EMT & Solar Energy Production

EMT & Solar Panel Production
CHAPTER 1
COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
REIL is Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Ltd. It is a public sector unit and it has a prominent
place amongst the electronics industry of Rajasthan. It was established in 1981. It is situated at
the Kanakpura industrial area about 12Kms from Jaipur city. REIL has a joint venture between
the Government of India & the Government of Rajasthan, through their respective institutions.
Government of India & Government of Rajasthan holds 51% & 49% share in this company
respectively. REIL has completed twenty-five years in service of the nation, especially the rural
India, rendering services and products in the technology areas of electronics, renewable energy,
information technology and industrial electronics. The products address needs of the dairy sector,
rural lighting energy, energy metering and e-governance.
Fig 1.1 View of REIL
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REIL subscribes to the belief that the path to social and economic progress of the country lies
through the villages and is committed to the up liftment of the rural economy by taking
technology to the villages. REIL is an ISO9001 public sector undertaking started as a joint
venture between RIICO (Rajasthan State Industrial Development & Investment Corporation) and
Instrumentation Limited, Kota. During my training period I have taken my training in four
department of this organization. These are - Agro dairy division, Renewable energy division,
Industrial electronics division and Quality a REIL aims at retaining its primacy in the area of
Rural Electronics, Non-conventional Energy Systems and Information Technology by
developing, manufacturing and marketing quality products and by offering quality services.
The company was conferred the status of a "MINI RATNA" by the Department of Public
Enterprises, Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1997 on account of it' s good all round
performance and excellent products. The company has added another feather in it is cap by
establishing a Quality Management system for its operations and has been certified as an ISO
9001 form w.e.f.31st July, 1998. The area of business extends to manufacturing and marketing of
electronic products are Agro-Dairy division, Renewable energy division or Industrial Electronics
division Information Technology. Recognition of REIL achievements in the field of rural
electronics has come in a variety of ways- in customer satisfaction, in its prestigious
establishment of the Rural Electronics Technology Center in1990 and in an award of the
Department of Electronics for excellence in Electronic- now named as department of Information
Technology under Ministry of communication and Information Technology, for the year 1991
and 2001.
REIL is also in the business of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV)
Technology where It started its operations, in 1986, with manufacture of SPV Modules and
Systems. Since then it has supplied and installed numerous SPV Stand alone Street Lighting
System, SPV de-centralized Domestic Lighting Systems, SPV Water drinking Systems, SPV
Dusk Dawn Switching Systems, SPV Lanterns, SPV powered Railway Signaling Systems,
Microwave Repeater Stations, Satellite Ground Terminals and Grid Interactive Power Plants etc.
In this area Company has produced SPV Modules of about 8 MW generating capacity.
The company has a strong in-house Govt. recognized Research & Development Division which
has enabled the company to effect considerable improvements in the initial adopted technologies.
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Indigenization of the Milk Testing equipment and incorporating the latest State-of-the-Art
microprocessor designs over the initial and older LSI designs has enabled more features and new
add-on equipment has been developed to provide integrated
system solutions. A prestigious collaboration with the Department of Electronics (DOE) in 1990
for the establishment of Rural Electronics Technology Centre and an award from DOE for
Excellence in Electronics in 1991, testify REIL's achievements in the field of Rural Electronics.
The Consistency in Excellence is recognized with repeated award for Excellence in Electronics
for the year 2001, given by the Ministry of Communication and information theory.
Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Limited (REIL), as a commercial organization, has been in
operation for the past 27 years with a proven track record of profitable performance, professional
management and service to the rural masses through electronic products for the dairy/milk
cooperatives and renewable energy sectors. REIL commenced its foray in the Dairy sector with
the manufacture of Electronic Milk Testers under the technology license from National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB), by using the technology developed overseas by Foss, Denmark.
The Company entered the area of Renewable Energy through Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV)
technology, in the year 1985. The Company started its operations with manufacture of SPV
Modules and control electronics for SPV powered village Street Lights.
1.2 PRODUCT IN WHICH REIL IS INVOLVED
(a) Electronic Milk Tester
(b) Automatic Milk Collection Station (AMCS)
(c) Data Processor- Electronic Milk Tester
(d) Electronic SNF Tester
(e) Solar Photo Voltaic Modules (SPV)
(f) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
(g) Spot Billing Machine
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During my training I have gone through the four department of REIL these
are Renewable energy division, agro dairy division, industrial
electronics division and quality assurance department. I also visited
the Research & Development department of REIL
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CHAPTER 2
AGRO DAIRY DIVISION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The electronics division kicked off its operations in 1982, the year of formation of the company
and has notched up many credits in the last one and a half-decade. The operations started with
the electronics milk tester, under technical collaboration with FOSS electric of Denmark and
assembly of electronic milk tester (EMT), from kits supplied by the collaborator initially. The
company has rapidly absorbed and assimilated the technology, successfully indigenized the
product and in response to customer requirement (based on micro-controller technology) to suit
the needs of the products into a more versatile system, developed in-house through its own
development efforts, called the Milk Collection Station.
2.2 ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER
During my training period the first division was agro dairy division and the main product of agro
division is electronic milk tester, It measures the fat content instantaneously on a digital read out.
it does not involve the use of corrosive chemicals. It works on light scattering principle.
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Fig 2.2(a) Electronic milk fat tester
It operates on AC-main as well as on battery within built battery charger & automatic switch
over to battery in case of power failure .Basic objective in the dairy development program is to
increase the production of milk. Milk collection depends on prompt payment of fair and correct
price to encourage producers to increase milk production. The system of payment based on
quality (i.e. fat content ) discourages adulteration and encourages producers to increase
production of high quality milk. it is further necessary that each sample of milk should be tested
of its quality and testing should be completed within 2 to 3hours time, in order to make correct
payment. Milk sample would also get spoiled if not tested immediately in the absence of
facilities to preserve them, especially at village level.
Fig 2.2(b) EMT assembly room
2.3 FEATURES OF EMT
Auto zero facility

Performs 110-130 samples per hour
Instant measurement and display of milk fat
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Instant calculation of amount payable

Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad in absence of weighing machine
Operation with 4*4matrix hexadecimal keypad
Printing facility
Instant transmission of datas on remote display
7 segment LED
Suitable for interface with electronic weighing machine through serial port
Data storage up to 800 members for 30 days
Data transmission speed 2400 baud
Data storage on EEPROM
Built in battery charger
Runs on mains and battery both
Slip printout by 80 columns serial dot matrix printer.
Fig 2.3 Features of EMT
2.4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF EM
Performance Data Requirements

Installation
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Measuring 0-13%fat Power Supply AC: 220-24OV

range
(Max + 10%, Min
-15%)
DC: 12V, 6A
(Max 16 V; Min
10.5V)
A fully-charged 120
AH
battery will last for

at least
10 hours of
operation
Capacity 120-150 Ambient 5-45 C

samples/hour temperature
Accuracy(Sd) 0.06% for 0-5% fat Dimensions 23x31x53

(HxWxD)
0.10% for 5-8% fat
0.20% for 8-13%

fat
Repeatability(Sd) 0.03% for 0-5% fat Space 60x80

requirement
0.04% for 5-8% fat
0.08% for 8-13% fat
Sample volume 0.5 ml/test Weight 16 kg

(without
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diluent)
Table 2.4 Technical specifications of EMT
2.5 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EMT
Electron milk tester is based on the photometric measurement of light scattered by the milk
sample. The light is scattered by the fat globules, acting as small prisms. Not only fat globules to
the light scattering but also the proteins may affect the measurement. To eliminate their
influence, it is necessary to dissolve them. EDTA solution is used for this purpose.
All the fat globules do not have the same size. The measuring system requires a Constant globule
size to provide a mixed relation between the amount of light scattered to the fat content. The
range of globule size is limited in the milk tester to a very narrow region outside the natural
range. This is achieved by homogenizing and bringing the globule size into the range of 0.5 to
1.5 microns.
Light rays from a photo lamp pass through the layer of fluid in the cuvette and are scattered
according to the sample of fat globules in the sample. More is the amount of fat present in the
cuvette, more is the light scattered and less light scattered and less light passes through the
cuvette. The rays that do pass through the cuvette strike photocell, producing a current
proportional to the light intensity. The current is fed to a digital readout unit which gives direct
fat percentage read out.
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Fig 2.5 Front view of EMT
Different assemblies of EMT are as follows-
2.5.1 Photometer
The photometer consists of a lamp, lamp housing and detector assembly. The detector assembly
includes the cuvette and photocell.
Fig 2.5.1 Assembly of photometer
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2.5.2 Cuvette
It is made of two hundred glass discs. One has a ground depression of 0.4 mm the other has two
small holes to provide inlet and outlet to the cuvette.
2.5.3 Photocell
It is a selenium barriers / silicon detector photocell. Care should be taken not to expose this
photocell to light when not in operation.
Fig 2.5.3 Photocell
2.5.4 Temperature testing (thermo block)
Temperature of the thermo block is set with the help of power PCB. Maximum temperature is
50.1 to 50.2 degree Celsius and minimum temperature is 49.1 degree Celsius. All measurement
are done with the help of electronic thermo meter.
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Fig 2.5.4 Thermo block
2.6 PREPARATION OF DILUENT
(a) Diluent is used to dilute the milk sample and dissolve the proteins.
(b) Chemicals required to prepare 10 liters of diluent are as follows:
EDTA sachet - 52.6 gm containing EDTA powder 45 0gms, disodium Hydroxide

-7.6gm Diluent
Triton-x-100 -- 0.5ml (10 drops)( Emulsifier )
Antifoam -- 0.5ml (10 drops)
2.6.1 Procedure
Take a clean 10 liter plastic container and add one liter clean water. Add contents of EDTA
sachet, containing diluents' powder for 10 liter solution add 0.5 ml of triton-X-100and 0.5 ml
antifoam. Put the lid on the container and shake it until all the chemical are dissolved, then add
liter clean water to prepare 10lt of solution and shake again to mix the solution. The PH of this
solution should be between 9.5 to 10.1 diluents before the antifoam becomes inactive.
2.7 SUB ASSEMBLIES
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Fig 2.7 EMT Tree
2.7.1 Cable assembly
In this all cables are assembled for different purposes use in EMT.
2.7.2 Charging regulator
It has two functions When battery has been discharged it limits charging current to 5 amps, and
other is When battery has been fully charged and reaches 14.1D charging regulator turns off
charging current entirely.
2.7.3 Control panel
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Output of power is given to measure PCB where current from photocell is led to 3 position
switch to IC where current is converted to voltage.
2.7.4 Power supply (power PCB)
This is a serial regulator with no current limit. Base current goes to ground via resistor.
2.7.5 Thermo block
It is used for temperature control. it consists of Heater resistance, thermo fuse NTC, steel coil.
An NTC resistor sensor is located in a hole at rear of thermo block. Temperature control of
power supply PCB contains a bridge circuit which is adjusted to balance when NTC is
50degreeC.
2.8 TECHNICAL FAULTS IN EMT
2.8.1 Rear panel checking
All components of the rear panel are checked using a millimeter. It is a part of final quality
control. Continuities of the circuit are checked.
Fig 2.8.1 Rear panel of EMT
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2.8.2 PCB calibration
2.8.2.1 Measure PCB
PCBs are programmed as per need and requirements and fat content. REPEAT and ZERO
buttons are checked for functionality.
2.8.2.2 Power Supply PCB
It has two operations, Temperature control and Voltage level supply(Low 5.9 V to 9.9V) both are
tested.
2.8.2.3 Charger PCB
It is checked for charging at 14.1 V for a 5 ampere battery.
2.8.3 Valve testing
There are three types of valve which are classified on the basis of the pressure at which they
work. These are
Red valve takes diluents to dispenser unit from inlet.

Green valve dispenser to dispenser again.
Blue valve outlet of checked sample (waste).
2.8.4 PCB cleaning
PCBs are cleaned with the chemicals meant for the same. All the dust gets removed and PCB is
ready for installation after this.
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Fig 2.8.4 Calibration of EMT
2.8.5 Mechanical testing
Mechanical connections and joints are checked. Attachments are tightened to provide
strength to the machine.
2.8.6 Life test
It is done to check mechanical faults and leakage after overall testing to see how the device
is working in practical situations.
Fig 2.8.6 Life Test Machine
2.8.7 Dispenser test
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Leakage of the milk and diluents chambers is checked. If found, dispensers are sent back for
repairing.
2.9 INSTALLATION OF EMT
Place of installation should be such that there should be sufficient space for diluents
container and battery also.
Check 1amp fuse in the main fuse holder and 10 ampere fuse in the battery.
Connect power cable on mains. Use only 12v motor car batter. Connect red lead of
battery cable to '+' pole of battery and black lead to '-' pole. Connect other end of
electronic milk tester.
Set selector switch at line/battery & mains switch at ON. Power will now be supplied to
EMT from battery. As long as main switch is at ON position, current from mains will
keep the battery charged. If the power fails, battery will still be able to supply enough
current several hours of operation.
Prepare the diluent in the container.
Connect one end of the plastic thick pipe to the INLET stub at the back of EMT and
attach the filter unit to the other end which is then placed in the diluents container.
Connect one end of the plastic thin pipe to the OUTLET stub and place
the other end in the waste container.
Place empty beaker under milk intake tube and push 'milk in' and 'MILK OUT' buttons
alternatively until no bubbles are seen in syringes. End by pushing MILK OUT button.
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Fig 2.9 Installation of EMT
2.10 PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT
(a) Set power switch at ON.
(b) Set battery switch at LINE/BATTERY.
(c) Fill bottle with diluents.
(d) Empty bucket for waste.
(e) Do not start procedure three until EMT has been switched ON at least half an hour.
(f) Setting display at 0.00.
(g) Place milk beaker under milk intake.
(h) Push milk in, milk out.(i) Move mix beaker to mix intake.
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(j) Raise and lower handle 6 times.
(k) Push repeat button so display blinks.
(l) Push zero buttons so display reads 0.00.
(m) Push repeat so display doesnt blink (one decimal).
After drying and zero setting measurement can begin. First result after zero check /zero setting
should not be recorded as it will be little low. Therefore measure the first sample after zero check
twice and record only second result. Turn the milk sample gently upside down a few times. Place
the sample under milk intake and fully pressMILK IN button. Slowly remove the sample
without touching the milk intake tube.
Place clean milk under milk intake so that it fills into notch on the side of EMT Press MIXOUT
button in all way and diluent into mix beaker. Move mix beaker to mix intake tube and position
it so that it rest in notch operator homogenizer handle up and down 3times in a steady
measurement when the handle is pressed down and the third time let it test in bottom position
and result will soon appear on the display empty the mix beaker completely and in ready for the
next sample.
2.10.1 End of Measurement Place a clean, empty mix beaker under milk intake tube and
press MILK IN and MIXOUT buttons twice alternately to fill mix beaker with diluent . Place
the mix beaker under mix take and operate the handle up and down six times to flush the cuvette.
Switch off the EMT.
2.10.2 De-airing the homogenize
Air will enter the homogenizer if the handle is raised when there is no liquid present at the mix
intake tube. Place the mix beaker under milk intake tube and press MILK IN & MILK OUT
buttons twice to fill the beaker with diluents. Now place the filled mix beaker under the MIX
INTAKE tube and raise the handle. Loosen the bleeder screw on the top of mix intake valve. Let
the handle drop by its own weight and tighten the bleeder screw again. Operate the handle three
more times up and down to be sure that all air is out of the system
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CHAPTER 3
VARIANT OF ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER
3.1 OPTICAL MILK ANALYZER
The optical milk analyzer work on the principle of photometric measurement of light allowed
passing through the measurement device in accordance with the milk density. The milk density is
measured accurately and result is displayed quickly on a display after temperature correction to
the actual sample temperature for the convenient read out by the user and the milk producer. The
instrument allows capturing of milk FAT from an electronic milk tester and displays FAT and
SNF% on optical milk analyzer LCD.
Option for display of CLR is also available. The instrument is simple, economical, reliable and
rugged for milk analysis. The instrument can be integrated with automatic milk collection unit
for quick measurement of milk parameter, processing and storing them for record. The
instrument is ideally suited for the village milk collection centers, milk chilling centers etc.
3.1.1 Features
Display % solid-non-fat (SNF).

Result is independent of sample temperature.
Simple and inexpensive method of milk analysis.
Effect of air bubbles on accuracy eliminated.
Performs 150 tests per hours.
Quick measurement and instant digital read out on LCD.
Low power consumption.
3.2 DATA PROCESSOR ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER (DPEMT)
Data processor electronic milk tester (DPEMT) comprise of four main units, electronic milk
tester, milk weighing system & remote display. EMT measures the fat content of the milk. The
membership codes of individual member are entered manually by keyboard. The weight can be
entered either manually or captured automatically. The equipment gives the print out of the
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transaction of milk brought in by each producer. Data processor electronic milk tester work on
the principle of photometric measurement of light scattered by the fat globules present in the
milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the conventional system of dilution, mixing and
photometric measurement.
Fig 3.2 Data Processor EMT
Capacity 110-130Samples per hour
Measuring Range 0-13% fat
Sample Volume 0.5 ml/test
Diluent Volume 6.5 ml/t
3.2.1 Technical Specifications
Table 3.2.1 Technical Specifications
3.2.2 Features
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Performs 110-130 sample per hour. Instant measurement and display of milk fat.
Instant calculation of amount payable.
Facility to feed milk weight directly through keypad in the absence of weighing machine.
7 segment display.
Printing facility.
Instant transmission of data remote display.
Runs on mains and battery both.
Built in battery charger. Data storage up to 800 members for days.
3.3 AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER
Automatic Electronic Milk Tester (Auto EMT) manufactured by REIL is simple, economical and
accurate milk fat testing instrument. Manual operation has been automated by using high torque
AC synchronous motor to make more reliable, rugged and to ensure proper homogenization for
higher fat sample. Percentage of fat content is displayed quickly and accurately on a digital read
out.
3.3.1 Working Principle
Automatic Electronic Milk Tester works on the photometric measurement of light scattered by
the fat globules present in the milk sample. The measuring procedure follows the automated
system of dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric.
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Fig 3.3 Automatic Milk Tester
3.3.2 Features
Auto intake of milk sample

Auto homogenization
Auto zeroing
Process indication
Quick and instant read-out
Runs on mains
Measures up to 13% fat
Requires small quantity of milk
Performs 150Min.-180Max. test per hour
Inexpensive method of testing.
3.4 MILKO SCAN MINOR
The milko scan minor is an alternative because of its lower cost and less time used per sample. It
is easy to use and has a finite performance. The results are presented to you in approximately 90
seconds and enable you to standardize milk or perform milk payment analysis on fat and other
parameters. With milko scan minor you get a simple analysis of whole range of
parameters. It is possible to prepare a sample set on the pc before collecting results and prepare a
manual sample. This makes it easy for non skilled users to operate the instruments. Analysis of
milk and cream can take place instantly. There is no need for special sample treatment and no use
of hazardous chemicals, making milko scan minor very safe and inexpensive to use.
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Fig 3.4 Milko scan Tester
3.4.1 Features
(a)Save time
With FOSS Milko Scan Minor PC software, many of the time-consuming tasks related to milk
analysis can be carried out by means of an external PC. The simplified procedures for data
collection, calibration adjustment and data storage provides for greater efficiency and
productivity in your daily work.
(b)Data collection
All results can automatically be collected, displayed and stored for calculation and adjustment of
the basic calibrations. All results can be saved, printed and exported to other software programs.
This ensures greater data security and reduces manual data entry.
(c)Export and import of data
The results can be exported for use in other software programs. Measured results can be
imported and used in various sample sets. Results can be exported and printed on any printer via
the PC.
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(d)Emulator-
Emulator software is included in order to provide training and demonstrations and for fast and
easy learning of the software.
(e)Compatibility-
The Milko Scan Minor PC software is approved to run under Windows 2000 and Windows XP
with service pack 2.
(f)Local language option-
German as well as English language is integrated in the PC software.
(g)Sample ID-
Sample ID can be entered before or after data collection.
3.4.2 Analyzer Features
(a) Pre-calibrated for milk and cream.
(b) Automatic cleaning and zero-setting.
(c) Unique FOSS Standard sample.
(d) No hazardous chemicals.
(e) Easy and cost-effective.
(f) Analysis of cold samples.
3.4.3 PC SOFTWARE FEATURES
(a) Automatic data collection
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(b) Calibration adjustment
(c) Import/export of results
(d) Print-out via PC
3.4.4 APPLICATIONS
(a) Cows milk
(b) Skim milk
(c) Buffalo milk
(d) Goats milk
3.4.5 PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURE
(a) Fat
(b)Protein
(c) Lactose
(d) Total solids
(e) Solids non-fat
(f) Freezing point depression
(g) Simple analysis of milk composition with milko-scan minor.
CHAPTER4
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RENEWABLE ENERGY DIVISION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The REIL entered into the solar photovoltaic industry in 1985.It started its operation by setting
up a manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded its area of operations through
manufacture of balance of systems for large number of applications, utilizing its electronics
product manufacturing facility. The company products are result of its own in-house
development efforts. The company has a capacity of 2MW per year on single shift basis. Solar
photovoltaic based application products, sub-systems most of which were developed in-house, in
SPV segment, the company manufacture SOV modules and application systems including
domestic lighting system, street lighting system, chargeable power packs for the rural, telecom,
railway & defense sectors.
Fig 4.1 Solar panel
4.2 SILICON
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Silicon is important part of solar cell. Solar cell is made up of silicon. It has some special
chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon has 14 electrons,
arranged in three different shells. The first two shells, those closest to the center, are completely
full. The outer shell is only half full, having only four electrons. A silicon atom will always
look for ways to fill up its last shell (which would like to have eight electrons).To do this it will
share electrons with four of its neighbors silicon atoms. Its like every atom holds hands with its
neighbors, except that in this case, each atoms has four hands joined to four neighbors. Pure
silicon is poor conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are free to move about, as
electrons are in good conductors such as copper. Instead, the electrons are all locked in the
crystalline structure.
Fig 4.2 Silicon Structure
4.2.1 Silicon in Solar Cell
A solar cell has silicon with impurities other atoms mixed in with the silicon atoms. Consider
silicon with an atom of phosphorous here and there, may be one for every million silicon atoms.
Phosphorous has five electrons in its outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbor
atoms, but in a sense, the phosphorous has one electron that doesnt have anyone to hold hands
with. It doesnt form part of bond, but there is a positive protein the phosphorous
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nucleus holding it in place. When energy is added to pure silicon, as in the form of heat, it can
cause a few electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in
each case. These electrons then wander randomly around the crystalline lattice looking for
another hole to fall into. These electrons are called free carriers, and can carry electrical current.
There are so few of them in pure silicon, however, that they arent very useful. It turns out that it
takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of our extra phosphorous electrons because they arent
tied up in a bond their neighbors arent holding them back. As a result, most of these electrons do
break free, and we have a lot more free carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The process
of adding impurities on purpose is called doping and when doped with phosphorous, the
resulting silicon is called N- type because of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped
silicon is a much better conductor than pure silicon. That is only one part of solar cell is N-type
the other part is doped with Boron; which has only three electrons in its outer shell instead of
four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having free electrons, P-type silicon has free holes.
Holes carry the opposite (positive) charge, they move around just like electrons do.
4.2.2 N-Type plus P-Type Silicon
In photovoltaic module both N-type silicon and P- type silicon. Photovoltaic cell always has at
least one electric field. Without an electric field, the cell wouldnt work and this electric field is
forms when the N- type and P-type silicon are in contact. The free electrons in the N side looks
all holes to fall into, the free holes on P side, and theres a mad rush to fill the min. Silicon was
all electrically neutral. The extra electrons were balanced out by the extra protons in the
phosphorous and the missing electrons (holes) were balanced out by the missing protons in the
Boron. When the and electrons mix at the junction between N- type and P- type silicon, however,
that neutrality is disrupted. At the junction electrons and protons are mix and form a barrier,
making it harder and harder for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side.
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Fig 4.2.2 N Type + P Type SI
4.3 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
PV systems are categorized into three types: autonomous, hybrid and grid-connected.
4.3.1 Autonomous system
Autonomous systems are completely independent of other power sources. These types of systems
are generally used to power remote homes, cottages or lodges as well as in applications such as
remote monitoring and water pumping. In most cases, an autonomous system will require
batteries for storage. Such systems are particularly useful and cost- effective for summer
applications, when access to a site is difficult or costly, or when maintenance needs to be
minimized.
4.3.2 Hybrid system
Hybrid systems receive a portion of their power from one or more additional sources. In
practice, PV modules are often paired with wind generator or a fuel-fired generator. Such
systems usually require batteries for storage. They are most appropriate when energy demand is
high (in the winter or year-round), when power must be available on demand.
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Fig 4.3(b) Hybrid Power System
4.3.3 Grid-connected System
It allows you to reduce your consumption from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed
the surplus energy back into the grid. Since power is normally stored in the grid itself, batteries
are not necessary unless you want some form of autonomous power during outages. These
systems are used in buildings, homes or cottages.
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Fig 4.3(c) Grid Connected System
4.4 SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL
Solar cells, also called photovoltaics (PV) by solar cell scientists, convert sunlight directly into
electricity. Solar cells are often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of
semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips. When sunlight is absorbed by
these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons
to flow through the material to produce electricity. This process of converting light (photons) to
electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect. To utilize this resource of energy,
REIL use solar cells, which convert Solar Energy into Electrical Energy. A solar generates
approximately 0.5 volts. Higher voltage and current are obtained by connecting these cells in
series or in parallel.
AIET/ECE/PTS/33
Fig4.4 Working of Solar photovoltaic cell
4.4.1 Types of Cell
Solar cells can be categorized into five classes, depending upon their crystal structure.
(a)High Efficiency Silicon Cell
The purification of Si in this type of cell is very high. Hence its efficiency is high. It is used for
laboratory devices having efficiency up to 30%. Example cadmium telluride efficiency is 28%.
(b)Crystalline Silicon Cell
It has high mechanical strength and these are less degraded with time. This is made using
crystallization of Si around one Si crystal; hence it is called Single Crystalline Si Cell. It is best
suited for general purpose application. Float zone - efficiency is 23%CZ (commercial)
efficiency is 13%.
AIET/ECE/PTS/34
Fig 4.4.1(b) Crystalline silicon cell
(c)Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell
It is made by crystallization of Si around many crystals of silicon. It has less mechanical strength
than single Crystalline Silicon material, efficiency of this cell is 12 %.
Fig 4.4.1(c) Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell
(d) Amorphous Silicon Cell
This cell doesnt have any Si crystal. Simply spreading a layer of p-type Si powder, and then N-
type Si powder over it. Its mechanical strength is very low. Efficiency is 20%.
AIET/ECE/PTS/35
Fig 4.4.1(d) Amorphous Silicon Cell
(e) Thin Film Silicon Cell
It is made by very thin film of Si p-type and n-type materials and is used for special purpose.
Efficiency is 25 %.
Fig 4.4.1(e) Thin Film Silicon Cell
4.5 TYPES OF DIFFERENT MODULES USED
AIET/ECE/PTS/36
There is different type of solar module which I saw in REIL during my summer Vocational
training period. A group of cells connected in series or in parallel and then properly laminated
over a glass after curing is known as module. These modules are then fitted onto the areas
receiving sunlight. More often these are placed so that upper part of the module is in the South
Direction. Solar modules of different wattage and made as per orders and requirements. These
are all designed to charge a 12-V battery. The approximation o/p voltage of a module is 16V-18V.
Modules are made of following powers.
(a)18 Watt Module
For making this, a total of 36 cells are connected in series. The o/p voltage
is approximately 0.45V to 0.5V and the o/p current is approx. 2.2A.This 36
cell series is called a string the o/p of this string, when illuminated by the
sunlight is found to be approx. 38watts. It has 4 rows, each containing 9
cells.
(b) 75 Watt Module
Here also, a total of 36 cells are connected in series, which is called string.
But the cells used are Suedo-Square having o/p voltage0.45V-0.5V &o/p
current 4.5A. The o/p power of the string is found to be approx. 75 watts. It
also has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.
(c) 150 Watt Module
These are also designed by Suedo-Square cells. A total number of 72 cells

are connected in series. The module has 6 rows and each row contain 12
cells. Thus a total of 12*6=72 cells are used. The o/p voltage, current and
power of each cell is the same as that of 75-watt module. The total power
obtained is approx. 150 watts.
4.6 CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL
AIET/ECE/PTS/37
Solar cell is a simple p-n junction. It is made up of silicon, since in Si, the minority carrier
concentration is low, hence they do not disturb the flow of electrons and holes, generated by the
solar energy. Less charge carriers can get recombined due to low minority carrier concentration
and we get higher value of current and power. For making p-n junction it is doped with gaseous
Boron (p-type) from one side and solid phosphorous (n-type) from other side. The doping
concentration is taken same for both the impurities. Due to different doping state difference of
impurities (i.e. gaseous and solid), a one side shifted p-n junction is formed. This junction is
shifted towards the n-side. Hence, the light is always made to incident at the n-side, so that the
photons can reach the junction. When the high-energy photons reach the depletion region, they
impart sufficient energy to an electron to break its covalent bond. This electron comes in
conduction band and begins to behave free electron. At the same instant, a hole is also generated
due to broken covalent bond.
Fig4.6 Construction of solar panel
Hence, we can say that two charge carriers are generated by one high-energy photon. These
carriers move to opposite direction due to potential barrier at the junction and constitute a
current. One must condition of generation of mobile charge carrier is that the incident photon
must have higher energy than the band gap of the semiconductor. The induced current is directly
AIET/ECE/PTS/38
proportional to the surface area of the cell, at which the light is incident. A bare solar cell has
some conducting lines made up of Silver oxide for collection of charge carriers from all the
portions of the surface. These carriers are supplied to the bus bar. This is the place, from where
the external terminals are connected by using copper strips. These cells are made up in different
shapes and sizes, like circular, square, suedo-square, cut shaped etc. In these, Psuedo-Square is
optimized size between circular and square to utilize most of the surface area & for less wastage
in the process of shaping. The maximum conversion efficiency for laboratory devices is up to
20%, but for commercial cells, it lies between 10% to 15%.
4.7 SPV MODULE
Photovoltaics (or PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of solar
cells for energy by converting solar energy (sunlight, including ultra violet radiation) directly
into electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean sources of energy, the manufacture of solar
cells and photovoltaic arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaics is the
direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property
known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release
electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current result that can be used as
electricity.
Fig 4.7 SPV Module
AIET/ECE/PTS/39
Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels.. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules
assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photo voltaic array is the complete power-
generating unit, consisting of any number of P materials.
4.8 PROCESS FOR PRODUCTION OF SPV MODULE
The manufacturing process for Solar cell module is not much typical but requires a careful
handling since the sub-assemblies are costlier. A bare cell is expensive and hence requires a
careful handling. The manufacturing process of a solar power module contains the following
steps as-
4.8.1 Surface texturing-
Forming pyramid like structure on Si wafer does it. This helps in decreasing the top surface
reflection of solar radiation from the cell surface.
4.8.2 P-n junction formation-
To a p type base of Si wafer, an n type usually phosphorus is diffused on it.
4.8.3 Back p+ junction formation-
This is done by depositing an Aluminum layer and alloying it to the wafer at about800degreeC
4.8.4 Antireflection layer deposition-
It can be deposited before or after the formation of metal contacts. Usually any dielectric
material having refractive index between Silicon & glass is used with an optimum thickness of
70nm.Materials used are Titanium Oxide, Tantalum oxide, Silicon Nitride and Aluminum oxide.
AIET/ECE/PTS/40
4.8.5 Tabbing-
This is the process of making terminals of a bare cell by soldering copper strips to the bus bar.
Fig 4.8.5 Tabbing
4.8.6 Row making-
A row of nine cells is made by connecting positive surface of one cell to the negative surface of
another cell.
Fig 4.8.6 Row making
4.8.7 Stringing-
Four rows are connected in series to give a total of 36 cells in series connection. This assembly is
called a string and the process is called Stringing.
AIET/ECE/PTS/41
Fig 4.8.7 Stringing Process
4.8.7.1 String checking
This String is checked visually for any kind of faults, which are as follows-
This String is checked visually for any kind of faults, which are as follows-
Reverse String
Dry Point
Dry Soldering
Loose Connection
Chip (Micro Broken)
4.8.7.2 Lay Up
Lay Up is a process of placing laminating material to the either side of the string. The laminating
materials are as listed
Top Glass (Toughened Glass)

E.V.A. (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate) sheet
Crane Glass
AIET/ECE/PTS/42
Fig 4.8.8 Lamination Machine
4.8.9 Curing
This process comes after the lamination to attain the full strength of laminating material. For this,
the module is placed into 120degree temperature for 20 minutes.
Fig 4.8.9 Curing Machine
4.8.10 Trimming
The resultant module from curing process has some extra laminating materials. These materials
are then cut and the final module is then obtained.
4.8.11 Electrical Inspection
AIET/ECE/PTS/43
This inspection is done to check the output performance of the module
4.8.12 Channeling
Now to provide structural support to the module, channels are fixed around it. These channels
prevent any damage to the module. A terminal box is also fitted for external connections and for
mounting safety diodes and then the final product is cleaned and sent to and sent to he finished
goods store.
4.9 FEATURES OF SPV CELLS
(a) High efficiency mono crystalline Silicon Solar Cells connected in series.
(b) Lamination using TEDLAR, Crane glass and EVA provides environmental protection.
(c) Solar cells laminated between UV resistant polymer (EVA) and high transitivity toughened
glass surface.
(d) Rugged weather proof nylon terminal box for output connections.
(e) Anodized aluminum frame provides structural support for mounting and shock resistance.
(f) Manufactured to stringent quality standards and tested to withstand adverse environmental
conditions.
AIET/ECE/PTS/44
Fig 4.9 Solar Cell Uses
4.10 APPLICATIONS OF SPV
Domestic lighting systems

Street lighting
Water pumping
Battery charging
Community TV system
Microwave repeater station
Railway signaling and lighting systems
Rural radio phones and exchanges
Offshore platforms
Desalination plants
Cathode protection systems
Portable lantern
Power pack for village electrification
Crop sprayer
Sign boards & Glow signals
AIET/ECE/PTS/45
CHAPTER 5
QUALITY ASSURANCE & ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Every company has a cell for checking the quality of its good, so that the consumers can use the
product without any difficult for a long time. REIL has a department for quality assurance and
control. I also went through this department where I saw the various function of this department.
In REIL, Q.A. department has two major operations.
(a) Solar Module Checking.
(b) EMT Checking.
5.2 INWARD GOODS CHECKING
The raw material bought by REIL for the production of EMT and Solar Module are firstly
checked, if they are faulty or not. If they are faulty, they are returned otherwise forwarded to
AIET/ECE/PTS/46
manufacturing cell. It called inward goods checking. In this type of checking, out of a group of
say 60 pieces, 5 pieces are checked randomly. If they all are found to be good, then all are passed
to production department, and if not then, all pieces are checked one by one. The faulty pieces
are forwarded for replacement. Subassembly Quality Control: This department also checks the
quality of subassemblies, made by the raw goods by REIL. Final Goods Inspection: After the
final product is obtained; it is again checked for quality control.
5.2.1 SPV Checking
It has two major phases.
(a) Inward Goods Checking- first of all, the bare cells are checked for required quality.
(b) String Checking- After making string, it is checked visually. The main faults in a string are-
Reverse String.
Loose Connection.
CHAPTER 6
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
6.1 SPOT BILLING MACHINE
The Spot Billing Machine (SBM) is a Hand Held Computer, in which the program is stored long
with all the relevant data, for issue of electricity bills, right at the custom remises, immediately
after the meter reading is read and input to SBM. The storage of program and data is done
through a Personal Computer (Host PC) and is called pre-journey configuration for the specific
meter-reader route, user-connection record including type of connection, applicable tariff,
previous reading, past payments etc. The master data pertaining to the tariff tables, type of
connection, consumer profile are stored on the Host PC, and made available for uploading on to
the SBM at the time of configuration. Once the pre-configuration is over the SBM is ready for
field operations. The meter-reader reports at the consumer site, accesses the customers account
on SBM and record the current reading. On the basis of the last reading and tariff structure, a bill
AIET/ECE/PTS/47
would be generated instantly. Payment in non-cash mode can also be collected then and there. In
such case, the receipt would also be generated.
Fig 6.1 Spot billing machine
The payment could be collected through non-cash modes. A collection report can be prepared at
the end of trip. After a journey is over the transaction data files are transferred from SBM to the
Host PC, over a communication cable connected to serial communication port. The SBM
requires about three hours for full charging after which it can be used continuously for 7-8 hours.
A pre-implementation study is a pre-requisite for such projects, to identify the system
requirements and user requirements. The customization can be done as per the user requirements.
6.1.1 Specifications
(a) High Speed CPU
(b) 256 KB program memory
(c) 4 MB data memory
(d) Real Time Clock
AIET/ECE/PTS/48
(e) LCD display unit (4 rows x 20 character) with backlight
(f) 30 Keys soft silicon rubber Keypad
(g) High speed serial port / program port (115 Kbps)
(h) Built-in 24 column Impact printer
(i) Built in 2.2 AH Lithium-Ion or 1.7 AH Ni MH battery
6.1.2 Features
(a) The bill is immediately generated.
(b) The collection of dues, through non-cash instruments, is performed in the field.
(c) Variety of reports can be prepared.
(d) Utility Bill with all relevant details.
(e) Receipt against the Bill.
(f) Day end Collection report.
(g) Duplicate receipt.
6.2 Solar Water Pumping System
Solar photovoltaic water pumping system is modular, flexible and are of two basic types i.e.
Shallow well type & Deep well type. The pumping system are extremely rugged, maintenance
free & do not need any other external source of power. D.C. power is generated at site itself and
fed to the pump. They are ideally suitable for those areas where conventional grid supply is
either erratic or non-existent. Also SPV pumps require only onetime investment with no
recurring cost and have a long life.
6.2.1 Applications
(a) Drinking water.
AIET/ECE/PTS/49
(b) Irrigation.
(c) Agriculture related use.
(d) Horticulture.
(e) Animal Husbandry.
(f) Poultry farming.
(g) High value corps
6.3 SPV RAILWAY SIGNALING SYSTEM
SPV system provides reliable and economical power for energizing the signal motor and lamps
at isolated railway signals that are far from grid power. REIL has supplied and installed over 340
SPV Signaling Systems on various sections of Western Railways. These systems are working
satisfactorily under adverse climatic conditions of very high temperature, dust-storms, etc.
Fig 6.3 Railway signaling system
AIET/ECE/PTS/50
6.3.1 Specifications
Each system consists of the following:
(a) SPV Module - 35Wp
(b) Battery - 12V, 80AH
(c) Signaling PCB to energies front & back bulb with automatic dusk to dawn switching
(d) Charge control unit.
6.3.2 Features
(a) Automatic switching and hence unmanned operation.
(b) Optimal use of grid power.
(c) Energy saving up to 30%.
(d) Enhancement of pole-lamp life.
(e) Highly efficient, reliable and economical.
6.4 SPV Dusk-Dawn system
Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV) Dusk Dawn System is an energy saving device used for automatic
switching of street lighting systems, making proper use of grid power and increasing the life of
the lamps by switching the street lights for a optimum period .The system is highly reliable and
efficient for years of continuous flaw-less operation. The system's operation is based on sensing
the ambient light level which actuates the electronic controller to switch ON the street lights in
the evening and switch OFF in the morning.
AIET/ECE/PTS/51
Fig 6.4 SPV dusk-dawn system
The sensor is totally maintenance free and encapsulated in an environment proof housing making
it more reliable even in adverse atmospheric conditions. The system has the advantage of
automatic setting of switching timings irrespective of whether it is winter or summer, thus
making it a totally unmanned operation. Once a setting for a particular darkness level is done, it
remains unchanged throughout the year.
6.4.1 Features
(a) Automatic switching and hence unmanned
(b) Optimal use of grid power.
(c) Energy saving up to 30%.
(d) Enhancement of pole-lamp life.
(e) Highly efficient, reliable and economical.
6.5 SPV DOMESTIC LIGHTENING SYSTEM
This system provides un-interrupted light and is completely noiseless, smoke-free and free from
fire hazards. The independent lighting system consisting of 2 CFL fixtures, a storage battery
powered by the SPV Module provides 4 hours of light per day. During day time SPV module
charges the battery. At night battery operates CFL bulbs and provides light in remote areas.
AIET/ECE/PTS/52
Fig 6.5 SPV Domestic lightening System
6.5.1 Applications
(a) Rural areas which have no grid supply.
(b) Farm Houses
(c) Urban households which face frequent power cuts.
(d) Out-of-the-way holiday locations.
(e) Holiday cottages & caravans.
CONCLUSION
The summer training of 4 weeks in REIL played an important role to develop myself. It was a
golden opportunity for me to get the practical knowledge and hands on experience from the
things about which I had theoretical knowledge from the course curriculum.
Hence I can say that taking training in such an organization proved to be very beneficial for me.
All those that we read in our books theoretically, by this training I observed all those practically.
AIET/ECE/PTS/53
I learnt quite a lot about agro-electronics products such as Electronic Milk Tester and also
renewable energy source as SPV module.
The first phase of training has proved to be quite fruitful. It provided an opportunity to encounter
with such important machines. The architecture of company has various units. They are linked
and controlled working of whole plant is making the student realize that engineering is not just
learning the structural description and working of various machines. But the greater part is
planning proper management.
I am very grateful to those persons who helped directly & indirectly in the successful completion
of this practical training and this will surely be fruitful in future.
REFERENCE TABLE
SITES
http://www.inelrel.com/renewable_energy.html
http://www.webstatschecker.com/stats/keyword/reil_jaipur
http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-news/top-solar-news.html
AIET/ECE/PTS/54
www.reilsolar.com
www.enfsolar.com/directory/panel/2559
AIET/ECE/PTS/55

EMT & Solar Energy Production

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EMT & Solar Panel Production

Fig 1.1 View of REIL

1.2 PRODUCT IN WHICH REIL IS INVOLVED

(a) Electronic Milk Tester

(b) Automatic Milk Collection Station (AMCS)

(c) Data Processor- Electronic Milk Tester

(d) Electronic SNF Tester

(e) Solar Photo Voltaic Modules (SPV)

(f) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

(g) Spot Billing Machine

AGRO DAIRY DIVISION

2.2 ELECTRONIC MILK TESTER

Fig 2.2(a) Electronic milk fat tester

Fig 2.2(b) EMT assembly room

2.3 FEATURES OF EMT

Auto zero facility

Instant calculation of amount payable

Fig 2.3 Features of EMT

2.4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF EM

Performance Data Requirements

Measuring 0-13%fat Power Supply AC: 220-24OV

battery will last for

Capacity 120-150 Ambient 5-45 C

Accuracy(Sd) 0.06% for 0-5% fat Dimensions 23x31x53

0.20% for 8-13%

Repeatability(Sd) 0.03% for 0-5% fat Space 60x80

0.08% for 8-13% fat

Sample volume 0.5 ml/test Weight 16 kg

Table 2.4 Technical specifications of EMT

2.5 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EMT

Fig 2.5 Front view of EMT

Different assemblies of EMT are as follows-

Fig 2.5.1 Assembly of photometer

Fig 2.5.3 Photocell

2.5.4 Temperature testing (thermo block)

Fig 2.5.4 Thermo block

2.6 PREPARATION OF DILUENT

(b) Chemicals required to prepare 10 liters of diluent are as follows:

EDTA sachet - 52.6 gm containing EDTA powder 45 0gms, disodium Hydroxide

2.7 SUB ASSEMBLIES

Fig 2.7 EMT Tree

2.7.1 Cable assembly

2.7.2 Charging regulator

2.7.3 Control panel

2.7.4 Power supply (power PCB)

2.7.5 Thermo block

2.8 TECHNICAL FAULTS IN EMT

2.8.1 Rear panel checking

Fig 2.8.1 Rear panel of EMT

2.8.2 PCB calibration

2.8.2.1 Measure PCB

2.8.2.2 Power Supply PCB

2.8.2.3 Charger PCB

It is checked for charging at 14.1 V for a 5 ampere battery.

2.8.3 Valve testing

Red valve takes diluents to dispenser unit from inlet.

2.8.4 PCB cleaning

Fig 2.8.4 Calibration of EMT

2.8.5 Mechanical testing

strength to the machine.

2.8.6 Life test

is working in practical situations.

Fig 2.8.6 Life Test Machine