yattadakranta karOQam

niyata kFtalup~lambadathakutapar~vam

bhavatipathagamr~am dirghamanam lupanam

(Manusyalayacandrika, chapter 6, sloka 19)

After fixing the positions of the rafters, the

marks on the wallplate are joined to the upper end of

the koti and produce them to meet the lower tip of the

roof - the 1 ine represent ing the lower tip of the roof

as in the above figure [cf Fig.6(m)]. Construct

rectangles with these lines as bases and koti as the

other side. The diagonals of these rectangles will give

the lengths of the incl ined rafters. If the height of

the roof is less or greater than hal f the width of the

house, then the koti of the above rectangles must be

decreased or increased accordingly.

In the above figure BBI, CC' and 60' represent

the lower levels of cittuttara, wallplate and eaves.

Q, Rand S are the positions of rafters. Then PQ', PR'

 132

and PS' are the lengths of corresponding rafters.

In this method there are two systems of right

angled triangles, one on the horizontal plane and the

other on a vertical plane. In the above figure 4 OPQ

is on a hor izontal plane. PQ is the hypotenuse of the

60PQ, which is the base of right angled triangle in

the vertical plane whose hypotenuse is the length of

the inclined rafter. In the same manner we can find

the leng th of the common rafter. The diagonal of the

rectangle whose base is OP and AP as the vertical side

will give the length of these rafters.

6.14. GEOMETlCAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE WIDTH OF A

RAFTER

In general, there are two types of rafters,

namely, stra ight rafter (or common rafter) and incl ined

rafter. The width of the rafter is proportional to the

width of the wallplate (uttara). In the case of common

rafter (Nermancu) the width is taken to be equal to that

of the wallplate. This may be diminished or increased

by 1/8, 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4 or 1/3 of the width of the

wallplate. There are practices of selecting the width

 133

of the rafter as 1~,

1
143 or 2 times of the width of the

wallplate. Its thickness may vary from one angula to

6 angula.

In the case of inclined rafter, the method of

finding the width is explained in Manusyalayacandrika

as given below. [cf Fig.6(n)]

S.-__________________________ ~

Fig.6(n)

Consider a square PQRS with side equal to the

width of the common rafter. PQ is the bhuja, PS is the

koti and OS is a diagonal of the square. Let T be a

 135

= j3a 2

This is the width of the hiprafter and the widths

of others are determined accordingly.

But another version of the Manu~yalayacandrika

states that the width of the hiprafter is the same as

the diagonal of the square.

ie, width of the hiprafter ~ QS

== fi a

Thus the width is determined in two ways.

Evidently this value is greater than the previous one.

************
 APPENDIX

ENGLISH TRANSLATION AND

SANSKRIT TEXT OF MANUSYALAYACANDRIKA

 .
MANUSYALAYACANDRIKA

(English Translation)

Chapter I

In Rajarajamangalam temple, two divine powers in

the forms of Srikrisna and Narasimha glistens eternally

in unison.

May the divine powers glistening enormously in

temples at Trkkandiyur, Tirunava,

Mallivihara, Alathiyur, and Srikeralapuram, shine

unitedly in my mind.

The author prays for the blessings of the Supreme

power.

Ganesa, the refuge of all good people, the

recipient of extreme love of Nilakantha and son of

 MANU~YALAYACANDRIKA

(English Translation)

Chapter I

In Rajarajamangalam temple, two divine powers in

the forms of Srikrisna and Narasimha glistens eternally

in unison.

May the divine powers glistening enormously in

temples at Trkkandiyur, TFprangode, Tirunava,

Mallivihara, Alathiyur, and Srikeralapuram, shine

unitedly in my mind.

The author prays for the blessings of the Supreme

power.

Gane~a, the refuge of all good people, the

recipient of extreme love of Nilakantha and son of

 138

Parvathi, the giver of all wi shes of h is devotees,

respected by all and having abode at the great Srfmangala

temple, shines prosperously.

One who takes refuge only in the padakamala (lotus-

foot) of that Ganesa and is inspired by the immense

blessings of his great teacher (guru) in learning various

subjects, becomes active wi th self-determination for

educating the pupils.

The au thor beg ins to wr i te th is tex t for the use

of the disciples.

I always prostrate before the pad-kamalas (lotus-

foot) of those brahmaoas whose intellect indulgent in

srutis can describe the body of even Parame~wara (Lord

Siva) in imagination.
 139

After saluting the Brahma, the Adipuru~a,

(firstborn man) who is spontaneously ingenious in all

types of architecture this 'Manusyalayacandrika' is

written by me for the use of those of lesser intelligent.

Two Mayamatas, Pray~gamanjeri and two

Bhaskar!yams, Manumatam, Gurudevapadhati, Sr!harlyajanam

and such other famous texts (sastras) prosper.

After seeing the two texts of MarkalJQeya,

Ratnavalisaras of Parasara and Murari, Matas (opinions)

of Kasyapa and Viswakarma, Kumaragama, HarisaIhhita

(Vishnu Samhita) with explanations, Vastuvidya and

various other texts I summarise here briefly (this text

on V~stus~stra) as given in Tantrasamuccaya.

Firstly, one who belongs to BrahmaQa or other

castes and desires to construct a house must adopt a

 140

local brahmat;la (Acarya) of all noble qualities. He

determines the bhGmi suitable to one's caste and then

performs vastupuja (offerings) and such others on this

bhumi. After this the house is to be constructed by very

eminen t artisans (~ilpins) as stipulated in the

v~stusastras.

10

These brahmaQas (~ch~ryas) after considering the

saying in Vedas, Agamas etc, prescribe the rules for

constructing houses and temples. It is the duty of the

craftsmen to mix or join earth, stone etc, in all the

buildings under the advice of these Acharyas.

11

Depending on the nature of the work the artisans

(Bilpins) are classified into four categories, namely,

Sthapati, SCitragrahi, and Vardhaki. These

artisans, who are experts in the ir respect i ve fields are

to be selected properly.

12

One who is an expert in all crafts prescribed in

every sastra, well versed in all the sciences, always

disin terested, free from the vices 1 ike envy, compet i t ion
 141

etc, truthful, just and clean may become the Sthapati.

13

It must be known that Sthapati is the competent

person in constructing the building. Then either his

son who is almost equally competent or one of his

disciples who is able to understand his mind properly

may become the Siltragrahi. The person who reduces the

size of materials to the appropriate size is known as

the TakoiJaka and he must always be happy. One who is

always careful and an expert in the craft of assembling

pieces of timber and other materials is known as

Vardhaki.

14

Without these four types of ~ilpins like Sthapati

etc, the construction of houses and other buildings is

imposs ib1e. Therefore a most intell igent brahmar;ta

(Acharya) must get the house built by them after pleasing

them properly.

15

Misfortune wi 11 occu r to those who are 1 i v ing in

houses not properly constructed (wi thout proper lak~al)a).

 142

So the entire work from beginning to end should be

decided mentally and then proceed doing it.

16

In constructing a house, the testing of bhumi in

several ways, the determination of directions etc, the

choice of auspicious vith i, the formulation of the

measurements of the house, determination of parts of the

house like ankal)a, kuttima etc, and, in a similar way,

the formulation of rules regarding outhouses etc, are

to be done in successive order.

17

An even ground which is bl essed wi th the presence

of cows, human beings, trees bearing flowers, fruits and

milk, slightly inclined to the East, smooth, having

majestic sound, water course flowing to the right, having

large quantity of earth and seeds growing rapidly, having

equal cl ima t i cal cond i t ions ei ther in hot or cold season,

and wi thout shortage of water 1S described as the most

suitable (uttama) for the construction of houses. A

bhumi whose characteristics are opposite to these is

least suitable (adhama) and bhumis which satisfy some

of these characteristcs and not the others are medium

(madhyama)
 143

18

The bhumis which are in circular or semicircular

shape, having 3, 5 or 6 angul ar corners, in the shape

of sula or sGrppaka, like the upper side of fish, or

elephant or tortoise, like the face of a cow, having

depression at the centre, having cavities or hollow

inside containing ash, charcoal, husk of grain, bone,

hair, worm, termite hill etc, having bad smell and which

face unf avou rable direct ions (v id iks) are to be rej ected.

19

The bhumis which are low from East onwards and

high from West onwards are the eight vithis, namely,

G5vu, Vahni, Antaka, BhITta, Vari, Phapabhrth, Matanga

and Dhanya in their order. These bhQmis will provide

prosperity, loss of money, self-destruction, loss of

wealth, poverty, loss of son, wealth, and mangalam

respectively to those who are residing in them.

20

Bhtlmis having depression at the centre will cause

exile and hav ing mounds at the centre will cause

destruction of weal th and happiness. BhGmis which are

 144

slightly low towards Agni (South-East) corner and upto

Vayu (North-West) corner may generally give poverty.

21

In a middle elevated Dlot the first constructed

house will give pros~erity for ten years. The east

elevated as well as South-East elevated plot will give

prosperity for hundred years. The prosperity remains

for thousand years or half of it according as the house

is on a plot wi th Ni~Tti (South-West) corner or western

portion elevated. If the plot is elevated on its Vayu

(North-West) corner/ northern side or IBa (North-East)

corner the prosper i ty remains for 12 years / 8 years or

100 years respect i vely. The resul ts prescr ibed for each

plot (bhumi) in the above verse will be effective only

after the completion of these periods defined in this

verse.

22

Ilafifli and Baniyan trees on the east side of the

house, the country-fig (Atti) and Tamarind tree on South,

provides prosperity. The Pipal tree and Ezhilampala

(saptaparr,taka) on the West side are considered

auspic ious The trees like Naga and Itti on the North
 145

side are cons idered to be fortunate. Jack tree, Arecanut

tree, coconut tree and Mango tree on the four sides of

the house from the eastern side onwards, considered to

the owner of the house to have special prosperity.

23

The Peepul tree which occupies a position

different from its prescribed position will cause

difficulties from fire. The Itti tree situated in the

wrong position brings many sorts of manias. Similarly

the Baniyan tree makes difficulties from enemies, Atti

generates stomach diseases. Trees which are not in their

prescribed positions and those whose heights exceed their

distances from the house are to be cut off even if they

are precious.

24

The presence of trees like Kumizhu, Kuvalam

(crateva reI ig iosa), Katukka (Terminal ia chebula), Goose-

berry, Fistula, Devatara, ~ami (Plaksa), As6ka, Sanda~

wood, Punna (Callophyllium), Vefina (Avicenna), Campakam,

Karinnali (Mimosa catechu) etc, on the rear and other

two sides are auspicious. Similarly, the growth of

Jasmine, betal v ine and such other plants, planta in etc,

 146

on all sides of the house is conside~ed auspicious.

25

Jack tree and such othe~ t~ees having internal

core (antassa~a). Trees like Tamarind, Teak etc, a~e

having internal and external core (sarvasara t~ees).

Palm, coconu t tree, a~ecanu t palm etc, a~e wi th ex ternal

core (bahirssara trees). The d~um-stick stree (Murinfia),

Ezhilampala, Silk-Cotton t~ee, Murikku (E~ithrina Indica)

etc, are coreless t~ees (Nissara trees).

Out of these, the trees of the first type a~e to

be planted in the middle of the space between the house

and its boundary. Trees having internal and external

cores ( Sa rv a sa r a ) are to be cultivated in a region

exterior to the first type and the othe~s are to be

planted outside the region of the second type.

26

T~ees like Kanjiram, Ceru (Marking-nut tree) ,

. Vayyamkata, Naruvar i, Taf'1ni, Uka (tooth brush tree), Neem

tree, Euphorbia (Kallippala), Karamussu and

SwarQQaksheeri, are not at all permissible inside the

plot. The drum-stick tree is not permitted within the

 147

prescribed boundary of the house.

27

It is dangerous to construct houses on the left

and rear sides of the abode of Lord Visnu and on the

right and front sides of Ugramtirthis (violent deities)

like Kali, Narasimha, Siva etc. If the deity situates

in a lower region, then the houses on the right and front

sides are dangerous. It is not considered auspicious

to have the heights of the houses higher than that of

the abode of the deity. Those who are the dependents

(attendants) of the deity may build their houses near

to the deity except on their prohibited sides.

28

Houses in the immediate neighbourhood of farm,

mountain, temple, sea, river, hermitage and stable are

dangerous in many ways. The house hav ing height equal

to or less than the height of temple is more auspicious.

Houses having heights greater than it or having two

storeys are not at all advisable.

 148

29

Bhumis hav ing Kusagrass I Darbha I Karu ka, and Ama,

having equal length and breadth (square) I length

th th and 1/4th
increased by 1/8 , l/6 parts of breadth,

having colours wh i te, red, yellow and black I hav ing the

smell of ghee, blood, rice and alcohol and having tastes

sweetness, ast r ingen t, bi t ter and pungen cy are prescr ibed

for brahmaQas and others in order.

30

The bhumi which is inclined from south to north

and containing an Atti tree on it is auspicious for

brahmins. BhGmi whi ch is incl ined from wes t to east and

with a pipal tree on it is suitable for K~atriya. The

bhumi wi th a slope towards west and wi th a Ban iyan tree

on it is recommended for Vaisya. If the bhumi prescribed

for the Vaisyas contains an Itti tree on it then it is

appropriate for 'Sudra. A bhumi which contains an Itti

tree on it and having slope from north to south is also

suitable for Sudra. If the bhumi is of opposite type

then it is not suitable for any of them.

31
The bhumi which is of mixed character with respect

to the colou r, smell and taste is to be rej ected by all.

 149

When the natu re of the bhumi is not known it is to be

tested at night by using nimittam (omen) in the

prescribed method.

32

Make a piton the bhumi and place an unbaked clay-

pot filled wi th I dhanya ' . Its mou th is closed by another

mud-pot and pour ghee into it. Four wicks in whi te I red I

yellow and black colours representing four var~as

(castes) in order are placed in the pot in such a way

that the white wick is directed towards east and the

other wicks in the remaining directions. The wicks are

lighted in order accompanied with 'mantratantras I. After

a short while, see which of the four wicks is still

gleaming. Then the bhGmi is suitable for the caste

represented by the colour of the wick. If all the wicks

are glowing then the bhurni is suitable for all castes.

33

Make a pit on the bhurni and fill it with water.

Drop flowers of phlomis (thumpappuvu) and such other

flowers into it. The clockwise movement of the flowers

is auspicious where as the anticlockwise movement is

inauspicious. If the flowers remains on the (NW..ES) sides

then it is good and if they remain at the corners then

 150

it is bad. After understand ing the mer i ts and demer i ts

of the bhumi in this way the intelligent sthapati has

to get the bhumi properly levelled.

Chapter 11

The selected bhOmi is to be properly levelled

using the apparatus like avanata or such others or by

water fill ing method by expert craftsmen. Then a un iform

cylindrical strong wooden rod of ~ kol (36 cm) length

is to be constructed with its lower end of diameter 2

angu1a (6 cm) and upper end of 1 angu1a. The tip of the

rod must be in the shape of the bud of a lotus flower.

This rod is named as 'sanku'.

Draw a circle using a rope whose length is double

that of the 'sanku'. After determining the centre of

the circle accurately, fix the sanku firmly at that

point.
 151

In the morn ing , when the image of the tip of the

~anku just touches the circle on the west, one (sthapati)

who is disinterested must put a mark on the circumference

of the circle. Similarly, put a mark on the opposite

side (East side) in the afternoon. Put another mark on

the West side al so the nex t morn ing . Di v ide the arc

length between the two marks into three equal parts.

Then t he mark wh i c h is nearer to the first day's mark

will be the accurate mark on west side.

The line (sutra) through these two points which

are determined on two consecutive days as explained

above, will generate the East and West directions very

accura tel y

The line (sutra) which is well defined in the

middl e of the bhGmi (k 9 ~t r a ) as ex p I ain ed above is call ed

the Brahma sGtra. Construct two intersecting circles

in the middle of this line (sutra). Determine a line

through the middle of the fish-line (intersected circles

 152

form curve in the form of a fish} which is detained

crosswise due to the intersection of those circles. This

line in the South-North direction is called the Yam a

sutra.

After determin ing the Brahma sutra and Yama su tra,

mark a point on each of the four branches of the two

intersecting sutras at a fixed distance from their point

of intersection and with these points as centres draw

four equal circles intersecting in pairs. Here, in

corners, four f ish shaped lines are formed by the

intersections of pairs of circles. Draw two lines

passing through the middle of the f ish shaped 1 ines in

pairs having their terminal ends at the If:la {North-East}

and Agni (South-East) corners and a square is drawn

accordingly.

The square bhumi (square maQQala) is then div ided

into four quadrants (kha09as) by the two 1 ines (sG t ras)

hav ing thei r terminal ends at the East and North sides.

Isa khaI1Qa or Devakhal]qa may be prescribed for

 153

construct ing houses for BrahmalJa and others. If the area

of the bhumi is too large then each quadrant may further

be divided into 4 parts (sub khal)gas). Then the Nirrti

part in the lsa khal)ga and Isa part in Nirrti khal]9a are

suitable for the construction of houses.

When the bhflmi is divided into four kharyc;1as, the

Isa kha~~a (North-East) is known as the Manu~yakharyqa

which prov ides prosper i ty and .

Nirrti (South-West) khal)9 a

is named as the Devakhal)qa which gives favourable results

to the residents of the house. These two ..

khandas are

auspicious for the construction of houses for man.

(South-East khal)9a) is named Yama

khal)ga. This provides death (destruction) to the family

and therefore is to be avoided by all castes. The Vayu

khal)c;1a (North-West khanda) is known as Asura khal)c;1a wh i ch

is not auspicious for the construction of houses. But

in some places, it is accepted for the construction of

houses for Vaisyas.

 154

10

After delet ing the el onga t ions of the bhGm i

prescribed for K~atriyas and others its middle portion

is made into a square. The two diagonals having initial

points at Nirrti and Vayu corners and terminal points

at Isa and Agni corners respectively are known as rajjus.

11

The intersections (or coincidence) of the ends

of Brahma sutra, Yama sutra and Rajjus with the central

axes of house, well, tank etc, will cause difficulties,

except in the case of Catu sScH a wi thou t el onga ti on

(Mukhayama) to the ankaQa.

(The intersection or coincidence is known as vedha)

12

The results of V~dha (intersections of axes as

in the above verse) from east direction onwards are

separation from husband, leprosy, difficulties from

enemies, loss of son, loss of wealth, rheumatic

complaints, loss of family, and loss of grain

(agricultural products) respectively.

 155

13

If the 11:3 a khanda or any other khaI')9 a of the

.
ksetra (bhumi) is divided into 9 x 9 padas (cells), then

it is known that the widths of the Sutras and Rajjus are

given by 1/12 of a pada. Similarly, when it is divided

into 10 x 10 padas, 1/8 of a pada will be the width of

the sutras and rajjus. If the khanda is divided into

8 x 8 parts then their widths are given by 1/16 of a

pada.

14

The mutual intersections (v~dha ) between the

central axes of houses, ankaQa (courtyard), well, tank,

door etc, and the vedhams between the rajjus and the

diagonals of the corner houses are to be avoided.

15

To determine the width of the vlthi (envelopes)

there are several types of da~9us, depending on the area

of the bhumi. For this, the height of the owner of the

house is taken as I tiUam' . Three types of daQ9us are

defined by taking its length 10 talarn, 9 talam or 8

tal am. If the bhumi is of sufficiently large size then

anyone of these three da09us is taken as the width of

the vlthi.
 156

16

By dividing in t 0 18 pu tas (calyxes), there wi 11

be nine expanding envelopes (av.rtti) of which from the

outermost to the innermost are the vithis of Pisaca,

Deva, Kub~ra, Yama, Naga, Jala, Agni, Vinayaka and Brahma

respect i vely. Of these, the v i this of P i~aca, Agn i, Naga

and Yama are considered to be inauspicious for the

construction of houses on the four sides.

17

It is best (uttama) to have the width of the vithi

as l~ times the length of the ankal)a (courtyard) which

has already assumed in building the house. It is

madhyama (intermediate) when it is equal to the length

and it is adhama (worst) when it is less than the length

of the ankaQa. In small plots the width of the vithi

may be taken as hal f of the length of the ankal)a. In

such case the houses on the east and north sides will

have to include also the J al a vi th i wh ich is a spec i al

case of determining the width of the vithi.

18

In some places, it is seen that, catussala

(courtyard houses) is constructed in a very small plot

 157

with a prescribed shift (gamana) of its centre from the

point of intersec t ion of the Brahma sut ra and Yama sutra.

Since the vlth is are too small, the mer its and demer i ts

due to them will be negligible. Hence the division of

the bhumi into khal)c;1as 1 ike Isa, Agni etc, and v ith is

like Pi~aca, Deva etc, are considered unnecessary.

19

The width of the v rth i is determ in ed by l~ times

the length of the ankana . and 18 times the width of the

vithi will be the width of the bhGmi (plot). Thus from

the centre (anka~a) the measure of the bhumi may be

determined. I f the house is si tua ted in a bhumi whose

boundary is not known it may be calculated from the

length of the anka~a of the house. After determining

the boundary of the house, the boundary wall may be

constructed (appropriately to the status of the owner).

20

After combining the vlthis of Brahma and Gan~sa

together in Isa or Nirrti kha~9a, that region (Vastu

pada) is d i v ided into 81 padas or 64 padas or 100 padas

as ment ioned earl ier. Here, the parts (organs), marmmas

(nodal points), and deities of the Vastu are to be

determined accordingly.
 158

21

In 81 pada system there are two sets of Nadis

,
(lines) containing 10 Na~is each with their terminal

points on the east side and north side respectively.

Similarly, there are two sets of rajjus each set having

5 raj jus pass ing through 9 padas, 6 padas and 3 padas

and having their terminal ends directed to the Agni

corner and I~a corner respectively. There are hundred

murmmas formed by the intersections of 8, 6, 5, 4 and

3 sutras occuring at the corners of the cells and they

have to be avoided in the construction of walls, pillars

and such others.

22

The difficulties due to the placement of walls,

pillars etc, at the marmmas, may be avoided by shift ing

their positions towards east or north by 1/24 of pada

from the marmmas. Anyhow, if the dif f icu 1 ties due to

marmmas occur, then the images of the heads of buffalo,

lion, elephant, tortoise and pig in gold must be

installed properly by a priest for the relief from the

difficulties.
 160

26

The central position is occupied by the Brahma.

Outside the cells, there are Sarvaskanda in the east,

Aryamav in the south, Jrmbaka in the west and Pi 1 ipi ncaka

in the north of the vastu. Further, deities like caraki,

Vidarya, PG tan i ka and Paparak1}as i are pos it ioned at the

corners from Isa corner onwards.

27

There 1 i ved a demon (asuran) who was mos t arrogant

and an enemy to Devas. He conquered the whole world by

his wonderful courage and strength. In a battle with

navas he become weak and fell down to earth. Even then

he survived on the earth and troubled it by whirling

several times. So the human beings were unhappy and in

the same way the Sages and Devas became unhappy.

28

When the vastupuru~a flourished everywhere

especially in city, town, vastu, k.!?etrakhar;l9a and ankaoa

1 ike the sky in small and large pots, with his back on

earth, legs at the Nirrti corner and head at Isa corner,

the devas suddenly seated on his body permanently.

 161

29

Isa resides on his head, Parjanya and Diti on

eyes, Apa on face, s im i 1 arly, ~pavalsa on neck, Jayanta

on right ear, Aditi resides on his left ear, Indra

situates on his left shoulder and Arggata resides on his

right shoulder.

30

Sun, Santhya and such others resides on his left

arm and Moon, Bhallata and others dwells on the right

arm. Savithav and Savitri occupies the left prako~ta

and Siva and Sivajith on the right prako~ta.

31

Mahidhara and Arya reside on his breast, Vivaswan

and Mi tra on stomach, Brahma on the navel, Indra on his

phallus (Mandrum) , Indrajit on v~9aQa (testicles) and

others reside upon his legs.

32

If the dei ties res id ing on the Vas tu are properly

propitiated then they will provide favourable results.

 162

Otherwise, they will produce bad results. So offerings

(VastupGja) are to be performed for propitiating the

deities on the Vastupurusamandala. . ..

Chapter III

The thickness of 8 gingelly seeds contained in

its shell is called a 'yavodaram'. Eight 'yavodaram'

constitutes a 'matrangulam'. v ita s t i is de fin ed by 12

angulam. Twice the vitasti is named a kara (hasta),

Ki~ku, Aratni, Bhuja, Doh, Mu~ti etc. There are

different types of measurement (kol) based on the varying

length of an angula with the size of seeds and

increasing the length of hasta by 1 angulam each.

The measurements having 25 matrangulam is named

'Prajapathyaka' which is defined for measuring Vimana

and in some places it is also used for measuring temples.

The hasta of length 26 angulam is called 'dhanurmu~tikam'

and it is suitable for measuring for all houses and

temples (for all buildings).

 163

The intellectuals (~ilpins) define the hasta of

27 angularn as Dhanurgraha. It is used for measuring

villages, markets, garden etc, and also for measuring

tank, lake etc. It is used for measur ing all types of

houses wh i ch is ev iden t from its name. Dhanurmust

, i is

also acceptabl e for measur ing the markets, garden, tan k ,

lake etc.

The hasta consisting of 28 angulam is called

. Pracyam. The hasta cons t i tu ted by 29 angu 1 am is kn own

Vaideham. The measure formed by 30 angulam is called

Vaipulyam. Adding one angulam to this will get the hasta

named Prak i rnam. In this way there are eight types of

hastas (kol 5)

Dhanurgraha and Praklr~am are used for measuring

Brahmin's houses and Vaipulya and Dhanurmu~ti are

employed for measuring King's houses, palaces etc.

 164

Prajapatya and Vaideha are used for measuring

houses and all other equi9ments of Vaisyas and Pracya

and ki~ku are prescribed for ~udras. In particular,

kisku is suitable for all.

It is not auspicious to kings and others to accept

the measures (hastas) which are prescr ibed for the upper

castes and not for themselves. All the measures which

are prescribed for lower castes are acceptable to

Vaisyas, Ksatriyas and Brahmins in order.

All the madhyama and adhama hastas which are

formed due to the differences in the measure of angulas

are acceptabl e in the case of templ es accord i ng to th e

situations.

The matrangulam which is compr ised of 8 yavas is

said to be the best (Ut tama) and wh i ch are compr i sed of

7 and 6 yava are considered to be in termed i ate (madhyama)

and worst (adhama) respectively.

 165

10

Angulams of uttama, madhyama and adhama types

occur according to the measures of widths of 8, 7 and

6 sali(red-paddy or Navara) grains respectively. The

above three types may also be obtained from the lengths

of 4, 3~ and 3 sali grain respectively.

11

There will be 9 types of hastas of uttama,

madhyama etc, nature depending on the nine distinct types

of angulams. These 9 types of hastas together wi th the

8 types of hastas as given in the above verse will form

72 types of hastas.

12

The kara (hasta) comprising of 24 matrangulam

which is defined earlier is auspicious for all castes

and situations. Other hastas are acceptable to all

depending on their respective castes and types of hastas

prescribed for them for different situations.

13

The measurements of house and others are expressed

in hastas (karas) itself and in some cases they are

 166

defined in terms matr~ngulas. When it is impossible to

measure the length of the perimeter and gati (change or
shift) in terms of hasta and angula, it may also be
expressed in terms yavas. In houses and such other

buildings of human beings, the gatis (changes or shifts)

and boundaries of outhouses (upalayas), stable etc, are

measured in terms of I daQqu I of 4 hastas. This unit of

measurement is also known as 'ya~ti'. Eight times a

daQ9u will be a rajju.

14

Statue (idol) or such others are to be measured

using tlHam (a proportionate measure), yavam etc. Yavam

is to be used for measuring ornaments. Vitasti is the

unit of measure for measuring silk, blanket, cloths etc.

Arms such as sword, arrows etc, are measured us ing the

measu re (w idth) of two r ing-f ingers or by the width of

one ring-finger of their owner. The pots for sacrificial

(yaga) purposes are to be measured using the measure the

mu~ti of the master of the sacrifice (y~gakartta). Other

items are to be measured using the measure of pada

( foot) .

15

There are various types of v illages depending on

 167

the number of houses of brahmins in a local i ty. These

villages are aga in class if i ed into ut tama, madhyama and

adhama types depending on their areas.

16

A reg i on of area of one yoj ana square is call ed

an uttama village. A village is said to be madhyama if

its area is half yojana square and it is said to be

almost adhama when the area is a quarter of yojana

square.

17

For towns (nagaram) there must be an area of

thousand to two thousand da~9us. Similarly, the region

having a sea shore with shipping facilities is called

a city (pattana).

18

A reg ion which is famous due to the presence of

a King's palace and merchants and such others is named

a puram (town). A reg ion hav ing palaces of kings and

residences for all sorts .

(varnas) of people is famous

by the name nagara (city).

 168

19

A brahmin' s family together wi th the subord inates

or assistants and their families living under the same

brahma~a (kara~avar) is called a village (grama).

20

Depending on the number of brahma~a houses in a

village and their extensions, the villages may be

classified into uttama, madhyama and adhama categories.

21 & 22

In temples, the external width of the prasada

measured along the beam is called the perfect (best)

dal)~u (uttama dar;tQu). Similarly, the measure along the

Jagati is the madhyama (intermediate) daQ~u and along

the padu ka is known as adhama (worst) dal,l9u. In temple,

outside the srikov i 1 (prasada) , five boundar ies are to

be determined using this daQ9u.

23

Ketuyoni is defined for all objects which are used

for transportation since it is auspicious in these

objects. Gajayoni is prescribed for cot or such other

 169

equipments and for seat (pr~ham), stool etc, simhayOni

is recommended. In the case of box and such others and

in defining well, tank, lake, nest etc, the v!,~ayani and

dhwajayani are acceptable. Ketuyoni is prescribed for

all types of foundations such as the foundation of pipal

tree etc.

24

To determine the yonis of measur ing jar and such

other pots, tank, well etc, ankaQa, garbhagraha etc,

interior perimeters are considered. In the case of

Turyasra s~la (Madhyapraruda sala) the perimeter is

measured along the central 1 i ne of the width of the beam.

In all other cases yen is are det ermined wi th respect to

the exterior perimeter. The yoni defined using the

interior perimeter is sometimes called antary6ni.

25

Multiply the perimeter which is the sum of the

desired lengths and breadths by 3 and then divide it by

8. The remainder will represent the corresponding yoni.

If the product is divided by 14, the remainder will be

vyaya (expend i ture) Then mul t iply the per imeter by 8

and divide it by 12, the remainder is the aya(income).

 170

If it is div ided by 27, the remainder wi 11 be the sta r

(nak-t'la tra) and the quot ient is call ed the age (vayassu).

The rema inder will represent the ti t h i (pakkam) when the

product is div ided by 30. 1 f t he prod u c t is d i vi d ed by

7, the remainder will be the day of the week. When the

perimeter is multiplied by 9 and divide it by 10, the

remainder will represent an alternate vyaya.

26

The eight yonis dhwaja, dhuma, simha, kukkura,

vf~a, khara, gaja and vayasa occur in eight directions

from east onwards in order. Of these, the odds will

provide prosperity and evens will cause misfortune.

27

Ketu (dhwaja) y5ni provides all favourite wishes

to the owner of the vastu. It has satvika quality,

represents the guru of devas (Jupitar) and is a brahmin.

Even though it is defined for the east side, it is

acceptable to all objects and especially in all

directions (it appears that in the last line it should

be 'abhihita' and not 'avihita ' ).

 171

28

Sirilha yoni situates on the south side and

represents kuja. It has tamasa quality and is ksatriya

and provides prosperity. Gaja y~ni defines on north

side, represents Budha, having rajass quality and is a

vaisya. It provides fortunes.

Vf"~a yan i with tamo qual i ty situates on the wes t

side, represents Sani and is a sudra. It gives

prosperity 1n agricultural production. Then the yan is

defined at the corners are despicable (desertable).

29

Dhuma yoni provides anxiety, quarrel will be the

reaul t of Kukkura yoni. Khara yoni will generate

fickleness and K~ka y5ni will result in no prodigy.

Therefore, the corner yonis are to be avoided for the

construction of houses.

30

Ketu y~ni is prescribed for the east direction

and it is suitable for houses on any side. Sifuha yon i

is defined for houses on the south side and Ketu yoni

is also suitable for this side. Gaja yoni is suitable

for north siBa (house) and Ketu and Sifnha yon is are also
 172

auspicious on this side. VF~a yoni will be on the west

side and Ketu, Simha, and Gaj a yon is are also su i tabl e

on this side. For corner houses, the yonis which are

prescribed for their related side-houses are to be

accepted.

31

It is generally admitted that y5ni is the vital

air (prava) of all houses. Theref ore, su i table yon is

which are prescribed for each direction must be accepted

accordingly. In all houses 'the death' (due to the

selection of inauspicious yonis) must be avoided. If

the death (unfavourate yoni) is accepted then it will

cause several misfortunes.

32

In all cases the ayam (income) must be greater

than the vyayam (expenditure). Otherwise misfortune will

be the resul t. The merits and demerits of the star

(nak{3atra), yoga etc, are to be learned from astrology

and such others accordingly.

33

There are five stages of age (vayassu), namely,

 173

bUya, kaumara, you t h, oldage and death. Out of these,

the last one is not auspicious in the case of houses.

Others are auspicious for the construction of houses.

34

Yoni, aya, age, naks;atra (star), tithi, ra~i, and

the castes, such as brahmaJ;,la and like others, are defined

in two ways. Vyaya is def in ed in 4 ways and the days

of week and dhruva etc, are explained in 3 ways. Out

of these, the first set of definitions of yoni etc, are

accepted by all and the above definitions are to be

accepted only if necessity arises.

35

Gen erall y, the prescr i bed yoni, aya etc, for each

are to be obtained from the perimf'ter. It will be very

prosperous to have the same yi;)ni etc, with respect to

the length, breadth, heights of pillar, padamana,

adhifrltana, and area of the house and also by the

alternate methods explained earlier.

36

In all houses, the measurements of length,

breadth, padam~na, pillar, adhi~tana, garbhagraha, door,

 174

statue etc, beams like arudam and all different parts

of the two-storey building are to be determined with

respect to the perimeter of the main beam. If these are

determined by parts (divisions) as given in the alternate

method then they are to be adjusted to get the nearest

appropriate yonis.

37

The product of the 1 ength and breadth is known

as area. After determining the appropriate length and

breadth in order to get the des ired yan i, the vyaya, aya

etc, are to be determ in ed as in the case of per imeter.

This is also an accurate method.

38

It is mentioned earlier that the usual vyaya 1S

obtained by dividing the perimeter multiplied by 3 by

14. Multiply the perimeter by 9 and divide it by 10 or

8. Then the remainders will be the vyayas. When the

nak~atra, determined by the prescr i bed rule, is d i v ided

by 8, the remainder will be the vyaya. Thus there are

4 types of vyayas. In all these cases, the vyaya must

be less than the aya. Otherwise it will cause disaster

to son, wealth etc.

 175

39

Add one-third of the perimeter to itself.

Mul tip1y it by 2 and div ide by 8. Then the remainder

is the aya. Multiply the perimeter by 27 and divide it

by 20 I the rema inder is the age. The balya, kaumara etc,

are to be known by the quotient in order. The remainder

will represent the number of years passed over by the

respective age. Of these, the youth is the best age.

40

Di v ide the per imeter i tsel f or nine times of it

by 30. Then there remains the t i thi of the two pa~~as

(purvapara pak~as) as before. Multiply the perimeter

by 3 or 8 and divide it by 4, then the remainder will

represent the castes of brahmaQa, k~atriya and others

in order. When the perimeter is multiplies by 4 or 8

and divided by 12, the remainder will be the r~/si (month)

corresponding to that perimeter.

41

Di v ide the per imeter itself or 3 times of it by

7. The remainder is the day of the week (vara).

Mul t ip1y the per imet er by 2 or 3 and then divide it by

16. The remainders will represent the dhruva and such

others.
 176

42 & 43

Add the number corresponding to the vyaya to the

area and divide it by 16. The remainders will represent

the dhruva, dhanya, jaya, vinasa, khara, kanta,

mamaprasada, sumukhatva, vaimukhyam, asaumyatva,

virodham, vittOlbhava, k~ayam, ctkranda, vJ;dhi, jaya

respectively. The result of each is implied in its name.

Chapter IV

Determine the appropriate length and anka~a of

the house in such a way that sui table yoni, aya, nak 9 atra

(star), age etc, are obtained from their respective

perimeters in all methods as explained earlier. Then

an expert person (architect) have to determine the leng th

and width of the house according to the rule of

'I~tadirgha ' (pref erred leng th) or gUr;tamBa (mu 1 t ipl es

of part) so that the intermediary spaces (antarala or

alinda} become small.

2 & 3

The per imeter of every house is obta ined from its

preferred length. The corresponding width is got from

 177

this perimeter. Padamanam (height of the house from the

level of paduka to the level of wallplate) is obtained

from the width and from the padamana, the height of the

foundation is determined. The height of the pillar is

the difference between the padamana and the height of

the foundation. From the height of the pillar, the width

of the beam (wallplate) is obta ined. Based on the width

of the each beam, the width of rafters, brackets (vamata)

etc, are to be determined. Similarly, the thickness of

beams, brackets etc, are to be obtained from their

respective widths.

The preferred length of 6 hasta or above is

multiplied by 8 and the corresponding yoni number is

added to this number. Then one-third of this will be

the requ i red per imeter of the house. If the process is

reversed, the length is obtained from the perimeter. When

the length is subtracted from the semiperimeter, the

width of the house is obtained.

Multiply the preferred length 1n hasta (kol) by

2 and add one-third of this to itself; Adding one-third

 178

of the prescribed yani number to the above sum will

provide the perimeter of the house.

In a square house, 1/4th perimeter will be the

length which is equal to the width of the house. If the

semiper imeter is divided into 9 parts, then four parts

will be the width and the rema in ing parts will form the

leng th of the house. Thi s is the I padadhikam I . When

the semiperimeter is divided into 10 parts, four parts

will form the width and the remain ing 6 parts form the

length. This is known as 'arddhadhikam' . These three

types of divisions are prescribed for temples.

In houses (manu9yalayas) I the padadhikam d i v is ion

is accepted and in some cases, samatalam is also adopted

by some. Arddh~dh ikam is not recommended here (in

houses) . According to sages all p'ad5nam divisions will

provide calamities to all and hence they are not

acceptable at any cost.

 179

If the semiper imeter is d i v ided in t 0 12, 13, 14

parts or into 16, 17, 18 parts or into 20, 21, 22 parts

or into 24, 25, 26 parts or into 28,29, 30 parts or into

32 parts then the width is determined by 4 parts and the

remain ing parts form the length of the house. Thus the

sages def in es width in gunamsamethod from 8, 9, 10

div is ions onwards except the 4th divisions of the

samatatam.

When the semiperimeter is divided into 11 parts,

the width may be determined by 3 parts and the length

by 8 parts. Width, much larger than ~ of length is

considered inauspicious by the sages 1 ike Gargga, Dak~a

etc.

10

In the plan of a house (sala) there will be 4

detached side houses (Diksalas) and their respective 4

corner houses (Vidiksalas). Thus there are 8 houses

prescribed by sages for human beings. Depend ing on the

specialities in direction, measurement, name etc, of

 180

beams in houses, there will be 9 types of Salas (houses).

The measurements of the parts of the storeys of the

houses are to be def ined in accordance wi th the

measurements of the respective s~las (houses).

11

Salas are classified into two groups bhinna and

abhinna according to their detached or nondetached

nature. Sala w i thou t corner houses and each s idehouse

is compl ete in all respects of its parts in the bhinna

sala. A sala whose perimeter is of ketu yoni and in

which the corner houses are differentiated by the

joinings of the exterior and interior beams is called

an abhinna sala.

12

A s~la having four side-houses without common

portions and each having the prescribed characteristics

of gamana, width, yoni etc, upto the patramana and having

prescribed paduka all around, without corner houses is

known as bh inna sala. These salas are suitable to all

especially suitable to brahmanas since the corner-houses

are not def ined in them. Here the perimeter of the

ankana must be of k~tu y5ni and this defines the

characteristics of visuddhabhinna sala.

 181

13

The sal as on the southern and western sides are

relatives. Similarly the eastern and northern sal as are

relatives. So they may be combined together by adjoining

the corner-house in between them. The other two corners

should not be joined. This portion may be used as a

passway for wommen after delivery, sudras etc.

14

By adj oin ing one, two or three corner-houses to

the side-houses, the sala becomes SI i.;;1;a bhinna. Even

though it is prescribed for brahmaI')a, it is suitable to

all castes because of its bhinna and mi~sra nature

(detached and attached).

15

The rear ends of the beams of the side-houses are

to be joined with ends of the beams of ther corner houses

just like the arrangements of petals in the flower of

Nantyarva1;t a , arranged in the anticlockwise direction

in order. Here the perimeter of the ankanattara

(per imeter along the inner beams) must be of ketu yOn i.

It will be auspicious if the perimeter of the paryanta

 182

(outer beams) too is of ketu yon i . This sala is known

as Sam~li~~a bhinna sala.

16

It is stated that, in all salas, the yoni of the

corner-houses must be the same as that of the

corresponding side-house. It is known that the corner-

houses are janyas (products) and the correspond ing s ide-

houses are janakas (producer). Therefore in human

houses, Ketu yoni for I~a corner, Simha y~ni for Agni

corner, Vr~a yoni for Nirrti corner and Gaja yani for

Vayu corner are to be obtained accordingly.

17

All the beams of the s~la are determined properly

as in the case of samsli~~a bhinna sala. Then the

per imeters of the corner-houses are so determined to get

the same y6ni as that of their related side-houses. The

joints of the beams of the side-houses and corner-houses

must be made in the left antaralas (intermediary spaces)

of the s ide-hou ses, sI ightly sh i fted from the middl e of

the main door. This is the .

astasala which is called

SI i~tasala.
 183

18

When t he ends of the beams of the side-house and

corner-house are placed very close wi thout joining them

firmly, the sala wi 11 be of bh inna nature. Thus four

types of bhinna salas are told in this way.

19

If the lengths of the beams are not sufficient

for the length and width of the sala then they may be

increased upto to the ends of the corner-houses by

join ing the beams according to the rules of joints

prescribed for each sala. The joints of the beams at

the 4 corners are done in such a way tha t the ex ternal

beams on the east and west sides form the adharam and

the other two on south and north sides become the

adheyam.

20

In misrabhinna sala, the perimeters of the

paryanta and ankaI)a are assumed to be of k~tu yoni and

the corner-houses are wi thou t inter ior beams. The beams

of ankal')a are joint at the corners according to the same

norms which are defined for the paryanta (external

 184

beams) All the 4 side-houses must be with their

respective characteristics of y~ni, gati etc. This sala

is a catussala which is the misrabhinna sala.

21

Since the beams of all the houses are

inter-connected at the corners I th is sala wi 11 have the

mixed characteristics. Since the corner-houses are not

there and the side-houses satisfy their respective

characteristics such as yon i I gati etc, this sala has

the qualities of bhinna sala.

22

The perimeter of the paryanta must be of ketu

yoni. The perimeters of the external and internal

patramanas I the per imeter of the ankal)a, exterior

per imeters of the side-houses and the inter ior per imeters

of the corner-houses must be of ketu yoni. In this

sammisra bh inna sal a, the width of the beam (u t tara) is

to be determined using ingenuity.

23

The perimeter of the ankal)a is to be subtracted

from the desired perimeter of the paryanta. From the

 185

remainder subtract 8 times of the length of the interior

side of a rectangular corner-house. Then the width of

the beam is to be determined by 1/16 of its remainder.

The external and internal beams are to be ex tended upto

the paryanta and they are to be joined on four sides.

24

As in the case of sammi~ra bhinna sala, the

internal patramana of the sala must be of k~tu yOni.

Similarly, the external patramana and the inner perimeter

of the corner-house also must be of ketu y5n i. The side-

houses may occur with their respective yoni and gati.

This s~na is recommended for Kings (Royal famil ies) and

is called Misraka Cattussala. Since the side-houses are

having their respective YOnis, they are suitable for all

classes. But these s~las are not so perfect for

Brahman~s

25

The ankal)a of a sala is def ined by equal leng th

and width (square). The inner and ou ter per imeters of

beams and patram3nas (padukas) must be of k~tu ybni.

The perimeters of openings in the middle of these houses,

 186

without gati (shift), also must be of ketu yoni. This

sAla prescribed for Kings, is called Caturassala.

26

If in a ca tussala, the per imeters of all hou ses

are measured along the central line of the beams then

it is called a Maddhyapraru9a sala.

27

If we propose to construct only a single house

then it must be the south house. If there are two houses

then they must be t he sou th and wes t houses. When three

houses are to be constructed I the north house is to be

adjoined to the above two houses. If four houses are

needed the above three houses together with the east

house is . to be constructed. In some cases, west house

is accepted instead of south house for a single house.

In the construction of sala having more than one house,

the order of construction must be as given above.

28

If there are three houses in a sala wi thout the

east house then it is called I Suk~etram I which prov ides

 187

prosperi ty to the owner of the house. The sala without

the south house is called 'Culli' and this causes

destruct ion of weal th. The sala comprising of 3 houses

without the west house is named 'Dhvam!3am I which causes

destruction of son and difficulties from enemy. If there

are three houses excluding the north house, it is called

'Hirannyan~bhi'. This will always provide wealth.

29

When the two houses are constructed without the

east and west houses, it is called 'Kaca ' . This will

prov ide quarrel and fear. If the other two, namely, the

east and west houses are constructed without the south

and north houses then it is called 'Siddharthakam'. This

will generate weal th and fortune. It is told that if

two houses are del eted, in ord er, from east side onwards

then they will provide death, fear, quarrel, and wealth

respectively.

Chapter V
1

The region selected for the construction of house

is to be raised to a height of 8, 12 or 16 angulas with

earth, stone etc, in order to avoid the d i ff icu 1 ties due

to the dip at the cen t ral cou rtyard for water to ooz e
 188

out from the inner and outer ankaoas (yards).

In all buildings an upapr~ha of width one or two

hastas is to be constructed below the adhi~tana for

strength, beauty and height of the building. A

Kuzhi yankaJ;lam (cen t ral courtyard) of KIHhu yon i or Vrsa

yOni with South-North elongation is to be constructed

inside the house. Then a water-let is arranged in the

lsa-corner with its opening towards the north or east

direction.

The height of the upapitha in a house for man may

be equal to that of the height of the adhi~~ana or one

part less than this when it is divided into 6, 7, 8, 9

or 10 parts as requ ired. The paduka, jagat i etc, are

to be constructed by dividing their respective heights

accord ing ly.

A square is determined in the middle of the

KuzhiyankaQam (central courtyard) by deleting equal

 189

lengths (which is equal to half of the difference between

length and width of the ankat;la) at the south and north

ends of the ankat;la. Then the square is div ided into 64

cells (padas). The Mullathara (the place for growing

jasmine) may be constructed at the southern side in the

Apa pada or at the northern side in the Apavalsa pada

in the middle envelope of cells.

Mulla thara may be in the shape of square, octagon,

sixteen-gon or circle and must be of ketu yon i. It may

be constructed with upapi tham and such other parts, with

decorations of Kumuda, pattam etc, on it. Its height

may be determined as the height of the adhistana of the

house or one part less than when it is divided into 6

to 11 parts as required. Thus the Mullathara is defined

without its vedha (intersection or coincidence) wi th the

rajju (diagonal).

The lCherippu 1 (upanaham) of the adhi~~:ma is to

t

be done strongly upto the level of upapItha. Paduka is

to be constructed above the upapitha on all sides of

 190

adhistana. All other parts on adhist~na are to be

constructed accordingly upto the level of patramana as

prescribed earlier.

The onward projection of the adhi~tana from the

foot of the perpendicular from the outer-edge of the beam

(uttaram) is def ined as the Pat ramana. The outward

projection may be taken as 8 angulas or two times or 3

times of it as required. As a special case the

projection on south side and north side may be taken as

6 angulas and an outward projection of 12 angulas on the

west side is acceptable in some cases.

In houses the inner and outer patramanas may be

of the same or different widths. They are determined

in such a way that they satisfy their respective yonis.

In temples the patramanas of the dipamala (vilakkumadam)

in antahara and the g6pura (entrance) are determined in

the same manner.

 191

According to scholars, the region outside the

padukas of the four houses (central courtyard) is called

'prankar;ta I This have elongation in South-North

direct ion and in the form of a rectang 1 e. The length

may be larger than the width by 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 12 or 16

angulas or this may be greater than the width by I, 2,

or 3 hastas. Otherwise, the length may be determined

by the gunam/sa method. In any case, the perimeter may

be of the Ketu yoni.

10

If the central lines of the ankaQa (courtyard)

and the four side-houses (diksalas) intersect then the

residents will suffer from several calamities to their

children. Therefore the centres of the houses are to

be shifted in the clockwise direction. These shifts from

the east-house onwards are 3, 9, 7, and 5 angulas

respect i vely so that they prov ide the yon i corresponding

to each side. If the sh i fts are to be small, the gamanas

(shifts) may be done using yavas instead of angulas.

 192

11

When 8, 16, or 24 angulas are added to the

respective angulas of shifts of four-side houses, their

respect i ve yon is wi 11 be the same. Therefore, in houses

where the intermediary spaces (antar~las) are small, the

increased shifts are to be accepted.

12

To distinguish between the side-houses and the

corner-houses there will be eight antar~las. If the

antariUa is too large, the resu 1 t wi 11 be loss of weal th.

If it is too small, illness wi 11 be the resul t. When

the walls coincide, there will be no space between them

and the result will be death. Therefore it is not

auspicious to have antarCilas greater than 1/6 the length

of the house or less than it by more than 2 or 3 angulas.

13

The inner width between the respective beams and

cerippu is known as the p~dam~na. In small houses it

is seemed to be 3~ hastas. According to great acaryas

the padamana is to be equal to the width of the house

or 1 ~ t i me s 0 fit . It may also be determined by add ing

or subtracting one part of width to or from it when it
 193

is divided into 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 equal parts.

14

When this padamana is divided into 3, 4, 5, 6,

7, 8, 9 or 10 equal parts, the measure of one part wi 11

be the height of the addhistana... I fit is d i vi d ed in t 0

21 parts, the measure of 6 parts will be the height of

the adh i~ ~ana. Further, when it is divided into 18, 24

or 7 parts, the measure of 5, 7, or 2 parts respectively

will be the height of the adhi~tana. Similarly, when

it is divided into 15 or 14 parts, the measure of 4 parts

is the height of the adhi~~ana.

15

As explained above, the heights of the adhi&1;ana

are def i ned in 14 ways. By subtracting one part each

from their respective heights when they are divided into

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or 11 parts, the height of the adhi~tana

will occur in 84 ways.

16

When the chosen height of the adhi~~ana is divided

into 9 parts, the height of the paduka and jagati are

 194

determined by 3 parts and 6 parts respectively. This

may also be done by taking the measures as paduka by 2

parts and jagati by 7 parts in order. Thus there are

two types of mancakas (adhi~~ana) without pati and gala.

The proj ecti on of the padu ka from the edge of j agat i may

be determined as 3/4, 1/2 or 1/3 of the height of the

paduka or it may be defined by 3 parts when the height

is divided into 5 parts.

17

When the desired height of the adhi.!?tana is

d i v ided in to 6 part s, the heigh ts of the paduka, j aga t i ,

gala and pa t i are to be determ ined on the mancaka by 1

part, 3 parts, 1 part and 1 part respectively.

18

When the height of the adhi.!?~ana is divided into

5 parts, the he igh t of the paduka is determined by 1

part. The heights of jagati, gala and prati are

determined by 2 parts, 1 part and 1 part respectively.

Mancaka may be constructed also by this method.

 195

19

When the height of the adhistana .. is divided into

14 parts, the paduka is to be constructed by 2 parts.

The heights of jagati, the lower vajana, an ornamentation

of the gala, gala, upper vajana galamancaka with vajana

and is very prosperous.

20

Thus the gal amancaka are def ined in 3 ways. The

shift of the pati will be equal to that of jagati. In

these galamancakas the inward shift of gala will be ~

of the height of the gala.

21

In this way the adhi~tana (basement) is

constructed strongly. Then the height of the pillar

(stambha) is defined as the difference between the

padamana and the height of the adhi~~ana. The height

of the pillar may be defined by adding or subtracting

one part to or from it when it is divided into 6, 7, 8,

9, 10 or 11 parts. From this height (length) of the

pillar, the height of the p~dapee9am (pedestal) (5ma)

and the thickness of the potika (bracket) are to be

subtracted.
 196

22

The pedestal (oma) must be made of strong stone

or by the core of strong timber. This may be done in

the shape of square, octag one, or sixteen-sides and in

some case this may be done l.n circular shape. The width

of the pedestal must be the length of the diagonal of

the foot of the pillar and the height must be half of

it. This height may be reduced by 1/4, 1/3, or 1/2 of

it. In some cases, this is done l.n the shape of a lotus

flower together with ornamentations like vajana etc. The

pedestal (Bma) is to be placed above the adhi~tana.

23

All pillars must have rectangular projection at

their ends with a width of 1/3 of the width of the

pillar. These pillars are placed on the pedestal placed

at their respective positions in such a way that the

projections (kutuma) at their ends are exactly inserted

into the holes on the pedestals (Oma).

24

The breadth of the foot of the pillar is

determined by one part of the height of the pi 11 ar when

 197

it is divided into 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or 11 parts.

The width of its upper end is given by 1 part less than

the width of its lower end when it is divided into 8,

9, 10 or 11 parts. The width of the upper end is known

as a da~~u. In some cases th is dandu is used as a un i t

of measurement. This daQqu is used for measuring the

ornamentations on the walls. The width of the upper end

of the pillar on wall is also known as daryqu.

25

On all pillars a rectangular block is to be

constructed at the upper end whose length is equal to

the length of the diagonal of the foot of the pillar.

At the lower end the rectangular block will have length

equal to 3~, 4, 5 or 6 times of the length of the

diagonal. In the middle of the pillar there must be a

rectangular block of length equal to the length of the

diagonal of the pillar at the middle. The rema in ing

parts may be done in the shape of octagon (ettuoattam).

Otherwise, the whole portion of the pillar may be done

in the shape of circle, octagon or sixteen-side (:;;odha/sa

pattom).
 198

26

The three types of pillars in the shapes of

circle, octagon and sixteen-sides are to be done with

their lower half in rectangular shape or with a

rectangular block at their lower ends having length equal

to the length of the diagonal of the foot of the pillar.

27

When the pillar is too tall, its breadth is to

be taken as l~, l~ or 2 times of the respective pillar

which is def ined above. The breadth is to be increased

upto the middle of the pillar or upt 0 a height of the

adhistana or l~ times of the height of the .

adh istana
. .

In this way, the pillar is to be constructed with granite

or fr ied br icks using the prescr ibed quant i ty of I cunna I

In some cases this is to be done from top to bottom or

upto the middle of the pillar.

28

If there is only one vajana on the beam the

rectangular block in the middle of the pillar is avoided.

In the case of patrottara or beam with a small vajana,

the rectangular block at the middle is auspicious. On

 199

pillars wh i ch are meet ing the pa trot ta ra and vaj anottara,

ornamentations of muthupatta, kuzhitara, valaya etc, are

to be constructed. All parts of the house below and

above the beam (uttara) are to be done according to the

nature of the main beam.

29

The width of the potika is the average of the

widths of the beam and the upper end of the pillar or

it may be the width of the pillar at the middle. The

thickness of the potika will be half of its width. The

length of the potika is equal to 3 daf)9 u , 4 dar;tqu or 5

dar;9u or it may be equal to 3 times of its width. The

potika may be decorated with vajana and such other

ornamen tat ions and is to pI aced on the Roop<'5thara of the

house.

30

If the beam is a patrottara the above mentioned

potika must have thickness equal to 3/4 of its width.

If it is a khand6ttara the thickness must be equal to

its width. All parts, at all situations, are to be done

beautifully.
 200

31

The appropriate width of the beam is to be

determined according as the rules def ined for the

determination of the width of the foot of the pillar.

The width may also be determined by 8, 16, 12 or 6

angu1as. The beam with equal width and thickness is

called khandottara and is auspicious. The beam hav ing

thickness 3/4 of its width is known as Patrottara and

considered madhyama and when the thickness is half of

its width is named as Roopottara and is adhama.

32

In some cases, the width and thickness of the beam

may be done in the reverse order. Such beam is known

as chilli (choozhika). Since it is in an inclined

position, the rafters are fixed on it directly.

33

If there is only one vajana on a beam then it is

divided into 5 parts. The upper patta is to be done by

2 parts and the lower patta by the remaining 3 parts.

34

If there is the alpavajanam also on a beam then

 201

the mahavajanam (small vajanam) by 1 part and the

remaining 4 parts will constitute the lower pat tarn when

the thickness of the beam is d i v ided into 8 equal parts.

(The inward proj ect ion of the mahavaj ana and al!Javaj ana

is to be done by 1 part.)

35

When the thickness of the beams are divided into

5 parts, the mahavajana is to be done by 2 parts, the

small vajana by 1 part and the pattam is to be done by

the remaining parts beautifully. If the thickness of

the beam is divided into 4 to 11 parts, the shift of the

two vajanas is to be done by 1 part, accordingly. In

all other cases, the rules for vajana are the same.

36

Then the potika is to be placed on the top of the

pillar. The upper end of the pillar projects upward

through the hole on the potika. The beam is placed on

this p~tika and is fixed on the protruding end of the

pillar.

37

Then an uttarappattika known as Chittuttaram of

height equal to the thickness of the beam and thickness

 202

of half it is to be pI aced over the beam and is fix ed

to it using appropriate wooden pegs.

38

These wooden pegs are to be fixed in the middle

of houses and in koota sut ras All these pegs are to

be fixed by shifting them from the central areas by one

yava towards the right side. The gap between the rafters

on the beam are to be determined intelligently. These

pegs are to be fixed in the middle of the interspaces

between the rafters so that the number of pegs will be

odd and the number of rafters will be even on each side.

39

A vaj ana-beam hav ing thickness 3/4 daQQu or more

is to be placed on the main beam. On this vajana-beam,

beams with height I dandu.. and thickness 3/4 d-andu are

to be arranged in the crosswise direct ion on them, shor t

beams (Jayantis) having thickness equal to half the

height of the beam are to be arranged according to the

nature of the roof of the house. The upper side of the

beams is uniformly levelled and wooden bands of

appropriate thickness are fixed on it without gaps.

 203

40

Or the ceiling is to be done magnificiently with

decoration like kap~tam, valaru, tulapadam, uruvu, net ram

etc. Beauti ful pictures and statues of d i ff erent dei ties

may be engraved on the cei 1 ing board to make it art ist ic.

Chapter VI

In the case of small houses, only the outer-beam

is sufficient. The Arudam (secondary beam) , is also

necessary if the house is big. The arudam is to be

placed upon the vi~kambham (etavattom) with an inward

shift of 8 angulas, 16 angulas, 24 angulas etc, from the

outer-beam (var6ttaram) so that it satisfies the y6ni,

aya etc, prescr ibed for the house. The height of the

Aru<;1am from the level of varot tara is equal to the sh i ft

of the Kru9am and the 1 ength of its support is equal to

the hypotenuse of the isosceles right angled triangle

formed by the height. The intermediary space between

the ~ru9am and the Varottaram is known as the ali~qa.

The support of the Vi~kambam is to be done

beautifully with special decorations like chippam etc,

 204

together wi th v ine on it bear ing f lowers and buds

appearing to be emerging out from it (chippam).

The dip of the rafters (kazhukkol chattam) is

determined by 2/5, 4/9, 3/8, 3/7, 1/3 or 1/2 of the

length of the pillar. Anyone of these may be adopted

accordingly.

Di v ide the height of the pi lIar below the 1 evel

of the prescr ibed dip of the rafter into 6 to 11 parts.

Subtract or add one part from or to the dip as

prescribed in the case of determine the height of the

pillar. In some cases, this may be done by subtract ing

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 angulas. The dip may be done on

either side of the house as equal or unequal.

The dip of the rafter may be determined by I, 1%,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 times of the width or thickness of

the uttaram (beam). When the house annexed to other

houses, the dimensions of the rafters, vamata, fillet

 205

etc, may be reduced accordingly. Uttara (beam) is the

most important part of a house and therefore it should

not be cut into pieces.

Rafters which are straight and having the same

lengths and widths are known as 'nermanju' (common

rafter) Rafters having different lengths and widths

placed in sI ant ing positions are called koti (hiprafter)

and upakot i ( jack rafter) . All the rafters on either

sides of the house must be of the same dimensions.

One end of the hiprafters, jackrafters etc, are

to be fixed on the kllta and the straight rafters (common

rafters) are to be fixed on the 'montaya' (Ridge). The

other ends are to be placed on the C i t tu t tara properly.

Since the rafters on either sides of the ridge

are fixed on the mon taya ( ridge), it is called Vamsa.

The th ickness and width of the ridge may be equal to 3/4

of the width of the uttara or they may be determined by

6 or 7 angulas. At the pos i t ions of the rafters, the

 206

patra and vajana are to be made wi th a measure of 3 or

4 times of the thickness of the rafter.

The kutam is fixed on the pivot at the end of the

hipraf ters. The rafters on the sides are to be fixed

on the kutam using iron nails at their ends. The pivot

at the end of the rafter is the basis of the kilta and

therefore the base of the kuta must be on the lower side.

In the case of square houses all the rafters will be jack-

rafters or slant-rafters (Alasi).

10

The kOtam is to be done in the shape of a

'Durdura' flower (Thorn-apple flower) or in a cylindrical

shape, or polygon of 8 sides or 16 sides. This may be

constructed in the shape full-blossomed lotus flower.

The lower half must be in spher ical shape and its length

will be double the width. Its length may be reduced by

1 part when it is divided into 8 to 11 equal parts in

order. Its middle portion is to be decorated by

constructing 'patras' having width of 4 yavas or more.

 207

11

The perimeter of the kuta will be approximately

equal to the total i ty of the th icknesses of all rafters

or may be equal to the wid th of the ut tara. This may

be determined in the un it of angula in order to sui t the

prescribed yoni conditions. The pattam where the rafters

meet the kuta must be of height equal to the line of

vitana of the hip-rafter. Kutam is an upward directed

element of a house and is decorated wi th special features

of Patra. The shape and dimensions of the kuta are said

to be as above.

12

In rectangular houses having length greater than

the width, the rafters like k6ti, upak15ti etc, are to

be fixed on the kuta which is fixed on the ridge of the

house. Other straight rafters are to be fixed on the

vamsa (ridge) using iron nails at the ends.

13

If the pivots at the ends of the ridge are screwed

into the hol es on the s ides of the kuta then th i s joint

is named 'Ajayudha sandhi'. Here also, depending on the

 208

nature of the join t I the base of ku ta must be on the

lower side.

14

In houses (rectangular) with side elongation

(Mukhiylma) the length of the ridge must be equal to that

of the uttara (beam) of the house. The rules regarding

the joins at the ends of the beams will be the same as

those prescribed for the houses.

15

The pivots at the two ends of the ridge are

inserted into the holes on the lower portion of the kutas

and are to be fixed on it us ing wooden na il s. Since the

kuta depends on the mon taya (r idge) l i t wi 11 be in the

ups ide down posi t ion. In the same way, the b~l akutam

also depends on the element above it.

16

In all desired squares, the side below in the

crosswise direction (horizontal direction) is known as

'bhuja' (base). The line through the corners is the

diagonal (kar~a).
 209

17

On a smooth wooden board or on smooth ground

construct a square wi th its s id e eq u a 1 to ha 1 f the wi d t h

of the house. Draw lines parallel to the bhuja

represent ing the height of the c i t tu t taram, the th ickness

of the uttara and the dip of the rafters in descending

order. Determine the positions of the rafters on the

line representing the uttara.

18

Double the number of rafters like hiprafter,

slantrafter, jackrafter etc, and then subtract one from

this number in all cases. The intermediary spaces

between the koti, upakoti, and slant rafter are

determined by two parts each and one part near to the

vertical side of the square. This kind of representation

of the positions of the rafters are recommented by all

sstras.

19

In this way the positions of the slant rafters

are determined on the line of beam. Then the lines

through these points joining the kGta and dip-line will

determine lengths of the corresponding rafters.

 210

20

In all houses the width of the straight rafter

(common rafter) wi 11 be equal to the width of the ut tara

(beam) or it may be determined by adding or subtracting

1/8, 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, or 1/3 of width to or from it.

3 1
Or it may be done by 2, 1-, or 1- times of the width of
4 2
the uttara. The thickness of the rafter may be

determined by 1 angula to 6 angula, each time increased

by 1 yava successively.

21

Consider a square wi th side as the width of the

common rafter (Manju). Mark a point on the bhuja

representing half the length of the diagonal of the

square. The line joining this point and the terminal

end of the koti (vertical side) will give the width of

the h iprafter. The widths of each of the slant-rafters

is given by the 1 engths of the 1 ines join ing the upper

end of the koti and the corresponding positions of the

slantrafters on the bhuja. On either sides of the

rafters three lines like dwaja 1 ine etc, and plumb 1 ine

etc, are to be constructed.

 211

22

Di v ide the width of the rafter int 0 9 parts and

the dwaja sutra is to be drawn 1n the middle of the

rafter on both sides such that 5 parts are above and the

remaining 4 parts are below the dwaja sutra. Or this

may be drawn in such a way that 4 parts are on the upper

side and 3 parts are on the lower side of this 1 ine.

It may also be determined such that 3 parts are above

it and 2 parts are below it when the width is divided

into 5 parts.

23

On ei ther side of the dwaja sutra (1 ine) draw two

lines parallel to it at a distance of 2 angula from it.

The widths of the rafter below and above these lines are

to be determined properly.

24

On both sides of all rafters construct squares

of sides 4 angul a on the dwaj a sUtra. The diagonals of

the square are known as vert ical 1 ine (Tu ku rekha) and

horizontal line (vitana). These lines are to be drawn

at the positions where the vala (collarpin), the beam,

 212

the ridge etc, meet the rafter. They are to be

constructed at the ends of the rafters where the rafters

meet the kata and vamata.

Chapter VII

In the case of small houses, Cuzhika (slant beam)

may be used in the construction of roof. Bu t v iskarhbam

,

(vittam) must be In even number. The ridge IS to be

placed on the pillar of length equal to the semiwidth

of the house. The pillar is placed at the centre of the

vittam. The length of the pillar may be reduced by 1/7,

1/8, 1/9, 1/10 or 1/11 of its length. The rafters are

to be placed on the Cuzhika (slant beam) with their other

ends on the prescribed ridge.

The width of the vamata is determined by 6/10,

7/10, 8/10 or 9/10 of the width of the beam. Or it may

be def ined by 3/4 or 3/7 of the width of the beam. Its

thickness is 1/3 of its width. It may also be determined

by 2/5 of its width.

 213

If the width of the vamata is divided into 5 parts

then the upper pattam is done by 2 parts, the talam by

2 parts and the lower pattam is done by 1 part.

Similarly, when it is divided into 6 parts then the upper

pattam is done by 2 parts, the talam by 3 parts and the

lower pat tarn by 1 part. If the width of the vama ta is

divided into 8 parts then the above parts may be done

by 3 parts, 4 parts and 1 part respectively.

Divide the width of the vamata at the paryanta

(Tumbu vilmata) into 5, 7 or 9 parts. On all sides, the

level of the varnata along the vi tana is to be ra ised by

3 parts according to the rule of koti-karrna and is fixed

at the ends of the rafters. A light wooden board known

as 'tuvanapalaka' is to get fixed along the edge of the

v3mata by the expert craftrnan. This is to be done

carefully after performing Vayavya-homa.

The vala (collarpin) is to be done in square shape

wi th th i ckness from 14 yavas to 3 angulas increas ing by

 214

2 yavas at a time. The th ickness of vala is def ined in

6 ways by the sages. Of these, the appropriate thickness

may be accepted depending on the width of rafters.

The width of the pattika (reapers) is determined

by 17 yavas and its thickness is the measure of 9 yavas.

The space between the pat t i kas (reapers) is 63/4 of its

thickness and these are to be fixed on the rafters using

iron nails.

In all houses, for cover ing the roof using t i 1 es

the pattika (reapers) is to be fixed on rafters as

prescribed above. In some cases, thick wooden boards

are used instead of pat t i ka and fixed on the roof wit h

nails. On these wooden boards sufficient grooves are made

in order to fix the tiles on them properly. In the case

of templ es, palaces etc, if copper pI a tes are used for

thatching, to protect from heavy rainfall, then there

is no need of groove on them.

The turban of the Grhapuru~a is known as the

Apidh~nam (end). It is to be placed ups ide down on the

 215

roof. The width of the Apidharl~m is to be 1/2 or 3/4

of the height of the foundat ion and its thickness is

equal to the height of the paduka.

The doors (openings) to the ankaDa are to be

placed in such a way that their central line coincide

wi th the centre of the space between the central axes

of the houses and ankaJ;la. Their perimeters in terms of

angulas must be auspicious with respect to yoni, aya,

vyaya etc, prescr ibed for each side from east onwards.

The width of the door-frame will be equal to that of the

beam and the th i ckness will be equal to or half of its

width or I part less than the width when it is divided

into 3 or 4 parts. On the door-frames decorations of

vajana etc, are to be constructed properly. There must

be 'patis' at the lower and upper ends of the frame.

10

The lower pati (Cettupati) of the door will have

thickness I part greater then the thickness of the frame

when it is divided into 3 or 4 parts and without

decorations of vajana. The thickness of the upper-pati

(Kurumpati) must be the same as that of the thickness

 216

of the frame. The upper ends of the door-frame are to

be extended to meet the beam placed above them. The

inner-perimeter of the door must have the respective

yoni, aya etc, prescribed for each side. The width of

the door is to be determined by subtracting the desired

length from the semiperimeter or by gunamsa method

(Multiple division method).

11

Then the 'Kurumbappalaka' is to be placed upon

the upperpati (Kurumpati) of the door. It is decorated

with the images of Gan~sa, SrIkrishna, Mahalakshmi and

such others together with pictures of different birds

carved on it beautifully according to the situations.

12

If the wall is too thick then it is divided into

12 parts and consider the line which separates the parts

into 7 parts ins ide and 5 parts ou ts ide of it. The door-

frame is to be placed wi th its cent ral line coinc id ing

wi th the above line. In some cases, one more pa ti is

placed upon the upperpati (Kurumpati) and above it wall

is constructed using granite and mortar or mud.

 217

13

In houses where the innerperimeter is considered

important and walls of much thickness, they may be

constructed strongly along the outer edge of the paduka

(without the inward shift). The p:)si t ions of door-frame

and beam are to be shifted outward upto the prescribed

limi ts of the wall and pI aced properly accord i ng to the

conditions of axes of houses and ankana.

14

Each of the two shutters of the door is to be

const ructed with its width equal to half the sum of the

width of the door and thickness of the shutter. The

thickness of the shutter may be determined by 2, 2~, 3,

3~ or 4 angulas.

15

There must be pivots (hinges) at the lower and

upper ends of the door. SGtrappattika (Blinding reaper)

and a metal ring for holding the shutter are to be fixed

on the shut ters. Copper or iron strips are to be fixed

on the door both in lengthwise and crosswise using nails

with their nuts in the form of buds and flowers.

Further, the image of the face of Mahalakshmi and part

of moon (Candrakala) may be done 0:1 t he door to make it

beautiful.
 218

16

The width and thickness of the sutrappattika

(blinding reaper) are determined by 1 part of the width

of the opening when it is divided into 4 to 8 parts. The

thickness may be fixed as 1/2 or 3/4 of the width of the

sutrappattika. Its length (height) will be equal to the

length of the door. It may be decorated with an odd

number of (3, 5, 7 etc,) projections in the shape of

breasts, images of Ganesa, Sri kr ishna, Mahalakshmi

resting on the lotus flower, muthumala etc, on it.

17

The shutter on the left side of the door is called

the mother and the sGtrappattika is to be fixed on it.

The right side shutter is known as the daughter. The

shutters in all the doors are defined like this. Then

the 'arama' (matiyan) is to be constructed wi th height

equal to 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 or 1/6 of the height of the door

and its width and thickness equal to 1/4, 1/5, 1/6 or

1/7 of its height.

18

The bolts (saksha) are to be made with length

equal to 1/4, 1/5, 1/6. 1/7 or 1/8 of the width of the

 2L9

door. Its width is defined as 1/6, 1/7 or 1/8 of its

length and thickness is equal to half of its width. Two

rectangular blocks where projection is equal to the

thickness of the bol t are to be const ructed at the ends

of the bol ts. These bolts are fixed on the arama through

the grooves at their lower and upper ends such that the

rectangular blocks on the bolts will be on either sides

of the arama.

19

The lower bolt (saksha) is to be placed on the

mother-shutter and the upper bolt on the

daughter-shutter. Then the 'arama' (matiyan) is to be

fixed on the inner side of the door using nails with its

cent re is just above the centre of the door.

20

It is considered auspicious to have the

door-frame, shu t ters etc, made of the same kind of

timber. If they are done by different kinds of timbers

then according to some acaryas I the ladies res iding there

will be of bad character.

 220

21

If the door is having only one shutter then it

must be pI aced on the left door-frame. The arama is to

be fixed on the oppos i te frame just below or above its

centre. The bolt of this 'arama' is to be done in

circular, octagonal or rectangular shape. The door may

be fastened using strong chain also.

22

Divide the length of the house into 11 or 13 parts

by 10 lines and 12 lines respectively. Then the outward

door is to be placed in such a way that its centre

coincides wi th the 6 th or 7 th 1 ine on the r igh t side of

the house. This is to be done in accordance wi th thei r

appropriate yoni, aya etc, prescribed for each house.

If there is only one shutter then it must be fixed on

the left side with respect to the exit of the house.

23

The main door which is used for the transportation

between the ankana and outside is to be placed upon the

paduka. If the corner-house has wall then the width of

the an tarala (al inda) is to be so chosen tha t when it

is multiplied by 4 gives a perimeter of appropriate yoni.

 221

24

The patippuras (g6puras) or the large entrances

to the house are to be done at the positions of

Pu~padanta, Ballata, Indra and Grahakshata at a distance

of 4, 5, 6 or 7 dandus from the centre of the ankaJ;la.

These large entrances and eight other small entrances

may be constructed at positions where the region is

higher than the surroundings. These patippuras may be

done with upstairs together with projection on it.

25

The padas (positions) of eight small patippuras

(gate-house) are defined for houses of man. They are

at the padas of Pa'rjanya I Bruin'Sa I Pu:;;avu,

Dvarapala, So~an, Naga and Aditi.

26

The vedika for sitting is to be constructed, on

both s ides of the entrance, above the f oundat ion of the

gopura. The height of the v~dika may be determined by

the width of the pillar at the entrance or by 1/6, 1/7

or 1/8 of the height of the pillar or by the height of

the pati or by l~, 2, or 3 times of it. Upon the vedika

 222

there must be pi lIars in even number and on ei ther side

walls are constructed with beams on it. The width of

the beam may be equal to the width of the pillar or it

may be equal to half or 3/4 of it.

27

The requ i red shift in the position of vedika may

be incorporated in accordance with the order of

patram~na The shift of the vedika from the edge of

uttara is defined by 2~, 3 angulas etc, in order.

28

According to some scholars, vedika lS to be done

using the same materials which are used to construct the

wall and foundat ion of the house. In all houses, it is

seen that, the ved ika is don e by material s like stone,

fried bricks, mud etc, or by different kinds of timber.

As in the case of garbhagrha, when the yoni is determined

wi th respec t to the inner per imeter, the door-frame is

to be placed upon the ankaQa-paduka or below the patio

29

The number of pi llars below the beam, rafters etc,

must be of even number and the number of interspaces

 223

(gaps) between them must be of odd number. It wi 11 be

inauspicious if the lengths of interspaces exceed 1 kol

(hasta) and it will provide calamities.

30

The east-house is prescribed for Puja, sacrifice

etc, and the north-house is def ined for family members.

These two may be interchanged. The south-house is

utilised for reception of guests and the west-house is

used for st orage of weal th. These may be used in the

reverse order. The remaining spaces of these two may

be used for sleep and study.

31

The region is divided into 100 padas, 81 padas

or 64 padas (squares) . Then the por t ion at the centre

compr is ing of 16 padas 9 padas or 4 padas respectively

will form the ankana. The surrounding two envelopes of

padas will be the space for the construction of houses.

The outermost envelope prov ide the space for cattle-shed,

kalappura, well etc.

 224

32

The Kalappura (barn house) will be done on

southern side and the grain-house may be constructed on

the southern side or in the Nirrti corner. Then the

treasury-house may be built on north, east, or west side

or at the signs of Simha, Vrscika, Tula or Karkilaka and

at all positions which are defined for the grain house.

If necessary, the grain-house may be constructed at all

positions which are prescribed for the wealth house.

33

'Gosala' (cow-shed) may be constructed at the

positions of Indra, VaruQa and in the antaralas of

Vitatha and pu~avu. It may be done at the pad as of

parjanya and jayanta and in the anter~las of kusumadanta

and dvarapala. In the case of the Mahi~al aya, it may

be done at the positions of BFunga and 50:;;a or on the

south side. The ox-shed must be made on the sout h side.

In all these constructions the vastumarmas and sulas are

to be avoided.

34

Some acaryas are of the v iew that on all sides,

the passage for cows across the karrya so. t ra (raj ju) is
 225

not auspicious. For cowsheds, vrsa yoni is the most

auspicious and Simha yoni is inauspicious. The Karanas

of Simha, Puli, ~unaka (dog), Gardabha (ass) etc, are

to be avoided in the construction of cowsheds.

35

Kitchen is prescribed at the padas of Parjanya

and Agni or it may be at the signs of Mesha, and Etava

or at the vayu corner. Dining hall is wished to be at

these positions itself or at the sign of Makara and on

west side also. The house for entertainment lS to be

constructed at the signs of Kumba and Makara and at the

Vayu corner. If necessary, this may be done at the signs

of Etava and Mesha. S imi larly, the gr ind ing house is

to be done at the v~yu corner.

36

Well at the Meena sign (rasi) is defined to be

the most auspicious. This will increase wealth in all

ways. Well at the signs of Mesha and Kumba will provide

prosperity and at the signs of Makara and Etava will

prov ide immense weal th. It is auspic ious at the pad as

of Apa and Apatvalsa. It may be constructed at the pada

of Indrajit also. Well on west side is auspicious

whereas at the V~yu corner is not good for women.

 226

37

Well at the Antarlk~apada is prosperous.

Similarly, a lake is def ined at the padas of Mahendra,

Mahidhasu, and Varu~a, on the sides of S6ma and Siva and

at the sign of Mesha. It is seen that the 1 ake is done

at Vayu corner or Ni r~t i corner. It is not auspi c i ous

to use the water from the same tank for bathing and

drinking. Therefore, if there is no river passing by

them water for bathing and drinking is to be collected

separately.

38

If the construction of well and similarly, of lake

have been completed prev iously at the Agn i corner, then

they will cause difficulties from fire etc. The tank

on the south side will also provide the same results.

Some acaryas consider it inauspicious to have lake like

'dIrghika' etc, on the southern side of the gramas

( v i 11 ag e ) et c In a similar way, the presence of park,

holes of snakes etc, in the immed ia te vi cin i ty of the

houses are not auspicious.

39

In the houses of Kings and Brahmaoas, the house

 227

for daily worship is to be done in the anka~a and the

install a ti on of the d harmad~va (dei ty of the f ami 1 y) etc,

are to be done at the positions of rsa, Indra, Agni and

VaruIJa. The buildings like temple etc, at the positions

of Isa, Indra, Agni and Yama are to be done with

perimeters of K~tu y~ni and from Nirrti to Isa corner

they are to be done in Vrsa yoni for prosperity.

40

The temples of family-kuladevatas are to be done

with Ketu yOni from Isa corner onwards and with VF~a yoni

from Nirrti corner onwards. They must be faced towards

the positions of houses, puram, pattar;tam, nagaram, grama

etc.

41

Images of deities may be installed in some houses

wi thou t the pres cr i bed combina t ion of its parts. There

are two types of dei ties, namely, temporary and permanent

depending on their varying and nonvarying nature and on

the nature of offerings made to them.

42

For Kings, the chamber for enjoyment is to be done

at the Mitra pada and the house for entertainment is to
 228

be constructed at the Vayu corner. The house for

exercise is made at the Arggala pada and at the Nirrti

corner. Bathrooms and such others are constructed at

Parjanya pada and dining hall is to be done at Indra pada

and Varupa pada. Natyasala is to be made at Gandarva

pada and the arsenal must be done at the Nirrti corner.

Chambers for sleeping are to be made at the Grahak~ata

pada and on the east side.

43

It is said to be auspicious to have the compound

wall outside the boundary limit constructed with stone

or mud properly. A trench along this limit is considered

Madhyama and a fence using the branches of trees is

adhama. For making the fence branches of thorn-trees,

vines, bamboo etc, may be used. Anyone of these may

be accepted depending on the wealth conditions. Then

the trees prescribed for each side are to be pI an t ed in

order as explained earlier.

44

The acarya has to get the house compl eted by the

artisans according to the above rules and at the end of

its construction the silpins must be awarded with

presentations like bracelets, orQaments with jewels on

them etc, to make them happy. After accepting the house

from the B i lpins, the aca rya together wi th the owner and
 229

family must enter the house at an auspicious time

accordingly. The vastupuja and other offerings are to

be performed as prescribed in this connection.

45

At the end of the offerings, the owner of the

house has to propitiate the acarya by awarding him

presentations like cows, earth, gold, feasts etc,

according to his satisfaction and after getting his

permission the house-owner must give presentations to

all for making them happy. Then the grhakarta may live

in the house with pleasure and satisfaction.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 283

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 284

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 GLOSSARY

..
Adhisth~na: Basement of a vimana, maryQapa, or similar
structure, forming a distinct architectural feature,
support ing walls and pillars, and consisting of
distinct moulded tiers.

~dharasila: Foundation stone generally used to denote

the lowest part of the support system of the idol.

Ali~da: Corridor, varanta, passage.

Alpapras~da: Small temple with the perimeter of the

Prasada (Srikov i 1) not ex ceeding 16 hasta and of
single storey.

Angula: Linear measurement equal to 1/64 of vyama; also

equal to 8 yava. 1 angula is 3 cm.

AnkaQa: Courtyard

AnkaQasGtras: Axes passing through the centre of the

courtyard.

Antah~ra: Secondary boundary of temple from prasada.

~ntara bhitti: Inner wall of multiple walled prasada

or sanctum.

Antarmandala: The innermost prakara around the sanctum

usually at a distance of half the width of the
prasada.
 286

Ara: Room; chamber, the traditional architectural

construction of Kerala in which the walls of the rooms
are constructed in wood is called 'ara' and Inira'.

Ardha-maQ9apa: Pillared hall immediately in front of

the pr inc ipal shrine or d i stal hal f of a mandapa wi th
two seriate pillars, as in rockcut cave-temple.

Arddhadhika: Ratios of length to width which are

obtained by adding ~ to integers.

Arodh6thara (Arudham)
, : Additional horizontal support
for the ra fters between wallpla te and ridge; el eva ted
uttara.

Asiddha: Temple sites in settlements.

Astavarga: 8 x 8 grid; ma~?uka ma~9ala.

Ayama: Elongation; the frontal elongation is called

mukhayama.

Ayatacaturasra: Rectangle.

Bahya-bhitti: Outermost wall of a multiple-walled

sanctum.

Bahya-hra: Fourth boundary of the temple from the

prasada.
 287

Balivattam: Envelope containing the offering stones

(balikkal).

Bhadra: Land located at the side of sea, river or lake

with good resource of water and facilities for
cultivation.

Brahmanabh i: Focal point of a vastumat;l9a1a, where the

two sutras intersect.

BrahmasGtra: The west-east axis of a maD?ala.

Chitra-potika: Corbels with embossed carving or painting

of creepers, flowers etc.

Cuttampalam: The covered corridor encl os ing the shr ine-

room located 1 dandu away from the shr ine-room ~ also
called nalampalam.

Da1)9u: Linear measurement equal to 4 hasta (96 angula),

the unit in the proportional system of measurement.

DhGmra: This is an inferior variety of arid site.

Eaves: The lowest part of the roof. It is the section

formed by the rafter ends, plate, and cornice.

Gable: The gable roof consists of two inclined planes

which meet in a peak over the centre line of the house
and slope down to two oppos i te roof plates. At the
 288

two ends are triangular sections of wall called

"gables" or "gable-ends", hence the name gable roof.

Gaj apr~~ha: Combination of square and semi -c i reI e: the

rear side of an elephant.

Garbhagfha: Shrine-cell or cellar.

Grhavastu: Architecture of residential buildings.

Gala, griva: Neck, usually the clerestory raising up

the roof wi th light and ai r open ings (Nas ikas) on its
sides.

Hasta: ~nthropometric linear measurement equal to length

of arm~ the standard and most commonly used hasta is
24 angula and is called ki~ku; 8 types of hastas
varying from 24 angula to 31 angula with variation
of 1 angula are known by different names; the names
for hasta are kara, bhuja, aratni, kol.

Hip: When the roof slopes down in four inclined planes

to four plates, it is called a hip roof.

11:IanakhaJ')c;'ia: The sector of Isa I the north-east sector;

also called manu~yakha~c;'ia.

..
tstadirgha: Desired length, selected length .
 289

Kadalakakarna : Successive inward off set t ing or

corbelling of the roofing slabs or brick courses over
walls to reduce the space to be roofed over to an
ultimate small opening top that can be covered by a
slab overlapping like a banana bunch.

Kala~a: The pot of the lower portion of the finial.

Kar~asGtra: Diagonal axis of a map9ala.

Katapayadi notation: A system of representation of

numbers. In this system the consonants (vyanjanas)
beginning with ka, ta, pa and ya represent the digits
from 1. Pa to ma stand for 1 to 5 and ya to ha
represent digits 1 to 8. m and n denote O. In the
case of conj unct consonants, the number denoted only
by the last consonant is taken and the vowels
following consonants have no value. The vowels not
preceded by consonants represent O. The letter 1
represents 9. In th is system the arrangement of the
digits is from right to left (ankanam vamato gati).

Kavu: Sacred grove, f or the worship of gods 1 ike Kal i ,

Ayyappan, Serpents etc.

KhanQottara: Uttara having equal width and thickness

is called khaQQottara.

Kila: Wedge.
 290

K~etravastu: Architecture of temple.

Kut a : Pendant: solid wooden piece to which tip of all

the rafters of a ko~ta type of roof or the top ends
of slanting rafters and the end of ridge of a sabha
type of roof are connected.

Kuthampalam: Temple theatre tor performing arts.

Madhyama: Medium.

Madhyahara: Third boundary of a temple comprising the

dlpamla.

Mahamarma: Sensitive node when 4 sutras intersect in

a mal}?ala.

..
Mandala: Demarcated area: region, generally circular.

Marygapa: Open or closed pillared or astylar hall.

Manu~yalaya: House for human beings.

Manu~yapramarya: Measurement system based on the size

and proportions of human body.

Marmav~dha: Intersections with vulnerable points.

Maryada: Fifth boundary of a temple: outermost pr~kara.

 291

Matra: Module of measurement.

Mi'sra: Mixed.

Namaskaramaryqapa: Pav il ion in fron t of the prasada used

for namaskara.

Natyasala: Halls for performing arts.

Navavarga: 9 x 9 grid, parama~ayikamaryqala.

N~pathya: Makeup room, aryiyara.

Oma: Basal pitha of pillar or pilaster.

Pada: Linear measurement equal to 8 angula; pillar.

Padma: Lotus, capital-member below the phalaka.

Parivara devatas: Subsidiary deities in a temple.

Patrottara: Uttara having thickness 3/4 of the width

is called Patrottara.

Patta: Plain or decorated band.

Pattika: Projected top slab of the platform or

adhi~t~na, or wooden reaper.
 292

Ratios of length to width which are obtained

by adding ~ to integers.

Plldona: Ratios of length to width which are obtained

by subtracting ~ from integers greater than 1.

P~duka: Ground course, the lowest part of the adhi~tana.

Phalaka: Abacus, moulded capital of pillar supporting

the corbel, or potika.

Pinjara: Wooden roof-frame.

Poorna: These types of sites are located on top of

plateaus or in the mountain valleys.

Potika: Corbel bracket over pillar.

Pra~~!a: spout projected to discharge water.

Prasada: Sreekovil or vimana.

Prastara: En tablature, con sist ing of mould ing s over

walls and pillars, viz, the uttara (beam).

Pitch: The 'pitch' of a roof is its slope.

Piija: Adoration; sacrifice to the deity, offerings and

other rites.
 293

Rafters: These are the structural members of the roof.

Common rafters or straight rafters run from ridge to
plate at right angles to the wall. The hip rafters
run from the exterior corners of the plate to the ends
of the ridge. Framing into the hips are shorter
rafters, runn ing from pIa te to hip raf ter, call ed jack
rafters.

Raj ju: Linear measurement equal to 8 dandu I 1 i terally

means rope; also, the diagonal sGtra in a mandala.

Ridge: The peak of the roof. The ridge board or ridge

pole is the member against which the rafters bear.
It forms the lateral tie which holds them together
at that point. In a square house the ridge vanishes
to a point or kootam.

ROpottara: Uttara having thickness ~ of the width is

called Rupottara.

S::Ua: Rectangular hall wi th gable roof, in some cases

it represent a courtyard house.

Samatatam: A rectangle with length equal to an integer

multiple of its width.

Sikhara: Roof of . the pdisada, domical, 4 sided wi th a

single fin ia1, vaul ted wi th many finial s on the ridge I
or apsidal with many finials.
 294

.
Slista-
and
Bhinnasala: Catussala
partially combined halls (houses).
with partially separated

S~pana: Flight of steps.

Srlkov il: Used to denote v imana or prasada, the sacred

structure.

One of the four silpins who is the relevent

Sthapati:
types of construction, must be a
person in all
'samaitakriyipatu' .

stupika: ( Stupi) Fin ial .

Supadma: It is a land located in the plains, suitable

for human habitation and temples.

Sutragrahi: He must be wellversed in all sastras,

constructions etc. a student of Sthapati or his son.
Another silpin of the 4 silpins.

Tak?aka: The third silpin in the construction of houses.

Tala: Storey of the temple, gopura.

Tala: A proport ionate measure, palm of the hand, modul ar

unit of dimension in iconography in terms of face
length.
 295

Taranga: Wave.

Upapi~ha: Add i tional mou Ided platform or sub-base below

the adhistana.
. .
Vardhaki: The fourth silpin in the construction of
bu i lding .

Vilakkumadam: The structure with several rows of oil

lamps at the Madhyahara.

Vimana: Prasada, Srikovil.

Vyala: Leonine figure.

Yoni: Architectural formula for orientation, place of

origin.

**********