!"# $%  &'(# )"*!
+,-'*./ 0!"! 1'22#/ 3#4( +5*/ +672,89: ;<<

=>?@AB>CD E FG HG I>DJKL MNONPN

QRSSTUUTR VWXY Z[ \[ ]^_`^ abTcUb^ dWVe X^Y fbRg^h
iCC?j>DkB>CD E IKklmDB knk IK?>okpB kok
QRRXe TV^qRXrQsXXTt shsSYuWvqwRRc^Ve uxZ
Z[ \[ ]^_`^ abTcUb^ dWVe X^Y fbRg^h
Imyz@AB{iCC?j>DkBC? E =?G |?kj@@} ~kz kkB

Z[ \[ ]^_`^ abTcUb^ dWVe X^Y fbRg^h

Imyz@AB{iC{ACC?j>DkBC?p E F@@B k m} B k IKkpK> >klk? ~G |G ?>}kBK>

Z[ \[ ]^_`^ abTcUb^ dWVe=X^Y fbRg^h

?>B@ ?p \XTVtTg^hY Rq [ QRhhWWY e^TgsX^Y TUqq [ ]^TUWV Y
]Wqe Y Tt W \XTVtTg^hY TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRh RX
vtWhhWVtWY abT gsXT Y \XTVtTg^hY x[f[a[ QRhhWWY ^Xe^
xWtq sXWX Rq [ \[[f[u[Y fbRg^h
xWtq sXWXY Rq [ Z^b^X^V^ \X^q^g TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRhY fbRg^h
xWtq sXWXY Rq Z^b^X^V^ \X^q^g TbWX aWtRVe^X`
atbRRhY fbRg^h Y xWtq sXWXY Rq [ a^XR_ TVT ^Te s TbWX
aWtRVe^X` atbRRhY fbRg^h xWtq sXWXY Rq [ TbWX
aWtRVe^X` atbRRhYV^Ve ^^XY fbRg^h t \XTVtTg^hY Rq [
TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRhY d^XRVe Y fbRg^h xWtq sXWXY Rq [
TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRhY aWRVT Z^h^ Y xWtq sXWXY Rq [
ch^`^ ZRe Wh TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRhY a^Th^ V^ Y
xWtq sXWX Rq [ TbWX aWtRVe^X` atbRRhRX vtWhhWVtWY aWbRXW
xWtq sXWXY a^X^U^q T Te`^ Z^Ve TXY W^U Y

FCj@ ?kBC?p \XR[Y \b`UTtUY \[[ QRhhWWYSw^bY ZRXWV^

Uqq [ \XR[Y f^Xc^q shh^ bTU b^Te`^h^`^ fbRg^h

Uqq [ \XR[Y Rq [ ZRq Th^ hT`^V Z^b^Te`^h^`^Y fbRg^h
j>BC?p \XR[ f^Xc^q shh^ bTU b^Te`^h^`^
\XR[Y fbWWSX^R SwWe c^XTU b^Te`^h^`^Y X^
Uqq [\XR[Y QbWSTUq X` Y Rq WWq^V_^hT TXhU QRhhWW fbRg^h
?kDpnkBC?p \XR[ f^Xc^q shh^ bTU b^Te`^h^`^ \XR[Y

]WTR V^h QRhhWW fbRg^h \XR[Y ]WTR V^h QRhhWW fbRg^h

Uqq [ \XR[Y Rq [ WWq^V_^hT TXhU \[[ QRhhWWY fbRg^h
iCo@ ? |kJ@ =@p>JD Y Z[ \[ ]^_`^ abTcUb^ dWVe X^Y fbRg^h

?k}K>Ap
=@p>JD>DJ Y Z[\[ ^^XY fbRg^h



 



 
 
   ! "## $#%&'%
()* +,* -./012 345,65 789:;<9=
>?;<@;ABB:C :? =9D E:;@FC?;G H:I8@; JBKF9C :? =G L?MC ?N OPQP
LR9D:? ;
(S * +,* T6,5. 3 01U 4 V4.W245,X O@<Y@;
>?;<@; Z:F @ 789=F@DD? ;G E@M: A 8:D[9 \=:M @;]:C[G ^=B?;@
(_ * `,.a * T250 b501 O@<Y@;
>?;<@; Q;:=F:c9DG d8;: Z9:] 8=9M 7?DD@I@G ^=B?;@
(e * +,* 3 Wf45g 4 -Whi5 O@<Y@;
E@9=G dC KB@=C j @DN9;@G E@M: A 8:D[9 \=:M @;]:C[G ^=B?;@
(k * +,* l3 6i *m n015X o5p5,56 O@<Y@;
Q;?N @]]?; 9=B H@9B ?N C8@ E@c9;C <@=CqH:=B:G
d8;: d9C[9 d9: j?<@=r] 7?DD@I@G s8?c9D
(t * `,.a * 3 W,ug 4v5, 345,65 O@<Y@;
>?;<@; Z:F @ 789=F@DD? ;G
w9=: EK;I9R9C : Z:] 8R9M:B[9D9[9G x9Y9DcK;
(y * +,* `,5z5g 4 n5,i W105 O@<Y@;
A]]:]C9=C L@=@;9D O9=9I@;G ^Es^G s8?c9D
({ * +,* |516. 451 Th524X5X5 O@<Y@;
JBKF9C :? =:]C 9=B >?;<@; E@cKC[ 789:;<9=G
OPQP d9=]};:C s?9;BG s8?c9D
(~ * 34,0 n45U0,5i4 W6,5v5i O@<Y@;
JBKF9C :? =:]C G s8?c9D
)( * V. 660gg0. 1u, O@<Y@;
w9[9 d8:}] 89 @=B;9G s8?c9D d@F;@C9;[
))* V. 660gg0. 1u, O@<Y@;
QKYD:F ^=]C ;KFC :? =G OPQPG s8?c9D
)S * 3u,ui5,X O@<Y@;
s?9;B ?N d@F?=B9;[ JBKF9C :? =G OPQPG s8?c9D
)_ * |515U01U +0,ui. , O@<Y@;
OPQP @C Y??} 7?;c?;9C :? =G s8?c9D
)e * ouh,ugu1i5i 0/u 7Jw O@<Y@;
)k * ouh,ugu1i5i 0/u q 9M?B9[9 Z:B[9D9[9 d9=IC89= O@<Y@;
)t * +,* `,u6 n45,5i 0 LK@]C
JBKF9C :? =:]C 9=B O@<Y@;G O@<Y@;
dC9C @ @M@D L@=@;9D s?B[ 9=B j?;}:=I 7?<<:CC @@G
d9;M9 d8:}] 89 AY8:[9=G O9B 8[9 Q;9B@] 8



 
No. Chapter Page No.
 CHAPTER - 1

Science and its History

1.1 History of Science

The depiction of nature has been given a prime importance
in the Indian literature. Vedas are the oldest known literature in
the world. They are valuable resources of available knowledge
in the early stages of human civilization. A study of the ancient
Indian literature reveals the existence of a glorious scientific
culture during the period. In fact ancient India had taken a leading
role in the study of science and in its application to human
welfare.
Let us Learn Vedas, Upnishads and other literature of the vedic period
reflect the importance given to the scientific outlook by Indian
saints. Science has been defined as a systematic knowledge of
1.1 History of
nature in the ancient Indian literature .
Science
Aryabhatta made significant contribution, during the 5th
1.2 Discoveries in
century, in the field of mathematics & science. Some of his
Science and
noteworthy contributions included the calculation of the value
Their Impact
of , gravitational attraction, diameter of earth, solar & lunar
on our Life
eclipses, axial rotation of earth, trignometry etc. He also worked
1.3 Life sketch of on several principles in algebra.
scientists
The word Bhoogol was used in the Indian Granthas
1.4 Major thaousands of years ago Bhaskaracharya II had given the concept
Scientific of gravitational principles and explanations of natural
Institutions phenomenon much earlier than Newton. A number of theorems
1.5 Science in the on motion of objects were also written in the ancient
Modern Aryabhattiya literature. Indians also made significant
Context contribution in surgery. Sushrut, for example worked on several
techniques related to surgery. His book Sushrut Sanhita gives
a detailed account of the surgical equipments and their
applications. Sushrut can therefore, be regarded as the father of
surgery.
Ancient Indian Scientists also worked on metallurgy and

Chapter-1 (P-1)
chemistry. The ancient text book Vrihat Sanhita written by Varah Mihir describes
application of hard plaster and polishing of hard stones. The pillar of Ashoka is an
outstanding example of these principles. The iron pillar situated at Mehrauli, New Delhi is
another testimony of the capability of Indian scientists of fourth century in the area of iron
metallurgy. This pillar is 8.3 m in height and 6 tons in weight. The diameter of its base is 48
cm while the top end has a diameter of 29 cm. It has successfully weathered ageing for
almost 1600 years without catching rust. This pillar is now situated in the campus
surrounding Qutub Minar of Delhi. There are several such pillars at Dhar, Mandav etc. In
fact Indians had the knowledge and capability of making metals and metal alloys even before
3000 BC. Use of copper and bronze in making statues was prevalent in India almost before
2000 BC. It is said that there were, about 2000 furnaces in India, in the 18th century, where
high quality iron was made. Nagarjun in the year 1700 AD, wrote a book entitled Ras
Ratnakar in which he gave detailed description of processes for distillation, extraction
and purification of metals. He also discussed various experiments on application of mercury
in metallurgy.
The ancient Indian literature, written during 1000 BC, contains discussion on the
concepts related to zero, algebra & several other mathematical algorithm. The book entitled
Yantra Sarvaswa written by Bardwaj is related to aeronautical engineering. In fact, the
Indians in the ancient period made mammoth contribution in science and other fields. It is
believed that the library at Nalanda in the medieval India had 70 lakhs of books.
1.2 The Impact of Scientific Discoveries on Life :
The discoveries in science have proved to be a boon for the mankind. They have made
our life more comfortable.
The revolution in communication technology has helped us in managing natural
disasters. The use of technology in forecasting likely disasters has also helped in minimizing
the damages to life & property. The advent of internet and mobile phones has made this
world closer. It has also helped in saving valuable time, whereas the international trade has
gained momentum by the faster available means of transport. in comparision to the earliar
means of sea route international trade at one time. Radio and televisions have become a
necessary part of our life.
The entertainment, educational, sports and news channels have enabled us to get the
latest development around us. Computers have also proved to be of immense use in account
keeping and computation.
The agriculture sector has also reaped the benefits of science & technology New
types of farm equipments, improved variety of seeds, fertilizers, insectisides & pesticides
etc have increased the agricultural production and also made us self reliant.
We can thus say that the impact of scientific discoveries is universal and has affected
all of our activities ever since the dawn of civilisationand made our thinking logical.

Chapter-1 (P-2)
1.3 Life Sketch of Some Scientists :
1. Maharshi Kanad : He is believed to belong to the period 600 BC. Born in the village
Prabhav near Allahabad in the Gotra of saint Kashyap. His book entitled Vaisheshik
Darshan is considered to be an important scientific contibution. Maharshi Kanad
may be called the first person to explain the atomistic concept of matter. According
to him all matter in nature is made of molecules, which cannot have independent
existence. The human senses are unable to detect them. Maharshi Kanad named these
molecules as Mool Kananam.
2. Aryabhatta : Aryabhatta was born in the year 476 AD in old Kusumapur city (presently
known as Patna) in Bihar. He is known for his valuable contibutions in mathematics,
algebra and astronomy. He wrote the book Arya Bhatteeyam at the age of 23 year.
This book contains 121 shlokas. The book was divided into four parts namely: Gitikapad,
Ganitpad, Kal Kriya Pad, and Gol pad. Square, cube root, side of angle etc, have also
been discussed in the book. Aryabhatta also originated Trigonometry and Algebra. The
method of expressing physical quantities by alphabets was originated by Aryabhatta.
He calculated the value of as 3.1416 which is close to the value accepted even
today. Aryabhatta also discussed principles of astronomy in part Golpad of his book.
He rejected the prevalent belief that the earth is stationary and flat. Instead he
propounded that the earth is round in shape and rotates around its axis. Aryabhatta also
said that the earth moves in its orbit, inclined to its axis of rotation. The principles of
astronomy given by Aryabhatta, were also accepted by Arabs, during 8th & 9th century.
The first Indian satellite was named after him to honour his contributions to science
and mathematics.
3. Nagarjun : Nagarjun was a great chemist of ancient India. He is believed to have been
born in Chhattisgarh. However, Huan Sang, the 7th century Chinese traveller to India,
suggested that Nagarjun was born in South Kaushal in the first century A.D. Nagarjun
subsequently shifted to Patliputra where he earned great fame as a scientist. He is
considered as a pioneer of metallurgy and alchemy in ancient India. Arya Dev was his
main disciple.
4. Varahmihir : Varahmihir was born in a place called Kapitthala, 20 km away from
Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. His fathers name was Aditya Das. He was one of the nine
jewels in the court of the famous king Vikramaditya. His major contributions were in
the field of astronomy, mathematics and astrology. He wrote the famous book on
astronomy entitled Panch-Siddhantika in the year 505 AD. He also started a new
Indian almanac. Varahmihir also made significant contribution in mathematics including
the concept of zero and infinity.

Chapter-1 (P-3)
5. Brahmgupta : Brahmgupta was said to be an astronomer of the king of Ujjain. He
wrote the book entitled Brahm Sphut Siddhant which was the revised and enlarged
version of another famous book Brahm Siddhanta. He also wrote another book on
astronomy and mathematics entitled Karna Khandkhadhak. He is also regarded as
the originator of numerical analysis. Brahmgupta also made significant contributions
to algebra and geometry. He was conferred the title Ganak Chakra Choodamani by
the great mathematician Bhaskar.
6. Srinivas Ramanujan : Ramanujan was born on 22 December 1887 in a small village
called Erode near Chennai. He was a brilliant mathematician and child prodigy. As a
student he asked a question What will be the result of dividing zero by itself?. This
gave birth to a new chapter in mathematics. He made a number of noteworthy
contributions to number theory while working at Cambridge University, London, He
was elected as the fellow of the Royal Society, London, on 28th February 1918.
Ramanujan took his last breath in Kumbkonam near Chennai on 26 April 1922. His
work on algebraical formula, whole numbers, infinite series, fractions etc. are regarded
as miracles in mathematics. He also had a phenomenal memory.
7. Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose : Jadish Chandra Bose was born on 30th November
1858 in a village near Dhaka. In the year 1895, Bose made several remarkable discoveries
related to radio waves. In fact, he invented a technique to transmit radio waves, even
before Hertz. Bose also started a new multidisciplinary branch of science known as bio
physics. He invented an equipment Crescograph used to enlarge the microscopic
images of plant activities by several thousand times. Bose successfully identified
similarities in the plant and animals using this equipment. He also worte two books
entitled The Response in the Living and Non-Living (1902) and Mechanism of
Plants (1926). Bose was regarded as a genius scientist ahead of his contemporaries by
50-100 years. He invented another equipment known an Coherer used for detecting/
receiving radio waves. In fact, Bose was the first scientist to use semiconductor junctions
for detection of microwave. He established Bose Institute of Research at Kolkata.
Bose died on 23 November 1937 in Girdih, Bihar.
8. Prof. Birbal Sahni : Born on 14th November 1891, in a village Bhera, District
Shahpura of Punjab, Prof Birbal Sahni was regarded as one of the most eminent
paleobotanist amongst the Indian scientists. Prof. Sahni made significant contribution
to the study of formation of fossils of plants. He was elected as the fellow of the
Royal Society in 1936. He also established the Sahni Institute of Research at Lucnow,
in 1945. Prof. Sahni died on 10th April 1949. An annual award for noteworthy
contribution to research in Botany has been instituted in his honour.
9. Chandra Shekhar Venkat Raman : Sir C. V. Raman was born on 7th November 1888
at Tiruchirapalli. He started working as an accountant and was eventually promoted as

Chapter-1 (P-4)
 assistant accountant general in the year 1907. Although Raman continued in this job
till 1917, he never gave up his research activities. Finally, in 1917, he left the job and
joined Calcutta University as a Professor of Physics. He was elected as a fellow of
the Royal Society in the year 1924. Raman made extensive studies on scattering of
light. His research paper on the Raman Effect was published on 28 February 1928.
Ramans discovery revolutionised science. It demonstrated that light is made of small
particles called photons. The structure of molecules could be investigated with the
help of Raman effect. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1930, for his
discovery. The title of Sir was also conferred to him in the year 1929. To
commemorate the discovery of Raman Effect, 28 February is celebrated as the
National Science Day. Raman shifted to Banglore in 1933 and became the Director
of Tata Institute. He also established the Indian Academy of Science in the year 1933.
Ramans contribution to science covered a very wide field including studies on crystals,
precious stones, sound, light, birds, insects, sea shells, flowers, plants, sky,
meteorology etc. He was conferred the title of Bharat Ratna in the year 1954 by the
Government of India. Raman remained involved in research till the last day i.e. 21
November 1970 when he died.
10. Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha : Dr. Bhabha was born on 30 October 1909 in a Parsi
family of Mumbai. He studied at Mumbai and Cambridge University, Dr. Bhabha
received a Rouse Ball Travelling Studentship in the year 1932. He subsequently worked
with Niels Bohr. His work on the Cascade theory of electron showers earned him
international recognition. He also suggested that the Cosmic ray showers contain
particles that are different from electrons and protons. These particles are known as
mesons. He joined as the Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission in 1947. In this
capacity, he planned to exploit atomic energy for power generation. Largely owing to
the effort of Dr. Bhabha, India became self reliant in using atomic energy. Atomic
Power reactors of Tarapur, Kota etc. are examples of the dream that Dr. Bhabha could
convert into a reality. Dr. Bhabha authored books such as Quantum Theory, Elementary
Particle Physics and Cosmic Radiation. He established Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research in 1954. The first atomic reactor Apsara was commissioned at Trombay
in 1956. Two other nuclear reactors were also commissioned later. Dr. Bhabha also
chaired the first United Nations Conference on the peaceful use of Atomic Energy at
Geneva. He was conferred with the title Padma Bhushan by the President of India.
Dr. Bhabha died on 24th January 1966 in a plane accident. The atomic energy centre,
Trombay was named as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center in his honour. He remained
a life long bachelor.
11. Dr. Har Govind Khurana : Dr. Khurana was born on 9th January 1922 in a small
village Raipur in Punjab. It later become a part of Pakistan. His early education was
completed at Lahore. After obtaining a Masters degree in Organic Chemistry, Dr.
Khurana received a scholarship to study in England. In 1959, Dr. Khurana successfully

Chapter-1 (P-5)
 synthesised an enzyme which earned him international recognition in Aug 1976 he
succesfully introduced a Jene prepared by him in E. Coli. He shifted to U.S.A. in
1960 and started working on artificial genes. He accepted the American citizenship.
He could successfully develop technique for making DNA and RNA. He was awarded
the Nobel Prize in the year 1968 jointly with Marshal Nurenberg and Robert Hale. In
1970, Dr. Khurana was offered a professorship at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology where he worked on understanding the genetic code. He synthesised the
207 genes of E Coli. In August 1976 he successfully introduced gene prepared by
him in E.Coli. He was conferred the title of Padma Bhushan by the Government of
India in the year 1969.
12. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam : Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was born on 15th October, 1931 at
Rameshwaram in Tamilnadu in a middle class family. He took the leadership in
developing Indias missile programme. He is, therefore, also fondly called the missile
man. Dr. Kalam completed his engineering education from the Madras Institute of
Technology. He opted for a career of research in technology. It is largely due to his
efforts that India became the sixth nation in the world to have capability of designing
its own satellite and launching it in space. The two long-range missiles Agni and
Prithvi developed during his tenure, made India self reliant in this key area of defence
and earned it a respectable position among the superpowers. In recognition of the
contribution of Dr. Kalam, the title of Bharat Ratna was also conferred to him. He also
became the President of India.
13. Alfred Bernhard Nobel : Nobel was born on 21st October 1833 at Stockholm in
Sweden. He was interested in chemistry from his childhood. He established a laboratory
at Holenberg near Stockholm and started working on explosive. He successfully
synthesised trinitroglycerin, a powerful explosive. The manufacturing of this compound
was however, banned when several deadly explosions occured in Panama, San Francisco,
New York and Australia. Nobel, therefore, started work on making trinitroglycrine, a
safe explosive. He could successfully show that by absorbing tri nitroglycerine in
Keiselgur and saw dust, it can be handled safely. This safe explosive was known as
dynamite. In 1887, he discovered another explosive balistite, Nobel obtained more
than 100 patents for his research work. He earned a large money from these products.
He died on 10 December 1896. At the time of his death, Nobel had with him a sum of
90 lakh US dollars. A corpus was created from this fund and the interest earned from
this corpus was used to award Nobel Prizes. Every year, at Stockholm, the Nobel prizes
are now awarded to deserving scientists.
14. Issac Newton : Issac Newton was born on 25 December 1642 at Woolesthorpe,
Lincolnshire, According to an anecdote, Newton saw an apple falling from a tree.
This triggered his research on gravity leading to the discovery of Newtons law of

Chapter-1 (P-6)
 Universal Gravitation. Newton worked on a number of fields in mathematics & physics.
He also invented mathematics of functions. Newton also explained the occurrence of
neap & tide. He became Professor of Mathematics at the age of 27 years. Newtons
research interests also included the study of nature of light. He showed that the sunlight
comprises of seven colours which was called spectrum. He also worked on the
formation of images by lenses and fabricated reflecting type telescope for
astronomical observations. He became Fellow of the Royal Society in the year 1761.
Newton also formulated laws related dynamics of motion. He also wrote a book
entitled Principia where he discussed his work related to gravitation and motion. A
new branch of science & engineering known an Mechanics could develop from his
research work. Newton was elected as the Chairman of the Royal Society in 1703. He
was bestowed with the title of Sir in 1705.Newton died on 20th March 1727.
15. Albert Einstein : Albert Einstein was born on 14th March 1879 at Ulm in Germany.
Einstein had to struggle initially for earning a livelihood. While working as an
accountant, Einstein continued to pursue his research work. In the year 1905, Einstein
published his famous work on the theory of relativity which earned him international
fame. In this theory, Einstein gave a new scientific explanation to the term space and
time. His theory could successfully explain a number of scientific mysteries which
puzzled the contemporary researchers. He also predicted the mutual conversion of
matter and energy in the year 1905. He joined Berlin University as Professor in the
year 1914. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1921 for his research. Einstein
was, however, forced to leave Germany in 1933 due to the atrocities of Hitler, He
adopted the American citizenship in the year 1940. Einstein contributed in a big way
to explain the nature of gravity and the electromagnetic forces. He died on 18th April
1955 at Princeton, USA.
1.4 Major Scientific Institutions of India :
In order to develop science in India, the Parliament passed a Resolution on March 4,
1958 giving this responsibility to the Government of India. In 1983, the Government
also adopted a new policy for the development of technology.
We can divide the Scientific Institution in India into two categories as follows :
1. Scientific Institutions of Ancient India.
2. Scientific Institutions of Modern India.
1. Scientific Institutions of Ancient India :
a. Taxshila university : It was situated 30 km away in the west from Rawlpindi. It
was the most important centre of learning during the period 6th century BC.
The field of herbal medicines evolved from this University. The famous work
Charak Sanhita also originated from this place.

Chapter-1 (P-7)
 b. Nalanda University : It is situated 90 km south east from Patna. It was
established by the Indian emperor Kumar Gupt. This University was known for
research in mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, astrology and medical sciences.
Nagarjun worked in this University.
2. Scientific Institutions of Modern India :
More than 2100 institutions in India are engaged in scientific research & development.
The activities of these institutions are controlled by the following departments of the
Government of India :
1. Department of Atomic Energy.
2. Department of Science & Technology
3. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
4. Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
5. Defence Research Development Organisation.
6. Indian Council of Medical Research.
7. Department of Electronics.
8. Department of Ocean Development
9. Department of Environment.
1.4.1 Institutions under the Department of Atomic Energy.
1. Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), Mumbai
It was established in 1957. It looks after the activities related to atomic energy. A
number of reactors including Apsara, Cirus, Dhruva, Poornima etc. have been
commissioned here. This centre has been successfully working on scientific research
related to the field of nuclear energy.
2. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam
This centre has mainly foused on the use of thourium in atomic reactors for obtaining
energy. The development of fast breeder reactor is also under way in this Center.
3. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Calcutta
Cyclotron which is used to accelerate ultra small particles is situated in this Center.
These particles are made to move in a circular path and are accelerated using magnetic
& electric fields.
4. Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT), Indore (M.P.)
This Centre is primarily concerned with the development of lasers and particle
accelerator.
5. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai.
Research work related to Physics, Mathematics, Astronomy, Molecular Bio Physics

Chapter-1 (P-8)
 & Computer Sciences are being carried out in this Institute.
6. Saha Institute of a Physics (SINP), Calcutta.
7. Institute of Physics (IOP), Bhubneshwar
8. Tata Memorial Centre (TMC), Mumbai
Research on treatment of cancer is a major activity in the above centre.
1.4.2 Institution Governed by the
Indian Space Research Organisation.
1. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivendrum :
The development of satellite launch vehicles is being undertaken at this center. It also
manages and runs the rocket launching site at Thumba.
2. Indian Space Research Organisations Satellite Center, Banglore :
This Centre is involved in the design, fabrication & testing of satellites. A number of
satellites such as Aryabhatta, Bhaskar, Apple. INSAT-2B etc. were fabricated at this
Center.
3. SHAR Sri Harikota (Andhra Pradesh) :
All the satellite launchings are carried out from this center. Successful lanching was
done in July 1980, May 1981 and May 1992.
4. Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahemdabad (Gujrat) :
The major objective of this centre is to undertake research activities for the application
of space technology.
5. Master Control Facility, Hasan (Karnataka)
This centre is responsible for directing the satellites into their proper orbit after
their launch and to control them.
6. Physical Research Laboratory, Ahemdabad (Gujrat)
Solar Planetary Physics, Infra red Astronomy Geo-Space Physics, Metereology etc.
are some of the areas in which research activities are undertaken in this laboratory.
Udaipur Solar Observatory is also governed by this laboratory.
1.4.3 Some Important Institutions Controlled by the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) :
More than 40 national laboratories and 100 regional research laboratories are
controlled by the CSIR. Some major laboratories are :
1. National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi :
This laboratory is responsible for testing of equipments, certification of quality and
maintenance of standards for physical quantities. This laboratory also manages the
Central Electronics Laboratory, Sahibabad (U.P.)

Chapter-1 (P-9)
2. National Geo-Physical Research Centre, Hyderabad :
This Centre plays an important role in identifying natural resources as well as the
study and prediction of earth quakes.
3. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa:
It was established in 1966. The activities of this Institute are related to research on
ocean and Antarctica.
4. National Chemical Laboratories :
These are situated at Karaikudi, Jorhat, Hyderabad, Pune etc. (Agricultural-chemicals
and pesticids are produced here and in also known for production of geolites.)
5. Central Food Processing Technology Research Centre, Mysore :
This center has been involved in development of products from food items such as
milk powder from milk, oil from rice husk etc.
1.4.4 Agricultural Research Institutes :
A number of research institutes, laboratories and universities are engaged in
agricultural research. Some of these are :
(i) Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi
(ii) National Dairy Development Institute, Karanal
(iii) Central Rice Research Institute, Katak
(iv) Indian Sugar Cane Research Institute, Lucknow
(v) Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajmundari
(vi) Central Agricultural Engineering Institute, Bhopal
1.4.5 Institutes related to Defence Research
Some major institutes are :
(i) Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Banglore
(ii) Bharat Electronics Limited, Banglore
(iii) Bharat Earth Movers Limited, Banglore
(iv) Goa Ship Yard Limited, Goa
(v) India Dynamics Limited, Hyderabad
(vi) Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited, Hyderabad
The defence Research and Development Organisation was established in 1958. More
than 48 laboratories of this organisation are now working in different parts of the
country.
1.4.6 Some Major Institutions under the Department of Science
and Technology (DST)
The DST is concerned with the promotion of research and development activities
that are of national importance. DST also supports time bound research project. Some

Chapter-1 (P-10)
 major institutions operating under the DST are :
(i) Birbal Sahni Institute for Paleobotany, Lucknow
(ii) Bose Institute, Kolkata
(iii) National Immunization science Institute, New Delhi.
(iv) Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun
(v) Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Mumbai
(vi) Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Banglore
1.5 Science in the Modern Context :
Science and scientific attitude have helped us to grow from the stone age to the present
day. It is difficult to imagine the beginning and end of science. As a matter of fact ,
Science might have born the instant, mankind developed curiosity to understand the
natural phenomenon.
The process of learning from nature has brought us to a stage where technology has
transformed from macro world to the nano-world.
It is expected that nano-technology will revolutionise all walks of our life in the
coming future. Scientific developments affect our daily activities. They have made
our life more comfortable. Science has also broadened our horizon in understanding
the universe. We shall quote few example to illustrate these aspects:
(i) All the appliances that we use have been the gift of science, to make life more
comfortable.
(ii) Developments in transport, information and communication technology has
made this world a smaller place to live.
(iii) The invention of computer and robotics have revolutionised education,
agriculture, industries and medical sectors.
(iv) It has made space travel, a reality. The exploration of outer space will not only
enhance our understanding of the universe but will also unravel the mysteries of
nature. Several Indians have also been involved in the exploration of space.
Noteworthy amongst them are Rakesh Sharma, Late Kalpana Chawala and Sunita
Williams (Indian Origin).
(v) Science has also helped us in ushering green revolution. Despite the growing
population, we have been successful in meeting the food requirement by
developing crops with high yield.
(vi) Science has also helped us in improving the cattle breed, milk production as
well as preventing malnutrition of human beings.
(vii) Science has also helped us in developing techniques for controlling & preventing
atmospheric pollution, preserving bio-diversity etc.

Chapter-1 (P-11)
 In short, science has been solely responsible for helping us to reach to the present
level of development. Unfortunately, the developments have brought in several
adversities also. Deforestation, soil pollution, new forms of diseases, gradual
erosion of biodiversity, increasing stock piling of nuclear weapons etc are
also the outcome of scientific developments. Science will be beneficial only
when we use it constructively and in the best interest of the mankind.
Let us hope that science shall continue to serve the mankind in realising all its
creative objectives and efforts. The future should continue to witness new
inventions. It is improper to say that certain discovery is modern in science because
whatever is modern today, becomes a historical development tomorrow. This is
how science evolves.
EXERCISES
Very Short Answer Type Questions :
1. By whom the equations of motion were given ? Was any other law given by him? If
yes, name it.
2. After which scientist is the Nobel Prize named ? From where the necessary funds
generated for giving the award money ?
3. Name the scientific institutions in ancient India and the places where they were situated.
Short Answer Type Questions :
1. Name the institutes involved in space research in India and the place where they are
situated.
2. Explain briefly the impact of scientific discoveries on our life style.
3. Mention the important contribution of Aryabhatta.
Long Answer Type Questions :
1. Write down the scientific contributions of the following persons :
I. Maharshi Kanad
II. Varahmihir
III. Dr. Hargovind Khurana
IV. Albert Einstein
V. Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
2. In what way, has science been useful in the modern context ?
PROJECT
Give life sketch of any three Indian scientists along with their
pictures, who have contributed remarkably in the area of research.

Chapter-1 (P-12)
 CHAPTER - 2

Measurement in Science and Technology

Matter : Nature and Behaviour
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
Measurement occupies an important place in our daily
1234567890123456789012345 activities. Accurate measurement of physical quantities is
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 necessary for proving the scientific principles and theories.
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 Modern technology could develop because of the availability
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 of accurate and reliable techniques of measurements.
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 Things around us are made of different materials. We can
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 broadly classify them into three categories, namely : solid, liquid
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345 and gas. Understanding the behaviour of matter is also necessary
in science and technology.
In this chapter we will study the ancient and modern units
of accurate and relaible measurements relevant in the past as
well as at present. We will also discuss the states of matter and
Let us Learn some of their important properties.
2.1 Historical Development of Science of
Measurement :
2.1 Historical
2.1.1 Indian Measurement System
Development of
Various techniques of measurement were, in use, in ancient
science of
India. For example, in Ayurveda, due importance was given to
Measurement
accurate measurement of the medicine prescribed to a patient.
2.2 Indian For this purpose, different scales for measurement of mass and
National volume of the drugs were routinely used.
Standards of Several references to the existence of system of
Measurement measurements in the medieval India are also available. Abul Fazal
2.3 Matter in his book Aina-e-Akbari written during the regime of Emperor
Akbar, described the system of measurement practiced during
2.4 Solutions,
the period. In this period, length was measured in units of "Gaj"
Suspension and
which was further divided into 24 equal divisions. Each of these
Colloids
divisions was called "Tassuj". Indeed, Yard (Gaj) was used as the
unit of length till the metric system was adopted in 1956.
During the British rule in India, attempts were made to
adopt a uniform system of measurement similar to the one
prevalent in Britain. A mixed system of measurement was
adopted which was continued till independence. The relationship

Chapter-2 (P-13)
between the popular Indian units and the British system of units was as follows :
Units for Measurement of Weight Units for Measurement of Length
8 Ratti = 1 Masha 1 Bitta or Balisht = 9 Inch
12 Masha = 1 Tola 2 Bitta (18 inch) = 1 Hath
5 Tola = 1 Chhatak 2 Hath = 1 Guj
16 Chhatak = 1 Ser 2 inch = 1 Girah
40 Ser = 1 Mun 4 Girah = 1 Bitta
1 Mun = 100 Pound Troy 16 Girah = 1 Guj
(Actual) 22 Guj = 1 Jarib or Chen
In Egypt cubit was used for measuring length. It is believed that the ruler of Egypt
during approximately 6000 BC, ordered that one cubit be taken as the length of the forearm
plus the width of the palm of the King. If is believed that this unit has been extensivaly used
in the construction.
In the medival Europe, the units of measurement used to depend on the will of the
King. For example some times the size of the foot of the ruler was taken as the unit for
measurement of length. One foot was divided into twelve equal divisions. Each division
was known as one inch. It is thus obvious that no standards of measurement were adopted in
Europe in those days.
2.1.2 The Modern System : International System of Measurement (S.I.)
With the rapid industrialisation of Europe, the need to adopt a scientific system of
measurement was felt by a number of French and other European scientists. For this purpose
it was also agreed to standardise the measurement of length, mass and time, which could be
easily used everywhere.
In the year 1875, the International Meter Agreement was, signed. According to this
agreement, an International Bureau of Measurement (BIPM) was established. This bureau
is still functioning in Paris at Sevres. The system of units approved by BIPM was based on
three fundamental quantities- length, mass and time. The symbols for these fundamental
units have been given in table 2.1
Table 2.1 : Fundamental quantities their units and symbols
Fundamental Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
In the year 1889, the definition of metre was decided during the General Conference
of Weights and Measures. Accordingly, one metre was defined as the distance between two

Chapter-2 (P-14)
lines marked on a platinum iridium bar kept at a constant temperature of 273.16 K and at 1
bar pressure. Copies of this standard, were also given to all the nations who were signatories
to the International Metre Agreement. India also signed the agreement after independence
and obtained a copy of the standard metre.
The standards for measurement are continuously reviewed with the objective of
developing more and more accurate units. In the year 1960, metre was redefined.
Accordingly, the standard meter is equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the radiation in
vacuum from Krypton isotope of mass 86. The revised definition of metre helped to improve
the accuracy of measurement of length. Other units of measurements are also modified
from time to time by the signatories of the International Metre Agreement.
At present the international system of units (French name - Le System International
d' Units) also known as SI units has been adopted internationally. This system is based on
seven fundamental units and two supplementary units as given in table 2.2
Table 2.2 : SI system of units and their symbols
Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol
Fundamental Units
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Luminuous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
Supplementary Units
Angle Radian rd
Cube angle steradian sr
The symbols in SI units must be written in the identical manner as given in table 2.2
irrespective of the languages (Hindi, English, Japanese, Russian, Spanish etc.)
Precautions in writing SI units
1. Full stop must not be used following the symbol.
2. No capital letter should be used while writing the units adopted in honour of a scientist.
For example unit for current is ampere, unit for temperature is kelvin etc. However, the
symbols for these units are written in capital letter such as A (ampere), K (kelvin) etc.
3. The symbols for metre, kilogram, second, candela and mole are written in lower case
letters such as m, kg, s, cd, mol respectively.

Chapter-2 (P-15)
4. Symbols are never written in plural, for example 10 meter should be written as 10 m
and not as 10 ms or 10 m's.
The SI units discussed so far are not sufficient for all the measurements that we need
to perform. For example we also require measurement of pressure, volume, density, energy,
velocity etc. The unit of measurements of these physical quantities can be defined from the
fundamental units. We can, therefore, classify units into two categories as follows :
1. Fundamental Units : The units that are independent of each other are called fundamental
units. All the units given in table 2.2 are fundamental units.
2. Derived Units : The units which can be expressed in terms of one or more fundamental
units are called derived units. For example units for velocity, area, volume, work,
acceleration etc are examples of derived units.
Answer the following.
1. Name the country where cubit was used as a unit.
2. Name the fundamental units in the SI system.
3. Define kelvin the SI unit of temperature.

Other units of measuring length and mass have also been defined as follows for
expressing small or large quantities :
A. Units for denoting extermely small distances :
Micron 1 micron () 10-6 metre
Nano 1 nano meter (nm) 10-9 metre
Fermi 1 fermi (1F) 10-15 metre
Angstrom 1 angstrom (1A0) 10-10 metre
B. Units for denoting astronomical (very large) distances :
Light year : The distance travelled by light in one year is known as one Light Year.
Velocity of Light in Vacum = 3 x 108 m/s
One light year = 3x108 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 m
One light year = 9.46 x 1015 m
C. Units for expressing very small mass :
Atomic mass unit (amu) = It is equal to 1/12 of the mass of Carbon-12
1 amu = 1.66 x 1027 kg.
D. Units for expressing small mass
1 gram (g) = 103 kg
1 milligram (mg) = 106 kg

Chapter-2 (P-16)
E. Units for expressing bigger mass
1 Quintal = 100 kg
1 metric ton = 10 Quintal = 1000 kg.
2.2.Indian National Standards of Measurement :
The National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi (NPL) is responsible for callibration
& preservation of standards of measurements. The NPL also compares its standard with
those preserved at BIPM. This ensures that the Indian Standards are always at par with the
International Standards.
In order to ensure uniformity in the standards of weights and measures used across the
country, a number of state and regional laboratories were established with the objective of
issuing certifications for these standards. The standards employed by these laboratories were
periodically callibrated * by the NPL. In this way all the weights and measures in use across
the country could be related to the international standards. We should also ensure that only
the certified weights and measures are used for our daily needs.
The following standards are used by NPL :
Unit of Length (metre) : NPL uses the wavelength of iodine stablised He-Ne laser
as the standard for length. At present its value is 633 nano meter. The uncertainity in its
measurement is 3 x 109.
Unit of mass : The replica number 57 of the international standard kept at BIPM Paris
is used by NPL for standaridisation of mass. This replica is a platinum-iridium cylinder.
Using it as a standard, NPL has prepared non-magnetic alloy of nickel, chromium and steel
as standard for one kilogram mass. The uncertainty in its measurment is 4.6x109.
Important Facts
NPL does not keep the standard for measuring strengths of radio active sources.
This is done by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre.
The metric system of measurement is based on metre scale. One metre is equal
to 39.37 inch. Different length scales in metric system are related to each other
in powers of 10. This system is therefore also known as the decimal system.

Metric System in India :

The need to standardize the modern units of measurement was felt in the post
independence period in India to ensure rapid industrialisation and growth of technology.
The Indian Prime Minister Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru also took keen interest in this. We may
recall that no uniform system of measurement was practised in pre-independent India. It
was also decided to review the units of the Indian currency.

* Callibration : A process of marking intervals in a scale for more accurate measurement.

Chapter-2 (P-17)
 A resolution was therefore, passed in the Parliament in the year 1955. According to
this resolution "In the opinion of this house the Government of India should take necessary
steps to ensure uniform system of measurement based on the metric system, across the
entire country".
To this end, the Parliament, in 1956, passed the Weights and Measure Act 1956. It
also passed another Act. the "Indian Currency Act 1956" adopting the decimal system in
Indian currency. Before this act, one rupee was divided into 64 paise. In the new system,
one rupee was divided into 100 paise which was also according to the international system.
NPL played an important role in the implementation of the metric system of units.
Find answer to following :
1. Convert gram into kilogram.
2. What do you understand by callibration?

2.3 Matter
Something that occupies space and has mass is called Matter. Everything around us
such as pen, pencil, rubber, table, chair, copy, book as well as all natural objects such as
trees, plants, mountains, soil, sand, water, steam, air, stone etc. are all made of matter.
2.3.1 Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified using two criteria :
i. According to the physical properties - solid, liquid and gas.
ii. According to the chemical properties : elements, compounds and mixtures.
The Physical States of Matter
Let us consider the different physical states in which water is found. We know that it
can exist in the solid state as ice, in the liquid state as water and in the gaseous state as steam.
Ice is a hard object having a definite shape, while water & steam do not have definite shape.
Properties of the three States of Matter :
Solids : They have a definite shape and volume.
Liquids : They have a definite volume. However their shape is indefinite and take the
shape of the container.
Gases : They have no definite volume and shape. Therefore, they can be accommodated
in any container of a given size & shape.
The compressibilites of gases is used advantageously in many applications. We can
fill gases at high pressure within a tube or in a small container. The compressed natural gas
used as fuel in vehicles is known as CNG while the one used in our domestic purpose is

Chapter-2 (P-18)
known as LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas). On the contrary, liquids are incompressible so
that if we try to fill more liquid inside an already filled closed bottle, it will burst.

The Nature of Solid, Liquid and Gases

All matter is made up of extremely small entities known as molecules. These molecules
are attracted towards each other by the intermolecular forces.
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
The intermolecular force in a solid is so 123456789012345678901234567890 1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
strong, that it binds the molecules tightly with each 123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
other, restricting the molecular motion. The solids, 1234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
therefore, have a definite shape. Moreover, the 123456789012345678901234567890 1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
strong intermolecular force ensures a tight packing 123456789012345678901234567890 1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
of the molecules close to each other. The density 123456789012345678901234567890 1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
of solids is, therefore, higher. The molecules of a 123456789012345678901234567890 1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
Gas
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
crystal are arranged in a regular and periodic 123456789012345678901234567890
Solid
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890 Gas
1234567890123456789012345678
pattern. This arrangement is known as the crystal 1234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
lattice. The crystals are of a definite geometrical shape. Due to the restricted molecular
motion, solids have a definite shape and volume.
The intermolecular force in liquids is relatively weak as compared to solids. It is only
sufficient to keep the molecules closer together but is not strong enough to accord liquids
a definite shape. The liquids can, therefore, flow and have a definite volume. However, they
do not have a definite shape.
The intermolecular force in gases is very weak compared to liquid. The gas molecules
are, therefore, free to move. Their kinetic energy is also very large so that they can occupy
any available space. The inter-molecular distances can be reduced by the application of
pressure. Hence, gases are compressible.

2.3.2 The effect of pressure on Matter :

Objective : To understand compressibility of gases and liquids.
Method : Take a syringe without the needle. Pull the piston outward, Now close the
outlet of the syringe with your finger and press the piston inwards. You will find that the
piston can be moved inward with little pressure.
Now fill the syringe with water. Again close the outlet and apply pressure on the piston.
You will find that it is now not possible to move the piston inward.
Conclusion : Liquids are incompressible. Their volume does not change with the
application of pressure. On the otherhand, gases can be comprssed easily because the
intermolecular force in them is weak.

Chapter-2 (P-19)
 Important Fact
The volume, in general, decreases when a substance changes its state from
liquid to solid. However, water is an exception. Its volume increases on solidification.
2.3.3 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures :
We have already said that matter can also be classified according to its physical state or
chemical properties. Before classifyng materials on the basis of chemical properties, let us
first study the meanings of physical and chemical changes.
Physical changes : We have seen that gases can be converted into liquids and liquids
into solid. Steam can be converted into water and then ice. All these three states of water are
chemically identical. As a result of the change of states in this manner, the intermolecular
distance decreases without affecting the nature of the molecules. Such changes are called
physical changes. We can recover the different forms of matter undergoing a physical change.
Definition : In physical changes, only the physical state of the matter changes. The
chemical properties remain unchanged.
Example : Conversion of wood into saw dust is an example of a physical change,
because the chemical composition in the two cases is the same. Similarly iron & iron scrap
or sugar and its solution in water are example of physical changes.
Chemical Change : If the change of state is such that the matter loses its chemical
properties and forms new molecules of a different substance, then such changes are called
chemical changes.
Example : We observe a number of chemical changes every day. Formation of curd
from milk, rusting of iron, burning of magnesium, paper, wood etc. are all examples of
chemical changes.
We should remember that the chemical properties of the material after the chemical
change are completely different from the chemical properties before the change. As a matter
of fact, a new substance is formed following chemical change. The molecules of the new
substance so formed are also different. On the contrary, no change in the nature of molecules
occurs following a physical change.
Classification of matter according to Chemical Properties :
A material can be classified into the following two categories based on its chemical
properties namely : Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Matter.
1. Homogeneous Matter : A homogeneous matter has a uniform composition through
out the material. The molecules of a homogeneous matter are uniformly distributed.
For example pure gold, silver, iron, pure cornmon salt, water, hydrogen gas etc are
homogeneous materials. These can be further divided into two categories :
(i) Elements and Compounds (ii) Solution.

Chapter-2 (P-20)
2. Heterogeneous matter : A mixture of two or more mutually immiscible homogenous
materials is known as hoterogeneous matter. Its constituents are not the same every
where and hence their properties are also different. For example Milk, cement, blood,
mixture of iron and sulphur etc.
Elements
Robert Boyle, a British scientist in 1760 suggested that certain materials cannot be
further divided into simpler materials. Such materials combine with each other to form other
compounds. These materials are known as elements. The French scientist Antoine Laurent
Lavoissier (1743-94) gave a practical definition of an element.
"Element is the simplest form of matter containing identical atoms. It cannot be divided
into simpler units by chemical reactions.
Elements, therefore, work as building blocks for other materials. All materials such as
the common salt or a complex protein is made up of elements".
Constitution of Elements : Element is made up of extremely small units known as
atoms. Thus all atoms of an element will be identical. Examples of elements are iron, gold,
platinum, hydrogen, nitrogen etc. So for 118 elements have been discovered. Out of these
only 92 elements are found in nature while the remaining are prepared in the laboratories.
Compounds
Water which is essential for life, is made of two elements - hydrogen and oxygen. A
sample of pure water will always contain these two elements in the mass ratio 1:8. For example
1g of hydrogen will combine with 8g of oxygen to form water. Water is a compound.
Definition of compound : A material formed by the chemical reaction between two
or more elements in a definite proportion is known as compound.
The common salt, in pure form contains 60.66 weight percent of chlorine. This
percentage composition of chlorine in common salt will always be the same for samples
taken from salt mines or obtained by crystallisation from sea water or by synthesis in laboratory
using the elements sodium and chlorine.
Properties of Compound
A compound is a homogenous matter. It has a definite composition.
It cannot be divided into the constituent elements by physical process.
The properties of a compound are completely different from its constituent
elements.
Energy in the form of heat, light or electricity is either produced or absorbed
during the formation of a compound.
Mixtures : A number of substances used by us are mixtures.

Chapter-2 (P-21)
 Definition : Two or more substances mixed in any proportion form a mixture. The
constituents of a mixture can be separated by physical processes.
Properties of a Mixture :
Its composition is uncertain.
Its properties are identical to the properties of the constituents. A mixture does not
possess properties of its own.
Its constituents can be seperated by simple physical process.
Mixtures can be classified into two groups.
1. Homogeneous Mixture
2. Heterogeneous mixture
Homogeneous Mixture : It is also known as a solution. It has a uniform composition
every where.
Example : Solution of sodium chloride in water.
Heterogeneous Mixture : A heterogeneous mixture contains immiscible phases
having dissimilar properties.
Example : Mixture of sodium chloride and iron filling or sodium chloride and sulfur
or water and oil.
Find answer to the following :
1. Which one of the following does not contain matter :
(i) stone (ii) water (iii) air (iv) vacuum.
2. In which state of matter is the inter molecular force the strongest?
3. What type of change occurs when milk is converted to curd? (Physical or
chemical)
4. What is the name of the simplest form of a substance that cannot be further
divided by chemical reactions?
2.4 Solution, Suspension and Colloid :
2.4.1 Solution :
We use solutions almost every day. It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances. Solution of common salt or sugar in water are used in making drinks.
Solutions can be obtained by dissolving a solid into a liquid, a solid into another solid
or a liquid into another liquid etc. For example copper or silver are often added to gold for
making jewelry. This mixture is an example of solid solution. Likewise metal alloys such
as brass, bronze or steel are also examples of solutions. The composition of a solution is
uniform throughout the material.

Chapter-2 (P-22)
 Definition of solution : A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
materials (solid, liquid or gas).
Other facts about solution :
Solvent : The constituent present in the high quantity is known as solvent.
Solute : The constituent present in small quantity is known as solute.
Saturated Solution : A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum soluble
quantity of the solute at a given temperature.
Equilibrium : In a saturated solution of a given substance, the undissolved and dissolved
solute exist at mutual equilibrium at a given temperature.
Unsaturated Solution : If the quantity of the solute in a solvent is below the saturation
level, then, such a solution is called unsaturated solution.
Supersaturated Solution : When the quantity of the dissolved solute exceeds the
saturation limit then, the solution is known as a supersaturated solution.
Important Facts
Solutions are useful for many industrial, laboratory and medicinal applications.
For example, the medicine that we take, are prepared from solutions.
Water is a good solvent for a large number of materials. It is also known as the
"universal solvent". The salts present in the solid are dissolved in water and are
consumed by plants.
2.4.2 Suspension :
We know that substances can be dissolved in an appropriate solvent to form a solution.
In some cases however, a substance may not be soluble. In such cases, we may prepare a
suspension of the material in water or any other solvent. Let us understand suspension by an
activity.
Activity :
Objective : To understand suspension
Add some chalk powder in a beaker filled with water and stir it with a spoon. You will
observe that the water turns milky. You can also see the particles of chalk floating in water
because their size is sufficiently large and hence do not require a microscope for observation.
This is known as the suspension of chalk powder in water. If we filter the above using a filter
paper then all the chalk particles will remain on it and water can be separated.
Alternatively, if we leave the solution undisturbed for some time, the chalk particles
will settle down at the bottom of the beaker.
Conclusion : We can thus say that a suspension contains a uniform dispersion of the
insoluble particles in a medium. We can define suspension as follows :

Chapter-2 (P-23)
 Definition : A heterogeneous mixture in which fine particles of a substance can be
uniformly distributed in a liquid medium is known as suspension.1
The particle size (diameter) of the dispersed material (dispersoid) is generally bigger
than 108m (or 106 cm) so that the particles are visible to our eyes without the help of a
magnifying equipment. Due to their large size, the particles cannot remain suspended in
the medium forever and eventually settle down at the bottom of the container.
Examples : Muddy water, paint, magnesium water, a mixture of flour and water or
barium sulphate and water etc.
Properties of suspension :
It is a heterogeneous mixture.
The particle size of the dispersoid is bigger than 108m.
The particles of a suspension are visible to naked eye.
The particles of a suspension can be filtered using a filter paper.
Light passing through a suspension is scattered by the suspended particles.
2.4.3. Colloid :
Colloid is also an example of heterogeneous mixture. The particles in colloid are
uniformly dispersed in the medium.
Add starch powder to a
beaker filled with some water,
and stir it. We will observe that
the starch particles are
uniformly dispersed in water.
The starch particles are uits
Bisc
invisible to our eyes. If we try
to filter it, we will find that the
Milk
particles will pass through the Gel
filter paper so that they cannot
be seperated from water. Light
passing through it gets scattered. The colloidal particles have size less than 108m. These
particles are made up of the atoms or molecules of the material. Their size is approximately
10 to 1000 times the molecular size. Because the particles are invisible to our eyes, the
dispersion appears as if it is a homogeneous mixture. Such a dispersion of extremely small
particles in a medium which resembles with a homogeneous mixture, is known as colloid.
Some examples been shown in the figure.
We can classify a colloid into several groups depending upon the physical state of the
solute and the solvent as shown in the table.

Chapter-2 (P-24)
 Table : Different Types of colloids
S.No. Physical State Physical State Type Example
of Particles of medium
1. Solid Solid Solid-Sol coloured
stones & milky glass
Solid Liquid Sol magnesia milk, mud
Solid Gas Aerosol smoke, exhaust of vehicle
2. Liquid Solid Gel gel, jelly, cheese, butter
Liquid Liquid Emulsion milk, face cream
Liquid Solid Aerosol fog, cloud
3. Gas Solid Foam foam ruber, sponge, pumic Stone
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream.

Properties of Colloids :
A colloidal solution, though appears homogeneous, is actually a heterogeneous
mixture.
The colloidal particles are so small that they are invisible to our eyes.
The particle size of colloids is bigger than that in a solution but smaller than the
particle size in a suspension. The diameter of colloidal particles ranges between
10-10 m to 10-8m.
The colloidal particles can not be seperated by filtration. They can however, be
separated using centrifugation technique.
Colloidal solutions scatter by light passing through them.
They exhibit Tyndall effect.
2.4.4 Tyndall Effect
Light passing through a colloidal medium is
scattered. This effect is called Tyndall Effect. We can
see this effect when the sunlight enters a room from a
small hole in the ceiling or roof. Tyndal effect is seen
due to the fine dust and smoke particles in the air.
Similarly, the light ray passing through the trees in a
deep forest are also example of Tyndall effect.
Tyndal effect originates due to the optical
properties of a colloidal solution. It can, therefore, be
made to differentiate a colloidal solution from a real
solution.
Chapter-2 (P-25)
 Types of Colloids
1. Sol : When a solid is dispersed in a liquid, it is called sol.
2. Gel : When a liquid is despersed in solid to form a colloidal solution,
it is called gel.
3. Emulsion : When a liquid is dispersed in another immissible liquid
and forms a colloidal solution then it is called an emulsion.
Table : A comparison of suspension, colloid and actual solution
S.No. Points for Suspension Colloid Actual Solution
Comparisons
1. Size (Diameter) 10-6 - 10-7 m 10-7 - 10-8 m 10-10 - 10-11 m
2. Visibility Visible to eyes Can be seen Difficult to see even
by a microscope by a microscope
3. If left undisturbed Particles get Particles can not be Particles can not be
seperated seperated seperated
4. Filtrations Can be filtered Can not be filtered Can not be filtered
using a filter by a filter paper by a filter paper
paper
5. Example Chalk & water, Starch, milk, ink Air, (a homogeneous
dirty water, jelly, Tooth paste mixture with oxygen
paint, etc etc. and nitrogen as major
constituents)
Solution of common
salt or sugar in water
6. Type of mixture Heterogeneous Heterogenous Homogeneous
7. Scattering of light Yes Yes No

Find Answer to the Following :

1. Can you obtain the solution of a solid into another solid? Give one example in support
of your answer.
2. What is suspension?
3. In which case is the particle size largest :
(a) actual solution (b) suspension (c) colloid.
4. Which of the following does not exhibit Tyndal effect ?
(a) suspension (b) actual solution (c) colloidal solution (d) distilled water.

Chapter-2 (P-26)
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
In medieval India, length was measured in yards.
The international system of measurement came into existences in 1875 with the
international Meter Agreement. This is now known as the SI system.
The SI system has seven fundamental units, namely mass (kilogram, kg); length (metre,
m); time (second, s); electric current (ampere, A); temperature (kelvin, K), luminuous
intensity (candela, cd) and quantity of substance (mol) and two supplementary units
namely angle (radiun, rd) and solid angle (steradian, sr)
The units obtained from two or more fundamental units are called derived units.
The Metric System in India was implemented in the year 1956.
The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi is responsible for preservation of
standards of measurements in India.
The radioactive standards are preserved by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre.
Some thing which has mass and occupies space is known as matter (Substance)
Element is the simplest form of matter containing only one type of atoms. It cannot
be divided into simpler matter by chemical reactions.
The substance formed by a chemical reaction between two or more elements in a
definite proportion is known as compound.
The properties of a compound are completely different from the constituent elements.
Particles which are insoluble in a medium and which are visible to eyes give suspension.
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture containing extremely small particles uniformly
distributed in a medium. The particle size is much smaller compared to that in a
suspension but larger then the size of solute particles in a solution.

EXERCISES
Very Short Answer Type Questions :
1. Convert one "Bitta" into inches.
2. Name the place where the International Bureau of Weights & Measures (BIWM) is
located
3. What is the SI unit of temperature?
4. Convert one miligram (mg) into kilogram (kg)
5. In which of the following is the intermolecular force strongest? (a) solid (b) liquid
(c) gas.
6. What is the size of particles in a suspension and a colloid?

Chapter-2 (P-27)
Short Answer Type Questions :
1. Why is measurement important in medical treatment?
2. How many fundamental units were initially accepted by the International Bureau of
Weights & Measures?
3. Why is the metric system also known as the decimal system?
4. Define elements, compounds and mixtures.
5. How are the molecules of a crystalline solid arranged? What is the name given to this
arrangement?
6. What do you understand by suspension? Give two examples.
Essay Type Questions
1. How was the metric system in India established?
2. What do you understand by physical changes? Explain with examples.
3. What is meant by chemical change?
4. Describe an experiment to study the effect of temperature on the state of matter.
5. What are homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures? Explain.
6. What do you understand by the term solution? What are the different types of solution?
7. Differentiate between suspension and colloid on the basis of any four of their
properties.
8. What is Tyndall effect? Where do you observe it?
Numericals
1. If one angstroms (0A) is equal to 1010m convert one meter into angstrom.
2. A star is situated 6 light years away from the Earth. Calculate its distance in meters.
Answer : (1) 1010 0A (2) 56.76 x 1015 m

PROJECT
Find out the units of measurment of 20 items belonging to the following fields list
them in the form of a booklet and submit to your teacher.
In the field of medicine used in Homeopathy, Ayurved and Alopathy.
In the vegetable market while buying/selling fruits and vegetables.
While buying daily needs from a provision store.
Measurements carried out in a science laboratory.

Chapter-2 (P-28)
 CHAPTER - 3

Motion and Force

12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Every day we have been observing objects around us. Some
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
of these objects appear stationary such as a stone, a building or
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
an electric pole etc. Similarly, a flying bird, an aeroplane or a car
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
is often seen to be moving even when we are unable to see motion
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
of certain objects, such as air, we can, individually feel its motion
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
through the movement of leaves or dust particles etc.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
A person standing on the road or a tree appears to be
moving backward whenever, we observe him from within a
moving car. However, our co-passenger appears stationery to
us. On the otherhand, the observer standing on the road sees all
Let us Learn
the passengers inside the car, moving. Why does an object appear
3.1 Motion in living and
nonliving objects to be stationary to one observer and moving to another?
3.2 Uniform and To answer this question, we need to study the nature of
nonuniform motion
motion. Motion is infact, a combined property of the object under
3.3 Distance and
displacement study and the observer. The concept of motion without a viewer
3.4 Speed and Velocity is meaningless. There is nothing like a state of absolute rest or
3.5 Acceleration and absolute motion. The term rest or motion are always used relative
retardation to a certain reference. The position of an object at rest remains
3.6 Equations of invariant relative to the reference. However, if the object starts
motion moving with respect to this reference its position also changes.
3.7 Force
Motion can be of different types such as motion in a straight
3.8 Inertia and mass
line, circular motion, rotational motion, simple harmonic motion
3.9 Momentum
etc. We will first study motion in straight line and derive the
3.10 Impulse
3.11 Uniform Circular
relevant equations of motion.
Motion 3.1 Motion in Living And Nonliving Objects :
3.12 Friction
Before we proceed to study the detailed nature of motion,
3.13 Thrust and
Pressure
we should understand the difference in the nature of motion in
living and nonliving objects. A nonliving object such as a foot
ball, or a stone can not (on its own) change its position, unless
an external force is applied. However, living objects such as
human being, animals, birds, fishes etc. can move from one

Chapter-3 (P-29)
position to another, on their own. We should, therefore, appreciate that living objects are
capable of moving from one place to another on their own while nonliving things can not do
so.
In this chapter we will study motion of nonliving objects only.
Linear Motion or Motion in a Straight Line :
If the path of a moving object is a straight line then, such a motion is known as a linear
motion.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901

We illustrate an example of a linear motion by a figure. A bus starts moving from

position A and passes through positions B & C to arrive at D as shown. Since the path from
A to D is a straightline, the motion of the bus is also said to be linear.
Important fact
Scalar and vector physical quantities : The physical quantities which can be
expressed by magnitude only are called scalar quantities. For example : length, speed,
density, mass, volume, work, energy etc.
The physical quantities which require both magnitude as well as direction for a
complete description, are called vector quantities. For example : displacement,
velocity, acceleration, momentum, force etc.
3.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Motion :
Uniform motion : Suppose that an object moving in a straight line traverses a distance
of 4 m in the first second, another 4 m in the next second, another 4 m in the third and
subsequent second etc. Thus, the object traverses equal distances in equal time interval. Such
a motion is called a uniform motion.
Non uniform motion : Now we consider another object moving in a straight line.
However, this object traverses a distance of 2 m in the first second, 3 m in the next second, 10
m in the third second, 5 m in the fourth second and 14 m in the fifth second. In this case, the
distance travelled by the object in equal time interval is not the same. Such a motion is called
nonuniform motion.
The motion of a bus from the bus stop is an example of nonuniform motion. The bus
moves slowly in the beginning and then much faster for some time. It gradually slows down
before it stops at the bus stop. Thus, the speed changes with time in case of nonuniform
motion. The speed of freely falling object under the action of gravity, is yet another example

Chapter-3 (P-30)
of nonuniform motion.
3.3 Distance and Displacement :
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
The term distance and displacement carry1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
different meanings in physics. We illustrate
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
C
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
this by an example shown in the figure. ent
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
em
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
c
A person starting from A, wants to arrive 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
pla
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
s
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
i
5m
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
D
at C. He can do so in several ways. For 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012 3m
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
example he may start from A and move by 4 m 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
towards B and then from B by 3 m towards C. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
The total distance so travelled to reach to C 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
A B
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
4m
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
will be 7m. In other words, we can define
Distance and displacement
distance as the total length of the path traversed
between the initial & final positions irrespective of the
direction. Distance is therefore, a scalar quantity, which has only magnitude. The SI unit of
distance is metre (m).
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
The person can also reach C from A by 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
following the path AC being the shortest distance 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
A B
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
between the two points A&C. The length AC is 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
d
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
5m. This is called displacement from A to C in 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
Figure
the direction AC. Therefore, displacement can be 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
defined as the minimum distance between the
initial & final position of an object, in a given direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity. We require both magnitude as well as direction for
its complete description, Displacement in physics is often denoted by S and its SI unit is
meter (m). We should also remember that displacement of an object can be positive, negative
or zero.
If an object moves in a straight line without changing its direction, the distance travelled
will be equal to the displacement.
A person starting from A moves by a distance d to reach at the point B as shown in
the Figure. Both the distance travelled as well as the displacement are equal to d. However,
if the person returns to A again then the distance travelled between B to A will be d but the
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
H
displacement will be -d. In this way, the total distance so 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
S
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
t2
travelled, by the person is d+d = 2d but the displacement 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
t123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1 123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123 123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123 123
= d-d = 0 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Initial Final
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
We can also obtain the displacement of an object 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Position
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Position
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
between a given time interval -as shown in the next figure. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
x1 x2
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Figure
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Suppose that the positions of the object at time t1, & t2 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

Chapter-3 (P-31)
(t2 >t1) were x1 & x2 respectively. Therefore, the displacement of the object in time (t2-t1)
H
displacement S = position of object at time t2 position of object at time t1
H
S = x2 - x1
H
Obviously from the above equation, it follows that displacement S will be positive if
H
x2 is greater than x1 and negative if x2 is less than x1, S will be zero if x2 = x1.
Difference between displacement and distance
S.No. Point of Distance Displacement
Difference
1. Definition The path covered by The minimum distance covered
a body is called by a moving body, between
distance. initial and final point at a difinate
direction in called displacement.
2. Dependency It depends upon the If does not depend on the length
length of the path of the path covered by the body
covered by the body.
3. Value It is always positive. Its value can be positive,
negative or zero.
4. Quantity It is scalar quantity. It is vector quantity.
5. Magnitude Its magnitude can Its magnitude can be less or
be more or equal to equal to the distance
the displacement.

Find answer to the following questions :

An object is moving along a circular path of radius R. What will be the distance
covered and the corresponding displacement after the completion of two rounds?
What do you mean by uniform motion. Give an example of the object whose
motion is uniform.
3.4 Speed and Velocity
The distance travelled by an object in a unit time is known as speed. It is a scalar
quantity, having magnitude only.
Formula for speed and its unit :
Distance
Speed =
Time
unit of distance metre m
Units of speed = = = or ms-1
unit of time second s
Chapter-3 (P-32)
 Thus in SI system, the units of speed is m/s or ms1. Sometime, we also use kilometre/
hour (km/h) as the unit of speed.
Uniform Speed : If an object covers equal distance in equal time interval, irrespective
of the direction of motion, then its speed is said to be uniform.
Non uniform speed : If an object covers unequal distances in equal time interval,
than its speed is said to be nonuniform.
3.4 1. Average Speed
During motion, an object may travel with different speeds at different time. For
example, a train moves slowly from a railway station. It gradually gains speed and then
slows down again as the next station approaches. The train finally, stops at the platform.
Throughout the journey, therefore, the speed of the train changes. We define a term Average
speed to express the overall rapidity with which an object moves.
The average speed of an object is defined as the distance travelled divided by the total
time interval.
Therefore,
Distance travelled by an object
Average speed =
Total time taken
3.4.2 Velocity
In the foregoing section we have seen that the speed of an object gives us an idea
about how rapidly it is moving. However, it does not tell us the direction in which the
object is moving. Obviously therefore, we can not find out the position of the object in
motion after some time, merely from the knowledge of its speed.
In order to find out the position of a moving object, we require the direction of motion
as well as the speed. We, therefore define a new term velocity for this purpose as below:
The velocity of an object is defined as the distance travelled in a unit time interval
in a given direction.
Alternatively, velocity can also be defined as The displacement of the object in a unit
time.
Unit of displacement m
The SI unit of velocity = = = ms-1
Unit of time s
Uniform Velocity : If a moving object displaces equaly in equal time interval, then
its velocity is said to be uniform.
Nonuniform Velocity : If an object, in equal time intervals, makes different
displacement then its velocity is said to be nonuniform.

Chapter-3 (P-33)
 We should remember that :
(i) Velocity changes if the magnitude changes but the direction remains the same.
Example : A nonuniform motion in straight line.
(ii) Velocity can also change if the direction of motion changes while the magnitude
remains the same.
Example : A uniform motion in a circular path.
Difference Between Velocity and Speed
S.No. Speed Velocity
1. The distance travelled by a The distance travelled in a
moving object in one second. given direction in one second
2. It is independent of the The velocity depends on direction
direction of motion. and is along the direction of
displacement.
3. Speed can be positive or zero. Velocity can be positive, negative
or zero.
4. It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

Important Fact
Generally It is said that the magnitude of velocity is equal to speed. This is
incorrect. These two quantities are equal only when the motion is in a straight line.
For all other cases, the speed is always greater than the magnitude of velocity, This
can be understood from the example, given in the figure, where an object starting
from A takes time T to arrive at B along a semicircular path of radius r.
Displacement 2r
Velocity of the object v = =
Time t
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
r 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Speed of the object = 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
t 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
If the object completes one full 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
circle in time T then, 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
2 r
Speed of the object =
t
Displacement 0
Velocity = = = 0
Time t

Chapter-3 (P-34)
 Note : that the total displacement after completing one full circle a position is zero
since the final position of the object coincides with the initial position.
Find answer to the following questions :
1. Explain the difference between speed and velocity.
2. What is meant by uniform speed ? Give one example.
3 An electric train is moving with a velocity of 120 km/h. Calculate the distance
travelled in 30 second.
3.5 Acceleration and Retardation :
Let us consider an example of a bus moving in a straight line from point D. We record
the velocity readings from the speedometer of the bus in equal time intervals of 10 s. Our
observations have been presented in the following table.
Recorded velocity of the bus in intervals of 10s
No. Time (s) Velocity (km/h) Velocity (m/s)
1 0 0 0
2 10 18 5
3 20 36 10
4 30 54 15
5 40 72 20
6 50 90 25

v z
1 km/h = m/s = v} ms1
{x {
It is clear from the table that the velocity of the bus increases by 5 m/s in the first ten
second and subsequently thereafter by 5m/s in every 10s.
Increase in velocity in 10s = 5m/s
5
Increase in velocity in 1s = = 0.5 m/s
10
We can say that the change in the velocity of the bus is 0.5m/s. This is known as the
acceleration of the bus. We define acceleration as:
The rate of change of velocity is defined as acceleration.
If the rate of change of velocity is negative that is if the velocity decreases by equal
amount in equal time interval, then this is known as retardation.
Acceleration is represented by the symbol a. It is a vector quantity
unit of velocity m/s
SI Unit of acceleration = = = m/s2 = ms2
unit of time s
Chapter-3 (P-35)
3.6 Equation of Motion in Straight Line :
1. First Equation : If the initial velocity of an object is u and the velocity after time is
then the acceleration (a) can be written as
change in velocity
Acceleration =
time interval
vu
or a= (1)
t
or at = v u
or v = u +at (2)
Equation (2) gives a relationship between the four variable of motion in a straight
line. One can determine any of the unknown variable provided that the other three are
known
2. Second Equation : If u is the initial velocity, V is the values of the velocity at time t
and a, the acceleration of the object then
u+v
average velocity =
2
the displacement S = average velocity x time
u +v
S = t
2
using equation (2) we can substitute for V to obtain :

S=
(u + u + at ) t
or
2
2 u t + at 2
=
2
or 1 (3)
S = u t + at 2
2
equation (3) is known as the second equation of motion.
3. Third Equation :
from first equation v = u +at
1 2
from second equation S = u t + at
2
(v u )
Using the first equation we can write t =
a

Chapter-3 (P-36)
 Substituting the value of t in the second equation of motion, we obtain :

(v - u ) 1 (v - u ) 2
S=u + a
a 2 a2
1 2 2
or aS = uv u2 + (v +u 2uv)
2
or 2aS = 2uv 2u2 + v2+u22uv
or v2 = u2 + 2 a S (4)
equation (4) is known as the third equation of motion
It is obvious from the first equation of motion (eq 2) that if v is greater than u, that is
if the velocity of the object increases with time then the acceleration a will be positive. On
the other hand, if v decreases with time then the acceleration will be negative, Such a negative
accleration is known as retardation.
It is also obvious that if an object is moving with uniform velocity then v = u and hence
the acceleration is zero.
Example
The initial velocity of an object is 5m/s Calculate the velocity after 10 s if the acceleration
is 2m/s2.
Solution : Given u=5 m/s ; t = 10 s, a = 2m/s2
v=?
substituting the values of u, a & t in equation (?)
v = u + a t , we get
v = (5 + 2 x10) m /s
= 25 m/s
Example: A train of 50 m long is crossing a 250 m long bridge with a uniform
velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the time taken by the train to cross the bridge.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Solution : As shown in fig 3.9, the total distance that needs to be travelled is AB+ BC
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Distance travelled by the train = 50m + 250 m

= 300 m
Velocity of train = 10 m/s

Chapter-3 (P-37)
 Since the velocity is uniform, acceleration a = 0
From the second equation of motion
1
S = ut + at 2
2
S = 10t
S
or t=
10
3 00
t=
10
= 30 s
Hence, the train will take 30 s to cross the bridge.
Example : A car is moving with the speed of 30 metres per second is being stopped
by applying brakes. If retardation produced is 6 metre per second square then how much
time will it take to halt?
Solution : u = 30 ms1 v = 0 ms1 a = - 6 ms2 t=?
Putting the value in equation v = u +at
0 = 30 6t
or 6t = 30
or t = 5s
Hence car takes 5 second.
Find answer the following question :
Express 18 m/s into km/h.
Suppose you are walking with a speed of 1.5 km h-1 in a room of length 9 m.
Express your velocity in m/s. Also, calculate the time taken in walking from one
end to the other end of the room, along the length.
3.7 Force
We have so far discussed various types of motion. We also talked about uniform &
nonuniform motion. You must be wondering how the velocity of a moving object can change
at different intervals of time. The dynamics of motion deals with the change in the velocity
or speed of an object due to an external agency. In this section we will now discuss how an
external force can affect motion of an object, and derive relationship between these two
quantities.
We have been using force to accomplish different types of work in our day to day

Chapter-3 (P-38)
activities. For example we require a large force to move a heavy object such as a box or a
table. We need to apply different forces to move objects such as a pen, a pencil, a book, a
bat or a ball.
If an iron piece is hammered, it gets flattened. Similarly a rubber band can be elongated
by pulling. A moving ball requires a much longer force to stop it.
From the above example, it is obvious that the application of force may change the
position or velocity of an object.
Force is an effort made to affect the state of rest or motion of an object. It results
from interaction between two objects. It is a vector quantity which can be measured. The SI
unit of force is kg ms-2. Newton is also used as the SI unit of force in honour of Sir Issac
Newton.
3.8 Intertia And Mass :
A ball rolling on a ground continues to do so unless it is stopped.
Table and chairs in a class room do not move on their own.
From the above examples, it is clear that the state of rest or motion of an object can
not be changed unless a force is exerted. Every object has an inherent tendency to
oppose any effort that attempts to change its state of motion or rest. This tendency of
an object to change its state of motion or rest is called inertia.
Do all objects possess the same intertia?
Do we require the same force to move a ball or a bucket full of water ?
Naturally, a larger force will be required to move a bucket full of water.
In other words, the bucket of water has a greater tendency to oppose any attempt
made to change its state of rest. From this example, we can, therefore, conclude that
the object with larger mass has greater inertia. Thus, the inertia of a object depends
upon its mass.
Depending upon the state of an object, one can define two types of inertia :
1. Inertia of rest
2. Intertia of motion.
3.8.1 Newtons Laws of Motion :
Galileo Galili (1564-1642) and sir Issac Newton (1642-1727) was Laid down the
scientific foundation of concept of motion. Newton described the laws governing the motion
of a body of under the action of a force. These laws have universal applicability.

Chapter-3 (P-39)
Galileos Experiments : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Galileo studied motion of objects on inclined 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
(a)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
planes. He observed that the speed of an object 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
increases if it is going down the slope. The speed 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
decreases if the object is moving upwards along the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
inclined plane (see figures a and b) 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
(b)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456 (c)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Galileo further observed that the speed of the object
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123

rolling down on an inclined plane decreases, if the slope of

the plane is decreased, as shown in figure c. Galileo took two
identical inclined planes A & B, he said that if we realease a
marble from some height on the surface of A, the marble after
coming down will rise on the incline B, to the same height.
Now, if in this experiment we decrease the slope of incline B
marble will travel longer distance to reach the same height as
we gradually decrease inclination of incline B, it will travel
longer & longer like wise it we make it horizental the marble will continue to move on the
plane, Newton adopted this as his first law of motion.
Newtons First Law of Motion :
According to Newtons first law of motion, an object remains in its state of rest or
motion unless an external force is exerted upon it. The concepts of force and inertia are
borne out from the analysis of the first law of motion.
According to the first law of motion, a moving object shall remain in motion forever,
unless it is stopped by an external force. This statement, however, appears to be (4)
contradiction to our observation. For example, a ball rolling on a ground, eventually stops.
As a matter of fact, there is no violation of the first law of motion, in this example.
The ball eventually stops because of the force of friction between the ball & the ground.
We can now understand the following examples on the basis of Newtons first law of
motion.
The upper part of the body of a passenger sitting on a stationary bus is pushed back
ward if the bus starts suddenly. This happens because, the lower part of body in contact
12345678901234567890123456789012123
with the seat starts moving with the bus immediately, 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
However, the upper part remains stationary due to the inertia 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
of rest and therefore, is pushed backward. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Suppose we place a playing card on a glass and put a coin on 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123

Chapter-3 (P-40)
 it as shown in figure. If suddenly, the card is pushed by striking it with our fingers, the
coin will fall inside the glass. This happens because, the coin remains at rest due to
inertia while the card moves as soon as we push it. The result is that the coin falls in
the glass due in to the gravitational force.
If we strike a blanket by a stick, the dust particles settled on it, get detached. This
happens because, the portion of the blanket where we have struck, acquires motion
while the dust particles remain stationary due to the inertia.
During a long jump, the player starts running from a distance to gain inertia of motion.
Find answer the following questions :
What do you understand by the term Force ? Explain with examples.
What are different types of inertia ?
A person jumping from a moving bus falls in the direction of motion of the bus. why?

3.9 Momentum :
Consider the following examples :
Suppose we strike a cricket ball and a tennis ball with the same force. We will find
that the velocity of the tenis ball (of lower mass) is greater than the velocity of the
cricket ball (of higher mass)
Suppose two identical bicycles moving with different velocities, are stopped
forcefully. We will find that greater force will be required to stop the bicycle moving
with higher velocity.
From the above examples it is obvious that the force required to move a stationary
object or alternatively the force required to stop a moving object depends on its mass
as well as the velocity.
The product of the mass and velocity of a moving object is known as momentum. It is
a vector quantity and is directed along the velocity. It is denoted by p
momentum = mass x velocity
p = m.v
SI unit of momentum = SI unit of mass x SI unit of velocity
= kg x ms-1
= kg ms -1
Newtons Second Law of Motion :
Newtons contribution to the study of dynamics of motion is exemplary. He expanded
the first law of motion further to include the effect of an applied force and gave the second
law of motion. In this, he also incorporated mathematically, the properties of inertia. The
second law can be stated as follows:
The rate of change of mometum of an object is directly proportional to the applied
force and is along the direction of the applied force.

Chapter-3 (P-41)
 Suppose that an object of mass m is moving with velocity u. After the application of a
force F, for time , the velocity changes to v. The momentum in the beginning and after time
t will be p1 & p2 respectively.
p1=mu ; p2 = mv
Since the momention changes from p1 to p2 in time t,
force rate of change of momentum
H H
H p 2 p1
F
t
H H
H
F =k
( p 2 p1)
t
(where k is a constant of proportionality ) (5)
H H H
H
F =k
(m v m u ) p 1 = m u
p = m vH
t 2
H H
H m (v - u )
F=k
t
H H
v u
since a =
t
H H
F = km a (6)
Equation (6) can be used to give an alternate statement of the second law:
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net applied force. If k = l
then
F = ma ------------ (7)
Hence, to produce the same acceleration on objects of different mass, we will require
different forces. Greater force will be required for the heavier object. In this way, mass plays
the role of inertia in dynamics of motion.
We can use equation (7) to obtain the SI unit of force:

F = ma

= m (kg) x a (ms2)
If m = 1kg and a = 1 ms2

F= 1 kg x 1 ms2
F= 1 kg ms2

Chapter-3 (P-42)
 A force of 1 Newtons produces 1 m/s2 acceleraton in an object of mass 1 kg.
or F = 1 N (newton)
Example : How much force will be required to produce an acceleration of 4 ms-2 in
an object of mass 6 kg ?
Solution : Given m = 6 kg, a = 4 ms-2
Form Newtons second law
F = m.a
= 6 x 4 kg m s-2
= 24 kg ms-2
= 24 N
Example : A force of 4 N produces accelerations of 16 ms-2 and 32 ms-2 on two
objects of mass m1 & m2 respectively. How much accleration will be produced by this
force when both the objects are combined together?
Solution : Given force =4 N,
for object 1, mass = m1, accleration = 16 ms-2
for object 2, mass = m2, acceleration = 32 ms-2
Now F = ma
F
m =
a
4 kgms 2 1
for object 1 m1 = = kg
16 ms 2 4
-2
4 kgms 1
for object 2, m2 = 2
= kg
32 ms 8

1 1 2 +1
the combined mass = m1 + m2 + =
4 8 8
3
= kg
8
Hence the acceleration of the combined object will be

F 4
a= =
m 1 + m 2 3 /8
32
a= ms2
3
1 0 .6 6 m s 2
3.10 Impulse :

Chapter-3 (P-43)
 In cricket, a player, while catching the ball, moves his hand in the direction of the
motion of the ball. This helps in increasing the time required 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
for the ball to come to rest i.e. it reduces the rate of change of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
momentum of the ball and hence the force exerted by it on the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
players hands. The players hands are thus protected against 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
possible injury. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
In football, when a player kicks the ball, the time of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
contact is very short. Even then, the force exerted is very large 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
so that the ball is able to go over a long distance. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
In the above two examples, the rates of change of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678

momentum are different. In the first example, the momentum of the cricket ball is gradually
reduced to zero while in the second example, the momentum of the football increases
from zero.
According to Newtons second law,
Force = rate of change of momentum
p2 p1 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
F = 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
t 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
or F x t = P2 P1 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
The product F x t is called impulse. Thus, impulse of a 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
force is defined as the change in momentum. Forces which act 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
for a very short duration are called impulsive forces. Obviously, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
the impulsive force F will be small if the time interval t is large 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
and vice versa. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Impulse is a vector quantity and is denoted by I.
I (impulse) = F (N) x t (s)
S.I. unit of impulse = Newton x Second (Ns)
= kg ms-1
Example : A football of mass 150 g, is at rest. A kick of the player, changes its
velocity to 10 ms-1. Calculate the impulse.
Solution : Given m = 150 g
= 0.15 kg
intial velcity u = 0 ms-1
final velocity V = 10 ms-1
=F x t = m (v-u)
= 0.15 x 10 kg ms-1
= 1.5 N or 1.5 kg ms-1.

Chapter-3 (P-44)
 Find answer to the following questions.
Name the physical quantities whose product gives momentum.
What do you understand by a force of 1 N.
Why do we keep glass objects wrapped in papers or thermocoal while travelling?
Give your answer using the concept of impulse.
Newtons Third Law of Motion :
Newtons third law deals with the equilibrium of two bodies in contact. For example,
consider a brick placed on a table as shown in figure. The brick exerts a force W equal to
its weight on the table. The table also exerts an equal and opposite force N on the brick.
The forces W and N are called action & reaction pair. Since the brick is in equilibrium, we
say that the action W and reaction N are equal in magnitude and opposite in diraction. Thus
Newtons third law can be stated as If a body A exerts a force F on another body B then B
exerts an equal and opposite force F on A, the two forces acting along the same line.
Examples of application of Newtons third law : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
N reaction of table
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
When a bullet is fired from a pistol, the forward 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
force on the bullet is equal to the reactional 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Center action of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
force exerted on the pistol so that the latter is of mass
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
the brick
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
on the
also pushed backward. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
table equal
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
The rockets or jet planes also move forward to its
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
weight
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
following the principle of Newtons third law. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Figure
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
The burning fuel causes gases to eject with great
velocity from a nozzle fitted on the tail. As a result, a forward force is also exerted on
the rocket or the jet plane forcing it to move forward.
The same principle applies at a broader level on a system of objects also this is known
as principle of conservation of momentum, it says that if in a system of objects which
apply force on one another or interact with one another. The total momentum of the objects
before the interaction will be equal to the total momentum of the objects after interaction
if, no external force act on them.
3.11 Uniform Circular Motion :

Take a stone bound with a thread. Now hold one end of the thread and move the stone
in a circular motion. If now, you suddenly release the thread, the stone will move away in a
straight line. You can repeat this experiment and release the thread at different positions of
the stone. You will always find that the path of the stone, so released is a straight line. The

Chapter-3 (P-45)
obvious question is why a stone moving earlier in a circular path follows a linear trajectory,
when released? A B

On a rainy day, if you watch the mud thrown by the wheels

of a bicycle, you will notice that it also moves in a straight line
away from the wheel.

D C
A
From the above two examples, it should be obvious that the
object moving in a circular motion must have an instantaneous F B
velocity v which causes it to move in a straight line as soon as the

circular motion is suddenly interusted. The question is why this
linear velocity should change direction at each point of the circular E C

path? To answer the above question, let us imagine a person running D
A B
along a rectangular path ABCD an shown in figure. The runner
must change direction at each corner A, B, C & D. H C

If the runner is following a hexagonal path ABCEDF then he
G
D
will be required to change direction six times. Similarly for an
octagonal path, direction should be changed eight times. F E

Obviously, the number of times, the runner is required to
change direction will be equal to the number of sides.
Obviously, the number of times, the runner is required to change direction will be
equal to the number of sides of the path he or she is following. If the total length of the path
is always kept constant, then the length of each side will continuously decrease as the number
of sides increases. We can regard a circular path as being made up of an infinite number of
sides. Obviously the runner moving in circular path will be required to change direction at
each point of the path. If the speed of the runner is uniform then the change in his velocity
will be because of the change in direction of motion only.
If an object moves with uniform speed along a circular path, such a motion is called
uniform circular motion. During such a motion the object moves by equal distances in
equal time intervals. However, the linear velocity changes continuously. Only the magnitude
of the linear velocity is constant, but its direction changes continuously. Circular motion is
therefore, and example of accelerated motion in which the acceleration causes change in
the direction of velocity but does not affect its magnitude. For a circular path of radius r,
the circumference will be 2r If an object completes one revolution in time T then its
speed is given

Chapter-3 (P-46)
 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
3.11.1 Simple Harmonic Motion : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
The motion of the needles of a clock, the motion of earth 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
around the sun are examples of periodic motion where an 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
object executes periodic motion. Simple harmonic motion is 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
a special case of periodic motion where an object executes 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
periodic motion in a straight line to and fro about a fixed point. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
We consider the example of a simple pendulum to 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
understand the nature of a simple harmonic motion. We suspend 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
a solid metallic sphere with the help of a light and unstrechable 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
fig. 3.18
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890

thread, from a rigid support P as shown in the figure. The mean

position of the sphere is marked as O Now we give a very small displacement to the sphere
by pulling it at position A and then leave it. The spherical object will start moving from.. A
towards O. When it reaches position B after crossing O, the sphere stops and then moves
backward to A. Completing one oscillation In this way, the pendulum will continue to
oscillate. During each oscillation, however, the pendulum will loose part of its energy due
to air friction so that eventually it will stop. The motion of the pendulum is an example of
simple harmonic motion.
Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Motion :
It is a periodic motion
The motion is to and fro about the mean position and is in straight line.
The acceleration of the object executing simple harmonic motion changes continuously
and is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position.
The acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
3.12 Friction :
What is friction to understand it let us concider the following example. Take a wooden
block and push it with the same force on say first at the floor, and then next on a glass sheet.
You will find that the block is displaced by a larger distance when pushed on a glass sheet.
In the above example, the block eventually stops on both surfaces. This happens because
a force acts parallel to the plane of contact between the block and the floor (or the glass
sheet) This force opposes the motion of the block so that it stops eventually. This contact
force is known as friction and is always directed opposite to the direction of motion as shown
in the figure.
Friction acts between two surfaces of contact which can be solid, liquid or gas. For
example if an object moves in air, it experiences friction due to the surrounding air. We
also call this force, the air resistance. The friction between a solid object in motion & air
can become considerable if the speed of the object is large. The aeroplanes or space ship
are therefore, designed in such a manner that the air friction is reduced. The outer surface
of a spaceship is covered by thermally insulating tiles so that it is protected from heat
generated due to air friction.
Chapter-3 (P-47)
 123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012 Direction of Motion
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Frictional
123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
force 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789

Friction operates even when the two objects in contact are not moving relative to
each other. To understand this fact, place a wooden block on a table. Now apply a gentle
force on it. You will notice that the block does not move. Now will be required to increase
the force gradually. You will find that a certain minimum force, will be required in order to
move the block. It appears, therefore, that there is something that exerts an equal and opposite
force on the block to prevent it from moving. This is an example of static friction. This
static friction is such that it automatically adjusts its magnitude and direction according to
the applied force. The static frictional force increases as the applied force increases. Finally
a situation will arrive when the static friction can not increase further. Sliding will, therefore,
start as the applied force exceeds this maximum value of the static friction. This maximum
static friction which a body can exert on another body in contact is called limiting friction.
When an object starts sliding relative to another object then the frictional force that
opposes this motion is called kinetic friction. Depending upon the nature of motion of on
object relative to another object in contact, we can define two types of kinetic friction viz
:
1. Sliding friction
2. Rolling friction
Sliding Friction :
When an object slides over another object in contact, then the frictional force between
them is known as sliding friction. It opposes the direction of motion.
Rolling Friction :
The rolling friction operates at the contact surface when an object starts rolling over
another object. If for example we roll a book over a pencil or a table, then the frictional force
operating at their surface of contact is rolling fiction. It is much easier to roll a book over a
pencil.
Disadvantages of Friction :
Friction can damage the moving part of a machine.
It decreases the efficiency of a machine.
Friction also produces heat which may degrade machine performance.
Advantages of friction :
Friction between our feet and the earth surface is helpful in walking. In the absence of
any friction we all will slip.
Friction can be used to generate heat.
Trains and all other vehicles are able to move due to friction.

Chapter-3 (P-48)
 Friction also helps in stopping a vehicle following application of brake.
Methods for Reducing Friction :
We can reduce friction using any of the following methods :
By polishing : Friction can be reduced by polishing the two surfaces in contact.
Polishing reduces the surface roughness.
By using lubricants : Lubricants applied on the surfaces of the objects contacting
each other, also reduces friction.
Using Ball Bearings : Ball bearing have small spherical balls which convert sliding
friction to rolling friction. The rolling friction is less than the sliding friction.
Streamlining the body shape : If an object is moving in a liquid or a gas then, it is
given a shape similar to that of a fish. Such a shape of the object results into stream line
motion of the fluid in contact when the object moves. This reduces friction. The
shape of aeroplanes & cars are designed using this principle.
Methods of Increasing Friction :
Some times it is necessary to increase friction. This can be done by roughening the surface.
The following methods can be employed to increase friction :
By spreading sand or soil on a very smooth surface ( such as ice).
The tyre of vehicles are grooved to increase friction.
The soles of shoes are roughened or grooved to increase friction.
Find answers to the following questions.
1. Why is a gun pushed backward upon firing?
2. What is limiting friction?
3.13 Thrust and Pressure :
The force exerted on an object in direction perpendicular to the surface is called thrust.
When an object is kept on a surface, it exerts a thrust equal to its weight .
While standing, we exert a thrust equal to our body weight on the surface of the earth.
The SI unit of thrust is Newton.
The thrust exerted on a unit area of a surface is known as pressure. In other words
pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area of a surface in a perpendicular direction.
It is denoted by P

P = (8)

S I U n it o f Tru st N ew to n
SI unit of pressure = = 2 = Nm-2
S I U n it o f A rea m
Pressure is also denoted by Pascal (Pa) in honour of the French scientist Pascal. One

Chapter-3 (P-49)
pascal is the pressure exerted by one Newton of thrust on one square meter of area.
It is obvious from equation (8) that pressure is inversely proportional to the area, for
a given thrust. The edges of knife, nail or an axe are, therefore, sharpened (i.e. surface area
is reduced) to increase the effect of the applied force. Similarly buildings are laid over a
large area to reduce the effect of the thrust. Additional tyres are used in vehicles carrying
very heavy load.
Archimedes Principle :
Let us discuss an experiment. Suspend an object from a spring
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
balance and note down its weight. Now dip the stone suspended 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
from the spring balance in water as shown in figure. Again note 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
down the reading of the spring balance. We will find that the weight 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
of the object in the second case is less than that in the first case. If 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
we measure the weight of the water that was displaced out of the 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
beaker upon dipping the object then we will find that this is equal 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
to the observed decrease in weight of the stone following dipping. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
For example if weight of the block in air is 20 g and in water, it is
15 g then the weight of the water displaced by the block should be 5g. We therefore, conclude
that the observed decrease in the weight of the object following immersion in water is
equal to the weight of the displaced water. You can verify this experiment with other liquids
also.
From the above experiment it is clear that an upward force should be acting on the
object upon immersion in a liquid. The upward force exerted on an object partly or fully
immersed in a liquid is known as the buoyant force and this property of the liquid is known
as buoyancy.
The buoyant force (i) is equal to the decrease in weight of object immersed in a liquid
and (2) It also depends on the shape (volume) of the object and the density of the liquid.
The Achimedes principle can now be stated as follows :
When an object is immersed partly or completely in a liquid, the observed decrease in
its weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object.
Applications of the Acrhimedes Principle :
Ships are made from metals which have higher density than water. Yet, the ships float
on water because of their shape. The large volume of the ship displaces water equal to
its weight enabling the ship to remain afloat.
The submarines can swim in the depth of sea. The submarines contain large tanks
which are filled with water. This increases the total weight of the submarine which
now exceeds the force of buoyancy. The submarine can therefore, go down in the depth
of the sea. If the tank filled with water are emptied the submarine can again float on the
surface of the sea.

Chapter-3 (P-50)
 Lactometer for measuring purity of milk and hydrometer for measuring the density
of a liquid also work on Archimedes principle.
Relative Density :
The mass of unit volume of a substance is known as its density. It SI unit is kg m3.
Different substances have different densities. It is, therefore, more convenient to express the
density of a substance relative to the density of water, because water is an easily available
substance. We can thus define the relative density of a substance as the ratio of the density of
the substance and the density of water at 40C.
Density of the substance
Relative Density of a Substance =
Density of water at 40C
IMPORTANT FACTS
The initial velocity of an object moving from the position of rest is zero.
If a moving object comes to rest, its final velocity is zero.
Rate of change of velocity or velocity per unit time is known as acceleration.
The tendency of any object to oppose any effort aimed at changing its state of rest or
motion is known as inertia.
The rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied force on the object.
The SI unit of force is Newton. One Newton is the force that causes an accelertion of
1 ms2 on an object of mass 1 kg.
Friction always opposes the motion of an object.
Kinetic friction is always less than static friction.
The thrust exerted per unit area is known as pressure. Its SI unit is pascal.
The relative density of an object is equal to the ratio of the density and the density of
water at 40C
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. Distinguish between the motion of a living and a non living objects.
2. Define vector and scalar quantities.
3. Define velocity.
4. Define acceleration.
5. Write down the SI unit of force.
6. What is inertia ?
7. Write down the mathematical form of Newtons second law of motion.
8. Define pressure and write down its SI unit.
Short answer type questions :
1. Differentiate between displacement & distance.
2. What is inertia? Give an example of inertia of rest.

Chapter-3 (P-51)
3. Why the passengers sitting inside a bus are pushed back when the bus suddenly moves
forward?
4. What do you understand by friction ? Why is it difficult to walk on a smooth, polished
surface?
5. What is the relationship between pressure and area ? Why extra tyres are used in vehicles
carrying heavy load ?
Long answer type questions :
1. Derive the first equation of motion v = u + at.

2. Derive the equation of motion. S = ut + a t2

3. Derive the equation of motion. v2 = u2 + 2a S.
4. Explain with examples, Newtons third law.
5. Despite its disadvantages, friction is an important and necessary property. Analysis
this statement.
6. Explain with example impulse.
7. Write notes on
(a) Static friction (b) Limiting friction (c) Sliding friction (d) Rolling friction
Numericals :
1. A train moving with a velocity of 90 ms2 experience a deceleration of 2ms2 when
brakes are applied. Calculate the distance travelled by the train before complete halt.
Answer : 625m
-1
2. An object is moving with a velocity 4 ms . If it is subjected to an acceleration of
2ms-2, calculate its velocity and the distance travelled after 5s.
Answer : 14ms1, 45m
3. A bus is moving with a uniform velocity of 36 km/h. The driver applies brake and the
bus stops after travelling a distance of 10 m. Calculate the deceleration and the time
taken by the bus to come to rest.
Answer : 5ms2, 2S
4. If the velocity of a truck of mass 1000 kg is changed from 36 km h-1 to 108 kmh-1,
calculate the change in momentum.
Answer : 20,000 kg m/s
5. A ball of mass 70 g is moving with a velocity of 0.5 m/s. A player stops the ball in 0.5
s. Calculate the force exerted by the player on the ball.
Answer 0.07 N
6. A block having weight of 1200 N rests on an area of 4 m2. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the block.
Answer 300N m2 or 300 Pa
PROJECT
Observe different activities around you based on Newtons laws. Prepare
a list and hand it over to your teacher.

Chapter-3 (P-52)
 CHAPTER - 4

Gravitation
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 An object falling from a height, always moves down
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 towards the Earth. Why? Galileo (1564-1642) suggested that this
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 happens because the objects are attracted by the Earth. Galileo
123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 had no idea that such an affective force is responsible for the
123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
planetary motion. Issac Newton (1642-1727) could, however,
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
understand this and called this force the Gravitational Force.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 In this chapter, we will study gravitation, universal law of
gravitation and the effect of the gravitational force on moving
Let us Learn objects. We will also study why the weight of a body changes at
different places.
4.1 Gravitation &
4.1 Gravitation and Gravitational Force :
Gravitational
force. You might have heard the story of the falling apple that
inspired Sir Issac Newton to discover the law of gravitation.
4.2 Universal law of
Newton, might perhaps have thought that if the Earth attracted
Gravitation.
apple then why not the moon. Does the same force operate in
4.3 Gravitational both the situation?
Acceleration.
Newton said that all objects attract each other with a force
4.4 Mass and that is directed along the line joining their centres of masses. Thus
Weight. the earth and the moon attract each other. An object left from a
4.5 Motion of an height also falls towards the earth because of this force of attraction.
object falling In this way all objects of the universe attract each other.
freely under The force of attraction between two bodies is known as the
gravity. gravitational force. This force operates irrespective of whether the
objects are in contact with each other or are kept apart.
4.2 Universal law of Gravitation :
Newton propounded a law related to the force of attraction
between two bodies, which is known as Newtons law of
Universal Gravitation. It can be Stated as follows:
All material bodies in the universe attract each other by a
definite force which is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Chapter-4 (P-53)
 For two bodies this force is directed along the line joining the center of their masses.
In physics, the terms particle & bodies are often used. A particle often refers to an
object whose dimension is much smaller so that it can be treated as a point object. In case of
bodies having finite dimensions, the whole mass is thought to be acting on a point which is
known as the centre of mass.
Gravitational Force Between Two Bodies:
If two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 are kept at a distance d apart as shown in
the figure then the gravitational force of attraction F between A & B will be
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
A B
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
o o m
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
" !
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
1 2 2
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
m
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
! "
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
1 d
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678

F m1 m 2
1 (1)
And F
d2
From (1) and (2) m1m 2
F (2)
d2
or
G m 1m 2 (3)
F=
d2
Note that d has been measured from the centres of masses O1 & O2 of the objects A
and B respectively.
G in equation (3) is a constant, known as the universal constant of gravitation. We can
find the value of G by rewriting equation (3) as follows :
Fd 2
G =
m 1m 2
The unit of G in SI system
Unit of force in SI x (Unit of distance in SI)2
=
Unit of mass (m1) x Unit of mass (m2)
Newton x m2
=
kg x kg
= Newton m2 kg -2 or Newton m2/kg2

Chapter-4 (P-54)
 Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), determined the value of G using a sensitive
balance. At present the value of G is taken as 6.673 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Important facts :
Newton's law of universal gravitation has universal applicability. It means that this
law is applicable to all small or big terrestrial as well as nonterrestrial objects.
Gravitational force is a central force. It is always directed towards the centre of mass.
4.3 Acceleration Due to Gravity :
We have seen earlier that the acceleration of an object depends upon the rate of change
of its velocity. Also, if a force is applied on a body, it acquires acceleration. If the force is
exerted by the gravitational attraction of the earth, then the resulting acceleration is known
as acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by g. The velocity of an object falling freely
towards the earth's surface, increases with time. Hence, the acceleration due to gravity is
positive. However, if the body is thrown upward, its velocity decreases gradually and hence
the acceleration due to gravity is negative. The value of g at different places on the earths
surface is different. However, for calculation, the value of g is taken as 9.8 ms-2
Suppose a body of mass m is kept on the surface of the earth. If M and R are the mass
and the radius of the earth respectively then:
GMm
The gravitational force acting on the body F = (4)
R2
If the above force produces an acceleration g then from Newtons second law of motion.
F = mg (5)
GMm
from equation (4) & (5) m g =
R2
GM
or g= (6)
R2
Equation (6) describes the relationship between g & G.
4.4 Mass and Weight :
Mass
The mass of an object represents the material content in it. In other words, the quantity
of mater in a body is called its mass. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of mass is kg. Its unit
in CGS system is gram.
The mass of a body is always conserved (i. e. constant) irrespective of its location on
earth or any other planet. It is represented by M.
Weight
We know that the earth attracts all objects placed on its surface. The force of attraction
depends on the mass of the body and the acceleration due to gravity. This force is also known
as the weight of the body. We can define weight of a body in the following manner:
Chapter-4 (P-55)
 The weight of a body on earth is equal to the force with which it is attracted by the
earth. It acts vertically downward from the centre of mass.
We know that the force acting on a body due to gravitational attraction is equal to the
product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity. Hence
F = mg.
According to the definition of weight F = W
W = mg
The SI unit of weight is newton (N) In CGS system, the unit of weight is dyne. It is a
vector quantity, It can also be expressed as kg m/s2 or kg ms-2
weight can also be expressed as
1 kg force = 1 kg weight
= 1 kg x 9.8 m/s2
= 9.8 kg m/s2
= 9.8 newton.
The weight of a body is different at different places because g also varies from place
to place. The reason for variation in g is because the earth is not a perfectly spherical
object and hence g is not the same at all places on the earths surface. Accordingly the
weight also varies.
The value of g on moon is 1/6th of the corresponding value (9.8 ms-2) on the earth.
Hence the weight of an object on moon will also be 1/6 th of its weight on earth.
4.5 Motion of a Body Falling freely under Gravity.-
If two objects of different weights are released from a height, then they will arrive on
the earth's surface simultaneously.. In doing so, the velocity of the objects continuously
increases as they move towards the earth. We have already disscussed that the increase in
their velocity is due to the gravitational force giving rise to an acceleration g.
The acceleration due to gravity (g) is the same irrespective of the weights of the objects.
Thus both the lighter as well as the heavier objects will be accelerated by the same amount.
Similarly an object thrown vertically upward from the surface of the earth expriences
retardation g so that its velocity gradually decreases as it moves upward.
We can describe the motion of an object moving in a straight line under the action of
gravity, using the Newtons equation of motion which have been rewritten in the following:
V = u + at (7)

S = ut + 1 a t2 (8)
2

Chapter-4 (P-56)
 v2 = u2 + 2aS (9)

For a body falling freely under gravitation, the acceleration a = g and the displacement S =
h (the vertical displacement). Hence the Newton's equation of motion for a freely falling
body under gravitation can be writen as :
v = u + gt (10)
h = ut + 1 gt2 (11)
2
v2 = u2 + 2gh (12)

If an object is thrown upward with an initial velocity u, its velocity will continuously de-
crease and will eventually become zero. At this instant the height attained by the object is
say; h, since in this case v=o and g=-g we can transform equation (10- 12) as follows
u = + gt (13)
h = ut 1 gt2 (14)
2
u2 = + 2 g h (15)

Example 1 : Two bodies of mass 50 kg and 20 kg respectively have been kept 2 m apart. If
the gravitational force of attraction between them is 1.67x10-8 N, calculate G.
Solution : F = 1.67 x 10-8 N; m1 = 50 kg; m2 = 20 kg d = 2m; G = ?
Substituting these values in the following equation
Gm1m 2
F=
d2

G (5 0 k g ) (2 0 k g )
1 .6 7 1 0 8 N =
(2 m )2
1 .6 7 1 0 8 4
or G = N m 2 k g 2
1000
G = 6 .6 8 1 0 11 N m 2 k g 2

Example 2 : If the distance between two bodies is halved, by what factor, the gravita-
tional force between them, will increase?
Solution : Suppose that two bodies of masses m1 & m2 are kept a distance r apart.

The gravitational force F 1

r 2

Now if r is reduced to r/2 the new force F1 can be written as

Chapter-4 (P-57)
 F1 = 4F from equ. (1) & (2)
Therefore, the gravitational force will increase four fold if the distance is halved.
Find answers to the following questions:
Find out the magnitude of the gravidational force between the earth & a body
kept on the surface of the earth.
How does the gravitational force between two bodies vary with distance between
them ?
Write down the SI unit of G.
Calculate the gravitational force between two bodies when the distance between
them is doubled.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
According to the law of gravitation, the force of attraction between any two bodies is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
Gravitational force is relatively weak unless the bodies involved are massive.
The force of attraction exerted by the earth is also known as gravitational force.
Gravitational force decreases as the body moves away from the earths surface.
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) changes from place to place on the surface
of the earth. It also decreases as one moves either upward above the surface or downward
below the surface.
The weight of a body is equal to the force with which it is attracted by the earth.
If a body is allowed to fall freely from a height, its velocity increases at the rate of 9.8
m s-1. In other words, it is accelerated by 9.8 ms-2. We represent this acceleration by +g.
The initial velocity of an object is zero when it is released from a height.
The final velocity (v) of a body projected vertically upward will be zero when it attains
the maximum height.

Chapter-4 (P-58)
 EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
Q.1 Write down the mathematical form of Newtons Law of Gravitation.
Q.2 Write down the SI unit of acceleration due to gravity.
Q. 3 Obtain a relation between g and G.
Q. 4 Write down SI unit of G.
Q.5 What will be the mass of a body weighing 49 N?
Short answer type questions.
Q.1 Write down the formula for obtaining the gravitational force on a body placed on the
surface of the earth.
Q. 2 What do you understand by acceleration due to gravity?
Q.3 What is the difference between the mass and weight of a body?
Long answer type questions.
Q. 1 If the gravitational force on a body is directly preportional to its mass, then why a
heavier object does not fall more rapidly as compared to a lighter one?
Q.2 The moon exerts an attractive gravitational force on the earth, then why the earth does
not move towards the moon?
Numericals
Q.1 Calculate the gravitational force on an object of mass 1kg placed on the surface of the
earth. Given mass of the earth 6x10 24 kg., radius of earth 6.4 x 10 6m and
G=6.67x10-11 Nm2kg-2
(Answer 9.77 N)
Q.2 Calculate the gravitational force between two bodies for the following cases:
(i) mass of one body is doubled (i) distance between the objects is doubled (ii) masses
of both the objects are doubled.
Answer : (i) 2F (ii) F/4 (iii) 4F
Q.3 An object is released from a tower. Calculate its velocity when it falls to a distance of
20 m from the tower. Given g=10ms-2
(Answer : 20 ms-1)
Q.4 A ball has been projected vertically upward. If it attains a maximum height of 100 m,
calculate the initial volocity. Given g=10 ms-2
(Answer : 44.7 ms-1)
Q.5 A person has a mass of 60 kg. Calculate its weight on the moon and the earth.
(Given g=10 ms-2 and gm = g/6 )
Answer: ( i) weight on moon=100 N (ii) weight on earth = 600 N
PROJECT
List few names of Indians who went into the space. Write a brief life sketch
of any one of them.

Chapter-4 (P-59)
 CHAPTER - 5

Work, Energy and Power

123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
The Sun is the largest and the most important source of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 energy for us. The energy for all the life forms existing on the
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 earth is derived from the sun. This energy is needed by all living
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 organisms to sustain life. We also need energy for improving
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
our comfort level and increasing the over all quality of life. We
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
have also evolved techniques to convert one form of energy
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
into another to meet various requirements. We have also
developed different machines which can perform work rapidly
and with greater power.
In order to perform a piece of work we also need to apply
force and hence consume energy. However, the term work in
our daily usage is different from the one used in science. For
example any physical or mental activity is often termed as work
by us. However, science defines work in a different manner.
For example, if you push a wall for any amount of time,
Let us Learn according to the language of science, you do not perform any
work.
5.1 Scientific Tie a stone by one end of a string and continuously rotate
concept of it around you by holding the other end. The net work done by
work you on the stone will be zero even though you may be exhausted.
5.2 Energy 5.1 Scientific Concept of Work
5.3 Power If a body is moved by application of a force then we say
that work has been done.
Example : Push a book on a table by applying some force.
If the book is displaced then some work has been performed.
When you climb the stairs of your house, then you move
upward against gravity. Thus some work is done by you, in this
case also.
From the above discussions, it is obvious that work is done
only when (1) some force acts on a body (2) the body is
displaced in the direction of the force. We can now define work
in the following manner :

Chapter-5 (P-60)
 Work is defined as the product of the force on a body and displacement of
the body in the direction of the force.
Work Done when Displacement is in the Direction of Force :
If an object is displaced by an amount S following application of a Force F then the
work done W is
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
W = FS 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
You should note that when an object moves 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
on a surface, the applied force must also perform 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Displacement by force
some work against friction. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789

Unit of Work : Since the units of force and

displacement are newton (N) and metre (m) respectively. Hence the unit of work will be
Nm. It is also called joule (J) in honour of James Prescot Joule (1818-1889). 1 joule = 1
newton x 1 metre.
The SI unit of work is joule (J)
Definition of Joule : One joule is equivalent
to the work done by 1N of force in displacing an
object by 1 m. It is a scalar quantity.
Now let us consider another situation :
Suppose that two forces F1 and F2 are acting
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
Positive & Negative displacement
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678

along the same line on an object at A. The forces

are oppositely directed. If F1 > F2 then, the resultant of F1 and F2 will be such that the object
will be displaced from A to B by S as shown. The displacement S is in the direction of F1 but
opposite to F2. Hence we can now describe two types of work :
Positive Work : If the displacement is in the direction of the applied force then its
sign is taken as positive and the corresponding work is also positive.
The work done W1 by force F1 is given by
W1 = F1 S
W1 is positive.
Negative Work : If the displacement is opposite to the direction of force then the
work done is negative.
Thus the work done W2 by force F2 is given by
W2 = F2 (S) = F2S
W2 is negative
When the Displacement is not along the Force
Some times, the displacement of the object is not along the direction of force F. We
can calculate the work done as shown in figure. If the force F is acting in the direction AB

Chapter-5 (P-61)
 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
on the object situated at B and the displacent S of the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
object is along a direction making an angle with the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
direction AB of applied force then, the component 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
of S along F will be S cos . We know that 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Work = Force x 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Displacement in the direction of the force
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
= Force x 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
(Displacement x Cos )
= F. S. Cos
Where = angle between the direction of force and the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
displacement. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
When the force is acting in a direction perpendicular to 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
the direction of displacement. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
A stone has been tied to the end A of a string. Now the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
stone is rotated in a circular path by holding the other end O of Circular motion
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
the string. In order to ensure that the stone moves in a circular
path you have to pull the string towards you. This force F on the string is known as centripetal
force. At every instant the velocity of the stone (and the displacement S of the stone) is
perpendicular to the force F. Hence the work done W by the force F is
W = F. S. Cos 900
W = 0 ( Cos 900 = 0)
It follows that the total work done on a body moving along a circular path is zero. The
planets orbiting around the Sun therefore do not perform any work. Similarly a satellite
also does not perform any work while orbiting a planet.
Important Fact
The work done will depend on the following functions :
1. Magnitude of force
2. Magnitude of displacement
3. Angle between the force and the displacement.
Example : A body is displaced by 10 m along the direction of force when a force of
magnitude 50 N is applied. Calculate work done.
Solution : Force F = 50 N, Displacement = 10 m
Since force and displacement are in the same direction angle between them

Chapter-5 (P-62)
 =0
Substituting in the formula
W = F S Cos
we get
W = 50 N x 10m x cos 00
= 500 N m ( W cos 00 = 1)
= 500 J ( W Nm = J)
Hence work done on the object is 500J.
Example : Some force acting on a mass of 10 kg, produces an acceleration of
2ms . If the displacement of the object is 5 m in a direction making an angle of 600 with
2

the direction of applied force then calculate the work done.

Solution : Given m = 10 kg, acceleration a = 2ms2 displacement S = 5m, = 600
From Newtons second law of motion
F = m.a
= 10 kg x 2ms2
= 20 N ( W kg ms-2 = N)
Using W = F.S.cos
= 20 N. 5m . cos 600
1 1
= 20 x 5 x J ( cos 600 = )
2 2
= 50 J.
Hence work done by the force = 50J.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Work Done Against Gravity : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
If an object is raised to a certain height above the surface 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
of the earth, then we have to work against gravity. the minimum 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
force that would be necessary to lift an object will be equal to 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
its weight mg, where m is the mass of the object and g the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
acceleration due to gravity. If the object is displaced to a height 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
h then 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Work done against gravity
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
work done = weight x displacement 123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567

i.e. workdone W= mgh.

Thus, the work done on an object against gravity is equal to the product of the weight
of the object and its vertical displacement.
Example : Calculate the work done in lifting an object of mass 10 kg. to a height of
10 m. (g = 9.8ms-2)

Chapter-5 (P-63)
 Solution : Given m = 10 kg, h = 10 m, W=?
formula W = mgh.
on substitution we get
W = 10 kg x 9.8 ms-2 x 10 m
= 980 kg m2s-2
= 980 J (joule) ( kg m2s-2 = J)
Hence the desired work done is 980 joules.
Find answers to the following questions :
Define work and write down its unit.
Answer whether work done is a scalar or vector quantity.
A person carrying a mass of 10 kg. on his head, walks on a horizontal plane upto
a distance of 100 m. Calculate work done by him against gravity
5.2 Energy
We often use the term energy. A person is said to be energetic if he is capable of
performing more work. Thus energy is the capacity to perform work.
Let us now consider some examples :
1. A cricket ball moving with a high velocity can uproot the stump on collision and
can throw it to a large distance. The energy stored in the ball caused the stump
to be thrown away.
2. A hammer striking from a height forces the nail to penetrate the wooden plank.
The energy acquired by the hammer when it is raised to a height and the velocity
with which it is moved down results in the storage of energy in it. This energy is
transferred to the nail so that it is pushed in the wood.
3. A toy car travels over some distance if you wind up its spring. This imparts
energy to the spring. This energy is consumed in moving the car.
From the above examples you can understand that the capacity to perform work is
generated because of the energy.
We will now define energy :
The physical quantity that imparts in a body, the capacity to do work is known as
energy. In this way energy gets converted into work. Therefore, the same unit (joule) is
used to express work and energy. Energy is a scalar quantity.
Important : Large value of energy is often expressed in kilo joule (kJ)
1 kJ = 1000 J
Sun is the prime source of energy for us. We can also generate energy from wind,
tidal waves, fossil fuels and nuclei of some atoms.

Chapter-5 (P-64)
 Light, sound, heat etc are different forms of energy. The energy of an object can be
classified into two categories viz kinetic energy and potential energy. Both these types of
energy are also known as mechanical energy.
We will now learn about kinetic and potential energy.
5.2.1 Kinetic Energy
We have seen that a fast moving cricket ball will carry higher energy compared to the
one moving slowly. Therefore, the energy depends on velocity. The energy associated with
the motion of a body is known as kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of a body changes with its velocity. A natural question that should
arise in our mind is about the source of this energy. In fact, some work will be required to
make an object mobile. This work is converted into kinetic energy. Therefore the change in
kinetic energy of an object is equal to the amount of work done, on it.
Kinetic energy is represented by Ek. We will now express kinetic energy in a
mathematical form.
Suppose that a force F acting on a body of mass m generates an acceleration a.
According to Newtons second law of motion :
F = ma (1)
The above force generates a displacement S along the direction of F. The work done
by the force on the body is given by
W = FS (2)
From equation (1) and (2)
W = maS (3)
If the velocity of the body before and after application of force are u and v respectively
then
v2 = u2 + 2aS
or 2aS = v2 u2

or aS = (4)

Substituting for aS from equation (4) into equation (3) are get

W = m

W = (5)
If the body starts from the position of rest then u = 0

Chapter-5 (P-65)
 W = (6)
It is this work that is stored in the form of kinetic energy of the object.
Hence Kinetic Energy
1
Ek = mv 2 (7)
2

Important (1) E k m if v is constant

(2) E k v 2 if m is constant
Example : An object of mass 10kg is moving with velocity 5ms1. Calculate its kinetic
energy.
Solution :Given that m = 10 kg, v = 5 ms1
Now substituting in the formula
1
Ek = mv 2
2
1 1
Ek = mv 2 = (10 kg.) (5ms1)2
2 2
= 125 J.
The kinetic energy of the object is 125 J.
5.2.2 Potential Energy
You might have noticed that the pressure with which water flows out of a tap depends
upon the height of the over head tank.
Similarly, if you stretch a spring, its length increases. As soon as we release one of its
end, it tries to return to its original condition.
Have you ever thought of the reasons giving rise to the above two observations?
In order to fill the overhead tank with water, we have to perform work against gravity.
This work is stored as energy in water of the overhead tank. The higher is the height of the
overhead tank, the more will be the energy required to be spent in filling water in the tank.
Hence the energy stored in the water of the tank will also increase as the height of the level
of the tank increases with respect to the ground level. Similarly stretching a spring consumes
energy which gets stored in the spring.
Thus, energy needs to be spent or work needs to be done to change the position or
size of any object. The energy so spent gets stored in the object, such a stored energy is
known as the potential energy.
We will now define potential energy :

Chapter-5 (P-66)
 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
The energy required to change the state (relative position, 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
shape etc.) is known an the potential energy. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Gravitational Potential Energy : Suppose an object A 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
of mass m rests on the surface of the earth. The object and the 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Earth therefore, form one system. Now if the object is displaced 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
to a height h relative to the earths surface, we have to perform 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
some work against gravity. Since the earth has been regarded as 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
stationary the work done on the object A can be regarded as 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
being its potential energy. Hence, the energy stored in an object 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
due to its vertical displacement relative to the earth is known as
its gravitational potential energy.
Elastic Potential Energy : The energy stored in an object due to change in its shape
is known as elastic potential energy.
Potential energy is represented by Ep. It is dependent upon the height of the object
relative to the ground. We will now express this relationship
Suppose that an object of mass m is raised to a vertical height h above ground. The
acceleration due to gravity is g. The minimum force required to displace the object vertically
will be equal to mg, the weight of the object. Hence the work done W is given by :
W = Force x displacement along the direction of force
= mg h
= Ep (Gravitational potential energy)
Hence the potential energy of any object is equal to the product of its weight and its
height relative to ground.
Important Facts
The gravitational potential energy of an object depends upon its vertical
displacement and not on the length of the path, taken by it.
In figure (a) an object A of mass m is displaced
vertically upward to a height h along the straight line B
path AB. The potential energy of the object A will
be given by 4
Ep = Force x displacement
= mg . h
In figure b, the same object has been raised
from ground through the path A-1-2-3-4-B, so that
the vertical displacement from ground is still h.
(a) (b)
However, the path taken by the object is much
longer. The potential energy will be
Ep = Force x displacement

Chapter-5 (P-67)
 Ep = mg . h
You should remember that the work done by a force depends only on the initial
and final position of the object i.e. on its displacement. Such a force is known as
conservative force.
Example : An object of mass 10 kg is raised vertically above ground to a height of
5m. How much energy will be conserved in the object? g = 9.8 ms2
Solution : Given m = 10 kg, h = 5 m
To find Ep
Using Ep = mgh
we get Ep = 10 kg x 9.8 ms2 x 5 m
= 490 kg m2s2
= 490 J ( W kg m2s2 = J)
Hence the stored energy = 490J.
Example : An object P moves along the path A, B, C, D, E, F and reaches the position
F at a height 3m above the plane xy. Calculate the potential energy of the object at F for the
following cases :
(a) relative to plane BC
(b) relative to plane ED
(c) relative to plane xy
Assume mass of object = 5.2 kg and g = 10 ms2
Solution : Given m = 5.2 kg; g = 10 ms2
(a) To find potential energy of P relative to the plane BC
Formula E p = mgh
Height of P relative to the plane BC = 1.5 m
Ep = 5.2 kg x 10 ms2 x 1.5 m
= 78 kg m2s2
= 78 J ( W kg m2s2 = J)
The potential energy of the object P relative to the plane BC is 78J.
(b) Potential energy of P relative to plane ED :
The height of the object relative to plane ED = 0.5 m.
Ep = 5.2 kg x 10 ms2 x 0.5 m
= 26 kg m2s2
= 26 J
The potential energy of P relative to ED = 26J.
(c) Potential energy relative to plane xy :
Given h = 3m.

Chapter-5 (P-68)
 Ep = 5.2 kg x 10 ms-2 x 3 m
= 156 J.
Hence potential energy relative to xy plane = 156 J.
Example : An object of mass 10kg is moving with a velocity of 4ms1. Calculate its
kinetic energy.
Solution : Given m=10 Kg, V = 4ms1 to find kinetic energy
1
Ek = mv 2
2
1
Ek = x 10 kg x (4ms1)2
2
1
= x 10 x 16 kg m2s2
2
= 80 kg m2s2
= 80 J
Hence kinetic energy of the object is 80J
Principle of conservation of energy :
You know that some electricity has to be consumed in lighting on a bulb. The bulb
gives us light as well as some heat. Thus the electrical energy has been converted into light
and heat energy. In this process the energy is always conserved. Only it changes from one
form to another.
The principle of conservation of energy states that The total energy of a closed system
is always conserved.
Find answers to the following questions :
What is energy? Write its unit.
What do you understand by kinetic energy?
What do you understand by the term - potential energy?
An object is situated at 10m above ground. Calculate its potential energy, mass
of the object is 10 kg and g = 9.8 ms2
5.3 Power
Whenever work is performed, it is not only important to know the amount of work
done but also the time in which it was accomplished. The energy required to perform a
given amount of work remains the same irrespective of the time taken for completion of
the work, However the rate at which energy is being spent depends on the time taken.
Power is defined as the rate of work done.
We can express the above fact mathematically as follows :
Work done
Power =
time taken in completion of work
Chapter-5 (P-69)
 If a work W has been done in time t then
W
Power P =
t
Unit of Power : Since the unit of work is joule (J) and time is s, Hence
W
Unit of Power P =
t
= Js1
The unit of power is also expressed in watt (W) in honor of James Watt (1736-1819).
Hence if one joule of work is performed in 1 second then the power consumed is
equal to one watt.
1J
1W =
1s
A larger unit of power is kilowatt (kW)
1 kW= 1000 W
Average Power : In general, the power of the agency performing some work may not
remain constant throughout. It can change from time to time. Hence it is useful to define
average power.
Total Energy Consumed
Average Power =
Total time involved
Power is a scalar quantity.
Commercial Unit of Energy
Often large quantity of energy is consumed by a process. For example electricity
supply to industries and our houses need to be measured. For this purpose, joule as a unit is
too small. Therefore, a larger unit known as kilowatt hour (kWH) is used.
Let us understand kilowatt hour.
1 kWH = 103W x 1 hour
But 1 W = 1 J/s
and 1 hour = 3600 s
Hence 1 kWH = 1000 Js x 3600 s
= 3600000 J
1kWH = 3.6 x 106 J
The electric energy consumed by industries or residents is also known as unit. One
unit of electricity is equivalent to 1 kWH.
Example : A girl weighing 400 N is climbing up on a rope. If she goes to a height of
8 m in 20 s, calculate the energy spent by the girl.
Solutions : Given mg = 400 N, h= 8 m, t = 20 s.

Chapter-5 (P-70)
 Substitute in one formula
Work force x displacement
Power P = =
time time

P = 160Js 1 [ Js - 1 = W ]
P = 160 W
Answer the following :
What is power? Write down its unit.
Define 1 watt of power.
Define average power
Express 100 W into kW.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
If an object is displaced by a distance S in a direction making an angle with the
applied force F then work done W = F. S. Cos
If displacement is along the direction of the force then work done is positive.
If displacement is against the direction of force (i.e. = 1800) then the work done is
negative.
Zero work is said to have been performed when (i) displacement is zero (S=0) (ii)
displacement is in a direction, normal ( = 900) to the applied force.
One newton meter (Nm) is equivalent to 1 Joule of work.
If work is done on an object against gravity and the position of the object is changed,
then a potential energy is stored in the object.
The potential energy of an object of mass m, displaced vertically upward to a height h
is given by mgh (g is acceleration due to gravity).
Work and energy are scalar quantities.

EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. An object following application of a force moves by a certain distance along the
direction of force. What is the name given to the product of force and displacement?
2. Define one joule.
3. What do you understand by mechanical energy?
4. Define power and give its SI units.

Chapter-5 (P-71)
5. Write down the relationship between kilowatt hour and joule.
Short answer type questions :
1. Define potential and kinetic energy.
2. What is the principle of conservation of energy?
3. Read the following statement and tell if any work is being performed against Gravity.
Give arguments in support to your answer.
(a) You are climbing 10 steps of a staircase, each of height 20 cm.
(b) A person carrying a 10kg weight on his head, walks on a horizontal plane, upto a
distance of 20m.
Long answer type questions
1. Prove that the kinetic energy of a body of mass m moving with velocity v is given by
1
mv 2 .
2
2. Establish the formula for obtaining potential energy of an object of mass m situated
at a height h.
Numericals
1. A person of mass 50 kg climbs 30 steps of a staircase in 30s. If each of the step is 20
cm in height, calculate the following quantities :
(a) Work done in climbing 30 steps.
(b) Energy spent in climbing 30 steps Given g= 9.8 ms-2
(Answer : 2940J, 98W)
2. A body subjected to 20N of force gets displaced to a distance of 3 m in a direction
making an angle 600 with the force. Calculate work done by the force.
(Answer : 30J)
3. A force of 10N displaces an object by 5 m. If the work done by the force is 29 J,
calculate the angle of displacement.
(Answer : 600)
4. The kinetic energy of an object, moving with a velocity of 10 ms-1 is 10 J. What
should be the velocity of the object so that its kinetic energy becomes 90 J.
(Answer : 30 ms-1)
5. Calculate the height at which an object of mass 0.5 kg should be raised so that its
energy changes by 1J. Given g = 10 ms-2)
(Answer : 0.2 m)

PROJECT
Apply known forces to different objects around you and calculate the work
done. Also tell if it is positive, negative or zero. Prepare a table of your
observations.

Chapter-5 (P-72)
 CHAPTER - 6

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Heat :
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
We experience heat every day. For example our palms
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 become warm upon rubbing. The bicycle pump gets heated when
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 you fill air in a tube. The electric heaters become hot when the
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 electric current is switched on. These are some of the examples
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
where mechanical or electrical energy is converted into heat
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 energy. We can define heat as a form of energy which can be
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
transferred from one body to another without any mechanical
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
work. When you sit before a fire place, you feel warmth.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Because the fire place is hotter than you, the heat is transferred
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
from the fire place to you. Hence thermal energy (or heat)
flows from a body at higher temperature to another body at
lower temperature.
The SI unit of heat is joule. Calorie is also used as the
unit of heat energy.
Temperature :
Let us Learn The temperature of a body is its degree of hotness or
coldness. Hotter bodies are said to be at higher temperature
while the colder bodies are at lower temperature. Often, heat
6.1 Temperature
and temperature are mistakenly taken to mean similar thing.
Scale
Let us understand the difference between the two.
6.2 Thermometer
Take two identical containers A and B. Fill different
6.3 Thermal quantities of water in them. Suppose A has less water say 1 litre
equilibrium and B has more water (say 5 litre). Now place container A on a
6.4 Heat capacity burner and heat it for some time (say 2 minutes). Next, place
6.5 Principle of container B on the same burner and heat it for the same duration
calorimetry i.e. 2 minutes. You will notice that the water in container A
becomes hotter as compared to the water in B. Both the containers
6.6 Latent Heat
were given the same amount of heat and yet water in A is hotter
6.7 Thermal than that in B. Hence temperature reflects the degree of hotness
Expansion rather than the quantity of heat. Therefore, we can define
temperature as the degree of hotness of a body. Just as water
flows from a higher level to a lower level, heat also flows from

Chapter-6 (P-73)
a hotter to a colder body. The flow of heat continues till both the bodies attain the same
temperature. Hence we can give another definition for temperature. Temperature is that
physical quantity which indicates the direction of flow of heat between two bodies.
Temperature is usually expressed in degree celsius (C). Its SI unit is kelvin (K).
Difference between Heat and Temperature
Heat Temperature
1. It is one form of energy. 1. Temperature gives the degree of
hotness of a body.
2. Heat increases temperature of a 2. Temperature indicates the direction
body. of flow of heat between two bodies.
Heat always flows from hotter to a
colder body.
3. Two bodies at the same
3. Temperatures of two bodies may be temperature may contain different
different even if their heat energies quantities of heat.
are equal. 4. No change in temperature takes
4. The total thermal energy of two place when two bodies at the same
objects when joined together is temperature are joined together.
equal to the sum of their individual
thermal energies. 5. The practical unit of temperature
is degree celsius (C). Its SI unit is
5. The practical unit of thermal energy
kelvin (K)
is calorie. Its SI unit is joule.
Activity :
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Objective : To show that different quantity of heat 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
energy is required to heat the same masses of different 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
substances to the same temperature. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Tharma-
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
meter
Procedure : Take some water (say 20 g) in a 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
container and start heating it. Start a stop watch. Now wait 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Water
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
till the temperature rises to 50C. Note the time. Find out 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
the time required to heat the water to 50C 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Burner
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Next, empty the water and allow it to dry. Now pour 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
20 g quantity of another liquid, say oil into the container. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Again start heating it and find out the time required for the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
temperature to rise to 50C. You will find that the time 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
required is now different from the one recorded earlier. It

Chapter-6 (P-74)
follows that, different quantities of heat were required to raise the temperature of equal
mass of water and oil at the some temperature.
Conclusion : From the above activity, it can be concluded that equal quantities of
different substances require different quantity of heat to attain the same temperature.
Important fact
Whenever, heat is supplied to an object, its temperature rises. You know that
every substance is made of molecules which are always in a state of motion. When
heat is supplied to a substance, it is used in imparting kinetic energy to the molecules.
Hence the molecular motion increases. In other words, heat is a form of kinetic energy
of molecules.
6.1 Temperature Scales (celsius and kelvin)
and their Mutual Relationship :
We need a temperature scale to measure temperature of an object. For this we will
require two fixed reference points just as we require 0 and 100 cm marks while measuring
length. The reference points for temperature must remain constant at a given condition.
The two reference points can be as follows :
(i) The melting point of pure ice at standard pressure can be regarded as the lower
reference point.
(ii) The boiling point of pure water at standard pressure can be taken as the upper
reference point.
Celsius Scale of Temperature : This scale was given by Celsius (1701 1744). It is
a convenient scale for measurement of temperature. In this scale at standard pressure, the
melting point of pure ice and the boiling point of pure water are taken as zero degree
Celsius (0C) and hundred degree Celsius (100C) respectively.
The interval between 0C and 100C is called fundamental interval. This has been
divided into 100 parts. Each part represents temperature change of 1C. Thus one can mark
the entire temperature scale between 0C and 100C.
Note :
If temperatures below 0C are to be measured then, the graduations below zero
are marked and the temperature is taken as negative. In case temperatures above 100C
are to be measured one can similarly mark graduations with equal intervals. The separation
between consecutive intervals must be the same for the whole range of temperatures.
Kelvin Scale of Temperature :
We have seen that all temperatures below 0C are negative and above 0C are positive
in the Celsius scale of temperature. Another scale given by Lord Kelvin however, treats all
temperatures as positive. This scale is known as the Kelvin scale. Negative temperatures in

Chapter-6 (P-75)
Kelvin scale are impossible. Let us understand this fact.
It has been found that temperatures below 273C cannot be obtained. Hence 273C
is taken as the lowest possible temperature. Kelvin termed this temperature as the absolute
temperature and represented it as 0 K (zero kelvin). Hence
Lowest possible temperature is
- 273C = 0 K
actually - 273.15C. It is, however,
i.e. 0C = 273 K written approximately as 273C.

Hence 0C in Celsius scale is equal to 273 K in the Kelvin scale of temperature.

Remember that the unit of temperature in the Celsius scale is written as 0C while in
Kelvin scale it is written as K and not K.
Temperature in Kelvin Scale
T = temperature in Celsius Scale (tC) +273
formula T K = tC + 273
At standard pressure, the melting point of pure ice is 0C in the Celsius scale and 273
K in Kelvin Scale. Similarly, the boiling point of water in the Celsius scale is 100C and 373
K in the Kelvin Scale.
Note :
(i) All temperatures in Kelvin Scale are positive.
(ii) Kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.
Example :
Convert 250 K to degree Celsius.
Solution : Given T = 250 K
to obtain tC
formula tC = T K 273
Hence tC = 250 K 273
= 23C
Hence 250 K = 23C
6.2. Thermometer
Although, temperature can be felt by the touch of our hand, yet it is not a reliable
method of knowing the temperature of a body. For this purpose, we require a thermometer.
The first thermometer was made by Galileo in 1592. We will study two type of thermometers
viz (i) Mercury (or Laboratory thermometer) (ii) Clinical thermometer.

Chapter-6 (P-76)
 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
6.2.1. Mercury (or Laboratory) Thermometer : 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
It is used for measuring temperature in laboratories and hence it is 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
also known as laboratory thermometer. It is made up of a long capillary 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
tube of glass. The lower end of the tube is made in the form of a bulb, 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
which is filled with mercury. The upper end of the tube is closed. Normally, 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
the laboratory thermometer contains graduation between 10C to 110C. 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
This is called the range of the thermometer. The whole range of temperature 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
is divided into equal divisions and marked with the temperature readings. 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
One division of this scale corresponds to the minimum change in 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
temperature that can be measured by this thermometer. We can see mercury 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
inside the capillary as a fine thread. The upper level of mercury column 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
represents temperature of the body which is in contact with the 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
thermometer bulb. 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
In order to measure the temperature of a body, we have to touch it 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
with the bulb of the thermometer for a few minutes. As a result of the 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
physical contact between the body and the bulb for sufficient time, the 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
bulb attains the temperature equal to that of the body. In this process, heat 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
is transferred from the body to the bulb and hence to the mercury inside. 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
The transfer of heat leads to thermal expansion of mercury. The volume 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
of mercury increases and hence it starts rising in the capillary tube. After 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
some time, when the bulb & the body attain the same temperature, heat 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
transfer stops and hence the mercury column also stops rising. The reading 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
of the temperature scale that coincides with the upper end of the mercury 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
column is taken as the temperature of the body. 1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
Laboratory
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
Important : It is necessary that the bulb should be in contact with Thermometer
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345
the body while recording the temperature. If this is not done, and the
bulb is removed from the surface of the body, the temperature of mercury will drop and
hence it will shrink. Therefore, in such a circumstance, the reading will be lower than the
actual body temperature.
The sensitivity of the mercury thermometer is high because of the narrow diameter
of the capillary. A small change in the temperature of the bulb will result in a large change
in the height of the mercury column in the capillary.
6.2.2. Clinical Thermometer :
Clinical thermometers are used to measure temperature of a human body. It also uses
mercury for indication of temperature. While recording temperature, the clinical thermometer
is either kept inside the mouth or beneath the arm pit of the person, for some time. The
body heat of the person is transferred to the thermometer bulb which contains mercury

Chapter-6 (P-77)
 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
inside. Due to the heat received, the volume of mercury in the bulb 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
increases. As a result the volume of mercury column in the capillary rises. 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
The clinical thermometer has two characteristic features that distinguish 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
it from the laboratory thermometer. These are : 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
(i) The temperature range of the clinical thermometer is narrow, between 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
35C to 42C. This is because the temperature of a human body lies 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
in this range. 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
(ii) A constriction is made above the bulb of the thermometer. This 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
constriction prevents reverse flow of mercury column when the 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
temperature drops. As the thermometer is removed from the body of a 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
patient, the temperature of the bulb of the thermometer drops. However, 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
the mercury column above the constriction cannot shrink as its reverse 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
flow is blocked by the constriction. Hence the upper end of the mercury 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
column stays at its position and the body temperature can be recorded 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
even after the physical contact between the bulb and the patient is 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
removed. The temperature scale in clinical thermometer is marked in 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
centigrade (C) as well as Fahrenheit. Temperature in Fahrenheit scale 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
is represented as F. In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of pure 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
water is 32F and the boiling point of pure water is 212F. We can 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
convert temperatures from one scale to another using the following 123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
Clinical
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
relationship : Thermometer
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901
123456789012345678901

9
F = 32 + C
5
The relationship between the Celsius, Kelvin & Fahrenheit scale is expressed as :

The body average temperature of a healthy person is 98F (or 36.7C).

Find answers to the following :
In what form of mechanical energy does the heat supplied to the molecules of a
body appear. Define temperature
Give the practical and SI unit of temperature.
Give the practical and SI unit of thermal energy.
6.3 Thermal Equilibrium :
If you heat a metallic object and drop it in water, you will notice that the metallic object
slowly cools down. Simultaneously the temperature of the water starts increasing. This process
continues till the temperatures of water and the object become equal. We know that thermal
energy is exchanged between two objects that are at different temperatures and brought in

Chapter-6 (P-78)
contact with each other. The exchange of thermal energy continues till the two objects
attain the same temperature. Once the exchange of thermal energy stops, the two objects
are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Hence objects in contact with each other are said to
be in thermal equilibrium if no exchange of thermal energy takes place.
Unit of Thermal Energy and their Relationship : You have already studied that
the SI unit of thermal energy is joule (J). Its practical unit is calorie. We can define one
calorie of heat as the quantity that can change temperature of pure water by 1C from
14.5C to 15.5C.
Relation between calorie & joule is as follows :
1 calorie = 4.18 joule.
Larger quantity of thermal energy is often expressed in kilocalorie
1 kilo calorie = 1000 calorie
Absorption of Heat by an object :
Let us take an example of say 50 g of water in a container and heat it till it starts
boiling. We will find that it boils quickly. However, if a larger quantity say 1 kg of water is
taken, the time required in boiling will be more. Hence more quantity of heat was supplied
in the later case. Therefore, the quantity of heat supplied or thermal energy absorbed (Q)
by an object increases proportionately to its mass (m). Hence
Q m (1)
Next, repeat the experiment with a fixed quantity of water. Now you can again note
down the time required to increase the temperature so that (a) it is luke warm and (b) it starts
boiling. Obviously the time required for boiling will be more. Hence the quantity of heat
absorbed is directly proportional to the difference in temperature. So that
Q t ( the symbol is spelt as delta) (2)
We can combine the two equations and write
Q mt
or Q = Cmt (3)
Where C is a constant of proportionality. It is known as the specific heat of the object.
The value of the specific heat varies from substance to substance. We can now say that for a
given material, the heat required to change the temperature by t dependes upon :
(i) Mass of the material
(ii) Specific heat of the material
(iii) Temperature difference t

Chapter-6 (P-79)
Let us now learn more about specific heat.
If we substitute m = 1 and t = 1C in the equation 3 then
Q=C
Hence the specific heat of a material corresponds to the quantity of thermal energy
which is necessary to change the temperature of 1 kg of the material by 1C or (1K)
The specific heat of a material, in general changes slightly with temperature. This
change is primarily due to the change in the molecular arrangement.
Unit of specific heat
From equation (3)

Specific heat

If Q is in joule, m in kg and t in C then the unit of specific heat will be Jkg-1C-1. The
SI unit of specific heat in Jkg-1K-1
Specific Heat of Some Substances
S.No. Material Specific Heat C
in Jkg-1C-1
1. Gold 130
2. Mercury 138
3. Silver 234
4. Brass 372
5. Copper 390
6. Steel 447
7. Iron 480
8. Glass 677
9. Aluminium 899
10. Water 4180
We have seen that two different materials when heated under identical conditions, do
not register the same rise in temperature. A material of lower specific heat will be heated
more rapidly than the same quantity of another material but with larger specific heat. When
the source of heat is removed, the material with lower specific heat will cool down more
rapidly i.e. its rate of cooling is larger. On the other hand, the rate of cooling of the material
with larger specific heat is smaller i.e. it wil cool down slowly when the heat source is
removed. From the table of specific heats, it is seen that mercury has a relatively lower

Chapter-6 (P-80)
value of specific heat and hence it is used in the thermometer. On the other hand, water has
a very large specific heat. Hence water is used in hot water bottles. It is also used as a
coolant in car radiators.
Example :
How much thermal energy will be required to raise the temperature of 10 g of mercury
from 20 to 120C. Given that specific heat of mercury is 138 J kg-1 C-1
Solution : given m = 10g = 10 x 10-3kg = 10-2kg
C = 138 J kg-1 oC-1
t = (120 - 20)o C = 100oC
To find Q
Formula Q = mc t
= (10 kg) (138 J kg-1 oC-1) (100oC)
-2

= 138 J
Example :
What will be the change in temperature when 10 g of water is supplied with 2090 J of
heat? C of water = 4180 J kg-1 C-1
Solution : given m = 20 g = 20 x 10-3kg
Q = 2090 J
Formula Q = mc t
Q
t =
mc
On substitution we get
2090 J
t =
20 x 10-3kg x 4180 J kg-1 C-1
= 25C
Hence the temperature of water will change by 25C
6.4. Heat capacity :
The specific heat was earlier defined as the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of 1 g of any substance by 1C. If we remove the restriction of unit mass, then
the heat required to raise the temperature of a any body by 1C is known as its heat
capacity.
Thus Q = mC t
when t = 1C
Q = mc (4)
is called the heat capacity. So that

Chapter-6 (P-81)
 heat capacity = mass x specific heat.
Now from Q = mCt we can write
Q
mc =
t
Heat Given to any body
Hence Heat capacity =
Change in temperature

Hence heat capacity of a substance is equal to the ratio of the heat absorbed by it and
the corresponding change in temperature.
Unit of Heat Capacity :
If the heat supplied to a material is expressed in Joule (J) and the corresponding change
in temperature in C then the unit of heat capacity will be JC-1. since 1C change in
temperature is also equal to 1 K hence the SI unit of heat capacity can be written as J K-1
Difference between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
Specific Heat Heat Capacity
1. It is defined as the heat required to 1. It is defined as the heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 g of a raise the temperature of a given mass
substance by 1C or 1K of the substance by 1C or 1K
2. Its SI unit is Jkg-1K-1 2. Its SI unit is J K-1

Example :
Calculate the heat capacity of 0.05 kg of copper. Given that specific heat of copper is
390 J kg1K1
Solution : Given m = 0.05kg, C = 390 J K-1
To find Heat capacity = m x C
On Substitution
Heat capacity = 0.05 kg x 390 J kg-1 K-1
= 19.5 J K-1
Hence Heat capacity = 19.5 J K-1
6.5 Principle of Calorimetry :
If two bodies at different temperatures are brought in contact with each other, heat
will flow from the hotter to the colder body. The flow of heat continues till the two bodies
attain the same temperature. Hence, if the two bodies form a closed system so that no loss

Chapter-6 (P-82)
of thermal energy may take place, the heat given by the hotter body is always equal to the
heat absorbed by the colder body. This is known as the principle of calorimetry.
Thus
Heat Given by the hotter body = Heat absorbed by the colder body.
Note :The heat absorbed or heat given is always calculated by the formula
Q=mC t Where is diffrence of temperature.
Determination of the Specific heat of a Solid by Method of Mixtures ( or
Principle of Calorimetry)
Suppose we have two objects A and B with masses m1 & m2 and specific heats C1 and
C2 respectively. Assume that A is hotter than B. The temperature of A is t1C and B is t2C.
When A and B are brought in contact with each other, heat is exchanged and the final
temperature of the two objects becomes tC. From the formula Q = mc t we get :
Heat supplied by A = Q1 = m1C1 (t1 t)
Heat absorbed by B = Q2 = m2C2 (t t2)
Since, heat given = heat taken,
m1C1 (t1 t) = m2C2 (t t2) (5)
If one of the objects say B is a material with known specific heat, then the value of C1
for A can be calculated using the equation (5).
Note : The method of mixtures can be used to determine the specific heats of
solids and liquids. One of the substance should normally be a liquid.
Find answers to the following questions :
What is thermal equilibrium?
What are the SI and practical units of specific heat?
The bread baked on a thinner hot plate burns earlier as compared to the one kept
on a thicker hot plate. Explain why.
What is heat capacity?
What are the SI unit and practical unit of heat capacity?
6.6. Change of State
A substance may normally exist in any of the three physical states namely solid, liquid
and gas at a given temperature. The change in the physical state can be brought out by
heating or cooling. For example, ice (solid) when heated, converts into water (liquid). Upon
further heating, water is converted into steam (gaseous state). The change of state from
solid to liquid following heating is known as melting. Similarly the conversion from liquid
to solid is known as freezing. On heating to sufficiently high temperature, the state of a
substance changes from liquid to gas. This is known as vaporisation. The reverse process

Chapter-6 (P-83)
of conversion from gaseous state to liquid is known as condensation. In both these cases,
change of state takes place.
6.6.1 Latent Heat
From our day to day experiences, we know that the temperature of substance increases
upon heating and decreases upon cooling. However, this does not happen, always.
Example-1: When you leave ice at 0C in open atmosphere, it starts melting. During
the change of state, heat is absorbed from the surrounding atmosphere. However, the
temperature of the melting ice remains constant at 0C
The obvious question is where did the heat absorbed by ice, go?
Example-2 : Heat some water upto 100C. It will start boiling, Even if you continue to
heat it further, the temperature of water remains constant at 100C.
In both the above examples, the heat supplied was consumed in the process of change
of state. The heat, supplied, therefore, did not reflect as the rise in temperature. This heat is
known as the Latent Heat.
Latent heat is defined as the heat required by 1 g of a substance to change from one
state to another. It is represented by L. The temperature of the substance remains constant
during the change of state. If a mass m of a substance requires Q amount of heat for change
of state then,
Q = mL
Unit of latent Heat :. From the formula Q = mL
Q unit of heat
L = =
m unit of mass
In SI system, unit of latent heat will be
J
SI unit of L = = J kg-1
kg
The practical unit of latent heat is calorie per gram
Note :
1. The latent heat is spent in changing the internal potential energy of molecules
of a given material. The potential energy arises due to the inter molecular forces.
2. The internal energy of a liquid is higher than the corresponding value in the
solid state. Similarly, for a given gas, the internal energy is higher than its liquid
state.

Chapter-6 (P-84)
6.6.2. Types of Latent Heat :
Two types of latent heat may be defined namely : (1) Latent heat of vaporisation or
condensation (2) Latent heat of fusion
(1) Latent Heat of Vaporisation or Condensation :
The heat required to vaporise a unit mass of a substance is known as its Latent Heat of
vaporisation. It is also defined as the amount of heat given by a unit mass of a substance
when it condenses from vapour to liquid state.
The laten heat of steam is 22.5 x 105 J kg-1. In practical units, its value is 536 calorie
per gram. In order to convert 1 kg of water at 100C into steam at 100C, one will
require 22.5 x 105 J of heat.
Hence, burning by steam is more severe because one kilogram mass of steam at 100C
contain 22.5 x 105 J more thermal energy than the corresponding mass of hot water at
100C.
(2) Latent Heat of Fusion :
The heat required to convert a unit mass of a solid substance into liquid at the same
temperature is known as latent heat of fusion.
The latent heat of fusion of water is 3.34 x 105 J kg-1 or 80 calorie per gram.
It means that 1 kg of ice at 0C will require 3.34 x 105 J of heat energy in order to get
converted into water at 0C. In order to cool a substance, therefore, ice will be more effective
as compared to water at 0C. This is because every kilogram of ice will absorb 3.34 x 105 J of
energy from the substance. This is not possible if you take water at 0C.
Example :
How much thermal energy will be required to convert 500 g of ice at 0C into water at
the same temperature? Latent heat of ice 3.34 x 105 J kg-1.
Solution : given m = 500g = 0.5 kg L = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1
To obtain Q = mL
On substitution we get
Q = 0.5 kg x 3.34 x 105 J kg-1
= 1.67 x 105 J
The heat required will be 1.67 x 105 J.
6.6.3. Evaporation :
We keep clothes out side in the sun for drying. In this process, the temperature always
remains below the boiling point of water. But it slowly evaporates in the atmosphere. In a
similar manner, water from tanks, wells and rivers also evaporates below the boiling point.

Chapter-6 (P-85)
The rate of evaporation can be changed by (i) increasing temperature or (ii) by increasing
the surface area of the liquid.

Cooling Due to Evaporation :

We use earthen pots in summer for cooling drinking water. Let us understand how the
water gets cooled. The earthen pots contain a large number of very small pores. Water inside
the container seeps out from the pores and is evaporated. In this evaporation process, water
absorbs thermal energy from the earthen container as well as the stored water, which
becomes cool.

6.6.4. Humidity and Relative Humidity :

Take a glass of water and put some ice in it. Soon you will notice that water condenses
on the outer surface of the glass. Let us find out the source of this water.
You have already studied that water from rivers, wells and lakes evaporates continuously
and is dissolved in the atmospheric air. When the cold surface of glass comes in contact with
the air, it absorb heat from the atmosphere. The water vapours, therefore, cool down and
condense on the surface. Water vapours are always present in the atmosphere. However, at
a given temperature, only a limited quantity of vapors can remain in the atmospheric air. If
the maximum possible quantity of moisture at a given temperature, are present in air, then
the air is said to be saturated with it. The quantity of water vapours present in air is also
expressed in terms its humidity.

Relative Humidity
The air is said to be dry when the quantity of water vapour in it is relatively small. When
the quantity of water vapor in air increases, the air is said to be wet. The level of water vapors in
air is expressed by relative humidity. It is defined as the ratio between the quantity (m) of water
vapour present in air at a given temperature to the quantity of water vapor (M) required to make
the air saturated at the same temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. Hence
Relative Humidity

At atmospheric pressure and temperature between 22 25C, 50% humidity is

Chapter-6 (P-86)
comfortable to us. This is because our sweat can be quickly evaporated and our body remains
cool and dry.
Very low humidity (approximately 20%) gives us a feeling of dryness. The moisture
from the inner parts of nostril and throat, gets evaporated. If the dryness increases, these
parts may get irritated. On the other hand, very high humidity level in the atmosphere obstructs
rapid evaporation of sweat. This also makes us uncomfortable. Places closer to sea shore
are more humid than those away from it. We can measure humidity using the instrument
called hygrometer.
Example :
If 12 g of water vapours are present in 1 m3 of air at 25C and if 2 kg of water vapors
can saturate the air at the same temperature then calculate relative humidity at 25C.
Given m = 12 g, M = 2 kg
m
Formula Relative Humidity = 1 0 0%
M
12g
= 100
24g
= 50%
Hence the relative humidity is 50% at 25C
6.7. Thermal Expansion :
In general, all materials expand upon heating. The heat absorbed by materials increases
molecular kinetic energy and their separation also increases. This is known as thermal
expansion. Let us study how different materials expand
Thermal Expansion

Solid Liquid Gases

Linear Expansion Volume

Volume
Expansion
Surface Expansion Expansion

Volume Expansion

Chapter-6 (P-87)
6.7.1. Expansion in Solids :
Solids can undergo three types of expansion. The expansion in length is known as
linear expansion. The expansion in surface area or volume is known as surface or volume
expansion.
Linear Expansion in Solids
Whenever, a metallic rod is heated, its length increases. The increase in length depends
upon the following factors
1. Original length of rod
2. Increase in temperature

Suppose that a rod of length L1 at temperature T1 is heated to temperature T2. Its

length increases from L1 to L2. Hence the change in length (L2 L1) or linear expansion
L1
(T2 T1) (7)
Hence (L2 L1) L1(T2 T1)
or (L2 L1) = L1(T2 T1)
(L2 L1)
or = (8)
L1(T2 T1)
Change in length
or =
Original length x Change in temperature

The constant of proportionality is known as the coefficient of liner expansion. It is

defined as the change in length of a material of unit original length when the temperature
changes by 1C. Its popular unit is C-1. In SI unit is expressed in K-1
Surface Expansion in Solids
If a sheet of a solid material is heated, both its length as well as width increase. In this
way, the surface area of the sheet also increases. The expansion in the area is known as
surface expansion.
The surface expansion in solids depends upon the following factors :
1. Original area of the solid
2. Change in temperature
If the surface area of solid increases from A1 to A2 as its temperature is increased
from T1 to T2 then :

Chapter-6 (P-88)
 Surface expansion (A2 A1) A1

(T2 T1)
(A2 A1) A1(T2 T1)
= A1(T2 T1)

(A2 A1)
or =
A1(T2 T1)
Where is the coefficient of surface expansion
Thus the coefficient of surface expansion
Increase in Area
or =
Original area x change in temperature
The coefficient of surface expansion is defined as the increase in area of a unit area of
a substance when the temperature increases by 1C. Its popular unit is C-1. The SI unit of
is K-1
Volume Expansion in solids
If a metallic block is heated, its length, width as well as height increase. As a result the
volume of the block also increases. The increase in volume (V2 V1) depends on
V2 V1 V1
(T2 T1)
or V2 V1 =. V1(T2 T1)
Where is the coefficient of volume expansion we can also write
(V2 V1)
or =
V1(T2 T1)
Increase in Volume
Hence =
Original volume x change in temperature
Hence coefficient of volume expansion of a solid can be defined as the increase in
volume of a material of unit volume when its temperature increases by 1C.
The practical unit of is C-1, Its SI unit is K-1
6.7.2. Expansion in Liquids
Like solids, liquids also expand upon heating. Since liquids do not have fixed length,
width and height they undergo only volume expansion.

Chapter-6 (P-89)
Volume Expansion in Liquids :
When we heat a liquid in a container both the container as well as the liquid undergo
expansion. Hence the volume expansion in liquids that is apparant to us is the difference in
the actual expansion of liquid and the container.
Hence real volume expansion of a liquid is the sum of the apparant expansion of the
liquid and the expansion of the container.
Note : Water exhibits a peculiar expansion behaviour. It expands when cooled
below 4C or heated above 4C
6.7.3. Expansion in Gases :
The molecules of a gas can move more freely as compared to solids or gases. Since
they do not have any definite shape, gases can undergo volume expansion only. Moreover,
the volume expansion in gases is much larger as compared to the volume expansion of the
solid containers. Hence the apparant and real expansion in gases are practically equal. The
volume expansion of gases is measured at (i) constant pressure or (ii) constant volume.
You will study about them in higher classes.
Example : Linear expansion cofficient of copper is 17 x 10-6 C-1. Calculate the
increase in length of a copper wire of original length 10 m when its temperature is increased
from 30C to 130C

To find L2 - L1 = ?

From equation

L 2 L1 = L1 (T2 T1 )
Increase in length

L 2 L1 = 17 10-3 m
Hence the change in length = 17 x 10-3m.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
A body is cooled if thermal energy is extracted from it.
The interval between 0C and 100C of a thermometer is known as the fundamental
interval.

Chapter-6 (P-90)
 Calorie is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 g of
pure water by 1C from 14.5C to 15.5C.
The specific heat of pure water is the highest.
For thermal equilibrium, heat given by the hot body = Heat absorbed by the colder
body.
Heat is exchanged during change of state, However temperature remains constant.
The Latent Heat is defined as the heat required to change the state of a unit mass of a
substance at a fixed temperature.
The increase in length of a rod of unit length following increase in temperature by 1C
is known as the coefficient of linear expansion.
The coefficient of surface expansion of a material of unit area is equal to the increase in
area following 1C increase in temperature.
The coefficient of volume expansion of material of unit volume is equal to the increase
in its volume following 1C increase in temperature.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. Write down one speciality of clinical thermometer.
2. Define calorie.
3. Differentiate between specific heat and heat capacity.
4. Define coefficient of linear expansion and give its unit.
5. Define coefficient of surface expansion and give its unit.
6. Define coefficient of volume expansion and give its unit.
Short answer type questions :
1. Differentiate between heat and temperature.
2. Write down two differences between a clinical and a laboratory thermometer.
3. Why a constriction is made in the capillary of a clinical thermometer?
4. What is thermal equilibrium?
5. What do you mean by relative humidity?
6. Why water vapours condense on the outer surface of a glass containing ice cold water?
Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the construction of a clinical thermometer.
2. How can you determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures?
Establish the formula also.

Chapter-6 (P-91)
3. Prove
. Change in length
Coefficient of Linear expansion =
Original length x Change in temperature
4. Prove
. Change in Surface Area
Coefficient of Surface expansion =
Original Surface Area x Change in temperature
5. Prove
Change in Volume
Coefficient of Volume expansion =
Original Volume x Change in temperature
Numericals :
1. Convert following temperatures to Kelvin scale
(a) 77C (b) 123C (c) - 15C (d) - 13C
Answer : (a) 350 K (b) 396 K (c) 258 K (d) 260 K
2. Convert following temperature to Celsius scale
(a) 273 K (b) 173 K (c) 73 K (d) O K
Answer : (a) 0C (b) -100C (c) -200C (d) -273C
3. How much heat will be needed to increase the temperature of 0.05 kg of copper by
40C. Given specific heat of copper = 390 J kg-1C-1
(Answer : 780 J)
4. Calculate the increase in temperature of 15 g of water when 600 J of heat is supplied to
it. The specific heat of water is 4180 J kg-1C-1
(Answer : 9.5C)
5. 50 g of an iron piece with initial temperature of 100C was dipped in 100 g of water at
20C. If the temperature of the mixture becomes 25.5C then calculate the specific
heat of iron.
(Answer : 0.148 calorie g-1C-1)
6. How much heat will be required to convert 50 g at ice of 0C to water at 0C. The
latent heat of ice is 80 calorie per gram.
(Answer : 4000 calorie)
7. 10 g of water at 100C is to be converted to steam. Calculate the heat required if the
latent heat of steam is 22.5 x 105 J kg-1
(Answer : 22500 J)
8. The length of an iron rod at 20C is 100 cm. Its length increases to 100.24 cm at
40C. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of iron
(Answer : 0.000012C-1)
PROJECT
List the examples of linear, surface & volume expansion around you and
submit it to your teacher.

Chapter-6 (P-92)
 CHAPTER - 7

Sound

We listen to different sounds every day. We can hear some

body talking or someone can hear us talking. The cars, aeroplanes,
chirping of birds, rustling of leaves, school bell and musical
instruments all make different sounds. We can distinguish
between them by listening . If we touch a ringing bell or a violin,
we can feel vibrations. How do these vibrations move in a medium
and reach our ears? We will study these aspects in this lesson.
7.1 Wave and Wave Motion :
Let us Learn
The disturbance in a material medium and its propagation is
7.1 Waves and known as waves.
wave motion Throw a pebble in the quiet water of a lake and study how
7.2 Transverse the disturbances propagate. The disturbances displace surrounding
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
waves 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Place where pebble was thrown
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
7.3 Longitudinal 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
waves 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
7.4 Characteri- 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
stics of waves 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
disturbance
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
7.5 Nature and 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
propogation of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
sound 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
7.6 Range of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
audible sound 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121

7.7 Reflection of water. The disturbed water imparts motion to the adjacent water
sound and thus the disturbance propagates. You will also notice that the
7.8 Sonar medium (water) moves only around its mean position. It does
7.9 Construction not propagate with the disturbances. You can verify it by throwing
of human ear a leave or a straw or a cork in water.
It is, therefore, obvious that waves are carriers of energy
and not of particles of the medium. Except for the small
displacement of particles around their mean position, there is no

Chapter-7 (P-93)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
movement of particles in the direction
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
Cork moves up & down
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
of propagation of waves. The motion of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
around its mean position
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901 waves in a medium is therefore, an
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901 outcome of the mutual interaction
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
between neighbouring particles of the
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
medium.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901 We can now identify the following
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
facts in wave motion.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1. Waves originate due to the
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
periodic disturbances in a medium.
2. Energy and not matter is transported by waves.
3. The particles of the medium do not travel with the waves. Rather they vibrate around
their mean position.
4. The velocity of sound depends upon the nature of the medium. It does not depend upon
the motion of the particles of the medium.
5. If the medium surrounding the source of sound is uniform, sound waves will travel
equally in all directions.
Waves in a medium can propagate in two different ways. Accordingly we can classify
waves into two categories :
1. Transverse Waves 2. Longitudinal Waves.
7.2 Transverse Waves :
Tie one end of a string with a rigid support and hold the other end with your hand. Now
move your hand up & down suddenly and observe the waves in the string.
When you shake the string, a crest appears to move forward. Such a disturbance which
appears suddenly is known as pulse. If the string is shaken continuously, a wave motion can
be seen to propagate in it. Now mark a point on the string and focus attention to it. You will
notice that while the mark moves up & down from its mean position perpendicular to the
string, the wave propagates in the horizontal direction along the length of string.
Waves in which the displacement of particles of the medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation are known as transverse waves. These waves move in the form of
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
Crest
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
Trough
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234

Chapter-7 (P-94)

crest and trough. The crest
represents maximum upward
displacement while the trough
represents maximum downward
displacement. Displacement of the
string has been shown in figure.
7.3 Longitudinal Waves :
Suspend a string from a rigid
support and attach some load with the
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
wave propagation
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
crest crest
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Time
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
trough trough
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123

other end. Now pull the load slightly

downward and release it. Watch the motion of the spring.
The wave in the spring will appear to move upward from the weight. During the wave
motion, some of the coils of the spring come close to each other while the separation
between some coils increases. Regions where the coils come closer are called compression
while the regions where they are more 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
separated are called rarefaction. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
compression C
If you mark a point on the spring, you 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
rarefaction R
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
will see it moving up & down along the 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
compression C
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
rarefaction R
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
direction of wave motion. Such waves in 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
compression C
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
which the particles of the medium suffer 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901
up & down
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Compression 12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678 12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678 12345678901
motion & weight
1234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678 12345678901
displacement about their mean position along 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678
weight
12345678
1234
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
1234
12345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678 1234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
the direction of propagation of waves, are
called longitudinal waves. These waves travel in the from of compression and
rarefaction. The regions of compression have higher density than the regions of rarefaction.
In both the transverse and longitudinal waves the particles of the medium move about
their mean positions. Their motion is therefore, a simple harmonic motion.
The transverse and longitudinal waves are also called progressive waves because they
propagate form one point to another.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456

Some waves are made of both the transverse and longitudinal waves. In such waves.
The particles of the medium neither have only transvers nor only longitudinal motion. Rather
their motion is a superposition of both these types of motion. These waves propagate parallel
to the surface of the medium. For example, ocean waves in deep sea or the seismic waves.

Chapter-7 (P-95)
 Transverse Waves
The particles of medium oscillate
around their mean position, in a
direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of waves.
The waves move in the form of crest
& trough.
It can propagate in solids and
liquids only.
Longitudinal Waves
Particles vibrate along the
direction of propagation of
waves.
The waves move in the form of
compression & rarefaction.
It can propagate in solid, liquid
& gases.

7.4 Characteristics of Waves

We have seen that the particles of the medium are displaced when a transverse or
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
longitudinal wave propagate through it. The 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
displacement time graph is shown in the figure. It is 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Q
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
obvious from the figure that at any given point, the 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

Displacement
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
displacement of particles repeats after a fixed time 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
P S
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Time
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
interval. For example PQRS in the figure. for 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
longitudinal wave & ABCDE for transverse ware. Rarefaction
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
The equal and periodic displacement of the 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Crest
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
particles of the medium around their mean position is Crest
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
a
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Displacement

an example of simple harmonic motion. These waves 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
E
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
are also known as simple harmonic waves. We can define 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
A C
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
the following characteristics of simple harmonic waves. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
a D
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Trough
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Trough
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1. Amplitude : The amplitude of a wave corresponds displacement time graph
to the maximum displacement of particles from mean position. For example the
maximum displacement of particles in the medium is +a in the upward direction and
a in the downward direction. Its SI unit is meter.
2. Wavelength : The distance travelled by which the wave is displaced in the time of
one complete vibration of the particles of the medium is known as wave length. It is
represented by Greek letter . (Lampeda)
In the figure, the distance AE corresponds to the wavelength . This distance can be
measured between two consecutive crest or trough in a transverse wave or between
two consecutive compression or rarefaction in a longitudinal wave.
3. Time period : The time taken by the particle of the medium to complete one oscillation
is known as the time period of the wave. Its SI unit is second.
4. Frequency : The number of Vibrations made by a particle of a medium in one second
is known as the frequency of the waves. It is represented by the Greek letter v (Nu). Its

Chapter-7 (P-96)
 SI unit is Hertz (Hz), which was named after the French scientist Rudolf Hertz.
The time period T and frequency v are related by the following expression :
1
= (per second or Hz)
T

H. Rudolf Hertz was born on Feb. 22, 1857 at Hamburg, Germany. He studied
at Berlin University. Hertz gave experimental verification of Maxwells Theory of
Electromagnetism. He also contributed to the development of radio, telephone, telegraph
and television. He was also the discoverer of photoelectric effect which was later
explained by Eienstein. The SI unit of frequency has been named in his honour.

5. Wave Velocity : The velocity of propagation of a wave is known as wave velocity. It is

equal to the distance travelled in one second by the wave. It is represented by V.
Relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength :
Displacement
velocity =
Time
Wave length
V = =
Time Period T

V = x [ 1 = ]
T
Example : What will be the time period of a wave of frequency 100 Hz.
Solution : Frequency v = 100 Hz
To find Time period T.

Using we get

Hence time period is 0.01s

Find answers to the following questions :
Calculate the time period of a wave of frequency 20Hz. (Ans. : 0.05 s)
Write down relation between wave velocity, frequency and wave length.
7.5 Nature of Sound and its Propagation in a Medium :
You know that sound originates due to vibrations. Hence a vibrating object acts as a
source of sound. We require mechanical energy to produce the vibrations. In this way,

Chapter-7 (P-97)
 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
sound is a form of energy 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
which is sensed by our ears. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Air is a good medium for 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
propagation of sound waves. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
When an object vibrates in air, 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
it compresses the air during 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
forward motion. The 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
compression (C) increases air 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
pressure. This compression
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678 propagates away from the vibrating
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
object. During the backward motion of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
A
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
the vibrating object, a low pressure zone
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678 is created in air in the vicinity of the
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
C RC R C R
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
object. This is called rarefaction (R).
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
B
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
These compression and rarefaction travel
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
as wave through the air and reach our
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
C R
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
C R C R
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678 ears. This pressure difference
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678 propagating through air has been shown
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678 in the figure. Sound can therefore, be
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
called a pressure wave. Since the air
particles are displaced along the direction
A and B show that sound propagates as variation of
density or pressure in a medium. Fig C graphically of propagation of sound, hence sound is a
represent the density or pressure variation. longitudinal wave.
The velocity of sound (i.e. the distance travelled in one second) depends on the medium.
The velocity of sound in different media has been shown in the table
Velocity of sound in different media at 250C.
State Material Speed in m/s
Solid Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040
Steel 5960
Iron 5950
Brass 4700
Glass (Flint) 3980
Liquid Sea water 1531
Distilled Water 1498
Ethanol 1207
Methanol 1103

Chapter-7 (P-98)
 Gas Hydrogen 1234
Helium 965
Air 346
Oxygen 316
Sulfur dioxide 213
From the above table it is clear that the speed of sound decreases as it moves from
solid, liquid to gas.
7.6 Range of Audible Frequencies for Human Being :
We have seen that sound originates from a vibrating object. Can we hear all such
vibrations? As a matter of fact, our ears are sensitive to only a limited frequency range. We
can, accordingly classify sound into two categories :
(i) Audible sound (ii) Ultrasonic Sound
7.6.1 Audible and Ultrasonic Sound :
Our ears are sensitive to sound frequencies between 20Hz to 20000 Hz (20kHz). This
is known as audible range of sound. However, the audible limit varies from person to person
and from age to age in a person. Children aged below 5 years and dogs can hear frequencies
of 25 kHz. Sound frequencies below 20 Hz are known as inaudible sound. Rhino can hear
sound frequency of 5Hz. Some animals become uncomfortable before earth quake because
the sound produced before the seismic waves can be heard by them.
Sound frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasonic waves or ultrasound.
Dolphins, bats etc produce ultrasound. These high frequency waves can travel even in the
presence of obstacles. They are used in industries and medical field.
20 Hz Sound frequencies 20 kHz
Audible range of Sound

Important fact
Often the terms ultrasonic and supersonic are used incorrectly. The ultrasonic
waves are high frequency (greater than 20,000 Hz) waves. The term supersonic denotes
speed of objects. When an object travels with a speed
greater then the speed of sound in the medium, then its
speed is called supersonic speed. An object travelling
with supersonic speed, generates shock waves in the
medium. These shock waves carry very high energy. So
that they affect the air pressure greatly. This change in
air pressure produces a loud sound which is known as
sonic boom. The sonic boom can damage glass sheets,
window panels etc.

Chapter-7 (P-99)
 You should know the following facts
The intensity of sound is measured in decibel (dB) Human ears can sense the following:
Minimum audible sound : 0 dB
Whispering (at 1m) : 10 dB
Normal conversation (at 1 m) : 60 dB
Maximum tolerable sound : 120 dB
Sound intensity in excess of 120dB is harmful to us. It can damage our ears.

7.6.2 Applications of Ultrasound :

1. Ultrasound can be used to clean inaccessible parts of small objects such as a zig-zag
tube, complex shaped machine parts, electronic components etc. The objects that is
desired to be cleaned is placed in a solution. Ultrasound is transmitted through this
solution. The high frequency disturbances in the particles of the solution, remove the
dirt from the object.
2. Ultrasound can be used to detect flaw in a structure. Often, metal blocks are used in
making big buildings, bridges, machines & equipments. Cracks present within the blocks
are often not visible. This may affect the strength of the structure. When ultrasound is
transmitted through the block from one end, it is detected by the detectors placed at the
other end. However, if a flaw or a crack is present, ultrasound will be reflected back
which will reveal their presence.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Detector

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Ultrasound

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Fault
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234

3. Ultrasounds are also used to obtain image of our heart. This technique is known as
electrocardiography (ECG)
4. Ultrasonography has been used extensively to image our internal organs such as spleen,
lever, kidney, bladder etc. The image obtained by ultrasound technique can reveal
presence of abnormalities such as a tumor in our body. Ultrasonography can also be
used to examine features in the womb and diagnose its defects.
5. Ultrasound are also used to destroy small stones present in kidney, the broken pieces
of stones subsequently are flushed out by urination.

Chapter-7 (P-100)
 Find answers to following questions :
What is the source of disturbance in sound waves?
What is the direction of displacement of the particles of the medium relative to
the direction of wave motion in transvere and longitudinal waves?
In which medium is the speed of sound maximum - solid, liquid and gas?
What do you understand by audible limit of sound?

7.7 Reflection of Sound :

Like the light waves, sound waves are also reflected from the surfaces of solids or
liquids. They also obey laws of reflections. However, the size of obstacle reflecting the
sound wave should be large. They may or may not be polished.
Now think about the echo of sound inside a dome or hall. Can this be heard every where?
7.7.1 Echo
If sound is produced inside an empty hall or house, the sound can be heard several
times. This is known as echo.
Echo is produced due to reflection of sound from obstacles.
The signals of sound in our brain remain even after 0.1s of removing the sound source.
Hence, echo can be heard only if it arrives in our ear 0.1s after the original sound. If the speed
of sound in a medium is 344 m/s and the interval between the original sound and echo is 0.1s
then the minimum distance of the obstacle will be
Distance = Speed x time
If d is the distance between the source and the reflector then
2d (m) = 344 x 0.1 (To & fro distance d+d=2d)
34.4
d = m
2
= 17.2 m.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
d
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123

Hence echo can be heard clearly if the reflector is 17.2 m away from the source.

Chapter-7 (P-101)
 Reverberation
Whenever sound is repeatedly reflected from wall of say a big hall, it persists
for a much longer duration till its intensity decreases below the audible limit. Such
persistence of sound due to repeated reflection is known as reverberation. In an
auditorium, reverberations are undesirable. In order to reduce reverberations in an
auditorium, the ceiling and walls are laid with sound absorbing materials such as
compressed fibre board, roughened plaster or curtain.
7.7.2 Practical Applications of reflection of sound :
1. A mega phone/ loudspeaker, horn, trumpet etc are designed in such a way that sound
can be move in a given direction. All these equipments have a conical exit port. Sound
from the source after multiple reflections exits from this outlet towards the audience.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Horn
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Mega phone
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
2. Stethoscope is a medical equipment having 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
a thin diaphragm. The diaphram is kept in 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
physical contact with the body of patient. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
The palpitation of heart or lungs is 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
transmitted by the diaphragm to the ears Speaker
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
of the doctor. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
3. The ceiling of the auditorium is often 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
curved so that the sound after reflection 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
A sound reflector used in an auditorium
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
from the ceiling can spread every where.
Some times a sound screen is kept behind the speaker. This screen also reflects sound
from the speaker in the direction of the audience.
4. Hearing aids are used by persons with impaired capacity for hearing. In this device,
the sound approaching a conical inlet is directed after multiple reflection to a very
narrow area in the ear. This helps in increasing the amplitude of vibration of air in our
ear drum so that the intensity of sound is increased.
Whispering Gallery : The dome of the Saint Pal Church in
London is famously known as the whispering gallery. This is a circular
gallery around the dome. When some one whispers close to the wall in
this gallery, the sound so produced is multiply reflected from the walls.
Hence one can hear the whisper at any position in the gallery close to

Chapter-7 (P-102)
 the wall. However, at points such as a nearer to the centre of the gallery, the whisper is
not heard. Similar galleries may also be seen at some historical places in India.
7.8 SONAR
SONAR is the short form of Sound Navigation
and ranging. It is used to determine the distance,
direction and location of objects in water.
Sonar is also used for determining the depth of
sea. It uses an ultrasonic sound source & a detector.
The source fitted in the ship transmits a pulse of
ultrasonic frequency, which travels towards a distant
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Ship
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Water
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Detector
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Transmitter
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Sea bed
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234

object whose location etc. is to be determined. The ultrasonic pulse after reflection from
the object, is received back by the detector. The detector converts the received pulse into
electrical signal. If the speed of sound in the sea (V) and the time interval (t) lapsed between
the initial start pulse and the received pulse is known, one can determine the distance (d) of
the object from the source using the following relationship.
Distance = speed x time
2d = V x t
Where 2d = Distance between the transmitter & the target (d)
+ Distance between the target and detector (d)
V.t
d =
2
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Sonar is also used to determine, depth of sea, presence of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
rocks, submarine, ice berg, debris of sunken ship etc. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Bats also use sonar technique. They transmit : ultra sonic 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
waves when flying in darkness. The ultrasound reflected by insects 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
and other obstacle is received by the ears of the bats. In this way 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
the bats can locate obstacles or insects in darkness. Porpoise fish 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456

also rely on ultrasound techniques for searching food in darkness.

7.9 Construction of Human Ear :
Ears receive sound waves from a source and send it to the sensory nerves. Our brain
after receiving the signals from the sensory nerves, can distinguish different sounds.
We can divide human ear in three parts :
1. Outer ear 2. Middle ear and 3. Inner ear.
The outer ear is known as ear flap. It collects sound from the surrounding and directs
them to the auditory canal (or ear canal). The sound waves strike the diaphragm after passing

Chapter-7 (P-103)
through the ear canal. Due to the pressure difference generated by the incident sound waves,
the diaphragm starts vibrating. The middle ear is situated behind the diaphragm. It consists
of three bones known as - malleus, incus and stupes. These amplify the sound several times.
The amplified sound is delivered to the inner ear. In the innear ear, the pressure waves are
converted into electrical signal by cochlea. The singal are subsequently sent to brain by the
auditory nerves. We thus become aware of the sound.

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Ear diapragm
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Annulur
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
hole
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Cochlea
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Auditory Canal
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Pinna
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Eustacian tube
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Outer Meddle Inner
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
ear ear
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
ear
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234

Example : The ultrasonic sonar waves transmitted from a ship take 4 s to arrive at the
ship alter reflection from a rock on the seabed. If speed of ultrasound in water is 1531 m/
s, calculate the distance of the rock from the ship.
Solution : Time interval between the transmission & detection of ultrasound pulse
t=4s
speed of sound in = 1531 m/s
d = 1531m/s & 4s
2

d = 6124m
2

d = 3062m
Hence the distance of rock from the ship is 3062 m.

Chapter-7 (P-104)
 Find answers to the following questions :
What do you understand by echo ?
What should be the minimum distance between the sound source and the
reflecting obstacle so that echo can be heard clearly ?
What is the full form of SONAR ? What type of sound is used in SONAR
technology?
Important Points
Waves are carriers of energy and not of particles of medium.
If the displacement of the particles of the medium is in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of waves then, such a waves is called transverse wave.
If the displacement of the particles of medium is along the direction of propagation
of waves then, such a wave is known as longitudinal wave.
Transverse waves travel as crest and trough while longitudinal waves travel as
compression & rarefaction.
Sound is a from of energy. It propagates as compression and rarefaction in a material
medium. Sound can not propagate through vacuum.
The speed of sound is largest in solid, smaller in liquids and the smallest in gases.
The limit of audible sound for human being is between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (20 k Hz).
Sound frequency below 20 Hz is known as inaudible sound.
In order to hear echo distinctly, the time interval between the original sound and its
echo must be atleast 0.1 s.
SONAR is used to determine the depth of sea, and in detection of submarines, sunken
ships and hidden rocks,.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. What do you understand by a pulse ?
2. Give the properties of a wave.
3. How is sound wave produced ? How does it propagate ?
4. What is frequency and its unit ?
5. What is meant by ultrasound ?
Short answer type questions :
1. Give two differences between transverse and longitudinal waves.
2. Why is the speed of sound higher in solids & liquids as compared to gases ?
3. How can ultrasonic waves be used for cleaning of objects?

Chapter-7 (P-105)
4. What do you understand by reverberation?
5. How can bats search their prey in darkness ?
Long answer type question :
1. Explain the propagation of sound waves.
2. Describe the applications of ultrasound waves.
3. What do you understand by reflection of sound waves ? Write down its applications.
4. What is SONAR ? Describe the technique of detection used in SONAR and give its
application.
5. Write a short note on human ear.
Numericals :
1. Calculate the wavelength of a wave of frequency 110Hz and speed 1330 m/s
(Answer -3m)
2. A waves of frequency 2kHz and wavelength 35 m travels to a distance of 2.4 km.
Calculate the time taken.
(Answer 0.02s)
3. If 5 crest and 5 trough are created in 1 s , calculate frequency of the wave.
(Answer 5 Hz)
4. If the echo is heard in 4 s after the sound, calculate the distance between the source and
the reflecting surface. Speed of sound is 344 m/s.
(Answer 688 m)
5. Two children are sitting at two ends of an iron pipe, One of them strikes his end of the
pipe with a stone. Calculate the ratio of the time required by the sound to reach the ears
of the other child through air and iron. Speed of sound in air = 344 m/s (at 200C) and
iron = 5130 m/s (20 0C)
(Answer 14.9 : 1 )
6. A person claps near a vertical rock. The echo of the clap is heard after 5 s. It the speed
of sound is 346 m/s, calculate the distance between the person and the rock.
(Answer 865 m)

PROJECT
List five different sources for audible and ultrasonic waves.

Chapter-7 (P-106)
 CHAPTER - 8

Atomic Structure
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
8.1 What is an atom ?
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
We know that various types of matter found in nature are
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
made up of very small particles. These very small particles are
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
known as atoms. Atom is a fundamental unit of the matter. As it
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 was defined on the basis of earlier studies that the atom is the
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
smallest indivisible particle of the matter. Since very long the
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
structure of the atom has been the subject of research. India has
the credit of first concieving the idea of existence of atom.
Let us Learn In vedic period an Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad put
8.1 What is an atom forth the fact that matter is made up of very small indivisible
8.2 Constituting particles which are known as atoms. According to him, the four
particles of the eternal elements fire, water, air and earth are made up of atoms,
atom, Discovery of having unique characteristics. The atoms forming the earth have
Electron, Proton
the natural characteristics of smell, while the atoms of water have
and neutron
the taste, atoms of fire have the characteristics of colour and the
8.3 Structure of
atoms of air have the quality of touch. All these atoms are
Atom, Atomic
Models of chemically active and spherical in shape. The Greek philosopher,
Thomson Democritus named this very small indivisible particle as an atom.
Rutherford, Neils A = cannot, tom = cut
Bohr
Atom = uncuttable (Greek word)
8.4 Atomic number
and Mass number In 1703, John Dalton stated a thought about atom in his
8.5 Bohr Burry's book 'New system of chemical philosophy, which is known as
Scheme of Dalton's Atomic theory.
distribution of According to this theory atom cannot be divided. The
electrons. concept of John Dalton's theory was helpful in the development
8.6 Valence electrons of chemistry for about 100 years. Till long it was believed that
and valency the atom is indivisible particle. But in twentieth century, many
8.7 Radioactivity and scientists worked in this field and on the basis of experiments
Uses of the established the fact that the atom can be divided. Sir J.J. Thomson,
radioactive Lord Rutherford, Niel Bohr, Chadwick etc. made notable
isotopes. contribution in this field.

Chapter-8 (P-107)
8.2. Constituting Particles of atom
Atom is made up of mainly three types of very small particles.
(i) Electron (ii) Proton (iii) Neutron

8.2.1. Discovery of electron

In the discovery of electron, the contributions of Sir J.J. Thomson
and William Crooks are notable. They did many 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
experiments with a discharge tube. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Induction Coil
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
A discharge tube (Fig.) is a tube made up of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
high electric potential
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
glass which has two electrodes, cathode (-ve) and 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Anode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Cathode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
anode (+ve ). The high electric potential is applied 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
between them. This tube is connected to a vacuum 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
pump. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
vacuum
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
pump
We know that at the normal pressure the gases 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
are the bad conductor of electricity. That's why we Discharge Tube
don't feel current even if the naked electric wire is
left open in the room because the air of the room can't carry the current. Scientists found that
current doesn't flow between the electrodes even if approximately 10,000 volt electrode
potential is applied to them. Now if the pressure of the gas inside the discharge tube is
reduced to 0.02 mm by connecting it with a vacuum pump, the current starts flowing and the
light is emitted. On further reducing the pressure the fluorescence of greenish yellow
colour is generated.
Sir J.J. Thomson named the rays emerging from cathode as cathode rays.
The direction of the deflection of the cathode rays in an electric field shows that
these rays are made up of negatively charged particles which are named as 'electrons'.

Properties of Cathode rays

1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line. They cast shadow at the other side of the discharge
tube if any solid object is placed in their path. This proves that these rays travel in
straight line.
2. The velocity of cathode rays is approximately
equal to the velocity of light.
3. If we apply electric field in the path of these
cathode rays then they turn towards the
positively charged plate which proves that these
rays are made up of negatively charged
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
high electric potential
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Fluorescence
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Cathode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
vacuum
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Anode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
pump
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234

particles. Production of Cathode Rays

Chapter-8 (P-108)
 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Object Shadow
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Cathode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
+
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Anode
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Cathode rays travel in a straight line
4. The cathode rays are made up of particles having mass because if a light paddle wheel
is placed in the path of the cathode rays in discharge tube, then the wheel starts rotating
by the impact of these rays. This means that these
rays can produce mechanical action. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
5. These rays pass through the thin metal foil and
it gets slightly heated up.
6. Cathode rays produce fluorescence at the walls
of the glass tube.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Cathode
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Anode
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Electric field
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Cathode rays are made up of negatively
charged particles
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
Cathode rays
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
Cathode Light Wheel
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
Anode
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890
Mechanical action by Cathode rays

7. These rays ionize gases and affect the photographic plate also.
8. When the cathode rays strike any metal having high melting point like tungsten (W)
they produce X-rays.

Important Fact
X-rays
It is an electromagnetic radiation which was discovered by scientist W.K.
Roentgen in year 1895. Due to its strong penetrating power these are used in medical
sciences. The nature of X-rays was a mystery at the time of discovery, thats why they
are known as X-rays. Some times they are also called as Roentgen rays in the name of
the discoverer.

Determination of charge to mass ratio of electron (e/m)

Sir. J. J. Thomson established the fact on the basis of various experiments and
observations that the charge to mass ratio of an electron remains the same, irrespective of the
nature of the cathode material and the nature of gas. After the calculation Thomson determined
the value of e/m to be - 1.76 x 108 coulomb/ gram. By this Thomson succeeded in calculating
the value of e/m experimentally but the original value of electron's mass could not be
calculated.
Determination of charge of electron (e) [Millikan's Oil drop experiment] -To
determine the charge present on electron, American Scientist Robert A Millikan did an

Chapter-8 (P-109)
interesting experiment on the charge on oil drops. Millikan
calculated the charge on drops many times with this experiment and
every time he got its value - 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb. It was concluded
on associating these results with the results of the studies of cathode
rays that the charge present on the particles of the cathode rays is -
1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
Calculation of the mass of the electron Robert A Millikan
By the value of (e/m) determined by Sir J.J. Thomson and the
value of (e) determined by Millikan, the mass of electron can be calculated as follows :
e/m -1.76 x 108 Coulomb / gram
= -19
e -1.6 x 10 Coulomb
1.6 x 10-19
m = =
1.76 x 108

m = 9.102 x 10-28 gram

m = 9.102 x 10-31 kilogram

Mass of the electron in comparison with atom

Mass of 1 mole hydrogen = 1.008 gms
Number of H atoms in 1 mole = 6.023 x 1023

1.008
Mass of one atom of Hydrogen = = 1.67 10 27 kg.
6.023 10 23

Mass of electron = 9.109 x 1031

Mass of one atom of Hydrogen
=
Mass of electron

1.67 10 27
= = 1837
9.10 10 31

1 th
Hence, the mass of an electron is the mass of a hydrogen atom.
1837
On the basis of above description we can define the electron like this - "Electron is the
particle having unit negative charge 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb and mass 9.1x10-31 Kg or 1/1837th of
the mass of a hydrogen atom. The mass of the electron is very less that's why it is considered
to be negligible. It is denoted by 1eo where mass = 0 (negligible) and charge is -1.

Chapter-8 (P-110)
8.2.2 Discovery of Proton
We have seen that electron is an essential constituent of an atom and atom is
electrically neutral. Therefore it is necessary that there should be positively charged particle
to neutralize the negative charge of electrons.
On keeping this fact in mind a German Scientist E Goldstein in year 1886 established
that there is a presence of an another type of ray which passes through the perforation in the
cathode. These rays are positively charged and travel from anode to cathode therefore they
are called anode rays or positive rays. These rays are also known as canal rays as they pass
through canals or perforation in the cathode.

Properties of Anode rays

1. Anode rays also travel in a straight line as they cast shadow if some object is placed in
their path. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
High electric potential
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
2. Anode rays also rotate the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Cathode rays Anode rays
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
light pedal wheel placed in 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
their path which proves that 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
these rays are constituted of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Vacuum
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
the particles having mass. Anode
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Perforated cathode pump
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Which produce mechanical
Production of Anode Rays
action
3. In an electric or magnetic field these rays are deflected towards the negatively charged
plate. This clears the fact that anode rays are made up of positively charged particle
known as protons.
Determination of charge and mass ratio of proton (e/m)
On the basis of the experiments performed for anode rays, scientist Wein stated that
for these particles the charge to mass ratio (e/m) changes with the change in the nature of
gases present in the discharge tube. This value is maximum for hydrogen gas.
The value of e/m for hydrogen gas = 9.58 x 104 coulomb/ gram. It has been concluded
from this that the mass of the particles of positive rays from hydrogen should be lowest to
keep the ratio (e/m) maximum for hydrogen, if the positive rays have the same charge (e) for
all the gases.
Hence it is said that positively charged particle of hydrogen is the fundamental particle
of the matter which is known as proton.

Charge on Proton
Proton has a unit positive charge means (e=1.602 x 1019 Coulomb). This charge is
equal to that of the electron but is of opposite nature.

Chapter-8 (P-111)
 Mass of the proton.
As we know that for hydrogen gas
e/m = 9.58 x 10 4 coulomb/gram and
charge (e ) = 1.602 x 1019 coulomb

e 1.602 10 19
Therefore m = =
e/m 9.58 10 4
m = 1.67 x 10-24 gram
m = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
This means that the mass of the proton is 1837 times more than mass of the electron
and is equal to the mass of an hydrogen atom. In general calculation this mass is considered
to be unit. In atomic unit this value in 1.0073 a.m.u. (atomic mass unit).
On the basis of above description we can define proton - "Proton is the fundamental
particle of the atom which has the unit positive charge (1.6 x 10-19 coulomb) and mass equal
to that of the hydrogen atom (1.67 x 10-27 kg). It is denoted as 1H1 where mass =1 and charge
= +1.

8.2.3 Discovery of Neutron

Till the year1930 it was believed that the mass of any atom is due to the mass of the
proton present in it as the electron is a very light particle having negligible mass. As the
hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron, the mass of the hydrogen atom is equal to
the mass of one proton that is 1 a.m.u. But for Helium and other atoms it was observed that
the mass of the atom is more than the mass of the protons present in it, this indicated about
the presence of some other particle in the atom.
Keeping these facts in mind it was thought that there must be the existence of one more
particle in atom. In 1932 scientist Chadwick obtained a neutral particle having the mass
equal to the mass of proton by bombarding the beryllium metal with the stream of fast moving
particles through cyclotron. Due to its neutral nature the particle was named as neutron.
Based on the above facts we can define the neutron as follows :-
"Neutron is the fundamental particle present in an atom, which is neutral and has the
mass 1.6748 x 10-27 kg approximately equal to the mass of proton. It is illustrated by 0n1,
where charge = 0 and mass= 1 a.m.u.
Hence it was proved that there are mainly three fundamental particles in an atom-
electron, proton and neutron.

Chapter-8 (P-112)
 Table 1 - Characteristics of three main fundamental particles of atom
Name Sym- Mass Charge Discover Place
of the bol (gm) (kg) (amu) (coulomb) (unit) and year in atom
particle

electron 1
e0 9.102x10-28 9.102x10-31 0.0005 1.6x10-19 -1 Sir J. J. In different
Thomson orbits around
(1897) the nucleus

proton H1
1
1.6725x10-24 1.6725x10-27 1.0073 1.6x10-19 +1 E. Goldstein in
(1886) nucleus

neutron O
n1 1.6748x10-24 1.6748x10-27 1.0086 0 0 Chadwick in
(1932) nucleus

Find out the answers of these questions yourself :

Q.1 Name the scientist who discovered the electron ?
Q.2 Fill up the blanks :
(a) Electron is constituent of the matter.
(b) Mass of the electron is .. part of the mass of hydrogen.
(c) Proton is the fundamental particle of an atom, which has .. charge.
(d) Neutron was discovered by
(e) The neutral particle in the nucleus of an atom is ..
Q. 3 Write down the charges on electron, proton and neutron in coulomb.
Q. 4 Name the other rays emerging from the cathode rays, which are used in the field
of medicine.
Q. 5 Write any one property of cathode and anode rays, which shows the dissimilarity
between the two.
Q. 6 Which is heavier electron or proton?
Q. 7 What is the mass of neutron as compared to mass of proton.

8.3 Structure of atom

After the discovery of electron and proton, to understand the internal structure of the
atom many atomic models have been proposed by the scientists from time to time. Their
description is as follows.

Chapter-8 (P-113)

8.3.1 Thomson's Atomic Model
This is the first model of atom. After the
discovery of electron and proton, in year 1898
Thomson was first to present his model related to the
atomic structure. According to which atom is a
positively charged spherical mass containing uniformly
distributed negatively charged electrons. This model
is compared with the water melon as the electrons in
this model are distributed in similar manner as the seeds exist in the pulp of water melon.
This model it also called pudding model.
Drawback - soon this theory became the matter of historical importance only as it
was unable to explain the results of the scattering experiment of Rutherford.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Distributed
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Electrons
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Positive charged
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Protons
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Thomsons Atomic Model

8.3.2 Rutherford's Model of Atom

Modern knowledge of atomic structure is based on the atomic concept of Rutherford.
He published this concept in year 1911. Rutherford's experiment is also
known as -particle scattering experiment. In this experiment he impinged
-particles on a thin gold foil (thickness 0.0004 cm). And found that-
1. Most of the particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection.
2. Some () particles are deflected at different angles from their path.
Rutherford
3. Remaining very few (about one in 20,000) are bounced back in the (1871-1937)
direction from which they have come after striking the gold foil.
Based on the observations of this experiment Rutherford presented the nuclear model
of atom according to which.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
particles undeflected
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
particles which bounced back
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Nucleus hollow part of the atom
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
deflected particles
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

-scattering experiment)
Rutherford's experiment (

Chapter-8 (P-114)
1. Most part of the atom is hollow and neutral so that the particles pass straight through
the gold foil without any deflection.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
2. All the positive charge of atom is concentrated 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
in its centre, due to which positively charged 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
particles deflect towards various angles after 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Nucleus
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
repulsion. The positively charged central part 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
of atom is called nucleus. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
3. As very few a particles bounced back to the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
original source, it indicates that the size of the
Rutherfords Model of Atom
nucleus is very small in comparison to the Size
of the atom. The radius of the nucleus of atom is 10-12cm, while the radius of atom is
108 cm.
4. There is an empty space around the nucleus in which electrons revolve in the similar
manner as the planets revolve in orbits around the sun. That's why this model is
considered as the replica of the solar system.
5. As the mass of electron is negligible, therefore the entire mass of an atom is concentrated
in the nucleus.
6. Atom is electrically neutral thus the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the
number of electrons.
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Defects of Rutherford's Atomic model. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Two defects were observed in Rutherford's model on the 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Nuclues
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
basis of electro magnetic hypothesis of Maxwell. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
1. It failed to explain the stability of atom. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
Electron
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
2. It could not explain the discrete spectrum. According to 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Maxwell any revolving particle continuously emits 123456789012345678901234567890121234
Continuous emission of
electromagnetic radiations thereby using up its energy so energy by revolving
that it comes closer and closer to the nucleus by reducing electrons
its path (orbit). Ultimately it should be destroyed after falling into the nucleus but in
reality it doesnt happen so.
This model could not explain the discrete spectrum of an atom. According to
Rutherford due to continuous change in radius of the electrons orbit the spectra should be
continuous rather than the linear one as obtained.

8.3.3 Bohr's Atomic Model

In 1913 Neils Bohr devised a simple model for atomic structure based on quantum
theory. The main assumptions of this model are as follows -

Chapter-8 (P-115)
(1) All atom consists of a positively charged, dense and very small
nucleus having all the protone and nuetrons.
(2) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in paths of definite
energies. These paths of definite energies are known as orbits,
shells or energy levels.
(3) Orbits can be denoted by (n). The value of n is whole number 1,
2, 3, 4, 5,. etc, which are written as K, L, M, N, O,.. etc,
respectively. Niels Bohr (1885-1962)

(4) With increasing values of n these orbits move farther 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234

from nucleus and subsequently their energy increases.
This means the energy of n=1 or K shell is the lowest
and it is nearest to the nucleus.
(5) According to Bohr there is no change in the energy of
any electron if it revolves in the same energy level.
(6) When an electron absorbs the energy from outside,
it gets excited and jumps in to the nearest higher
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
second orbit
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
first orbit
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234

energy shell and when the electron emits the energy it Bohrs Atomic Model

goes into the nearest lower energy level.

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
electron electron
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Emission of
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Absorption of energy
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
energy
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Absorption and Emission of electron energy

Find out the answers of these questions yourself.

Q. 1 Name the scientist who presented the first model of the atom ?
Q.2 Which are the two defects of Rutherford's atomic model?
Q.3 According to atomic model of Neils Bohr when electron revolves in the same
energy level then the it absorbs the energy or emits the energy or there is no
change in the energy, give the answer.
Q.4 What is an orbit or energy level ?
Q.5 Out of the K, L, M, N shells of the atomic model of Bohr, which is nearest to
the nucleus ?
Q.6 According to Rutherford ..charge is present at the centre of the atom.

Chapter-8 (P-116)
8.4 Atomic number and mass number
8.4.1 Atomic number
The number of protons is different in each element. "The number of the protons present
in nucleus of atom of any element, is called the atomic number of the element." It is depicted
by (Z)
As the protons are positively charged particle thus the atomic number is equal to the
number of positively charged particles present in the nucleus of atom of any element for
example. There are 6 protons in the nucleus of carbon atom so atomic number of carbon
atom will be 6. (Z = 6).
We know that the atom is electrically neutral, therefore the number of protons (+ve
particle) is equal to the number of electrons (-ve particle) present in any atom. That's how
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons (p) of any element
= number of electrons (e) of any element
When an electron is removed from any atom then positive ion is formed while when
an electron is added then the negative ion is formed. Hereby it is very important to know
that only in the neutral atom of any element the atomic number is equal to the number of
electrons. The number of electron changes when an ion (cation or anion) is formed from
neutral atom, This fact can be shown as :-
number of protons in cation > number of electrons
number of protons in anion < number of electrons
number of protons in neutral atom = number of electrons.
Therefore the value of atomic number for an ion is not equal to the number of electrons.

8.4.2 Mass number or Atomic mass

We have seen that out of the three particles proton, neutron and electron present in
atom, only electron has the negligible mass, that's why it is believed that the atomic mass is
due to the presence of protons and neutrons. Hence the Atomic mass or mass number is the
sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in any atom, it is represented by
Atomic number = Number of proton + Number of neutron
A = p + n
For example- Two protons and two neutrons are present in helium atom. Thus atomic
mass or mass number of helium atom will be 2 + 2 = 4.
Similarly oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 neutrons therefore the atomic mass or mass
number of the oxygen will be 8+8=16.

Chapter-8 (P-117)
 In some elements the number of protons and neutrons are equal but specially in heavy
elements the number of neutrons is more than the number of protons. For example mercury
(Hg) has the mass number 200 and atomic number 80, means that it has 80 electrons, 80
protons and 200-80=120 neutrons.
That's how, if the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) are known for any atom,
then the number of protons, electrons and neutrons can easily be determined. Some examples
are given in Table no.2
Table - 2
Symbol and Atomic No. Mass No. Proton Electron Neutrons
name of element (Z) (A) (P=Z) e =z n = A-Z
Hydrogen H* 1 1 1 1 1 - 1=0
Helium He 2 4 2 2 4-2=2
Lethium Li 3 7 3 3 7-3=4
Boron B 5 11 5 5 11 - 5 = 6
Flourine F 9 19 9 9 19 - 9 = 10
Sulphur S 16 32 16 16 32 - 16 = 16
Mercury Hg 80 200 80 80 200 - 80 = 120
* Here protium Isotope of H is taken
Important fact :
Atom of any elements is denoted by its symbol like following
A Mass number
X symbol of element
Z Atomic number
200
Example Hg
80

8.4.3 Isotopes
It is observed that the atomic masses of atoms of one element are not same. For example
35 37
chlorine has two types of atoms 17 Cl and 17 Cl . This shows that the atomic mass of one
chlorine atom is 35 and for the another chlorine atom it is 37, but the atomic number of both
the chlorine atoms is 17. These type of atoms are called isotopes. Hence the isotope can be
defined as -

Chapter-8 (P-118)
 "Atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but different
mass number are known as isotopes."
Table -3
Isotopes of Symbol Atomic Mass Proton Electrons Neutrons
Hydrogen Number Number
Z A p+ e- n
1
Protium H v v v v
1
2
Deuterium H or D v w v v v
1
3
Tritium H or T v x v v w
1
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
o o o
e e
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
e
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
-1 -1 -1
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1p 1p 1p
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
on 1n 2n
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Protium Deuterium Tritium
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

It is clear from the above table that the number of protons and electrons are same in the
isotope atoms of same element but the number of neutrons is different. The chemical properties
of the isotopes are similar and the physical properties are different .
There are two types of isotopes :
35 1 2 13
1. Non radioactive isotopes - like C l, H , H , C, C
17 1 1 6
2. Radioactive isotopes - like -

Important Fact
Isobars : Atoms of different elements, which have similar atomic mass and
dissimilar atomic number are known as isobars.
40 40 40 50 50
Example - Ca or A r, Kr ; Cr or Ti
20 18 19 24 22

There is no similarity between the chemical and physical properties of isobars.

Chapter-8 (P-119)
 Find out the answers of these questions yourself
Q.1 Fill up the blanks -
(a) The number of protons present in nucleus of an atom of any element is
called .. It is depicted by
(b) The number of protons in cation is than the number of electrons.
(c) In a neutral atom the number of protons and electrons is .
Q.2 Define atomic number and mass number.
Q.3 If the number of protons is 2 and number of neutrons is 2 in helium atom then the
atomic number will be and mass number will be .
Q.4 Why in isotopes the atomic numbers are similar but the atomic masses are
different?
Q.5 Write two examples of radioactive isotopes.

8.5 Distribution of electrons in various orbits (Bohr-Bury scheme)

Neils Bohr elaborated in his atomic model that electrons revolve in various orbits. But
in 1921 Bohr and Bury stated some laws about the distribution scheme of the electrons,
which are known as Bohr Bury scheme. According to which the rules for electronic
configuration in atom are as follows :
1. The maximum number of electrons in an any shell of an atom is 2n2 where n is the
serial number of the shell. That's how the maximum number of electrons can be 2 in
first shell, 8 in second 18 in third and 32 in fourth.
Tabel 4

Shell no. Symbol for shell n Maximum Electrons (2n2)

1. First (K) 1 2 x 12 = 2
2. Second (L) 2 2 x 22 = 8
3. Third (M) 3 2 x 32 = 18
4. Fourth (N) 4 2 x 42 = 32

2. The maximum number of electrons that could exist in outermost shell or orbit of any
atom is 8 while the maximum number is 18 for the penultimate shell.
3. It is not necessary that the another shell is formed after the completion of the first shell
according to this law. Infact a new shell is formed as the number of electrons reaches to
8 in any orbit. On the basis of the above rules the electronic configuration of first 20
elements can be explained with the help of following table
4.
Chapter-8 (P-120)
 Table - 5
Atom (Symbol) Arrangement of Distribution Valency
No. of electrons in shell of electrons
electrons

Hydrogen (H) 1 1 in first shell 1 1

Helium (He) 2 2 in first shell 2 0
Lithium (Li) 3 2 in first shell + 1 in second shell 2, 1 1
Beryllium (Be) 4 2 in first shell + 2 in second shell 2, 2 2
Boron (B) 5 2 in first shell + 3 in second shell 2, 3 3
Carbon (C) 6 2 in first shell + 4 in second shell 2, 4 4
Nitrogen (N) 7 2 in first shell + 5 in second shell 2, 5 3
Oxygen (O) 8 2 in first shell + 6 in second shell 2, 6 2
Fluorine (F) 9 2 in first shell + 7 in second shell 2, 7 1
Neon (Ne) 10 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8 0
Sodium (Na) 11 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 1 1
+ 1 in third shell
Magnesium (Mg) 12 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 2 2
+ 2 in third shell
Aluminium (Al) 13 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 3 3
+ 3 in third shell
Silicon (Si) 14 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 4 4
+ 4 in third shell
Phosphorus (P) 15 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 5 3, 5
+ 5 in third shell
Sulphur (S) 16 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 6 2
+ 6 in third shell
Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 7 1
+ 7 in third shell
Argon (Ar) 18 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 8 0
+ 8 in third shell
Potassium (K) 19 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 8, 1 1
+ 8 in third shell + 1 in fourth shell
Calcium (Ca) 20 2 in first shell + 8 in second shell 2, 8, 8, 2 2
+ 8 in third shell + 2 in fourth shell

* Phosphorus shows variable valency. Similarly other elements of periodic table also show the variable valency.

Chapter-8 (P-121)
8.6 Valence Electrons and Valency
We have already studied the Bohr-Bury scheme of distribution of electrons. Electrons
exist around the nucleus in various orbits (shells). The electrons of outermost orbit determine
the chemical properties of atoms.
The incomplete outermost shell of any atom is called valence shell and the electrons
present in this outermost incomplete shell are called valence electrons, which participate
in bond formation.
For Example : The atomic number of nitrogen is 7 this means it has 7 electrons
The electronic configuration K L
2 5
(first shell) Valence shell
Hence nitrogen has 5 valence electrons.
In this way the number of valence electrons can be determined by the electronic
configuration of any atom, as shown in the following table :
Table - 6
Name of Symbol of Atomic Distribution of valence
element of element Number electrons electrons
K L M
Nitrogen N 7 2 5 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7 7
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5 5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6 6
The atoms, which have 2 or 8 electrons in their outermost shell are chemically inert, like
He, Ne, Ar etc., as there is no exchange of electrons in these shells. But the valence shells
consisting less then 8 electrons except helium, exchange the electrons to complete their
octet. As a result they are chemically active. The number of electrons in outer most shell
(valence shell) determines the valencing power. This valencing power is called valency as it
is orginated from the Latin word Valentia, which means power or capacity.

Chapter-8 (P-122)
 From the above description it is clear that the valency is determined by the number of
valence electrons present in the outer most orbit or shell of any atom. For example the
valency of Hydrogen, Sodium and Potassium etc is one as all of these have one electron in
their outermost shell. The valency of Mg, Ca, Ba is 2, Boron is 3 and Carbon is 4 as the
number of valence electrons in their valence shells is 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
When the number of electrons in outer shell of any atom is half of the maximum capacity
i.e. 4 then its valency will be the number of valence electrons present in the valence shell,
but if the number of electrons in the outer shell or valence shell is 5 to 8 then the valency
will be equal to the number of electrons which is accepts to complete its octet.
For example oxygen has total eight electrons. Its electronic configuration will be 2, 6
means the number of valence electrons is 6. It needs 2 more electrons to complete its octet
i.e.8 electrons in its outermost shell. Therefore the valency of oxygen is 2
instead of 6.
Valency = No. of Valence electrons Valency = 8 number of valence electrons
(for the atoms having 1 to 4 valence electrons) (for atoms having 5 to 8 valence electrons)
(This rule for the determinations of the valency is not applicable to determine the
variable valency)
On the above basis the valency of the elements upto atomic number 20 of the periodic
table can be explained with the help of following table.

Table -7
Name of Symbol Atomic Electronic Valence Valency
element Number comfiguration electron
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 0*
Lithium Li 3 2,1 1 1
Beryllium Be 4 2,2 2 2
Boron B 5 2,3 3 3
Carbon C 6 2,4 4 4
Nitrogen N 7 2,5 5 3
Oxygen O 8 2,.6 6 2
Flourine F 9 2,7 7 1
Neon Ne 10 2,8 8 0
Sodium Na 11 2,8,1 1 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2 2 2
Aluminium Al 13 2,8,3 3 3
Silicon Si 14 2,8,4 4 4

Chapter-8 (P-123)
 Phosphorus P 15 2,8,5 5 3,5
Sulphur S 16 2,8,6 6 2
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7 7 1
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8 8 0
Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1 1 1
Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2 2 2
* Helium has two electrons in its first shell. This first shell is the outermost shell. In first
shell the maximum number of electrons is 2, therefore its valency is 0 as the outer shell is
complete.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. Name scientists who contributed to the scheme of the distribution of electrons
in various atoms? Write down the formula used for this.
2. Is it necessary that electrons should be filled in the second shell only after the
first shell is complete according to which rule ?
3. Draw the electronic structure of atoms having atomic number 12(Mg), 17(Cl)
18 (Ar) and illustrate the distribution of electrons in various orbits.
4. Fill up the blanks (Complete the electronic configuration)
Atom Atomic Number First shell Second shell Third shell
P 15 2 8
Ne 10 2
C 6 4
O 8 2
H 1
5. Explain valence shell, valence electrons and valency.
6. What will be the valency of the atoms which have 3 and 4 electrons in their
outermost shell respectively.
8.7 Radioactivity :
In year 1896 Henry Becquerel the famous scientist of France reported that uranium
and its compounds have the property of blackening the photographic plate. This reaction
takes place even when the photographic plate wrapped in black paper is kept in dark near
uranium. From this Becquerel concluded that the Uranium emits certain type of invisible
rays, which have the strong penetrating power. Hence these rays are named as Becquerel
rays in the name of the discoverer.
The substance which emits these types of rays is called radioactive substance
and this property is known as radioactivity.

Chapter-8 (P-124)
 Madam Marie Curie & her husband Professor Piere Curie had contributed notably in
this field. They found that thorium (Th) has the similar properties like uranium. They observed
that in mineral Pitchblende one or more than one elements are present which could be much
stronger than uranium. Madam Curie and Piere Curie christened one of the these elements as
polonium (Po) in the name of their birth place Poland. Apart from this they found one element
which was more active than the polonium and was named as radium (Ra).
The nature of the Radiations emitted by radioactive substances
In year 1904 Rutherford found many interesting results during the studies of the nature
of the radiations emitted by radioactive elements. He observed that the radiations emitted by
any radioactive substance are not similar in nature. In his experiment Rutherford kept some
radioactive substance in a box made up of lead and found in his observations that the radiations
emitted by the radioactive substance are of three types as illustrated in the diagrams.
(1) -rays (2) - rays (3) -rays.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
radiation
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
radiation
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
particle
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
radiation
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Proton
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Flourescent 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
screen 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Neutron
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Charged plate 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Helium nucleus
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Radium
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
radiation
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
particle
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Lead Box 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123

Radiation of different types nature of , and radiations

1. Those rays which turned towards the negative electrode are named as -rays. The
mass of these particles is 4 a.m.u and the charge is 2 units of positive charge. In other
words alpha particle was designated as doubly charged helium nucleus.
2. The rays which deflected towards the positive electrode were called -rays. The mass
and charge of the particles are equal to the mass and charge of the electron.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
3. The rays not deflected 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1 cm thick sheet of Al
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
5cm thick sheet of Al
towards any electrode, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Very thin sheet of Al
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
were named as -rays. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Radium
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
These rays are electro-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
rays
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
magnetic waves and are 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
not made up of matter
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
particles
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
particles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
particle
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
The penetrating power of
the , and rays is illustrated Penetrating power of , and rays
in this figure. rays have maximum penetrating power while the -rays have the lowest.

Chapter-8 (P-125)
 Important fact :
In honour of Madam Curie the radioactivity of any substance is depicted by Unit Curie.
The S.I. unit of radioactivity is Bequerel (Bq).
8.7.1 Ratioactive isotopes and their uses
We have studied that the atoms which have the similar atomic numbers and different
atomic masses are called isotopes, but these isotopes which emit the , and rays are
known as radioactive isotopes. It is not necessary that all the isotopes of one element are all
radioactive or nonradioactive.
Today the number of radioactive isotopes is in thousands. In general approximately
one or more radioactive isotopes of all the elements are known. For few elements this number
is greater than 20. These radioactive isotopes have several important applications which are
described under following points :
Radioactive isotopes in tracer technique :
In tracer technique, depending upon the requirement of the field of study, a small quantity
of radioactive isotope is added to its element. After that the reaction path is traced during the
physical or chemical reaction. The use of radioactive isotopes in tracing the path has simplified
the study of many complex reaction mechanisms. This is the reason why radioactive
isotopes have proved to be very useful in various fields of science as tracer elements.
Various fields of tracer technique

In the field of In the field of medical In the field of In the Industrial

Chemical Sciences Sciences Agriculture field
1. Use of tracer technique in chemical sciences -
To study the mechanism of reactions.
In the discovery of new compounds.
In determination of structure of molecule & ions.
In determination of solubility of sparingly soluble substances etc.
2. Use of tracer technique in the field of medicine -
Radioactive isotopes have proved to very useful in medical diagnosis -
131
Iodine 53 I is given to the patients with thyroid disorder.
32
With the help of phosphorus P it is determined that whether the phosphorus
15
is being absorbed by the broken bones or not.
24
The measurement of the radioactivity of sodium Na is useful to determine
11
the efficiency of blood circulation.

Chapter-8 (P-126)
 The distribution of vitamin B12 in body is studied with the help of radioactivity
54
of Co .
27 60
In Radiotherapy : The radioactive isotope of cobalt ( Co) is used to check the
27
growth of cancer. This isotope emits the -rays which destroy the cancer tissues in
the body and hinder their growth.
3. Use of tracers in agriculture :
Useful in the study of absorption mechanism of minerals & fertilizers by plant.
4. Use of tracers in industrial field :
To find out the direction of water under the surface of soil, to find out the leakage
in the underground pipe lines.
In extraction of metals.
In manufacturing of metallic instruments.
Other use of radio active isotopes
1. Carbon dating : This technique is used to determine the age of minerals, rocks, fossils,
dead plants and dead animals. The carbon isotope is used in this technique.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
What is radioactivity?
Write the uses of two radioactive isotopes.
Compare the charges of , and rays.
Whose penetrating power is maximum among , and rays ?
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The three fundametal particles of the atom are electron, proton and neutron.
Sir J. J. Thomson discovered the cathode rays.
Electron is the universal constituent of matter which is discovered by Sir J. J. Thomson.
German Scientist E. Goldstein discovered the anode rays.
Anode rays are made up of positively charged particles which are called protons.
In 1932 scientist Chadwick discovered neutron.
Neutron is the fundamental particle of an atom having the neutral charge and mass
(1.647 x 10 27 kg) which is nearly equal to the mass of proton. This particle is depicted
by 0n1 where the charge is 0 and the mass is 1 a.m.u.
Neils Bohr stated that electrons revolve in orbits of definite energy around the nucleus.
These orbits are represented by definite numbers which have the values n=1, 2, 3......
and are called K, L, M ........ shells respectively.
When an electron absorbs the energy then it gets excited and jumps in to the orbit of
higher energy but when it emits the energy, it goes down to lower energy level.
Atoms of one element which have the similar atomic number but dissimilar atomic
mass or mass number are called isotopes.
According to Bohr the maximum number of electrons in any orbit of atom is 2n2.

Chapter-8 (P-127)
 Thats how the maximum number of electrons is 2 in first orbit, 8 in second, 18 in
third and 32 in fourth orbit.
Henry Bequerel was first to discover radioactivity. Madam Curie contributed notably
in this field.
Three types of radiations are emitted by the radioactive substance -
-particles (+ve), -particles (ve), -rays (electromagnetic radiations i.e. neutral)
The S.I. unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1. How much heavier is the proton in comparison to electron ?
2. If we know the atomic number of any atom, then can we write its electronic
configuration? If yes, then why?
3. If the atomic numbers of oxygen and sulphur are 8 and 16 respectively what will be
the number of electrons present in them?
40
4. If any element is represented by X then find out the number of protons, electrons
19
and neutrons in this atom and write its electronic configuration.
5. Out of the two isotopes of oxygen O-16 and O-18 which has the more number of neutrons?
6. If the electronic configuration of any element is 2,8, 4, than what will be its atomic
number ?
7. Why are the anode rays called canal rays ?
8. What will be the atomic number and name of the element which has the completely
filled K and L shells.
9. Who discovered neutron ? Write about its charge and mass.
10. If the number of protons is 8 and number of electrons is 8 in any atom then what will be
its atomic number 8 or 0 ?
11. How will you determine the valency of nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine?
Short answer type questions :
1. Explain the definition of isotope with example.
2. Compare the charge and mass of protons, electrons and neutrons ? State their place in
the nucleus and give the names of the discoverer of these particles.
3. What are the major defects of the Rutherfords atomic model?

PROJECT
Radioactivity is the characteristic of the substance which is very useful as
well as destructive. Organise a discussion on this topic in your class with your
classmates and prepare an article by collecting examples of the points discussed in
this context. Submit this project file to your teacher.

Chapter-8 (P-128)
 CHAPTER - 9

Periodic Table of Elements

1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Before discussing the classification of the elements, it is
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 necessary that we should look around for our day-to-day
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
First Second
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Atom Atom
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
activities. Imagine that you have been sent to a grocer's shop,
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
where all the goods (soap, oil, jaggery, ghee, sugar, salt etc) are
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
piled up at one place, when you ask the shopkeeper for a soap,
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Covelent
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Radius
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
then he takes a lot of time in finding it and you waste your
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
precious time in buying it. Disgusted by this, next time you go
to another shop leaving this one, where all those things were
Let us Learn kept separately in an almirah in orderly manner. The shopkeeper
9.1 Brief history of immediately delivered the soap and other things as demanded
classification of by you taking no time and you returned home consuming very
elements less time in shopping. You must have felt that orderly placement
9.2 Periodic table of the things in the shop has resolved your problems as well as
9.3 Mendeleef's shopkeeper's difficulties and this made the process of buying
Periodic table and selling quite easy.
9.4 Modern Periodic Similarly, when you visit a library then it takes a very little
Table
of your time to find a book on any subject, because the books
9.5 Periodic properties of different subjects, having serial numbers on them are
of element
arranged in separate almirahs. Imagine that, if in the library you
9.6 Atomic size
would have found the books lying on the table in the form of a
9.7 Ionic radii heap instead of orderly arranged then would it be so easy for
9.8 Ionisation energy you to search the book ? No certainly not. You would have faced
9.9 Electron affinity a lot of difficulties.
9.10 Metallic and non Like this you can find many similar examples around
metallic properties. yourself. Similar to these examples if you have to remember the
properties of the elements, then you would try to arrange them
in systematic manner and find an easy way for it as attempted
by the chemists in the year 1815. At that time the chemists felt
that as the discoveries of new elements are constantly going on
resulting the increase in the number of elements to such extent
that to understand and remember the properties of all the
elements separately has become very difficult, therefore they

Chapter-9 (P-129)
tried to classify them. More than 115 elements have been discovered so far in the nature.
Firstly, the elements were classified as metals and non-metals.
Till now the contribution of following scientists is notable.
History of classification of elements
1. Prout's hypothesis - 1815
2. Dobereiner's triads - 1829
3. Newland's law of octaves - 1863
4. Lother Meyer curve - 1869
5. Mendeleef's Periodic table - 1869
6. Mordern Periodic laws of Moseley - 1913
7. Modern Periodic Table ( of 18 columns)
9.1 Brief history of classification of elements
1. Prout's hypothesis :- In the year 1815 Prout put forth the idea that atomic mass of all
the elements is simple multiple of the atomic mass of hydrogen atom, therefore the
elements are related to each other on the basis of atomic mass. But it failed due to the
reason that atom like chlorine has the atomic mass which is not a whole number (35.5)
2. Dobereiner's triads : In year 1829 Dobereiner arranged the elements having similar
properties in the groups of three elements each, so that the atomic mass of the central
element is approximately the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of first and the third
element. These groups are called as Dobereiner's triads. For example.
Example -1
Element Li Na K
Atomic mass 7 23 39
7 +3 9 46
Mean of the Atomic mass = = 23
2 2
of first and third element
Example - 2
Element Ca Sr Ba
Atomic mass 40 87.5 137
Mean of the atomic

mass of first and third elements

Demerits - Only few of the elements were arranged as triads. To express all the
elements in this manner was quite impossible, therefore this law was not found

Chapter-9 (P-130)
 comprehensive. But this fact has clarified the thing that certainly the properties of
elements are related to their atomic mass.
3. Newland's Law of octaves - In year 1863, Newland arranged the elements in order
of their increasing atomic mass and found that, each eighth element has the similar
properties as the first element, in similar manner as in music every eighth note is similar
to the first note among the seven notes. This is the Newland's Law of octaves. Like

Li Be B C N O F
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Demerit - This Law was not applicable for heavy elements. The order of octave is
disturbed by arranging inert gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr .) in periodic table.
4. Lother Meyers curve - In year , 1869 Lother Meyer drew the graph between atomic
weight and atomic volume and derived following conclusions : -
1. Elements having similar properties are in the same positions on the curve.
2. Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
exist at the highest peak of curve.
3. Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) are positioned
on the ascending part of the curve.
4. Alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba,
Ra) exist at the descending part of the
curve.
5. Elements which are difficult to melt
(Be, B, C, Al, Si, Cu etc.) exist at the
lowest point of the curve.
On the basis of these results Lother Meyer put forth the periodic law, according to
which - atomic volumes of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic weights.

Find the answers of these questions yourself.

1. What was the basis of Dobereiner's classification ?
2. Describe the Newland's Law of Octaves ?
3. Explain the Lother Meyer's curve with diagram ?
9.2 Periodic Table :
Periodic table is the chart prepared to classify the elements, in which all the elements
are arranged serially in vertical and horizontal columns in such a way, that after regular
intervals, there is a repetition of the properties of elements and the elements of similar

Chapter-9 (P-131)
properties are placed one under the other in vertical columns. These vertical columns are
called as groups and the horizontal rows are referred to as periods .
Because the repeatition of the properties after regular intervals is called periodicity,
therefore this chart having the classification of the elements in the table form is named as
periodic table.
9.3 Description of the Mendeleef's Periodic Table
In relation to the classification of elements Mendeleef's work is very important.
Mendeleef classified the elements on the basis of atomic mass and arranged the elements
in order of their increasing atomic masses. On the basis of this, Mendleef stated a law
which is as follows -
"The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their
atomic masses.Afterwards he devised the periodic table of the elements based on the studies.
Mendeleef's periodic table has 7 horizontal rows, which are called as periods and 9
vertical columns which are referred to as groups.
GROUPS
1. The original periodic table of Mendeleef consisted only eight groups and the last
zero group, which is related to the noble gases was added afterwards as the noble
gases were not discovered until then.
2. Like this the total number of vertical columns is 9 which includes the groups from 1
to 8 and the zero group.
3. The groups from 1 to 7 are divided into two subgroups each, which are known as A and
B subgroups
4. In the eighth group, the elements are placed in three different periods consisting three
elements together in each of them, these are known as transition triplets.
PERIODS
1. Mendeleef's Periodic Table has 7 periods.
2. The first period contains 2 elements, this is called as very short period.
3. The second and third periods contain 8-8 elements and are known as short periods.
4. Fourth and fifth periods contains 18 elements in each and are refered to as long Periods.
5. Sixth period has 32 elements, though the table shows only 18 elements but the
remaining 14 elements from atomic number 58 to 71 of lanthanide series have been
placed separately outside the periodic table at the bottom. In reality these 14 elements
are the members of this period. Therefore, this is called as very long period.
6. Seventh period consists of 24 elements. The table shows only 10 elements, but the
remaining 14 elements which are the member of this period have also been placed
together with lanthanides at the bottom of the periodic table. Apart from this, many
Chapter-9 (P-132)
 places have been left vacant for the elements to be discovered in future, That's why
this period is known as incomplete period.

Table -1

Group
Period

* Lanthanide series (14 elemets) - from atomic number 58 to 71.

** Actinide series (14 elements) - from atomic number 90 to 103.

Utility of Mendeleef's periodic table

1. This table is useful in general studies of the elements.
2. Useful in the discovery of new elements :In Mendeleef's periodic table many places
were left vacant for the elements which were not discovered till that time. Mendeleef
even made the forecast after studying the general properties of the neighbouring
elements for the three vacant spaces to be filled by the elements discovered in future.
When the new elements were discovered, it was found that the real properties of
these elements were quite similar to those as were predicted. Mendeleef had even
mentioned the names of these elements in the periodic table by prefixing Eka-to the
names of pre existing elements, which is clear from the following table.
Table - 2
Atomic Weight Name of newly The name given by
Discovered element Mendeleef in past
69.72 Gallium Eka - aluminium
75.59 Germanium Eka - silicon
44.96 Scandium Eka - boron

Chapter-9 (P-133)
3. This table is helpful in finding out the atomic masses of the elements and even in
correcting the doubtful atomic masses of the elements.
Demerits of the Mendeleef's Periodic Table
1. Position of hydrogen : As the Hydrogen shows similarity to the properties of the
elements of first and seventh group, so it should be placed on this basis in first as well
as in seventh group, which is not justified. Thus the placement of hydrogen in the table
is controversial.
2. The elements having similar properties are placed in different groups for example copper
and mercury are placed separately in first and second group, through they have similar
properties.
3. Elements having dissimilar properties are placed in one group, like coin metals (Cu,
Ag, Au) are kept along with the alkali metals (Li, Na, K Rb, Cs)
4. Atomic weights are not in serial order : In some places, the elements having higher
atomic weights are placed prior to the elements with lower atomic weights. For example
Argon (atomic weight 39.948) is kept before potassium (atomic weight 39.102)
5. Position of the Isotopes : All the isotopes of the same elements were considered to be
of one group though their atomic weights are different. Therefore it is obvious that the
position of the isotopes is not proper.
6. Position of the elements of the eighth group : The position of the elements of the
eighth group was not appropriate as three elements were put together in three different
periods.
7. Position of the rare earth elements : Lanthanides and actinides which are known as
rare earth elements, couldn't find the proper position in periodic table. That's why they
are placed at the bottom of the periodic table.
In this way, Mendeleef's periodic table had some drawbacks, which were tried to be
removed in Modern Periodic table.
Find the answers of these questions.
1 In Mendeleef's periodic table elements are arranged on the basis of
2 ...................... group was added later in the Mendeleef's periodic table.
3 Write the names of any three new discovered elements which were placed in
the vacant spaces in Mendeleef's periodic table and mention their previously
given names.
4 Where the lanthanides and actinides were placed in Mendeleef's Periodic table.

Chapter-9 (P-134)
9.4 Modern Periodic Law and Modern Periodic Table
In 1913, after many experiments Mosley derived a conclusion that the fundamental
properties of the elements are based on their atomic numbers and not on their atomic weights.
Therefore the classification of the elements should be based on their atomic number instead
of their atomic masses. Thus Mosley gave the new periodic law, which in known as Modern
Periodic Law according to which - "The physical and chemical properties of the elements
are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers". Based on this modern periodic law
Bohr Bury devised a new periodic table, known as long form of Periodic Table.
Special Features of Modern or Long form of Periodic Table -
In this table there are 18 vertical columns, which are called as GROUPS. The subgroups
of Mendeleef's Periodic table were separated as a complete group. This has the horizontal

rows referred to as PERIODS. Eighth group was divided into three parts, where as the zero
group remained the same.
Properties of Periods : The description of all the seven periods of this periodic
table is as follows

Chapter-9 (P-135)
 Table -4
First Period Total 2 elements Very short Electron enters into
main shell n=1
Second period Total 8 Elements Short period Electron enters into
shell n = 2
Third period Total 8 Elements Short period Electron enters into
shell n = 3
Fourth period Total 18 Elements Long period Electron enters into
shell n = 4
Fifth period Total 18 Elements Long period Electron enters into
shell n = 5
Sixth period Total 32 Elements very Long Electron enters into
period shell n = 6
Seventh period 24 Elements incomplete Electron enters into
period shell n = 7
Excluding the first period, remaining periods start from alkali metals and end with
noble gases.
It is clear from the above table that from first to seventh period, there is an increase/
addition of one shell in each period (n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .)
Properties of the groups : The number of electrons in the outermost shell of all the
elements of any one group is same. The electrons of the outermost shell are known as valence
electrons. Due to the similar number of valance electrons all the elements of one group have
similar main properties.
Elements are classified in to four blocks s, p, d, f based on the number of electrons
present in outermost shell.
The elements of first and the second group are known as s-block elements.
Elements of group 13 to 18 are called as p-block elements
Elements of group 3 to 12 are reffered to as d-block elements
The elements of lanthanide and actinide series which are placed separately at the
bottom of the periodic table are known as f-block elements
Important information :
In structure of any atom the electrons are present in different shells (n= 1, 2, 3,
4 or K, L, M, N etc). Each shell also contains sub shells, which are represented by s,
p, d, f. In first shell n=1 or K, only one sub shell is present.

Chapter-9 (P-136)
 The elements of s and p blocks are collectively known as Normal or Typical or
Representatives elements.
Elements of the d block are called as transition elements.
Elements of f-block are named as inner transition elements or rare earth elements.
The elements of first group are referred to as Alkali metals while the group 2 elements
are known as Alkaline earth metals.
The types of the elements, their names and their position in periodic table are shown in
the following table :
Table - 5
Group Group Group

1 to 2 3 to 12 13 to 18
s-block elements d-block elements p- block elements
(Typical or representative (Transition (Typical or representative
elements) elements) elements)

Group 1- Alkali Metals Group 18- Inert gas

Group-2- Alkaline earth metals elements or noble gases

fblock elements
Lanthanides - Rare earth elements-inner transition elements (14 elements)
Actinides - Rare earth elements -(14 elements)

Important facts - The elements after Uranium 92 are not found free in the nature,
instead of this they are made artificially by nuclear reactions. These elements are
radioactive in nature and are known as Transuranium elements.

Solution to the drawbacks of Mendeleef's Periodic table in Modern Periodic

Table (Long form)
After considering atomic number as the basis of classification of elements, Mosley
devised the modern periodic table, which removed many of the drawbacks of Mendeleef's
Periodic Table.
1. The discrepancy of placing the heavy elements before the lighter ones was solved
automatically.
2. As the atomic number of isotopes is same, the problem of placing them in separate
positions was solved.
3. Inert gases got the appropriate place in group 18
4. The problem of the eighth group was solved automatically as it was divided into three
groups.

Chapter-9 (P-137)
 In this way many defects of Mendeleef's Periodic table were removed in Modern
Periodic Table, but still some drawbacks remained unsolved like :-
The position of hydrogen was not cleared in this table too and lanthanides and actinide
are placed separately at the bottom of the periodic table which is impractical.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself :
1. Fill in the blanks
(a) The basis of Modern periodic table is ....................
(b) The horizontal rows in periodic table are called ..............
(c) The elements of first group are known as..............
(d) The elements of group .. to . are known as transition elements.
2. Describe the position of alkaline earth metals and alkali metals in periodic table.
9.5 Periodic properties of the elements -
The properties of the elements which depend on their electronic configuration and
change respectively on moving from left to right in any period or going down in any group,
are known as periodic properties. Atomic size, ionization energy, electron affinity metallic
and non-metallic propecties etc. are some main periodic properties of elements.
1. Atomic size - The size of any atom can be explained by means of atomic radius.
"The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of due
electrons of any isolated atom is known as atomic radius.
As it is impossible to obtain any atom in an isolated form and to measure the distance
between the centre of the nucleus to outermost shell of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
electrons. That's why two functional hypothesies were given- 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Another
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
One nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1. Van der Waal's radii - One half of the distance 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
between the nuclei of two similar adjacent atoms 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
belonging two neighbouring molecules in the solid 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
state of the same substance is known as van der waals 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
radius. It is represented by (1 Angstrom =10-8 cm) 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Vanderwaal's radius
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
2. Covalent radii - The one half of the distance between 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
the centres of the nuclei of diatomic molecule held 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Another
by a purely covant single bond of any element is known 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
One nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
as covalant radius. Generally we consider the the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
covalent radii of the element as the atomic radii. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Isolated atom - The meaning of an isolated state of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
any atom is an absolutely alone single atom, but it is quite 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
Covalent radius
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234
hypothetical to obtain only a single atom. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234

Chapter-9 (P-138)
9.6 Periodicity in atomic size
In period - On going from left to light across any period the atomic number increases
that means an increase in number of protons. As the nuclear charge increases the electrons
are attracted to the greater extent by the nucleus and hence the size of the atom decreases due
to the decrease in atomic radius.
Table - 6
Second Period Li Be B C N O F
Atomic radii 1.23 0.90 0.81 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.72
()(in decreasing order)
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(in increasing order)
GROUP : On moving down the groups the size of the atom increases means the value
of the atomic radius increases, as the number of electron shells increase with increase in
atomic number.
Example - The progressive change in atomic size can be illustrated in the following way
Table-7
Atom Atomic Atomic Shell Atomic
size number radius ()
Lithium Li 3 2 1.23
Sodium Na 11 3 1.57
Potassium K 19 4 2.03

Rubidium Rb 37 5 2.16

Cesium Cs 55 6 2.35

9.7 Ionic radii

The ions are formed as a result of addition or removal of electrons from the outermost
shell of any atom and the radii of the ions are known as ionic radii.
The positive ion is formed when any atom loses its electron and is known as cation.
The size of the positive ion or cation is smaller than the size of its own atom as normally the
outermost shell disappears by the loss of electrons. With the decrease in number of electrons,
the remaining electrons are more strongly attracted and pulled towards the nucleus.
On the contrary, the negative ion is formed as the atom gains the electrons and is known
as anion. The electrons experience less nuclear force of attraction due to increase in number
of electrons and unchanged number of protons. This is the reason why the size of the negative
ion or anion is greater than its own atom.
Chapter-9 (P-139)
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
e
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
+
+e
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789

Na loss of electron Na
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
Cl Cl
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
gain of electron
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
Sodium Cation
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
Sodium atom 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Chlorine atom Chlorine anion
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
Elctronic configuration Electronic configuration
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Elctronic configuration Electronic configuration
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
2, 8, 1 2, 8
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Atomic radius Ionic radius
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 Atomic radius Ionic radius
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1.57 A0 0.98 A0 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
0.99 A 0
1.1 A0
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Fig 4 : Decrease in size due to the Fig 4 : Increase in size due to the
formation of cation formation of cation
9.8 Ionization energy :
The energy required to remove one electron from any isolated atom in gaseous state
is known as ionization energy, it is represented by I.E. Ionization energy and is expressed in
either electron volts / atom or kilo calorie /mole or kilo joules / mole. Ionization energy is
also called ionization potential because it is expressed in electron-volts / atom.
Atom (g) + Ionsation Energy (IE) Cation + electron (e)
The removal of second electron from the cation formed by the loss of one electron
from neutral atom is relatively difficult. Similarly, the further removal of third electron is
even more difficult. As a result the values of Ionization energy, keep on increasing.
The energy required to remove first, second and third electron is known as first,
second and third ionization energy respectively. These IE1, IE2 and IE3 are depicted in
following manner.
IE1 < IE2 < IE3
Perodicity in Ionization Energy
In period - On moving across from left to right the value of Ioniztation energy
increases, because the nuclear charge increases with increasing atomic number. As a
consequence of this the valence electrons experience more force of attraction. therefore
more energy is required to remove the electron.
In Group : In going down the group the value of ionization energy decreases. Because
in going from top to bottom in a group the atomic size increases. As a result of this force of
attraction rendered by the nucleus on the valence electrons reduces. Therefore the energy
required to remove the electron decreases.
Value of ionization energy decreases
(on going down the group)

Value of ionization energy increases

(on moving left to right across a period)

Chapter-9 (P-140)
 Electron Affinity : Electron affinity is just opposite to the Ionization energy. If
electron is added to any atom then anion is formed and some energy is released in this
process.
Atom + Electron Anion + Energy released
Therefore the amount of energy released when an electron is added to any atom in
gaseous state to form an anion, is called electron affinity and it is depicted by E.A.
Electron affinity is also expressed in electron volts or kJ/mole.
The value of first electron affinity is positive. But the value of second, Third and
successive electron affinities are negative as the energy has to be supplied to overcome the
repulsive force generated by the addition of electron to the anion.
9.9 Periodicity in electron affinity.
In period : Electron affinity increases gradually as we move from left to right in a
period, paralleling the decrease in the atomic size. Therefore the amount of energy released
by adding an electron to the valence shell will be more
The value of electron
affinity increases

On moving from left
to right across the period
In group : Electronic affinity generally decreases on moving down the group. But in
this order some irregularities have been observed.
9.10 Metallic and non metallic character :
On moving from left to right across any period the metallic character decreases while
nonmetallic character increases. The metallic elements are found on the left side of the periodic
table while the non-metallic elements are present on the right side.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Metal Non metal
On moving down the group the metallic character increases while the non-metallic
character decreases.
In the periodic table a dividing line can be drawn passing diagonally through elements
B, Si. As, Te, At, These are known as metalloids. The elements present on the left hand side
of the line are known as submetals while the metals on the rightside of the lines are called as
non metals.

Chapter-9 (P-141)
 Find out the answers of these questions yourself :
1. What change occurs, in the metallic properties and the atomic size of the
elements, on moving across a period in periodic table.
2. Fill up the blanks.
(a) In the periodic table, on moving down in any group the tendency to gain the
electron is called ..
(b) In the periodic table, on moving across any period the ionization energy is
known as - ..
3 Explain the van der waals radii and co-valent radii with the help of the diagrams,
4. If X is the element of group 2 of the periodic table and Y is the element of group
15 then state that -
(a) What will be the number of valence electrons in X
(b) What is the valency of X
(c) What will be the number of Electrons in Y
(d) What is the valency of Y
POINTS TO REMEMBER
There are the notable contributions by the scientists Prout, Dobereiner, Newland,
Lother Mayer, Mendeleef, Mosley etc. who did efforts to classify the elements for
their elaborative studies.
According to Mendeleef - "The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
the periodic functions of their atomic masses".
In Mendeleef's periodic table there are 7 periods and 8 groups. The zero group was
added later.
Mendeleef's periodic table proved to be helpful in discovering the new elements but it
had some drawbacks like - Uncertain position of hydrogen, not assigned place for the
isotopes etc.
Modern periodic law was given by the scientist Mosley which states that "The physical
and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
numbers"
In the modern periodic table there are 7 periods in horizontal form and 18 groups in
vertical form in which the elements are arranged on the basis of their electronic
configurations.
In the modern periodic table, most of the drawbacks of Mendeleef's periodic table
were removed automatically.
The elements of s- block and p-block are called as representative elements, normal
elements or typical elements.
The elements of d-blocks are known as transition elements. These are placed in the
groups 3 to 12 of periodic table.
The elements of f-blocks are called as inner transition elements. These are placed
separately at the bottom of the periodic table in the form of lanthanides and actinides.
The elements of first group are called as alkali metals while the elements of second
group are known as alkaline earth metals.

Chapter-9 (P-142)
 The properties of the elements which depend on their electronic configurations and
gradually change either on moving left to right across any period or going down in any
group, are known as periodic properties.
Metallic character, ionization energy, electron affinity are the periodic properties of
elements.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions
Q. 1 On what basis is the Dobereiner's traids law formed.
Q. 2 How the Newland's law of octaves rule is explained by the musical notes?
Q. 3 What is the Mendeleef's periodic law?
Q. 4 Write the two main defect of Mendeleef's classification.
Q. 5 What is the modern periodic law and which scientist devised it?
Q. 6 How many groups and periods are there in the long form of periodic table for the
classification of elements?
Q. 7 In how many types the elements of the modern periodic table are divided, write only
the names.
Short answer type questions.
Q. 1 What is the utility of Mendeleef's periodic table.
Q. 2 Describe the periods of long form of periodic table.
Q. 3 Write the two names each of alkali and alkaline earth metals and point out their place in
periodic table.
Q. 4 How is the problem of placing the isotopes in new (modern) periodic table solved?
Long answer type questions.
Q. 1 Write the Mendeleef's periodic law and elaborate the defects and utility of this periodic
table.
Q. 2 Write down the characteristics of periods and groups of modern periodic table.
Q. 3 Write notes on
1. Ionization potential. 2. Electron affinity.

PROJECT
Find out the name of all your class-mates and their previous year's results
and then place, them under the A, B and C categories on the basis of the periodicity in
following characteristics.
Characteristics A Category B Category C Category
Interest in studies good average very less
Interest in sports good average very less
Attendance in class good average very less

Chapter-9 (P-143)
 CHAPTER - 10

Chemical Bonding and Reactions

12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
10.1 Chemical Bonding
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 When atoms of two and more than two elements react with
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
each other then a molecule of compound is formed. The attractive
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
force between the atoms is called chemical bonding.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 The tendency of an atom to combine with any other atom
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
depends on the number of electrons in the outermost shell called
Let us Learn the valence electrons.
When these atoms combine with each other achieves the
10.1 Chemical
bonding stable state or completes its octet. Octet means eight electrons.

10.2 Electrovalent The electronic configuration of gases of zero group (group

bond 18) of periodic table shows that 2 electrons are present in the
10.3 Covalent bond
outermost shell of helium while 8 electrons exist in the outermost
shell of other inert gases. This is the reason why these gases do
10.4 Polar covalent not react with any other atom as their octets are complete.
bond
Table-10.1
10.5 Chemical
reaction Inert gases Atomic Electronic
10.6 Simple chemical Group 18 Number Configuration
reaction He Helium 2 2
10.7 Addition Ne Neon 10 2, 8
reaction
Ar Argon 18 2, 8, 8
10.8 Decomposition
Kr Krypton 36 2, 8, 18, 8
reaction
Xe Xenon 54 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
10.9 Substitution
reaction. Rn Radon 86 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8
10.10 Oxidation and Inert gases are also called noble gases. These are mono atomic
reduction (means they generally dont combine with any other atom).
reaction
Atoms of other elements except inert gases try to complete
8 electrons in their outermost shell (if the outermost shell is the
only shell then the number of electrons will be two.) Every atom
tries to attain the stable state by acquiring an electronic

Chapter-10 (P-144)
configuration similar to its nearest inert gas.
Generally, there are two ways by which atoms complete their octet to acquire the
electronic configuration similar to inert gases.
(i) By exchanging the electrons with any other atom.
(ii) By sharing the electrons with any other atom.
Types of Chemical Bonding
Based on the above discussion the bonds are of two types.
(i) Electrovalent bond (ionic bond)
(ii) Covalent bond
10.2 Electrovalent bond
When any two atoms combine in such a way that one atom loses one or more valence
electrons, which go to the outermost orbit of the another atom then the atom which loses
the electron, acquires the positive charge while the atom which gains the electron acquires
the negative charge. Due to opposite charges these atoms are held together by electrostatic
force of attraction, this bond is called electrovalent bond, or ionic bond as the bond is
formed between two ions. The compound so formed acquires polarity and is known as
electrovalent or ionic compound.
To understand this, we will see the process of formation of NaCl (Sodium Chloride).
1. Firstly the Sodium atom (Na) which has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 1
forms the Sodium cation (Na+). The value of the energy required to loose the electron is
496 Kilo joules per mole (KJ mol-1). This is called ionization energy.
(-1 electron)
)
(
-1
N a+
-e
Sodium atom Sodium ion
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
Thus the positively charged chemical species obtained from sodium atom (2, 8, 1) is
called sodium cation (2, 8) or sodium ion (Na+). Chlorine atom forms the negative chloride
ion (Cl) by gaining one electron given by sodium atom. The energy released in acquiring the
electron is 349 KJ mol-1 which is equal to electron affinity. The species so formed is called
the anion or chloride ion (Cl-)
+e
Cl Cl
Chlorine atom + electron Chloride anion
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)

Chapter-10 (P-145)
 Hence, the sodium cation and chloride anion are held together by electrostatic force
of attraction to form sodium chloride compound (NaCl)
Na+ + Cl NaCl
Sodium cation Chloride Sodium Chloride
anion compound.
That means, the oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of electrons between
the two atoms are held together by the electrostatic force of attraction to form the electrovalent
compound
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
NaCl
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Na Na +
Cl Cl
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Molecule of Sodium Chloride
Similarly the formation of KCl (Potassium chloride), LiCl (Lithium Chloride), MgCl2
(Magnesium chloride), AlCl3 (Aluminium Chloride), MgO (Magnesium oxide) etc can be
explained like the formation of NaCl (Sodium chloride).
Li + Cl Li+ + Cl- LiCl
Lithium atom chlorine Lithium chloride Lithium
Atom cation anion chloride
2, 1 2, 8, 7 2 2, 8, 8

Mg + 2Cl Mg++ + 2Cl MgCl2

Magnesium Two Chlorine Magnesium Chloride Magnesium
Atom atom cation anion chloride
2, 8, 2 2(2, 8, 7) 2, 8 2 (2, 8, 8)

Out of two electrons from the outermost shell of magnesium, two chlorine atoms acquire
one electron each to complete their octet.
Al + 3Cl Al3 + 3Cl- AlCl3
Aluminium Three Chlorine Aluminium Chloride Aluminium
atom atom cation anion chloride
2, 8, 3 3(2, 8, 7) 2, 8 3(2, 8, 8)

Chapter-10 (P-146)
 The three electrons of the outermost shell of aluminium are acquired by three different
chlorine atoms (one each).
Mg + O Mg++ + O MgO
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxide Magnesium
atom atom cation anion Oxide
2, 8, 2 2, 6 2, 8 2, 8

The compounds having the electrovalent bond are called electrovalent compounds.
The alkali metals of group 1 of the periodic table form the cations by losing one electron.
While the alkali earth metals of group 2 lose 2 electrons and the atoms of elements of
group 13 loose 3 electrons to form the cations, Their ionization potential is very low.
The electron affinity of the elements of group 16 and 17 of periodic table is very
high. Hence these elements form anion by gaining electrons.
The elements of low ionization potential and high electron affinity combine to form
electrovalent compounds (ionic compounds).
The electrovalent bond is formed between highly electro-positive and highly
electronegative atoms.
The reacting molecules always have high energy so they are unstable. The compound
so formed are stable as their energy is lowest in the stable state.
Characteristics of electrovalent compounds
1. Crystal structure :- In the solid state of the ionic compounds the cations and anions
are arranged in a very regular manner, which is known as crystal. In which each cation
is surrounded by definite number of anions and each anion is surrounded by definite
number of cations.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Sodium Ion
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Chlorine Ion 1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 1234567890123456789012345678901212345

Crystal structure of Sodium chloride Ionic structure of NaCl

2. Physical nature :- Generally the ionic compounds are hard. Their hardness increases
with increase in the ionic charge and decrease in the distance between the ions. The
crystal is broken when there is displacement of the ions from their original position

Chapter-10 (P-147)
 on applying the force from outside. The ionic compounds become brittle due to the
repulsion caused by the ions of similar charges approaching each other.
3. Solubility :- Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents like water, because the
positive end of the polar solvent attaches to the anion of the ionic compound and the
negative end attaches to the cation. As a result the compound dissolves. Ionic compounds
are insoluble in non polar solvents like alcohol, ether, benzene.
4. Melting and boiling points :- Electrovalent compounds possess high melting and
boiling points because a large amount of energy is needed to break down the
electrovalent bond formed by the powerful electrostatic force of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions.
5. Electrical conductivity : - Ionic compounds are good conductor of electricity. Their
molten forms and solutions conduct electricity because the ions flow freely in molten
forms and aqueous solutions. Therefore in these states the electrovalent compounds
are good conductor of electricity.
Table 10.2 some electrovalent compounds
(ionic compounds)
S.No. Name Formula Ions Present
1 Potassium Chloride KCl K+ and Cl
2 Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl NH4+ and Cl
3 Calcium Chloride CaCl2 Ca2+ and Cl
4 Magnesium Oxide MgO Mg2+ and O2
5 Aluminium Oxide Al2O3 Al3+ and O2
6 Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Na+ and OH
7 Copper Sulphate CuSO4 Cu2+ and SO42

10.3 Covalent bond :

As we know that the electrovalent bond is formed by the exchange of electrons but if
the number of electrons is 4 or more than 4 in the outer most orbit of the atoms then
instead of exchanging the electrons they share the electrons to form the chemical compound.
These electrons are equally shared by both the atoms. There are two ways of sharing the
electrons (1) Equal sharing of electrons, bond formed by this is called covalent bond (2)
One sided sharing of electrons, the bond formed by this is known as co-ordinate bond.
The bond formed by the equal sharing of electrons between the two atoms are
called covalent bond and the compounds having these bonds are known as covalent
compounds.
The molecules of these compounds do not have ions. For example hydrogen,

Chapter-10 (P-148)
chlorine, water and other organic compounds etc. In molecules of these compounds, the
electronic configuration of each atom is similar to the electronic configuration of the
nearest inert gas. This bond is formed by the sharing of one or more than one valence
electrons.
In nonmetallic elements generally 5, 6 and 7 electrons are present (except C and H as
4 electrons are present in the outermost orbit of C while 1 electron exists in the outermost
shell of H). These two form the covalent bond by sharing the electrons with each other.
Covalent bonds are of three types
(i) Single covalent bond, (ii) Double covalent bond, (iii) Triple covalent bond
(i) Single covalent bond :- This bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons
between the two atoms. For example
Formation of Hydrogen 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
molecule (H2) 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
There is one electron in the outer 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
shell of hydrogen atom. It shares this one 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
electron with any other hydrogen atom. Formation of Hydrogen mole (H-H)
Thus one pair of electrons is equally shared by the two hydrogen atoms. By this they acquire
the electronic configuration of inert gas helium. The single bond is formed between the
two hydrogen atoms. The single covalent bond between the two atoms is represented by a
single line (-).
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Formation of Chlorine 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
molecule 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
The outermost shell of chlorine +
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
atom contains 7 electrons as its 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7 when Formation of clorine mole (Cl-Cl)
two atoms of chlorine approach each other to form a molecule, they try to complete their
octet by mutual sharing of one valence electron each. The electron pair formed by the
mutual sharing exists at the centre of the nuclei of the chlorine atoms. The bond formed by
this sharing is called single covalent bond.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
(ii) Double covalent bond :- When two 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
atoms share the two electron pairs 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
equally to achieve the electronic 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
configuration similar to the inert 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
gas, then the bond formed is called Formation of Oxyzen mole (O=O)
the double covalent bond and it is represented by double lines (=).
By sharing of two pairs of electron between two oxygen atoms double covalent bond
is formed.

Chapter-10 (P-149)

(iii) Triple covalent bond :- This bond
is formed by the sharing of three
pairs of electrons by the two
atoms. The triple covalent bond is
represented by three lines ( ).
Example
Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2)
Nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in its outermost orbit. When the nitrogen atoms share
three electrons with each other then both the nitrogen atoms have eight electrons each.
Hence the triple bond is formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between both the
nitrogen atoms. It is represented by N N (N
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
2 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Formation of methane molecule (CH4)
Carbon has 4 electrons in the valence
shell. In the formation of methane molecule,
the carbon atom shares all its four valence
electrons one each, with the hydrogen
atoms. As a result, carbon completes its
octet and each hydrogen atom has 2
electrons each.
10.3.1 Characteristics
covalent compounds
1. Physical Nature :- Mostly, covalent
compounds are gases or liquids
because there is a weaker force of
attraction among the molecules of
covalent compounds. Some covalent
compounds are solids also, like
glucose, sugar, urea, naphthalene.
2. Crystal Structure :- The crystals of
covalent compounds are formed of
molecules or atoms instead of ions.
These crystals are of three types :
(i) Those crystals, in which the
molecules are small and held
together by van der waals forces
Sulphur, iodine.
Chapter-10 (P-150)
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Formation of Natrogen mole V (N=
_N)
molecule).
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
H
l
formation of CH4 molecule ( H C H )
l
H
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
formation of CO2 molecule - (O=C=O)
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
formation of C2H4 molecule H C = C H
H H
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
formation of acetylene molecule (H-C =
_ C-H)

(ii) Those crystals in which every atom is bonded
with other by covalent bonds resulting in the
formation giant molecule diamond, silica.
(iii) Those crystals which consist of separate layer
graphite.
3. Melting and boiling points :- The covalent
compounds have very low melting and boiling points
because these are made up of neutral molecules. Very
less energy is consumed to overcome the weak force
of attraction among the molecules in covalent
compounds. Diamond and graphite have very high
melting and boiling points as an exception.
4. Solubility :- The covalent compounds are insoluble
in water but are soluble in non polar solvents i.e.
ether, alcohol, or carbon tetra chloride.
5. Conductivity :- Covalent compounds do not conduct
electricity because they dont have ions. However
some covalent compounds which are polar in nature
conduct very less electricity.
Table 10.3 Some Covalent Compounds
S.No. Name Formula
1 Alcohol C2H5OH
2 Hydrogen Chloride gas HCl
3 Hydrogen Sulphide gas H2S
4. Carbon disulphide CS2
5 Glucose C6H12O6
6 Sugar C12H22O11
7 Urea CO (NH2)2
Activity : Firstly take a beaker with the sodium chloride solution and dip the carbon
electrode in it. Now connect the electrodes with both the ends of battery. Connect a key (k)
and bulb (B) in the circuit. Whether the bulb lights when the key is pressed? Secondly take
sugar solution in the beaker and repeat the above experiment. Now observe, whether the
bulb lights on pressing the key?
You will see that the bulb glow when sodium chloride solution is taken for the first
time, while it doesnt glow the second time in sugar solution. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Structure of diamond
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Structure of Graphite
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Elements present
C, H and O
H and Cl
H and S
C and S
C, H and O
C, H and O
C, O, N and H
Chapter-10 (P-151)
electrovalent compound and is a good conductor of electricity hence the bulb glows this
time. On the other hand sugar is a covalent compound so it is unable to conduct the electricity,
thats why bulb doesnt glow this time.
Table 10.4 Difference between Electrovalent and Covalent Compounds
S. Electrovalent Compound Covalent compound
No. (ionic compound)

1. Electrovalent compounds are The covalent compounds are

generally crystalline solids.
2. The melting and boiling points of the
electrovalent compounds are high.
This is the reason of their being
nonvolatile.
3. The aqueous solution or the fused
state of the electrovalent compounds
are the good conductors of electricity
4. Electrovalent compounds are soluble
in water.
5. Electrovalent compounds are
insoluble in non polar organic solvents
i.e. carbon tetra chloride, ether,
acetone etc.
generally in solid, liquid or gaseous
states.
The melting and boiling points of
covalent compounds are low. Thats
why substances like camphor, ether
etc are volatile and evaporate at
normal temperature.
Covalent compounds are not good
conductors of electricity (Graphite
is an exception which is good
conductor of electricity).
The covalent compounds are
insoluble in water.
These are soluble in non polar
organic solvents.

6. The number of electrons transferred The number of electrons shared by

or exchanged by the atom during the any atom during the formation of
formation of electrovalent bond is covalent bond is called the covalency
called the electrovalency of that atom. of that atom.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. On seeing the electronic configuration of elements A, B and C, tell which element is
inert and why?
A = 2, 2 B = 2, 8, 2 C = 2, 8, 8
2. Write down the names and electronic configuration of the elements having atomic
number 8 and 10

Chapter-10 (P-152)
3. To obtain the stable state any atom it has to achieve the electronic configuration of ....
4. The number of the electrons donated or accepted by any atom is called ................. of
that atom.
5. The number of electrons ...................... by any atom while forming compound is called
the covalency of that atom.
6. An element Al is the member of group 13. What will be the formula of its oxide,
when the electrovalency of Al is +3 and electrovalency of oxygen is 2
7. The electronic configurations of four elements A, B, C, D are given below.
A = 1, B = 2, 1 C = 2, 4 D = 2, 8, 7
Find out the type of bond in the compounds given below with the help of above given
electronic configurations.
(i) BD (ii) AD (iii) CD4 (iv) D2
8. Whether the ionic bond or covalent bond will be formed between the elements of
following atomic numbers.
(i) atomic number 3 and 9 (ii) atomic number 6 and 17
(iii) atomic number 11 and 16 (iv) atomic number 1 and 17
9. (i) The single covalent bond is formed when ........ electrons are shared between
two atoms.
(ii) When two pairs of electrons are shared by the two atoms then ........ is formed.
(iii) ..... bond is present between N and N in nitrogen molecule (N2)
10.4 Polar covalent bond :
When there is a difference in the values of electronegativity* of the atoms forming
covalent bond, then the polar covalent bond is formed between them. The atom with high
electronegativity attracts the shared electrons towards itself. Thats how the atom with high
electronegativity acquires the partial negative charge and the less electronegative atoms
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
acquires the partial positive charge. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
+

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
The partial positive and partial 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
negative charges are depicted by 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Greek letter delta positive ( +) and 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
delta negative ( ). For example : In 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345

HCl molecule the electronegativity Formation of Hydrogen Choride (H-Cl)

of chlorine atom is higher than that of the hydrogen atom. Hence the chlorine atom attracts
the shared electron pair towards itself. As a result, chlorine acquires partial negative charge
( ) and the hydrogen acquires partial positive charge ( +)

Chapter-10 (P-153)
 Hence when the electrons are shared by the two atoms, the shared pair of electrons
displaces towards the atom of higher electro negativity. The bond so formed is called polar
covalent bond.

*Electronegativity The ability of an atom to attract the electrons is called

electronegativity.
Characteristics of Polar covalent compounds
1. The polar covalent compounds have approximately 80% covalent and 20% ionic
characteristics. This means that they have some properties similar to the covalent
compounds and some like electrovalent compounds.
2. Polar covalent compounds are good conductor of electricity in solution form. Thats
why hydrochloric acid is the good conductor of electricity.
3. The melting and boiling points of the polar covalent compounds are higher than pure
non polar covalent compounds and ionic compounds. The covalent bond is formed
between the non metals and the elements of group 14, 15, 16, and 17 of periodic table.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. Which of the following compounds are electrovalent or covalent.
Urea, Sugar, Salt, Ammonium chloride, Carbon tetrachloride, Hydrogen chloride,
Ammonia, Alcohol, Magnesium chloride, water.
2. Which are the polar covalent molecule out of following molecules
H2, HCl, HF, Cl2, H2O, NH3, O2
3. Write down the definition of electronegativity.
4. Write down the names of any four compounds which have both electrovalent and
covalent bonds.
5. Out of Cl, H, O, C and N which element has the electronegativity (i) minimum
(ii) maximum.

10.5 Chemical Reactions :

Chemical reaction is the reaction in which two or more than two substances react to
form a new substance. The reacting substance can be the ion or compound of the element.
And the newly formed substance can also be the ion or compound of the element. During the
chemical reaction the substance which starts the reaction is called the reactant and the substance
formed after the reaction is called the product.
Many chemical reactions occur in our day to day life knowingly or unknowingly eg.
formation of curd from milk, rusting of iron, the conversion of complex food substances

Chapter-10 (P-154)
into simple compounds by the digestive system. These all are the examples of chemical
reactions.
The process of expressing the chemical reactions with the help of symbols is called
the chemical equation. Chemical formulae are used to write the chemical reaction.
10.5.1 The chemical names and formulae of simple compounds
The number and the symbol of atoms of elements present in a molecule of any
compound is called the chemical formula of that compound. The chemical formula of any
compound is the brief description which gives the information about the number of atoms
of elements forming the molecule of the compound. In other words we can say that the
chemical formula of any compound is the formula obtained by writing together the numbers
and symbols of constituting elements forming a compound.
Example : In water molecule two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom is present.
The number of hydrogen atoms (2) is written below its symbol H and the symbol O for
oxygen is written together in the following way.
H2O (correct) H2O1 (incorrect)
If the number of participating atom is one then it is not written in the chemical formula.
The chemical formula of calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2 which means one calcium
atom and two atoms each of hydrogen and oxygen are present in Ca(OH)2.
Ionic compounds are formed by the transfer of electrons between the atoms of metals
and non-metals. In writing the chemical formula of these the symbol of metal atom is written
on the left while the symbol of non-metal element is written on the right. The name of metal
atom remains the same but the suffix ide or ate is added to the name of non metal atom.
Table 10.5 The compounds formed by one metal and one non-metal

Participating metal Participating Name of the Chemical

atoms in formation of non-metal atoms in compound formula of
compound formation of compound compound

Name and No. Name and No.

symbol symbol
Calcium (Ca) 1 Oxygen (O) 1 Calcium Oxide CaO
Magnesium (Mg) 1 Chlorine (Cl) 2 Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Aluminium (Al) 1 Chlorine (Cl) 3 Aluminium chloride AlCl3
Covalent compounds are made up two non-metals. In these compounds the relatively less

Chapter-10 (P-155)
electronegative nonmetal is written on the left side while the more electronegative non-metal is
written on the right side. The ide suffix is added to the name of non metal at the right side.
Like in the compound formed by hydrogen and chlorine atoms, the chlorine atom is
more electronegative than hydrogen atom. Hence the name of this compound will be hydrogen
chloride and the chemical formula will be HCl. If the number of atoms are more than one in
any compound then di, tri and tetra prefix is added to the name.
Table 10.6- Compounds formed by two metals
S. Low electro high electro Chemical Name Molecular
No. negative non-metal negative non-metal formula
Name and symbol No Name and symbol No

1. Carbon (C) 1 Oxygen (O) 1 Carbon mono-oxide CO

2. Carbon (C) 1 Oxygen (O) 1 Carbon dioxide CO2
3. Phosphorous (P) 1 Chlorine (Cl) 3 Phosphorus trichloride PCl3
4. Phosphorus (P) 1 Chlorine (Cl) 5 Phosphorus trichloride PCl3
5. Nitrogen (N) 2 Oxygen (O) 5 Nitrogen Penta Oxide N2O5

10.5.2 Formation of compound :

The chemical formula of molecule is formed by criss cross writing the electro-
valencies. This means that MgCl2 molecule is formed by writting 2, the valency of Mg on Cl
and 1 (one) of chlorine on Mg. Here the charge is not transferred. Similarly the carbon (C)
and Oxygen (O) combine together.
element C O C O C2O4
valency 4 2 4 2
Hence C2O4 is formed by two (C2O4) . As both are the valencies are multiples of two,
the simple formula of carbon dioxide of (CO2) is obtained by dividing C2O4 by two
(C2O4 / 2).
similarly Na+ CO3-2 from Na2CO3
Al+3 SO4-2 from Al2 (SO4)3
Mg+2 N-3 from Mg3N2
etc. can be explained. For this it is necessary to know the valency of elements. The
valency of some elements are given in the table.

Chapter-10 (P-156)
 Table 10.7 The electrovalency (charge) of
some normal mono atomic ions
No. Name of ion Formula Electrovalency
(charge)
1. Copper ion (Cuprous) Cu+ +1
2. Cupric Cu++ +2
3. Sodium Na+ +1
4. Silver Ag+ +1
5. Magnesium Mg2+ +2
6. Zinc Zn2+ +2
7. Aluminium Al3+ +3
8. Bromide Br- -1
9. Iodide I- -1
10. Oxide O2- -2
11. Sulphide S2- -2
12. Nitride N3- -3
Some elements show more than one valencies
The ous suffix is added to the lower valency while ic is added to the higher valency
of that element
10.8 The electrovalency (charge) of some polyatomic ions
No. Name of Ion Formula Electrovalency
(charge)
1. Hydrogen carbonate HCO3- -1
(bicarbonate)
2. Hydroxide OH- -1
3. Nitrate NO3- -1
4. Carbonate CO32- -2
5. Sulphate SO4-2 -2
6. Chromate CrO42- -2
7. Phosphate PO43- -3
8. Ammonium NH4+ +1

Chapter-10 (P-157)
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. Write the formula of following compounds.
(a) Ammonium Carbonate (b) Barium Sulphate(c) Calcium Phosphate
2. Write down the names of the following compounds from their formula.
(a) Ca(OH)2 (b) K2SO4 (c) KI
3. Write down the formula and names of the compounds formed by following ions.
(a) Sodium ion and bicarbonate ion (b) Ammonium ion and Sulphate ion
(c) Zinc ion and Phosphate ion (d) Aluminium ion and Oxide ion
4. The formula of Carbonate of metal M is M2(CO)3
(a) What will be the valency of metal M
(b) What will be the formula of fluoride of metal M
10.6 Simple Chemical Reactions
The process used to express in brief the reaction with the help of symbol and formula
of the substances participating in chemical reaction is called the chemical equation.
1. The formulae or symbols of reacting substances means reactants are written on the
left hand side. If there are more than one reactants then addition sign (+) is placed
between them.
2. The substance formed after the reaction means product is written on the right side.
The sign of addtion (+) is placed between more than one products.
3. The symbol is placed between the reactants and the products.
Let us understand this by taking the example of reaction between zinc and sulphuric
acid. Zinc Sulphate is formed by this reaction and hydrogen gas is released. It can be
written as follows :
Zinc + Sulphuric acid Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen (gas)
On the basis of all the above instructions this reaction can be represented as-
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Reactants Products
4. To make the equation more informative, the temperature and pressure of the reaction
and the name of the catalyst is written above and below the arrow sign.
5. On the right side of the gaseous substances the sign () is placed, while on the
left side of the substances which precipitate (heavy substances) the sign () is placed.
6. The reactions which absorb the heat are endothermic reactions. Here +Q (heat) is
written on the right side of the arrow (on the reactants side).
7. For the aqueous solution of substances (aq) is written.

Chapter-10 (P-158)
 other examples
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 + H2O(l)
Calcium hydroxideCarbon dioxide Carbonate Water
(aqueous solution) (gas) (white ppt) (liquid)
10.6.1 Balancing of Chemical Reactions
When in chemical equation, the number of atoms of the reactants on the left side is
equal to the number of atoms of various elements of products on the right side, then the
equation is said to be a balanced equation, like
H2 + O2 H2O (imbalanced equation)
In the above example on the left side of the equation there are two atoms of hydrogen
and two atoms of oxygen. On the right side of the reaction two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen is present means
Atom Reactants Products
H 2 2
O 2 1
It seems from this that reactants have one atom of oxygen more than the products.
The number of atoms of both side should be equal separately so that the total mass of the
reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. This is called balancing of chemical
reactions. This proves the law of immortality of matter or the law of conservation of mass.
The above equation can not be considered as balanced. Here oxygen molecule O2 is
present, which can not be written as O. Therefore while balancing any reaction any compound/
element etc. should not be changed, instead symbol should be multiplied by any number
Hence, on multiplying the product by 2
H2 + O2 (H2O) x 2
or H2 + O2 2H2O
Here the number of oxygen becomes equal but the number of hydrogen in reactants has
become lesser than the products. Again in reactants multiplying the H by 2
2(H2) + O2 2H2O
means 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Now this equation is balanced as the number of atoms on both sides are equal. Thats
how on the basis of approximation method any equation can be balanced immediately. In
this method of balancing the chemical equation some times it happens that, while equalizing
the number of atoms of one element, the number of atoms of other element which was equal
formerly becomes imbalanced. So it is suggested that the students of 9th class should use
pencil while balancing chemical equation. They should write correct numbers by pen only
when the reaction is completley balanced. In the end balanced equation is obtained by trying
and removing the errors.
Chapter-10 (P-159)
 Thats why this method of balancing chemical equation is also called hit & trial method. The
practice of balancing the chemical equations will make you perfect as much as you do it.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. How will you show the following effects in any chemical reaction?
(a) gas is released (b) formation of precipitate
(c) aqueous solution of any substance
(d) exothermic reactions (e) endothermic reactions.
2. Balance the following chemical equations and use the symbol to make the
equation more informative.
(a) NH3 N2 + H2
(b) Fe + Cl2 FeCl3
(c) Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + H2O
3. Write down the following sentences in the form of balanced chemical equations.
(a) Methane forms carbon dioxide and water when burns in oxygen.
(b) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(c) Phosphorus pentaoxide is formed when phosphorus burns in Oxygen.
10.6.2 Types of chemical reactions
The chemical reactions are mainly of following types based on the way they happen.
(i) Addition reactions (ii) Decomposition reactions
(iii) Substitution reactions (v) Oxidation and reduction reactions.
10.7 Addition reactions
The reactions in which two or more than two substances add together to form a new
compound are called addition reactions.
example (i) Magnesium oxide is formed on heating
2Mg + O2 2MgO
magnesium Oxygen magnesium oxide
10.8 Decomposition reactions :
These reactions in which the chemical bond of any compound breaks to form two or
more than two simple compounds are called decomposition reactions. In these reactions
heat, light and electricity are used to break the bond.
example (i) Calcium carbonate decomposes on heating to give calcium oxide

Chapter-10 (P-160)
 and carbon di oxide.
heat
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
decomposition
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide Carbon dioxide
Digestion of food in the body is also a decomposition reaction in which complex
food substances (protein, carbohydrate and fat) break into simple compounds.
Decomposition reaction are also used to extract metal from their ores.
10.9 Substitution reactions :
These reacions in which one element takes the place of another element to form a
new compound are called substitution reactions.
Example : When a strip of zinc is dipped in copper sulphate solution then copper gets
deposited on the zinc strip. The copper is less reactive metal in comparison to zinc. Hence
zinc displaces the copper from copper sulphate solution to form zinc sulphate
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
copper sulphate zinc Zinc sulphate copper
(blue solution) (colourless solution)
Thats how the blue colour of CuSO4 gradually disappears and the colourless ZnSO4 is
formed.
Table 10.9 Activity series of elements
Potassium K
The metals above
the hydrogen are Sodium Na
more reactive Calcium Ca more reactive elements
than hydrogen
Magnesium Mg
Zinc Zn the decreasing
Iron Fe order of reactivity
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
The metals below Copper Cu
hydrogen are less
Mercury Hg Less reactive elements
reactive than
hydrogen Silver Ag
Gold Au

Chapter-10 (P-161)
10.10 Oxidation reduction reactions
Earlier it was considered that the addition of oxygen and removal of hydrogen is the
oxidation reaction. On the contrary to this, the addition of hydrogen and removal of oxygen
is the reduction reaction.
Oxidation reduction (based on electron transfer)
Oxidation and reduction is also explained on the basis of loss and gain of electrons like this-
1. The reaction in which atom or ion loses electron is called oxidation reaction.
2. The reaction in which atom or ion gains electron is called reduction reaction.
We can say that the removal of electron is oxidation and the addition of electron is
called reduction.
Example :- Sodium metal reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride. Here the
reaction of chlorine with sodium is called as oxidation reduction reaction.
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride
Na 1
e Na+ (half reaction)
Sodium atom Sodium cation

removal of electron (oxidation)
Cl + 1
e Cl
chlorine atom chloride ion (half reaction)

addition of electrons (reduction)
In the above reaction an electron is removed from the sodium atom to form Na+ ion.
This is an oxidation reaction. The electron removed from sodium atom is gained by the
chlorine atom, hence the chlorine atom is reduced to form Cl ion. This is a reduction reaction.
Oxidation and reduction reactions always occur simultaneously, because the electron removed
from an atom or radical is added to other atom or radical. Therefore only oxidation is a half
reaction. Similarly, only reduction is also a half reaction.
Find out the answers of these questions yourself.
1. Write the names of oxidisers and reducers in following reactions.
(a) CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
(b) PbS + 4H2O2 PbSO4 + 4H2O
2. Out of the following reactions which is oxidationand which is reduction reaction.
(a) Na+ +1 e Na (b) Na 1 e Na+

(c) Cl CI (d) CI CI-

(e) Fe2+ Fe3+ (f) Fe3+ Fe2+

Chapter-10 (P-162)
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
The atoms are held together by the force of attraction which is called the chemical
bond.
Every atom tries to achieve the electronic configuration similar to the electronic
configuration of the nearest inert gas. Thats why it exchanges or shares the electrons
with atom of any other element.
Bond between two oppositely charged ions formed due to the transfer of electrons
from one atom to other is called an ionic or electro valent bond.
When the atoms combine with each other by equal sharing of electrons then the bond
is called covalent bond.
Single bond(-) is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons while the double
bond (=) is formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons and triple bond () is formed
by the sharing of three pairs of electrons.
Ionic compounds are crystalline solids which have high melting and boiling points
and are soluble in water. Ionic bond is formed between a metal and a non-metal,
Covalent compounds are insoluble in water (except sugar, glucose, urea etc.) but are
soluble in organic solvents. Covalent compounds are liquids or gases of low melting
and boiling points, covalent bond is formed generally between the two non-metals.
The method which gives the maximum information in short about the combination of
two or more than two substances with their symbols of formulae, is called chemical
equation.
In balanced chemical reaction the number of atoms of the elements of reactants is equal
to the number of atoms of the products.
When two substances are added together to form a new substance during the chemical
reaction, the reaction is called the addition reaction.
When the chemical bonds of any substance break to form two or more than two
compounds (substances) then the reaction is called decomposition reation.
When the more reactive element displaces the less reactive element in any compound
to form a new compound then the reaction is called displacement reaction.
Oxidising agent or oxidant is the substance which oxidises the other substance but gets
reduced itself.
Reducing agent or reductant is the substance which reduces the other substance but
gets itself oxidised.
EXERCISE
Very short answer type questions.
1. The atomic number of sodium is 11. How many electrons will be present in its Na+
ion ?

Chapter-10 (P-163)
2. The atomic number of chlorine is 17. How many electrons will be present in its Cl
ion ?
3. How many types of bonds are present in CCl4 and CaCl2.
4. Write the name and formula of compound formed by potassium and bromine.
5. Write the name of any one carbon compound which has double bond.
6. Name the tendency to attract the shared pair of electrons.
7. When the element of group 14 of periodic table combines with the element of group
17 then which type of compound is formed and what type of bond is present in it.
8. Name an inert gas which has the electronic configuration similar to K+ and Cl-.
9. Write the chemical formula of following compound
(a) Hydrogen sulphide (b) Carbon tetra chloride
10. Write down the valencies of following ions.
(a) Sodium (b) Sulphide (c) Iodide
(d) Phosphate (e) Copper (f) Barium
11. Define the oxidation and reduction on the basis of electronic concept.
Short answer type questions
1. Write the symbol, name and electronic configuration of inert gasses.
2. Write down the electronic configuration of magnesium atom and magnesium ion.
3. Name the particle which has
(a) 11 protons 10 electrons and 12 neutrons
(b) 12 protons 18 electrons and 18 neutrons
4. Which type of chemical bond is present in following compounds.
(a) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
(b) Hydrogen cynide (HCN)
(c) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
(d) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
5. Explain why on reaction with silver nitrate
(a) Sodium chloride gives white precipitate.
(b) Carbon tetrachloride gives no precipitate.
6. Explain the formation of polar covalent bond with example.
7. The atom A of one element which has 4 electrons in its outermost orbit reacts with
the atom B of another element which has 1 electron in its outermost orbit, to form a
compound AB4. The compound obtained is insulator. Give the electron point structure
of the compound.

Chapter-10 (P-164)
8. Find out the valency of
(a) Sulphur(S) in sulphur dioxide
(b) Carbon (C) in ethylene
(c) Calcium (Ca) in Calcium oxide
(d) Aluminium (Al) in aluminium oxide
9. Balance the follwoing chemical equations :
(a) Mg + N2 Mg3N2
(b) CaC2 + H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
10. What are the decomposition reactions, give two examples. Write the uses of these
reactions.
11. What type of reactions are shown by the following chemical equations
(a) CaO + CO2 CaCO3
(b) Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu
Long answer type questions.
1. What is called chemical bonding? Name the different types of chemical bonding.
Explain the reason why the elements combine with each other.
2. Explain in detail why the gases of zero group are inert in nature and do not react with
other elements.
3. Explain the difference between the electrovalent compounds and covalent compounds.
4. How many types of informations are imparted by a chemical equation Describe with
example.
5. Electrovalent compound are the good conductor of electricity and the covalent
compounds do not conduct the electricity. To explain this, demonstrate this experiment
with illustrations.
6. How many types of chemical reactions are there? Explain with examples.
7. Define oxidation and reduction; Explain them with 5 examples of each.

PROJECT
Enlist the various compounds used in day to day life and find out their
chemical constituents with the help of teacher. Write down the types of bond present
in the constituents of compounds. Make a note book on this and deposit it with
your teacher.

Chapter-10 (P-165)
 CHAPTER - 11

Organization of Living World

12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
We find different types of simple and complex animals
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 and plants. Do you know that human being is the most complex
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 and developed among all these living beings.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
All of you have seen many types of machines. You may
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
also be aware of the structure and function of many machines.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Every machine has specific type of its parts or components. Since
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 all these parts are so organized that machine as a whole can
accomplish its task. Similarly in living organisms, occurs large
number of processes. To carry out these functions, organisms
have different organs. These organs of body are made up of
smaller units like cells and tissues.
Levels of Organization
In nature, there are many types of organisms present whose
Let us Learn body has different levels of organizations. On the basis of general
principle, body has simple (underdeveloped or not developed)
to complex (developed) organs. On the basis of the above
11.1 Cell and cell
principle, organization of living beings are divided into (arranged)
structure
from lower level to the higher level.
11.2 Difference in At the lower level, elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
plant and and nitrogen etc combine to form complex organic molecules
animal cells. like carbohydrates, proteins and fat. This is non living level of
11.3 Differences in life. In special circumstances these complex molecules with the
Prokaryotic help of biochemical reactions among themselves are organized
and Eukaryotic into protoplasm.
Cells Protoplasm is the physical basis of the life by which cell
is formed. In unicellular organisms, all biological function are
11.4 Cell division performed by organelles. In multicellular organisms, cells are
(Mitosis and organized into groups to perform various biological functions
Meiosis) of life. A group of cells similar in origin and performing similar
11.5 Tissue function is called tissue. Tissues are organized to form organs
11.6 Plant tissue to perform different biological functions. Similarly organs are
organized together to from an organ system and various systems
11.7 Animal tissue together constitute the living body.

Chapter-11 (P-166)
11.1 Cell and Cell structure
We find different types of organisms in the world. They all look different from one
another. Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Unicellular
organisms are made up of single cell only, like Amoeba, Euglena, Paramoecium, bacteria
etc. Among these, bacteria are simplest organisms. All the life functions of these organisms
are accomplished by the organelles present in a single cell. There are millions of cells
present in multicellular plants and animals, so a division of labour is found in these
organisms. When there is variation in structure on the basis of their function, then it is
called a division of labour.
Cell : Shape,size and number of cells are different in different multicellular plants
and animals, In adult human being this number has been calculated to be about 1000 Kharab
(1014).
Robert Hooke for the first time in 1665, observed empty hexagonal chambers like a
honeycomb in thin sections of cork with the help of his simple microscope, which has
been termed as cell.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Microvilli
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Cellwall
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Golgi body 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Vacuole
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Centriole 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Endoplasmic reticulum 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Nucleus Endopla-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890 smic
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Ribosome
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890 reticulum
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Cyto
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Nucleus 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Plasm Golgi-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
body
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Nuclear Memberane
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Ribo-
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
somes
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Chromatin 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890 Mem-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
brane
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Mitochondria
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890 Mitochondria
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
Chloroplast
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
Plasma membrane 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Leeuwenhock saw a bacterial cell with the help of his microscope in 1667. Robert
Brown discovered nucleus in 1831. J.E. Purkinje called the liquid or jelly of cell as
Protoplasm. M.J. Schleiden and T. Schwann postulated the Cell theory which says cell is
the basic unit of life. In 1940, electron microscope was discovered which helped in
understanding the complex structure of a cell.
Cell Structure : Cell is the basic unit of life. It has water as the most important
component and many other chemical substances forming a living mixture inside the cell
which is called Protoplasm. Protoplasm is a colloidal solution of different biomolecules.
Mostly organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes, nucleic acids
(DNA & RNA) and water are present in it.

Chapter-11 (P-167)
Activity :
Peel off a piece of onion to remove an inner thin membrane. Put this thin membrane
(peel) on a glass slide and add a drop of saffranin or iodine stain. Place a cover slip carefully
so that no air bubble in being trapped in it. Now examine this slide under the microscope,
you can observe structures looking like bricks lying close to each other. These structures
are called cells. All cells present in a tissue perform same functions.
Let us study the structure of a cell in detail. Shape, size and activities of different
cells are different. Still on the basis of structure, we can divide all cells into three parts -
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus

Cell Membrane
Every cell is surrounded by an extremely thin, elastic and semipermeable membrane.
This is called cell membrane or plasma membrane. It gives a shape to the cell. Plasma
membrane is made up of proteins and lipids. Cell membrane provide a covering to protect
the living organelles of the cell. Its main function is to control the exchange of molecules
between the inner and outer medium of the cell. Both cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed
in a cell membrane.

Cell Wall
In plant cells, there is present a tough wall made up of cellulose situated outside the
cell membrane. It is permeable in nature.

Nucleus
Nucleus was first discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. It is a main part of the cell
which is mostly found in living cells. It is an important part of the cell, which controls all
biological activities of all the cells.
It is round, circular, discoidal long, flat or oval in shape. Nucleus is surrounded by a
thin double membrane called nuclear membrane. Each membrane is about 75 to 90 A0
thick. This double nuclear membrane separates nucleus from cytoplasm. Nuclear membrane
has many pores, which allow selective exchange of materials between cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm. Nucleus has following main parts :
Chromatin Material - It occurs in the form of fibrous network like structure.
Chromatin is mainly formed of DNA. It carries the hereditary characters from one
generation to another. During cell division chromatin material condenses to form thick
fibrous structures called chromosomes. Genes are present in the chromosomes. Genes
are functional units of chromosomes. These are arranged in linear fashion (order) in a

Chapter-11 (P-168)
chromosome. One gene may be responsible for one or more functions or groups of genes
together to control one function.

Nucleoplasm
A transparent semi liquid and granular fluid present inside the nuclear membrane is
called nucleoplasm. Chromonemata or chromatin fibers and nucleoli (Plural of nucleolus)
are present in this fluid. During cell division shape of chromonemata changes. It is made up
of proteins, nucleic acids, phosphorus and mineral salts etc.

Cytoplasm
The material present inside the cell between nucleus and plasma membrane is called
cytoplasm. It is a part of protoplasm, but cytoplasm is colourless and transparent fluid. It is
in the form of colloidal solution.
Cytoplasm remains divided into two parts :
(i) Hyaloplasm It forms merely the base of cytoplasm and is made up of many
microscopic and large molecules.
(ii) Trophoplasm or cell organelles - Well organized structures spread in the
cytoplasm are called cell organelles.

Cell Organelles
Living structures present in cytoplasm are called cell organelles. Most of the structure
present in cell cannot be seen under the light microscope. We need the help of an electron
microscope to see these structures.
Cell organelles perform large number of functions of the cell, like synthesis of food,
secretion, digestion and energy production etc. Every organelles is bounded by membranous
structure (single or double layer). Some organelles of the cell are as follows :-

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum was discovered by Garnier in the year 1897. Endoplasmic
reticulum has a network of vesicles and cisternae. It is spread in cytoplasm from nuclear
membrane to the plasma membrane. It is found in all cells except in Blue green algae, bacteria,
RBCs of mammals. On the basis of their activities they are of 2 types.
(A) Granulated or Rough surface endoplasmic reticulum - Ribosomes are attached
on its outer wall, so it appears to be rough as a sand paper. It is found mainly in the
cells performing protein synthesis.
(B) Agranulated or Smooth surface endoplasmic reticulum It is devoid of ribosomes
on its outer surface, So its outer surface appears to be smooth, it is found in cells
where there is less or no protein synthesis.

Chapter-11 (P-169)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Cisternae Tubules Vesicles
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Endoplasmic reticulum

Functions
1. It helps in protein synthesis.
2. It takes part in the formation of nuclear membrane during cell division.
3. It carries different products of genetic material to the various parts of the
cytoplasm.
4. It helps in glycogen metabolism.

Ribosome
These are of about 250 A0 in diameter, found as artless granules in chloroplasts,
mitochondria, nucleus and on the surface of endoplasmic reticulum or independently in
the cytoplasm. They are opaque. Chemically they are formed of equal quantity of protein
and RNA. These are of two types
(i) 70 S ribosomes They are small in size.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
(ii) 80 S Ribosomes They are large in size. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Function Ribosome synthesizes proteins. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789
Ribosomes are called protein factory of the cell. Ribosome

Golgi Bodies or Golgi Apparatus

This organelle is named after its discoverer Camillo Golgi (1898). This scientist was
awarded Noble Prize in 1906.
Structure Golgi bodies are the structure made of double unit membranes separated
by a space in between. It has three Components.
(1) Flattened sacs or Cisternae (2) Tubules (3) Vesicles.
Golgi Bodies are found as bunches of smooth unit membranes in all eukaryotic cells
except red blood cells. In some invertebrate animals and cells of plants, it occurs in the form
of many separate unrelated units called dictyosomes. In an animal cell 3-7 and in a plant
cell 1- 20 golgi bodies are found.

Chapter-11 (P-170)
 Functions : (i) It produces large number of 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
secretory material. Vesicles
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
(ii) They form lysosomes. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
(iii) They synthesize long molecules of many 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
carbohydrates. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
(iv) They form cell wall through their secretion. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
tubule
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
(v) During sperm formation, they form upper part of 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
cisternae
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
the sperm called acrosome.
Golgi Bodies

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
Structure It is formed of
double membrane enclosing a fluid
called matrix. The space between these
two membranes is called outer
compartment.
The cavity inside the inner
membrane is called inner compartment.
It is filled with homogenous fluid
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
External mem-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
F -particle
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
brane
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
inner membrane
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
matrix
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
cristae
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
ribosome
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012

called mitochondrial matrix. It contains Mitochondria

lipids, proteins, double helix DNA,
RNA and ribosomes. Its inner membrane has many tubular finger like projections, called
mitochondrial cristae. They increase the surface area of inner membrane. Mitochondria
are called power house of the cell. There are about 1 to 3,00,000 mitochondria in a cell. A
mitochondrion can be about 0.5 thick and 1.5 & to 40 in length.
Functions : (1) Food material is oxidized in the mitochondria and free energy in the
form of ATP is stored. This ATP is used in the body during metabolism Due to this function
mitochondria are called power house of a cell.
(2) They also synthesise proteins.
(3) They form yolk of eggs and middle part of the sperms.

Plastids
Most of plants and photosynthesizing protozoan organism have discoid, round or
oval shaped double membrane bound organelles called plastids.

Chapter-11 (P-171)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Cell wall
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Nuclues
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Nuclues
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Cell wall
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Chro-
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Nuclues
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Chloroplast moplast
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Vacuole
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Leucoplast
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Leucoplasts in cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Chromoplast in cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Chloroplast in cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

On the basis of function, colour and properties, plastids are of three types.
1. Leucoplast 2. Chloroplast 3. Chromoplast
1. Leucoplasts : They are colourless plastids for storage of food material and are
found in those parts of plants where light does not reach These are found in the cells of
underground stem, and root etc.
Functions : The storage of starch, oil, fat & proteins.
2. Chloroplast These are green coloured plastids and contains chlorophyll pigment
in it. Photosynthesis takes place in these chloroplasts. There are 20 40 chloroplasts in
each cells of higher plants.
Function : They carry out photosynthesis
3. Chromoplast or coloured plastids : They are yellow, red or orange coloured
plastids. They are found in the petals of flowers or fruits and make them more bright &
attractive. Chromoplasts are also found in some bacteria and algae.
Function : Helps in the absorption of
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
light 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Myalin body
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Lysosomes 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Christian De Duve (1955) first 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
discovered the presence of lysosomes. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Lysosomes are oval or round structures having 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
single unit membrane and 0.2 to 0.8 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
diameter. They are always full of digestive 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
enzymes. Twenty four types of enzymes are 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
found in lysosomes. They are generally found 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
Vacuole
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
in the liver, spleen, white blood cells, stomach, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012
thyroid gland, kidney cells of tissues in animal 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012

and dividing cells in plants. These are of four Lysosomes

types.
1. Primary lysosomes 2. Secondary or Digestive vacuoles 3. Residual bodies
4. Autophagic vacuoles.
Functions :
1. Digestion of microbes and particles entering the cell.

Chapter-11 (P-172)
 2. Digestion of the component of cells and cytoplasm at the time of shortage of
food.
3. Provide nutrition to the body during fast or in diseased conditions.
4. Engulf dead or old cell and organelles.
5. Secrete and store the enzymes found in the cells.
6. It is also called as suicidal bag.

Centrosome :
Centrosome is found near the
nucleus in an animal cell. In addition
to this, they are found in algae and
fungi cells also. There are two
centrioles in a centrosome.
Functions of Centrosome:
1. They form spindle fibre
during cell division in animals.
2. Centrioles make basal body of cillia and flagella.
3. Out of two centrioles in the sperm, the distal-one forms the axial filament of its tail.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Triplet Microtubules
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
A B
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Centrosome (A) A pair of Centrosome (B) T.S. of Centrosome

Microbodies
Microbodies are the vesicles or bags made of single unit membrane. Some of these
are filled with matrix containing special enzymes. It is considered that these are formed by
separated vesicles of endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, plasma membrane. Lysosome,
Sphaerosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxysomes Lomosomes or transosomes are some
major microbodies.
Function :
(1) They form the cytoskeleton of cell.
(2) Controls the movement of chromosomes and cells.
(3) They help in cyclosis of cytoplasm (Cyclosis is movement of cytoplasm)
(4) Controls the increase in size of cell.

Chapter-11 (P-173)
Vacuoles
In cytoplasm we find many empty spaces surrounded by plasma membrane. These are
called vacuolar membrane or tonoplast. These are filled with one type of fluid called cell
sap.Cell sap contains water, salts, carbohydrates, amino acids, esters, water soluble dyes
and excertory materials.
Functions :
(1) It stores the food material.
(2) Tonoplast being semipermeable helps to transport different materials in the cell.
(3) It carries out the osmoregulation in cell.
(4) It helps in the process of digestion of food, excretion etc.

11.2 Differences between plant and animal cells.

Features Plant cell
1. Cell wall In plant cells, there is present a
tough non-living cell wall
outside the plasma membrane
made of cellulose or any other
carbohydrates.
2. Chloroplast Plant cells contain different
types of plastids, among these
chloroplast is very important.
Animal Cell
Animal cells lack cell wall but
according to modern theory
there is present a coat of
carbohydrate around it.
Plastids are completely absent
in animal cells, except the
photosynthesizing protozoans.

3. Centrosome Plant cells do not contain

centrosome. It is found only in
some algae and fungi.
4. Lysosome Lysosomes are found in few
plant cells.
5. Vacuole Fully grown plant cells
generally contain a single large
vacuole in the centre.
6. Cell plate In plant cells, cell plate is
formed during cell division
Centrosomes are found in
animal cells which helps in cell
division.
Lysosome are present in all
animal cell.
Normally, vacuoles are not
found in animal cell or if present,
they are very small in size.
In animal cells, cell plate is not
formed during cell division,
instead cell divides by
constriction.

Chapter-11 (P-174)
11.3 Differences in Prokaryotic and a Eukaryotic cells

No. Structure Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Cell wall formed of aminoacids In plant cell made of cellulose,
but absent in animal cell.
2. Plasmalemma Present, it is simple Present, it is complex
3. Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
4. Golgi body Absent present
5. Mitochondria Absent Present
6. Lysosome Absent present
7. Vacuoles Absent Present in plant cells
8. Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
9. Nuclear sap or Not separated from Separated from cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
10. Genetic material DNA or RNA Present Only DNA present
11. Chromosome A single structure made There are more than one
of DNA or RNA which are made of
DNA & proteins
12. Nucleolus Absent Present
13. Centriole Absent Present

Very short answer type questions.

Q.1 What is a cell ?
Q.2 Write two functions of lysosome.
Q.3 Write functions of endoplasmic reticulum.
Q.4 Write difference between a plant and an animal cell.
Q.5 Who discovered the cell?

Chapter-11 (P-175)
 Short answer type questions.
Q.1 Draw a labelled diagram of a plant cell.
Q.2 Why is mitochondria called a power house of the cell ?
Q.3 What are the functions of Golgi apparatus in a cell ?
Long answer type questions.
Q.1 Describe an animal cell with a labelled diagram.
Q.2 Give differences between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic cell,
Q.3 Write comments on - 1) Ribosome 2) Centrosome 3) Plastid 4) Microbodies.

11.4 Cell division

Cell division occurs both in plant and animal cells. Both animals and plants grow.
Growth of organisms takes place by repeated cell divisions.
Cells after maturation, divide into two parts to form daughter cells. In this process,
first nucleus divides into two parts and then, cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells.
Each daughter cell has its own separate nucleus. The number of chromosomes in a nucleus
remains constant.
The division of nucleus is called Karyokinesis and division of cytoplasm is called
cytokinesis. Cell division is of three types.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345 1234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Plasmalemma Chromosome daughter chromosome
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345 1234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345 1234567890123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345 1234567890123456789012
(Chromatid)
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Chromatine
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Nuclear
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
membrane
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Metaphase Early Anaphase
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Interphase
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Prophase
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Daughter
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Daughter
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
nuclei
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Amoeba
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
12345678901234567890
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345
Middle Anaphase
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
Late Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901

Chapter-11 (P-176)
1. AMITOSIS
Generally amitosis does not occurs in animal cells. It is found in single cell organisms
(mainly fungi and algae), In this process, first nucleus elongates, than constricts in the
center and divides into two nuclei. After this cytoplasm also divides to form two cells.

2. Mitosis
The body of multicellular organisms is made of two types of cells. 1. Somatic cells
2. Germ cells. Mitosis always occur in somatic cells i.e. The number of chromosome
remains the same after cell division.
Walter Flemming was the first to study division of nucleus in 1882. Then Schleiden
in 1883 studied this division in detail.
Mitosis is a complex process of cell division in which parent cell divides into two
equal daughter cells. The two daughter cells so formed are similar in shape and have same
number of chromosomes as in parent cell.
In mitosis, the nuclear division or Karyokinesis is immediately followed by division
of cytoplasm i.e. cytokinesis. This division does not takes place in the cells of testes and
ovary.
Mitosis has following phases
i. Resting period or interphase ii. Prophase
iii. Metaphase iv. Anaphase v. Telophase
i. Resting period or interphase : During this phase, there is preparation for cell
division. In this period, we can observe following special features in the cell :
1. Centriole divides into two and collect protoplasm all around it and looks like a
dark spot.
2. Nucleolus becomes more distinct
3. Chromosomes are not visible.
4. Centrosome remains inactive during this time.
ii. Prophase : It is the initial phase of nuclear division. During this period, chromatin
network of nucleus become coiled to form chromosome. Slowly chromosomes become
thickened. Centrioles move to the two poles. Between two centrioles many fibres are
formed which arrange in the form of spindle. These fibres are called spindle fibres.
Centrioles are not found in plant cells still spindle fibres are formed. The fibres carry
the chromosomes to both the poles by contraction. At the end of prophase nuclear
membrane and nucleolus disappear and chromosomes move towards the equator.
iii. Metaphase : This is second phase of mitosis and remains for a very short time.
During this phase following features are observed.

Chapter-11 (P-177)
1. During this phase, chromosomes arrange themselves exactly on the middle line.
2. Chromatids of each chromosome appear separate from each other and centromere
also divides into two parts and in this way the chromatids of each chromosome divide
into two equal chromosomes each having one centromere.
3. Spindle fibres are attached to the centromere of the chromatids.

iv. Anaphase
This is very short and active phase of cell
division. In this phase the following changes
are seen in the cell -
1. In this phase similar daughter chromosomes
(Chromatid) being dragged in the opposite
direction are grouped at the two poles.
2. A type of repulsive force is being generated
in chromosomes due to which they separate.
3. The size of each daughter chromosome
becomes small and thick.
v. Telophase :
This is the last phase of cell division. During
this phase following changes take place :
1. In the beginning of this phase daughter
chromosomes reach the opposite poles.
2. The daughter chromosomes gradually uncoil
and they are converted into long thin
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Nucleolus
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Nuclear
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Membrane
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
A. Interphase E. Early anaphase
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
B. Early Prophase F. Late anaphase
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Centromere
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Chromatids
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
Homologus
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
C. Late prophase G. Early telophase
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
D. Early metaphase H. Late telophase
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567

chromatin fibres. Mitosis in a plant cell

Cytokinesis : In this process after nuclear division, cytoplasm and its organelles
divide so that two developed cells are formed from one cell.

Importance of Mitosis :
1. Growth and development in cells occurs due to mitosis.
2. Some microbes reproduce asexually by this division
3. In mitosis two daughter cells similar to mother cells are formed.
4. It help to heal the injury. Dead cells in the body of organism are replaced by this
division.
5. General repair of the body is done by mitosis.

Chapter-11 (P-178)
3. Meiosis or Reduction Division :
In this cell division, one cell divides to from four daughter cells. The number of
chromosomes become half of the parental cell (half number of chromsome is called haploid).
Due to this reason, it is called reduction division. This division occurs in reproductive
cells and by this division, sperm and ovum in animals and male and female spores in plants
are formed.
Reduction division was first discovered by Weismann in 1887. Its detailed study was
done by strasburger in the year 1888. This division completes in two steps, meiosis-I &
meiosis-II. The two divisions of meiosis and the changes occurring during these stages, are
as follows.
1. Meiosis-I : It is completed in following four phases where two haploid cells are
produced.
Prophase-I, metaphase-I, anaphase-I and telophase-I.
(i) Prophase-I : It is long and complex phase and is divided into five sub-phases.
(a) Leptotene stage - During this period chromatin network is condensed.
(b) Zygotene stage - During this stage, pairing of homologous chromosomes take
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Pair of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Tetrad
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Crossing over
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Nuclear membrane homologous
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
chromosomes
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Centromere
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Prophase-I
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
(Leptotene Zygotene (Pachytene) (Diplotene (Diakinesis)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Stage) Stage) Stage) Stage)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Metaphase-I Anaphase-I Telophase-I Interphase
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
Prophase-II Metaphase-II Anaphase-II Telophase-II
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234

Meiosis
Chapter-11 (P-179)
 place. This process of pairing is called synapsis.
(c) Pachytene Stage : As the chromosomes are seen clearly in pairs, the chromatids
seems to be four in number at a place. This condition in called tetrad.
(d) Diplotene stage : During this stage, homologous chromosomes start separating,
but the place where the chromatids of choromosome remain attached together
is called chiasma. The chromosomes here exchange the chromonema which is
called crossing over.
(e) Diakinesis : Homologous chromosomes separate due to repulsion. Centrioles
move towards the opposite poles and spindle starts appearing.
(ii) Metaphase -I : Nuclear membrane disappears. Spindle is completly formed and
chromosomes arrange themselves in the middle of the spindle (equator). Centrioles
takes part in the formation of spindle.
(iii) Anaphase - I : Chromosomes move towards the opposite pole. There is no division
of the centromere at this stage as found in mitosis, instead half number of
chromosomes move to each pole.
(iv) Telophase -I : The chromosomes get surrounded by nuclear membranes at poles.
Chromosomes become thin and elongated. Nucleolus also reappears. Thus two haploid
cells are produced.
2. Second meiotic division (Meiosis-II)
Second meiotic division starts soon after the first meiosis. This division completes
in four stages where two haploid cells produced in first meiotic division enters into II
meiotic division and produces four haploid cells.
Prophase -II, Metaphase II, Anaphase-II, Telophase II,
Prophase II : During this stage, chromatin network takes the shape of chromosome
by condensing. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase II : Chromosomes get arranged at the middle line i.e. equator. Each
chromatid gets attached to spindle fibre by its centromere.
Anaphase II : Centromere divides and chromatids move towards the opposite pole.
Teleophase II : At poles nuclear membrane is formed around the chromosomes and
nucleus with nucleolus comes to existence. Finally at the end of
meiosis II four haploid cell are produced.
Importance of Meiosis :
1. Due to this division only, the number of chromosomes in the cells remains constant
generation after generation.
2. The off spring of parents are similar (with some variations) to a great extent, due to
this division.

Chapter-11 (P-180)
3. Gene recombination takes place in this division, due to which there are chances of
formation of new characters in organisms.
4. Variations occur due to this division which helps in organic evolution.
5. One diploid cell forms four haploid cells in this division.

11.5 Tissue :
We have studied that tissues are formed by division of cells, which leads to the
formation of organs. By this process the growth and development of organism takes
place. The word Tissue was first coined by Bichat (1771-1802)
In unicellular organisms, all biological processes are accomplished by one cell, where
as in multicellular organisms, different groups of cells perform different functions.
This is called division of labour. Tissue can be defined as follows.
Group of cells whose origin, structure and function are similar is called a tissue.

11.6 Plant tissue

Plant tissues form the body of the plant. These tissues are mainly divided into two
major groups. Meristematic tissue and permanent tissues.

Meristematic tissue :
They are found in growing parts of plants only as tips of roots and cambium and shoot.
These cells grow continuously to increase the length & thickness of the plants. The
study of meristematic tissue show following special features -
These cells have similar structure. Their cell wall is thin.
Cells are oval, spherical, or polygonal.
There is no intercellular space between them.
They have single large nucleus.
They have few or no vacuoles.
According to the location in plant, meristematic tissues are of different types :-
1. Apical meristem : This tissue is present at the tip of the stem and root and increases
the length of root and stem.
2. Intercalary Meristem : This tissues is present either at the base of the leaf or at the
base of internode. The plant grows in height with this tissue.
3. Lateral meristem : This tissue is situated on the lateral part of roots & stems. The
thickness of root and stem increase with this tissue.

Chapter-11 (P-181)
Permanent Tissues :
These tissues are formed from the meristematic tissues . The ability to divide is lost
in these cells. They have definite shape. These cells can have thin or a thick cell wall.
Big vacuoles are present in these cells and they are of following types :

Permanent tissues

Simple tissues Complex tissues Special

tissues

Paren- Collen- Scleren- Xylem Phloem Glandular Laticiferous

chyma chyma chyma tissues tissues

A. Simple Permanent Tissues :

Parenchyma : It is mainly found in root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits etc. Its cells
can be oval, round, elongated or polygonal having thin cell wall. The cells are mostly
living, with a large vacuole in the centre and cytoplasm is
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
viscous. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Main Functions of Parenchyma 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Store food 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Provide strength and rigidity. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Store inorganic material like resins, tannin, gum particles Parenchyma Tissue
etc.
When chlorophyll is present in parenchyma cells, then it is called chlorenchyma.
This tissue manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.

Sclerenchyma :
The cells of these tissues are mostly long, thick walled and lignified. There is no
intercellular space in these cells as they lie close to one another. These cells are pointed at
both ends. Cell wall is quite thick. These cells are dead and do not have protoplasm. They
can be of 1 mm to 500 mm in length. Length may be different in various parts of different
plants. Cell wall has oblique areas called pits. Sometimes, sclerenchyma has special cell
called sclereids. This tissue is present in special parts of plants as cortex, pith, hard seeds
etc.
Function : Its main function is to provide (mechanical strength) to the plant.

Chapter-11 (P-182)
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Intercellular space
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
Sclerenchyma
123456789012345678901234567890 Collenchyma
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789

Collenchyma :
They are found just below the epidermis in plants. Collenchyma cells are living cells.
Its shape is also similar to parenchyma cells. Intercelluler space is filled wih pectin and
cellulose. Generally they also have chloroplasts present in them.
Main functions of collenchyma tissue
It provides mechanical support to the plant.
Some times these tissue synthesises sugar and starch due to the presence of
chlorophyll.

Protective tissue
These tissues are located on the outer layer of various parts of plants. This outer
layer is one celled thick and is covered by wax like substance called Cutin. These
tissues protect the inner tissues of the plants, therefore, called protective tissues. As
the roots, stems and branches grow older, cells of epidermis present on periphery are
converted into cork tissue. Suberin gets deposited on the cellwall. The cells get
thickened. They do not have intercellular space and are dead cells. Their function is to
prevent the loss of water. Their other function is protection of inner cells.

(B) Complex Tissues :

These tissues are formed by joining of one or more types of cells. They all combine
to work in the form of a unit tissue. Complex tissues carry water, mineral salts and
food prepared by plants to other parts of plants. These are of two types (i) Xylem
(ii) Phloem. Both the tissues are called vascular tissues.
1. Xylem : This tissue is formed by four types of cells. These are Tracheids, Vessels,
xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre (sclerenchyma). Vessels are main cells amongst
these. These are called conducting vessels and carry water and mineral salts from
roots to other parts of plants. They also provide mechanical strength to the plant.

Chapter-11 (P-183)
2. Phloem : It is conducting tissue. It is made up of four types of cells (i) Sieve tubes
(ii) Companion cells (iii) Phloem parenchyma and (iv) Phloem fibre cells. Sieve
tubes are main among these cells. Sieve tubes have perforated wall which transport
the food to various parts of the plant.

(C) Special Permanent Tissues :

These tissues perform special functions. The tissues secreting gum, resin, mucilage,
latex or milk etc. comes in this category.
Two types of secretary tissues are found in plants :
1. Glandular tissues : These plant tissues secrete gum, resin, oil, and aromatic oil etc
e.g. Jatropa, Tobacco etc.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
Oil gland Resin gland
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
Glands
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
Laticiferous
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
tubules
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
Laticiferous
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
cells
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123
Cells and Tubules

2. Laticiferous tissues : Some flowering plants secrete a milky secretion on getting

injured. This is called latex and the tissues in which it is formed is called laticiferous
tissues.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. What is a tissue?
2. Give name and main functions of different types of tissues found in plants.
11.7 Animal tissue :
The body of multicelluler animals is formed of tissues. Animal tissues have been
classified on the basis of location and function.
Animal tissues are of following types :
1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue
3. Muscular tissue 4. Nervous tissue
1. Epithelial tissues : The cells of this tissue are lying close together and there is no
empty space between them. These tissues forms the basal layer of intestine and tubules
of kidney. Microvilli in these tissues perform absorptive function. .

Chapter-11 (P-184)
 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
Epithelial cells are of following types : 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
Cell Nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
(i) Simple squamous epithelial tissues : This tissue forms Cytoplasm
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
a protective covering of body surface. They form 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
protective covering around urinary tubules, body cavity 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
(coelom) and heart. 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901

(ii) Simple cuboidal Epithelial tissues : They are cuboidal Squamous epithelial tissue
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
in shape and their length, breadth and height is same. They 12345678901234567890123456789012
Nucleus
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
are found in sweat glands, thyroid glands, liver, urinary 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
tubules etc. 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
(iii) Simple columnar epithelial tissues : The cells of this 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
tissue are closely attached to each other and hence looks Cuboidal epithelial tissue
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
Tree surface
12345678901234567890123456789012
like a pillar. Microvilli are found on their free ends. They 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
increase absorptive surface and receive stimuli from 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
sensory organs. The wall of intestine, gall bladder and 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
bile duct is made from this tissue. 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
(iv) Simple ciliated epithelial tissues : The cells of this 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
tissue are columnar or cuboidal. On its tip are present Columnar epithelial tissue
small fine thread like structures called cilia. These 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
tissues are found on the inner surface of oviduct, ureter, 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
mucous membrane of oral cavity, tympanic cavity, brain 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
and central canal of spinal cord and respiratory tract. 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
(v) Stratified epithelial tissues : Cells in this tissue are 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
Nucleus
12345678901234567890123456789012
arranged in many layers which are coloumnar in shape 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012

and are living. They have capability to divide throughout Ciliated epithelial tissue
the life. It is called germinal layer as they have the 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
Cilia
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
capacity to divide. This tissue is found in the area where 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
friction occurs, such as buccal cavity, skin, epidermis, 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
oesophagus, maucosa of nasal cavity, vagina etc. 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
(vi) Glandular epithelial tissues : We have different types 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012
of glands in our body. The tissue present on the free 12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
cell 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212 Stratified epthelial tissue
12345678901234567890123456789012
duct
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
Sensory hairs
1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012 1234567890123456789012345678901212
12345678901234567890123456789012
Glandular epithelial tissue Sensory epithelial tissue

Chapter-11 (P-185)
 internal layer of glands is called glandular epithelial tissue. These glands are unicellular
and multicellular. These tissues are found in skin, sensory gland, mammary gland, oil
gland, salivary gland, gastric gland and intestinal gland.
(vii) Sensory Epithelial tissues : It is modified form of columnar epithelial tissue. Sensory
hairs are found on its tip. These are associated with the nervous system. These tissues
are found in retina of eye & mucous membrane of buccal cavity.

2. Connective tissue :
This tissue serves to bind all organs of the body and it is in high proportion as compared
to other tissues in the body. It is developed from mesoderm. It maintains constant
temperature of the body and forms the skeleton of the body.
Connective tissue has been divided into four types.
(a) Proper connective tissue (b) Fibrous connective Tissue
(c) Skeletal connective tissue (d) Vascular connective Tissue

A. Proper Connective Tissue

(i) Areolar Connective Tissue : This tissue is present in the form of a membrane around
the internal organs. Since it is found around the internal organs and between the muscles
so it is called areolar tissue. It has two types of fibres -
1. Yellow elastin fibres : They are made of elastin protein and are scattered in
bundles
2. White Collagen Fibres : They are white and are arranged in bundles and are
formed of collagen proteins.
Fibroblast, mast, plasma, lymphocytes and histocytes cells are found in areolar tissue.
(ii) Adipose tissue : This tissue is found below the skin, near the kidney of frog and
neck. In this tissue, fibroblast cells are transformed by storing the fat. Then they are
called fat cells. This tissue is found more in women than in men.

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Lymphocyte
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
adipose cells
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
connective
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Pigmented
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
tissue fibre
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Matrix
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Nucleus
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Pigmented tissue
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Adipose Tissue
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Chapter-11 (P-186)
 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
reticular cell
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
Matrix
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
reticular fibre
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678
Reticular tissue
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Nucleus fibre
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Tendon fibroblast
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Fibrous connective tissue

(iii) Pigmented tissues : It is modified areolar tissue in which chromatophore are

scattered in the cells due to which the tissue remains coloured. (pigmented) These
tissues are found in choroid layer, iris and dermis of skin and make them colourful.
(iv) Reticular tissues : In this tissue, blood corpuscles are formed. They are found in
bone marrow, lymph gland, spleen & thymus gland.

B. Fibrous connective tissues :

These tissues have white fibres which form tendons.
These tissues are made of yellow elastin fibers. They form ligaments.

C. Skeletal connective tissues :

To keep the shape and size of the animal body stable, there is present a strong structure
called skeleton. This tissue is of two types.
1. Cartilage : The matrix of cartilage is made of semisolid, elastic and transparent
glycoprotein called chondrin. Its matrix is little harder. There are empty spaces in
between the matrix which are called lacunae. In every lacunae there is present one to
four living cells called chondriocytes. The cartilage is flexible and present in
respiratory tract, hyoid, ribs, ear, nose, epiglottis, pelvic girdle of frog, pubis, supra
scapula of pectoral girdle, femur and humerus.
2. Bone : It is a hard, solid and strong connective tissue. Its matrix is made of ossein
protein. Its matrix has inroganic salts of calcium and magnesium. In bone, yellow and
red bone marrow is found. RBCs are produced in red bone marrow.

D. Vascular Connective Tissues :

Blood and Lymph are one of the modified type of connective tissues. It transports the
material and maintains constant body temperature.

Chapter-11 (P-187)
 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1. Blood : 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
It is a fluid connective tissue, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
which circulates in circulatory 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Erythrocytes Human
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Basophil
system. Its matrix is in the from 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
of frog Erythrocytes
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
of light yellow coloured fluid 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
called plasma. Therefore in 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
structural from it is formed of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Small lympho-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Neutro-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
two parts, plasma and blood 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
cytes
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
phils
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Eosinophils
corpuscles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
mammalian platelets
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Following corpuscles are 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
present in blood. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Spindle cells of
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
frog
1. Erythrocytes - Red blood 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Large
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
corpuscles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
lymprocyles Monocytes
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
2. Leucocytes - White blood
Different types of blood corpuscles
corpuscles.
3. Blood platelets.
Functions of blood
Transport of materials
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Platelets helps in blood clotting.
Fight infections.
2. Lymph - The part of blood in which red blood corpuscls are not found is called Lymph.
Funciton - It help in gaseous exchange between the blood and the tissue.
3. Muscular or Contractile tissues :
In organisms, actin and myosin fibres are present for movement and locomotion. The
cells forming muscles in the body are long, spindle shaped and 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
unbranched fibres. These cells are surrounded by a covering of 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
Nucleus
sarcolemma. Sarcolemma is filled with cytoplasm, called 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
sarcoplasm. Its main function is to help in the movement and 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
Sarco-
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
locomotion of organism. Muscular tissues are of three types - 12345678901234567890123
plasm
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
I. Unstriated muscular tissues - These are found in the organs, 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
which shows involuntry movements like alimentary canal, gall 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
bladder, urinary bladder, respiratory tube, blood vessels etc. These 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
Sarco-
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
are also called involuntry muscles. The muscle is in the form of a 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
lemma
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
spindle. It is filled with fluid called sacroplasm. In the cytoplasm 12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
12345678901234567890123
there are innumerable thin fibres called myofibrils. Muscle is able
Unstriated
to contract & relax because of these fibres. Muscular Tissue

Chapter-11 (P-188)
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Nucleus
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Sarcoplasm
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Sarcolemma
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Striated Muscles
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
Nucleus
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
intercalated discs
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
Sarcoplasm
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212
Cardiac Muscles

II. Striated muscles - These are voluntary muscles. They remain attached with bones
and are called skeletal muscles. They have actin and myosin proteins. These are
multinucleated. Their both ends 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
are open. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
dendroia
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
III. Cardiac muscles - These are 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Cyton
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
found in the wall of the heart. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
They contract and relax the heart. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Dendrite
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
They work constantly without 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Nissls
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
stopping all the life means that 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
granules
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
they act like invlountry muscles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
nucleus
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Neuri-
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
They use a lot of energy (ATP), 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
lemma
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Cell
as they are continuously 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
axon
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
membrane
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
working. The muscular fibres are 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Myelin
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Cementing
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Sheath
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
attached with one another. At the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
disk
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
place of joining of two muscle 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
fibres, thick discs are found 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
axon
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
ending
called intercalated discs. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Myofibrils are also found in the 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Muscle
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
muscles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Function : Heart beats without 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
dendron
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Dendrite
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
fail throughout the life because 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789
of these muscles. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789

4. Nervous tissue : Nervous tissue

This tissue has the capacity to feel, think, understand the sensory changes in external
and internal environment. It is formed of two special types of cells.
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia.

Chapter-11 (P-189)
1. Neurons : It forms nervous system and the cells are having diameter of 4-135 or
more. Neurons are made of two parts.
(a) Cell Body or Cyton : It is the main part of the neuron. Its cytoplasm has small
granules called Nissls granules and has a large nucleus.
(b) Cell processes : From cell body arises one or more than one big or small cell
processes.
They are
(i) Dendrons
(ii) Axon - is long process, in which nerve impulse goes forward.
Function - Neuron controls sensitivity, thinking, understanding, anger, love and
involuntary activities .
2. Neuroglia : These are axon less cells, which forms covering of nerves.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Cell is the basic unit of life.
Cell membrane is present around the cell. A tough covering of cell wall is present in
plant.
Cell membrane is made of lipoproteins and cell wall of cellulose.
Cell membrane is dynamic part of cell and selective exchange of material takes place
inside and outside of this membrane.
Nuclear membrane is lacking in a prokaryotic cell.
In eukaryotic cells a double layered nuclear membrane is present.
Endoplasmic reticulum works like a cellular transport and synthesizing layer.
Golgi apparatus is a pillar of membranous discs. It stores and modify cellular materials.
In most plant cells, there are present two types of plastids - Chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Chromoplasts with chlorophyll are called chloroplasts. They synthesize the food.
Primary function of leucoplast is to store food.
In mature plant cell, there is present a large vacuole.
Lysosomes are also called suicidal bags.
Meiosis takes place only in repoductive cells like sperm and ovum.
In mitosis the number of chromosomes in daughter cells are same as that of parental
cell.
During meiosis, exchange of genetic material takes place so that offsprings have
characters of both the parents.
One diploid cell give rise to four haploid cell in meiosis.
Human being has 46 chromosomes.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue which transport various materials in the body.
Phloem tissue transport materials produced by the green leaves.
Xylem tissues carry the material absorbed by roots upto upper parts of plant.
Xylem and phloem are vascular tissues, they together are called vascular pool.

Chapter-11 (P-190)
 EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1 In which cells do mitosis occur ?
2 In which cells do meiosis occur ?
3 What is gene exchange ?
4 In which animal amitosis occurs?
5 Give main functions of xylem.
6 Define a tissue.
7 In which organs unstriated muscles are found, Name them?
8 Draw a labelled diagram of adipose tissue.
9 Name the tissue joining a muscle and a bone.
Short answer type questions.
1 What is the importance of meiosis ?
2 Draw a diagram of prophase stage of mitotic division.
3 How many cells are formed from one cell in mitotic division ?
4 What is permanent tissue ?
5 Write the functions of phloem.
6 Write the functions of xylem.
7 Mention the differences between tendon and a ligament.
8 Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron.
9 Where are red blood corpuscles formed?
Long answer type questions.
1 Describe different stages of mitotis.
2 Draw a labelled diagram of a striped muscle and a cardiac muscle.
3 Give the names of complex tissues.
4 Describe the types of epithelial tissue with labelled diagrams.
5 Describe the types and functions of blood corpuscles with diagram.

PROJECT
Draw coloured diagram of following organelles on a thermocol sheet, paste them
on the black drawing sheet and write three features/ characteristics of each below it.
1. Ribosome 2. Golgi body 3. Mitochondria 4. Plastid 5. Lysosome.

Chapter-11 (P-191)
 CHAPTER - 12

Biodiversity-Classification of Organisms
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12.1 Classification of Organisms
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
We know fungi, Algae, Wheat, barley, rice, Amoeba, earth-
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 worm, frog, rat etc. and many more animals and plants have been
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 discovered by scientists. Approximately 22,50, 000 types of
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
organisms have been discovered till now. These organisms are
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
different from one another by nature, structure, shape, size and
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 other characters. Such variations or differences found in
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 organisms are referred to as Diversity of life. It is a very
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
difficult work to discover, identify and study such a vast number
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
of organisms present in nature, therefore, for convenience, they
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
are studied by dividing them into groups.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Such process of discovering, identifying, naming and
Let us learn grouping them based on their behaviour and characters is called
12.1 Classification of Classification and the branch of science under which
organisms Classification of organisms is done is called Taxonomy.
12.2 Nomenclature of The classification based on the development of the
Living Being. organisms is called evolutionary classification. Simple
12.3 Classification of organisms are placed in the beginning and complex organisms
Kingdom plantae later (after that), since the organisms have developed from simple
to complex.
12.4 Classification of
animals. Advantage of classification :
1. Identification of organism.
2. Knowledge of diversities of living organism.
3. Knowledge of relationships among organisms.
4. Information of origin of life.
5. Knowledge of evolution of organism.
Approximately 250 years ago Swedish scientist Carolus
Linnaeus (1707-1778), who is considered as father of taxonomy
had divided the entire living world into two kingdoms in his book
Systema Naturae.

Chapter-12 (P-192)
 1. Plant Kingdom : In this kingdom, plants are included on the basis of mode of
nutrition, movement and presence of cell wall.
2. Animal kingdom : Animals are kept in this kingdom on the basis of mode of
nutrition and absence of cell wall. This classification was recognized for a long time. The
weakness of this system was that, it was not possible to study so many plants and animals
only in two kingdom.
Disadvantages of the two kingdom classification -
1. To keep unicellular and multicellular organisms together.
2. To keep prokaryotic and eukaryotic together.
3. To keep autotrophic & saprotrophic together.
4. To keep some plants in animal group and some animals in plant group.
Modern classification of living beings :
R. W. Whittakar in 1969 divided the living world into five kingdoms on the basis of
following features.
1. Complexity of the cell structure - Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic.
2. Modes of nutrition.
3. Life (style) pattern.
4. Organisational complexity in the body of organism - Unicellularity and multi
cellularity.
5. Evolutionary relationship.
1. Kingdom -Monera
1. These are all unicellular prokaryotic microbes
2. Organelles are not present in the cells of these organisms.
Ex - Bacteria, Blue green Algae.
2. Kingdom-Protista :
1. They are unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
2. They have double membrane organelles for example - Amoeba, Paramoecium
3. Kingdom-Plantae
1. All organisms included in this kingdom are multicellular, autotrophic and
eukaryotic.
2. All the cells contain chloroplast,
for example - Algae, Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Chapter-12 (P-193)
4. Kingdom-Fungi
1. Organisms of this kingdom are multicellular, saprophytic & eukaryotic.
2. Food is stored in the form of glycogen (oil droplets)
for Example - All fungi. mushroom, yeast, mucor etc.
5. Kingdom-Animalia
1. In this kingdom, multi cellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic, metazoan animals
are included.
2. Plastids are absent in these organisms.
For example - All multicellular animals like flat worm, earth worm etc.
Disadvantages of five kingdom classification :
1. To keep single celled algae in separate group.
2. Great diversity in protista kingdom.
3. Show multisource origin of life.
4. No proper place for viruses.
5. To keep organism with related characters separately.
12.2 Nomenclature of Living Being
Names are necessary to identify various living beings, Generally common names are
different in different languages. Like Gaye in India has different names, Gaye in Hindi,
Cow in English and Dhenu in Sanskrit. Therefore for the study of living being it was necessary
to give them specific name which are same in the world over. Therefore for the study of
living being it was neessary to give them specific name which are same in the world over.
Such names were said to be scientific names. First of all Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 proposed
to give nomenclature for plants and animals.
Binomial Nomenclature Method
In this method, two words are used to name a living being. One word indicate its
genus and second one its species. Thus scientific name for sparrow is Passer domesticus.
It has the same scientific name throughout the world.
Genus - Passer Species - domesticus
Human beings - Genus Homo, Species-sapien (Genus has always first letter of the
word as capital letter and species with first letter as small one)
Even after the success of binomial nomenclature, scientists found that sometimes
organisms of same species, living in different environment acquire different characters.
To solve this problem, scientists divided species on the basis of differences into sub-species

Chapter-12 (P-194)
and added the name of subspecies next to the species name. In this condition, living being
now has the name of the three words. Therefore we call this as trinomial method.
1. Indian Crow - Corvus splendens Splendens
2. Burmese Crow - Corvus splendens Insolens
3. Srilankan Crow - Corvus splendens Protegalus
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. Who started the nomenclature of living beings for the first time?
2. Write the biological scientific name of human being?
3. Who is the father of Binomial method of nomenclature?
4. What is trinomial method?

12.3 Classification of kingdom Plantae

According to the modern five kingdom classification, all organisms of plantae
kingdom, are divided into three divisions, algae, bryophyta and tracheophyta, on the basis
of their structure and presence or absence of vascular organs.
Plant Kingdom

Algae Bryophyta Tracheophyta

Subdivision

Pteridophyta Gymnosperm Angiosperm

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
1. Algae 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Spirogyra
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Features 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
1. The body of plant is thalloid i.e. it is not 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
differentiated into root, stem and leaf. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
2. These are autotrophic organisms. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
3. They are found in moist places and aquatic 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Clamydomonas
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
environment. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
4. The body of these organisms do not 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Ulothrix
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
possess vascular tissue. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012

Some algal species

Chapter-12 (P-195)
 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
2. Bryophyta 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
Features 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1. These are chloroplast containing plants found on moist soil or bark 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
of trees etc. in which fertilization is followed by the formation of 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
an embryo. 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
2. Water is necessary for fertilization. 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
3. On its lower surface fine soft hair like structures are found which 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
are called rhizoids. 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
Moss
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
4. In some developed Bryophytes, stem like structures are also found. 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
with sessile leaves. 1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678
3. Tracheophyta Bryophyta

Features :
1. They have xylem and phloem as vascular tissues.
2. Its body is adapted to live in a variety of climates.
3. These plants are differentiated into root, stem & leaf. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
4. Division of labour is found in these plants. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
(a) Pteridophyta 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Features : 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1. Plant is sporophytic and differentiated into root, stem & 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
leaf. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
2. Conducting tissues formed of xylem & phloem is found 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
in these plants. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Fern
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
3. They do not bear flowers and seeds. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678
4. The sporophyte produces spores, which on germination
Pteridophyta
give rise to gametophyte. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
(b) Gymnosperm 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Features 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
1. The seeds of these plants do not have any covering around 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
them, thus have naked seed. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
2. The pollens are dispersed by wind. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
3. Plants are Perennial, woody and xerophytic. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
4. Conducting tissue is differentiated into xylem & phloem. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Williamsonia Pinus
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789

Gymnosperm

Chapter-12 (P-196)
 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
(c) Angiosperm 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Features : 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
1. The seeds in these plants are covered by a seed coat. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
2. Double fertilization is present in these plants. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
3. They are found as parasite (Amarbel), saprophytes 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
(orchids), symbiotic (cereal plants) and autotrophic. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
4. They are very well adapted the changing environment. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Mustard
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Plants
Angiosperm plants are divided into two classes- 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012

(a) Monocotyledonae Angiosperm

Features :
1. These plants have seeds with one cotyledon only.
2. Leaves have parallel venation.
3. Leaves are sessile.
4. Floral whorls are in number of three or in multiple of three (trimerous).
5. Generally, adventitious roots are present in these plants.
Examples - Onion, date
(b) Dicotyledonae
Features
1. Their seeds have two cotyledons.
2. Leaves of these plants have reticulate venation.
3. They have tap root system.
4. The floral whorls are in number of four or five parts or multiple of these. (tetramerous
or pentamerous)
Example : Mustard, mango

Find out the answers of these questions yourself :

1. Give the characteristics of algae.
2. How many subdivisions of Tracheophyta are there?
3. Write salient features of gymnosperms.
4. Mention features of angiosperms.

12.4 Classification of Animals

All animals have been divided into two sub-kingdom on the basis of the presence and
absence of Notochord.

Chapter-12 (P-197)
a. Non-chordata - Animals of this sub kingdom do not possess Notochord in the entire
life span.
b. Chordata-All animals of this sub kingdom possess Notochord during their life span.
12.4.1 A - Protist -Phylum -
1. Protozoa
Features- 1. The animals of this phylum are unicellular. Example - Amoeba

I Class-Sarcodina II Class - Flagellata

1. Locomotory organs are 1. Locomotion by flagella.

pseudopodia. 2. Body covered by pellicle.
2. Nutrition is holozoic. Example - Euglena
Example - Amoeba

III Class-Sporozoa IV Class - Cilliophora/Cilliata

1. They are all internal 1. Locomotory organs are
parasite. cilia.
2. No locomotory organ 2. Nuclei are of two types -
present. Micro nucleus and macro
Example - Plasmodium (Malarial nucleus.
parasite) Example - Paramoecium.
12.4.1 B - Animalia - Non chardata -
12.4.1B Non-Chordata
Special characteristics
1. Body lacks notochord.
2. Heart is not evident or present on the dorsal side of body.
3. Blood lacks red blood corpuscles.
4. Brain is solid.
5. Exoskeleton is present.
Classification
Non-chordata
All animals of this group lack notochord. This sub-kingdom of animalia has been
divided into 8 phylums.
1. Porifera 2. Coelentorata/cnidaria 3. Platyhelminthes 4. Ascelminthes/
Nemathelminthes 5. Annelida 6. Arthropoda 7. Mollusca 8. Echinodermata.

Chapter-12 (P-198)
 1. Porifera
Characters
1. All animals are multicellular.
2. They are diploblastic.
3. Mouth is absent in these animals, but small ostia act as mouth.

I. Class - Calcarea
Marine sponge whose spicules of skeleton are large and made of
calcium carbonate. Example : Leucosolenia
Leucosolenia
II. Class - Hexactinilida
Marine sponge in which skeleton is made up of colourless,
transparent and shining small spicules made of silica. Example :
Euplectella, Hyalonema
Euplectella
III. Class - Demospongia
In some animals, skeleton is made of fibres of sulphur
containing protein - spongin.
Example : Euspongia.
2. Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
Characters
1. These are diploblastic animals.
2. Body has long central cavity.
3. Alternation of generation is present.
4. Animals are Bisexual.
Hydra Physalia (Jelly fish)
5. Division of labour is found.
I. Class - Hydrozoa
1. Mesoglea is without cell.
2. Reproductive organs generally originate from the interstitial cells of epidermis.
Example : Obelia, Hydra
II. Class - Scyphozoa
1. Mesoglea is acellular.
2. Mostly medusae, polyp stage is under developed.
Example : Jellyfish.

Chapter-12 (P-199)
III. Class - Anthozoa
1. Reproductive cells originate from gastrodermis.
2. They live in colony.
3. Many anthozoa have skeletons which are called corals.
Example : Sea anemone
CHARACTERS - 3 Platyhelminthes
1. These organisms are parasites.
2. Exoskeleton is unsegmented.
3. The body lacks true coelom.
4. They lack anus.
5. The body is bilaterally symmetrical
Tapeworm
I. Class - Turbellaria
1. Most of the members are free living but some are ecto-parasite.
2. Suckers are absent.
3. Sense organs on anterior tip of the body.
4. Mouth is ventral.
5. Reproduction by fragmentation or regeneration
Example : Planaria (Flat worm)
II. Class - Trematoda
1. All organism are ectoparasite or endoparasite
2. Suckers & tentacles are present for attachment to get nutrition.
3. Body is generally flat, oval and unsegmented.
Example : Fasciola (Liver fluke).
III. Class - Cestoda
1. They are endoparasite of alimentary canal of the vertebrates.
2. The body is flat, segmented and elongated like a tape.
3. Suckers and hooks are found on the anterior end.
4. Mouth is absent due to no digestive system.
Example - Tapeworm.
4. Nemathelminthes
Characters
1. The body of these animals is long worm like, and unsegmented.
2. They are parasites.
3. In these animals, female is longer than male.
4. They lack respiratory organs.

Chapter-12 (P-200)
 I. Class - Nematoda
1. These organisms are parasites.
2. Body is long, cylindrical and unsegmented Ascaris
Example : ascaris (male & female)

5. Annelida
Characters
1. Animals are long, cylindrical and worm like.
2. They can live in water and in moist soil.
3. Body is segmented.
4. They are generally hermaphrodite.
Neries

I. Class - polychaeta III. Class - Hirudinea

1. All are marine animals. 1. Parapodia and setae are absent.
2. Parapodia are present for locomotion. 2. Pharynx acts as a pump for blood
sucking.
3. Clitellum is absent.
3. Suckers and teeth are present.
Example : Neries, Erinecolus
Example : Leech
II. Class - Oligochaeta
1. Locomotory organ called setae are IV. Class- Arachiannelida
present. 1. Antennae present on anterior tip
2. Antennae and eyes are absent. and mostly eyes are present.
3. Clitellum present which form cocoon 2. Excretion takes place by nephridia
after fertilization.
3. They are hermaphrodite.
Example : Earthworm

6. Arthropoda
Characters
1. Body of these animals is divided into head,
thorax & abdomen. Grasshopper
2. They have compound eyes.
3. They have internal fertilization. Silver fish Cockroach
Butterfly

Chapter-12 (P-201)
 I.. Class-Crustacea one pair of mandible and two pairs
1. The body is has tough exoskeleton. of maxilla.
2. Respiration occurs through gills. 3. Body has 3 pairs of jointed legs.
3. Animals have two pairs of antennae Example : Cockroach, ant.
one pair of mandible and two pairs of IV. Class - Arachanida
maxilla. 1. Body is divided into two parts :
Example - Prawn. Cephalothorax and abdomen.
II. Class - Chilopoda 2. Four pairs of legs are present.
1. The body is divisible into head & trunk. 3. Eyes are simple.
2. The body is segmented and worm Example - Spider
like. V. Class - Onychophora
3. Eyes are simple. Ex - Peripatus
Example - Centipede
III. Class - Insecta VI. Class - Diplopoda Ex - Millepede
1. Body is divided into head,
thorax and abdomen. VII. Class - Merostomata
Ex - King Crab
2. Head bears one pair of antenna.
7. Mollusca
Characters
1. Body is soft and unsegmented. 2. Respiration occurs through gills.
3. Eyes are simple. 4. Body cavity or coelom is well developed.
Pila
I. Class - Monoplacophora IV. Class - Gastropoda
1. Shell is unsegmented, round all cap like. 1. Head bears two eyes and two pairs
2. Head and foot are present in the vertical side. of tentacles.
3. Respiration occurs through five or six pairs 2. Foot is flat, wide and muscular.
of gills. Example : Pila
Example : Neopilina V. Class - Bivalvia
II. Class Amphineura 1. Body is dorsoventrally flattened.
1. Nervous system is of primitive type. 2. Mouth & two Labial parts are
2. External fertilization occurs. situated on head.
3. Reduced head, very small mouth and anus 3. Mental is bilobed.
is present in opposite direction. Example : Unio.
Example : Chiton VI.Class - Cephalopoda
III. Class - Scaphopoda 1. Body is cylindrical.
1. Body is elongated and worm like. 2. Foot is modified into arms.
2. Foot is small & pointed. 3. Shell is absent.
3. Mental tube form semi circular structure. Example : Octopus.
Example : Dentalium.
Chapter-12 (P-202)
 8. Echinodermata
Characters
1. Body has spines and calcarious exoskeleton made up
of calcium carbonate.
2. Alimantory canal, nervous system and water
Vascular system is well developed. Star fish
3. Body is spherical cylindrical or star shaped. (a) Ventral side (b) Dorsal side

I. Class - Crinoidea IV Class-Echinoidea

1. Tube feet are absent. 1. Animals are spherical in
2. Mouth and oral aperture are located on shape.
the dorsal side. 2. Body has spines.
Example : Antedon (Sea lily) Example : Sea Urchin
II. Class - Asteroidea.
1. Body is star shaped. V. Class- Holothiroidea
2. Body has spines made of Calcium 1. Exoskeleton of calcium
carbonate. carbonate present.
Example : Star fish 2. Tentacles are present
III. Class-Ophiuroidea around the mouth.
1. Body is flat & star shaped. Example : Sea-Cucumber
2. Central discs present in the middle.
Example - Birttle star.
12.4.2 Chordata
Characters
1. Notochord is found in these animals at some stage of life.
2. A hollow nerve cord is present on the dorsal surface of the body.
3. Exoskeleton is present.
4. Body is triplobastic
Phylum chordata has been divided into five class.
1.Pisces, 2. Amphibia, 3. Reptilia, 4. Aves, 5.Mammalia123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1. Class Pisces 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Characters 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
1. These are cold blooded aquatic animals. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
2. Two chambered heart is divided into an auricle 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
and ventricle. Both parts are always filled with 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
deoxygenated blood. Due to this heart of 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
pisces is called Venous heart. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Fish
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
3. Respiration by gills except lung fishes. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456

Example :Fish
Chapter-12 (P-203)
 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
2. Class - Amphibia 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Characters 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
1. These are amphibious animals means they can 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
live in water as well as on land. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
2. Skin is moist, slippery and glandular. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
3. They are cold blooded. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Example :Frog 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Frog
12345678901234567890123456789012123
3. Class - Reptilia 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Characters 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
1. They are cold blood and creeping, aquatic or terrestrial 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
animals. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
2. Three chambered heart with two auricles and one 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
ventricle. 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
3. Skin is dry and without glands, but scales are present 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
on it. Lizard
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
Example :Lizard 12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
4. Class - Aves 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Characters 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
1. They are warm blooded animals. Body is divided 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
into head, trunk and tail. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
2. Four chambered heart with two auricles and two 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
ventricles. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
3. Skeleton is hollow having small pneumatic cavities 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
filled with air which helps the animal to fly. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Peacock
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Example :Peacock 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
5. Mammalia 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Characters 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
1. Mammary glands are present in female to feed the 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Kangaroo
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
young ones and in male, mammary glands are less 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
developed. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
2. They are warm blooded means the temperature of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
body remain constant . 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
3. Man have four types of teeth thus Man is Heterodont. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Example :Kangaroo, man. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Branch of science in which study of classification of living being is done is called
taxonomy.
Carolus Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy.
Latin words are used for scientific names of living being.
In Binomial nomenclature genus and species are given.
In trinomial nomenclature name of genus, species and sub species are given.

Chapter-12 (P-204)
 Plant kingdom has been divided into three division.
Seeds are not found in the fern plant.
Seed coat is present on the seeds of angiosperm.
Seed coat is absent on the seeds of gymnosperm
Animals are classified into two sub-kingdom on the basis of the presence or absence
of Notochord - Non chordata & Chordata.
Notochord is not formed during entire life of non-chordate animals.
Notochord is present in the entire life of the chordate animal.
Taenia solium is a parasite animal, and lacks digestive glands. It depends on the food
of the human being.
Earth worm of annelida feed on soil while Hirudinaria (leech)sucks the blood from
animals.
Octopus has inkgland by which it protect itself form enemies.
Bones of birds are hollow.
Whale fish is a mammal.
EXERCISES
Very short answer questions
Q.1 Why frog is kept in class Amphibia ?
Q.2 Which organ is used for locomotion in Star fish ? Name it
Q.3 Name the locomotive organ of Amoeba.
Q.4 Write one Identifying character of phylum porifera?
Short answer questions
Q.1 Name two animals of phylum mollcusa
Q.2 Which animal show division of labour?
Q.3 Amoeba belongs to which phylum?
Q.4 Give characters of phylum arthropoda
Long answer questions
Q.1 Write the main Characters and Classes of sub Kingdom Chordata ?
Q.2 Write the main Characters of sub Kingdom non-Chordata and write names of its
classes?
Q.3 Write Characters of Class mammalia.
Q.4 Give Classification of sub phylum Chordata in Form of a chart.
PROJECT
Identify the plants and animals in your surrounding. Make Sketch and Paste
them in Scrap- book . Write also Class of the plants and animals in front of the
figure.

Chapter-12 (P-205)
 CHAPTER - 13

Nutrition and Health

13.1 General introduction of body structure

Like all other living beings, human body has special
functional system. Starting from life to death, various biological
process are completed like growth, development, respiration
nutrition, excretion and reproduction. All the processes require
energy which we get from food.
Nutrition is the sum of all those activities which are
concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption, energy
production and egestion of undigested waste from the body. To
Let us learn carry out all these functions, there is a special system in the
13.1 General
body starting from mouth to anus called digestive system. The
main function of this system is to carry the energy obtained from
introduction of
food to other systems of the body. Thus this system and nutrition
body structure.
has direct relation- ship with the physical health because with
13.2 Health and its
the energy obtained from nutrition the systems like respiratory
importance.
system, circulatory system, excretory system etc. are able to
13.4 Community and work efficiently.
presonal health
Structure of human body is very complex. In this, complexity
13.5 Components of increases in the organisation from cellular level to tissue, organ and
food organ system level. Therefore, the occurrence of disease or disorder
13.6 Balance diet. in every system, affects the health and functions of the body because
13.7 Malnutrition and though the entire body is made of various organs and organ systems,
under nutrition. it functions like a single unit.
13.8 Adulteration in 13.2 Health and its Importance
food materials
By the term healthy person it means he is lacking any type
13.9 Propreties of of physical or mental disorder in the body. Often it is difficult to
drinking water. decide a healthy or unhealthy body but a healthy body is generally
13.10 Primary defined as follows:
information of "A healthy body is such a state in which body has no
world health structural and functional disorders." Health has special
organisation importance. Human should take special care of their health. For
13.11 Diseases in Human physical health, balanced diet, clean water, regular cleanliness,

Chapter-13 (P-206)
exercise, rest and clean air are necessary. In healthy state, our body remain active and we
are able to perform all activities efficiently.

13.3 Community and Personal Health

We are very much familiar with the importance of health. As good health is necessary
for every individual, similarly, community health has much more importance. Community
is made by human beings and the health of every person affects the health of community.
Unhealthy condition of a person creates a problem for the whole community.
Now a days due to expansion of business, dense habitat, urbanisation, pollution etc.
the environment of entire community is affected. Generally, people live in clean and hygenic
conditions. Personally they keep houses neat and clean, but throw their garbage in open
area outside the house, due to which water also gets polluted along with the soil. Its adverse
effect is seen on the entire community health.
Therefore we should emphasize on community health along with the personal health.
So that entire community should have good health and a congenial environment.

Activity
Objective : Survey of community health.
Method : Discuss with ten students of your class and fill the following table.
Sr. Name of No of family Sick members of Name of
No. Student members the family the disease
Male Female Child Total Male Female Child Total
-ren -ren
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Conclusion : On the basis of the survey done by the above activity, data of the diseases
related to community health can be recorded.

Chapter-13 (P-207)
13.4 Necessary conditions for good health
A person should have following conditions for good health. If these conditions are
met, we can live a healthy life. Thus necessary conditions for health are as follows :

1. Nutrition :
A balanced diet is necessary for good health, that means, the food should contain all
necessary nutrients in proper proportion. Nutrition directly affect our health, so balanced
diet is of utmost importance for physical health.

2. Healthy Habits :
You have observed that if the body or clothes are dirty, bad smell starts coming out of
it. If the food remains (open) uncovered then it is infected by the microbes. Flies and
worms also pollute our food and water. If such food or water is used, there is possibility of
getting diseases. Therefore for good health, we should develop the habits of taking bath
daily, wearing clean clothes, keep the food and water covered, keeping utensils clean, eating
fresh food, using fruits and vegetables only after washing pure water, washing the hand after
using toilets and before eating food, drinking clean water etc. Fresh pure air is necessary
for good health. Dont smoke, and dont use tobacco and other addictive drugs because they
have adverse effect on physical and mental health.

3. Exercise and Rest :

Exercise is necessary for keeping fit and healthy. Regular exercise keeps our body
and mind healthy. Exercise is necessary for persons of all age groups. The blood circulation
is regulated in our body through exercise. In addition to exercise, rest is also needed for
good health. Our muscles get fatigued by continuous work and rest relieves the tiredness
of the body and it become fit for working again with more efficiency.

13.5 Components of food :

We get energy from food for our daily work. The nutrients of food help in the growth
and functioning of body and some nutrients keep the body healthy. The main components
of food, their sources and functions are as follows:
S. No. Components of food Source Function
1. Protein Milk, egg, meat, fish, pulse, Growth of body
bean etc
Ghee, oil, butter etc Repairing of damaged cells
2. Fat
3. Carbohydrates Potato, sugar, sweet potato Energy to body and
etc. strength to muscles

Chapter-13 (P-208)
4. Vitamins Green leafy vegetables, Provide resistance to
fruits, germinated seeds etc. diseases.
Milk, fruits, vegetables To keep the body healthy and
5. Minerals
meat etc. increases resistance to
diseases.
6. Water From nature Regulation of body
temperatue, helpful in
digestion process

Carbohydrates Protein

Minerals Components Fat

of food

Water Vitamins

Components of food

Chapter-13 (P-209)
 Sources of various vitamins, deficiency disease,
and their symptoms.

S.No. Name of Sources of Name of Symptoms of

Vitamins Vitamins deficiency disease disease
1. Vitamin A Carrot, fish, Xeropthalmia Unable to see in
(Retinol) green vegetable (Night blindness) dim light.
(Soluble in fat) & liver etc.

2. Vitamin B Bean, grains, Beri-beri loss of appetite

green vegetable fatigue, muscle-
(Thiamine)
etc. atrophy, paralysis
(Soluble in water)

3. Vitamin B2 Meat, egg, Dermatitis crack in skin

(Riboflavin) wheat, pulse, (Ariboflavinosis)
vegetable,
(soluble in water)

4. Vitamins B5 Meat, liver, milk Pellagra Dry skin scaly

etc. pigmented skin,
(Nicotinamides) Brain and
(soluble in Water) digestive system
do not function
properly.
5. Vitamins B6 Egg, milk, meat Anaemia Deficiency of
(Pyridoxine) yeast etc. haemoglobin in
blood.
(soluble in water)

Deficiency of
6. Vitamin B12 Milk, egg, fish Anaemia haemoglobin in
liver. blood
(Cobalamine)
(soluble in water)

7. Folic acid Milk, Banana, Anaemia Deficiency of

meat etc. haemoglobin in
(soluble in water) blood

Chapter-13 (P-210)
8. Vitamin C Amla, citrus fruits, Scurvy Pain & swelling in
(Ascorbic acid) grapes, tomato etc. gums.

(soluble in water)

9. Vitamin D Milk, fish, synthes- Rickets Weak & flexible

ized in skin with in children bone, bending of
(Calciferol)
exposure to sun and osteo- backbone.
(soluble in fat) light. malacia in
adult
10 Vitamin E germinated seeds, Sterlity decrease in fertility.
(tocopherols) milk, egg, meat

(soluble in water)
11. Vitamin K Green vegetable, Delay in delay in clotting of
potato, milk etc. blood blood.
(Phylloquinone)
clotting
(soluble in fat)

Do you know?
Pellagra disease is found in those persons who takes corn/maize food because
maize hinder the absorption of vitamin B5 ( Nicotineamide) in the body.
4 kg cal energy is produced by degradation of 1 gm of carbohydrates where 9
k.cal energy is release from degradation of 1 gm of fat.
Name of important minerals, their source,
function & deficiency disease
S. Name of minerals Source Function and
No. deficiency deseases
1. Sodium (Na) Green vegetable & salt Necessary for muscle
contraction

2. Iodine (I) Iodized salt, aquatic Important for activation of

marine foods thyroid gland (Goiter disease)

3. Calcium (Ca) Milk, vegetable, meat, Formation of teeth and bones

grains. (Rickets)

Green leafy vegetable, Formation of hemoglobin

4. Iron (Fe)
meat (Anaemia)
Chapter-13 (P-211)
5. Magnesium (Mg) Green vegetable Activity of muscle & nervous
system

Milk, egg, food grains Formation of teeth and bones.

6. Phosphorus (P)
Salt, vegetable Hydrostatics/osmoregulation
7. Chlorine (Cl)
(effect on metabolic activities)
Activity of muscle & neuros
8. Potassium (K) Vegetables
system
9. Sulphur (S) Meat, milk, egg, butter etc. Necessary for synthesis of
protein, cracking of muscles

13.6 Balanced diet :

The body needs food for the following purpose -
1. For energy
2. For building of body
3. To carry out body activities & resistance from disease.
Balanced diet means in which all nutrients of food like carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
water, vitamin, minerals and fibres are present in a proper proportion. Balanced diet is
specific for every person and it is affected by various factors. for example (1) Age (2) Sex
(3) Health (4) Climate and seasons (5) Nature of the work.
Generally all nutrients are present in every food items, some nutrients are presents in
small quantity and others in large. Therefore we should select the food cautiously in such a
way that it fulfill all requirements of the body.

13.7 Malnutrition & undernutrition :

Impairments of health due to improper in take of food or nutrients result in the condition
called malnutrition. It is caused both by excess or deficiency of nutrients in food. The
person suffering from malnutrition becomes weak and ill. Malnutrition is found more in
children by which physical and mental defects occur in them. Protein energy malnutrition
is caused by deficiency of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in food.
There are two main forms of protein energy malnutrition, kwashiorkor and Marasmus.
In kwashiorkor children become dull, their skin becomes dry and pot belly formation
occurs in child. In Marasmus affected children the skin became loose and wrinkled. Other
symptoms are like kwashiorkor. These diseases are cured by a diet rich in protein.

Chapter-13 (P-212)
 1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
Child having kwashiorkor
Various deficiency diseases are caused by deficiency of minerals and vitamins in
diet. For example - Anemia caused by deficiency of iron, Rickets in child by deficiency of
calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D, goiter due to deficiency of iodine, night blindness due
to deficiency of vitamin A. Beriberi and pellagra are caused 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
by deficiency of vitamin B and Scurvy caused by deficiency 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
of vitamin C. We have studied about these earlier.
As malnutrition causes disease, taking more food than the
required is also harmful. The person may suffer from
obesity which may lead to defects in hearts and causes
blood pressure.
Under nutrition : Under nutrition means deficient
nutrition. The condition arises due to taking insufficient
amount of nutrients. In our country large number of people
are not able to get balance diet which results in under
nutrition and their body becomes weak, ill and diseased.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. Write the name of the components of food which provide energy to the body.
2. Write difference between malnutrition and under nutrition.
3. What is the function of vitamin D in our body and its source?
4. What is a balanced diet?
5. What is the significance of the iodized salt in our food?
Adulteration in food materials :
Meaning of adulteration of food is that mixing of edible or non-edible materials in
food, for example- water added to milk, animal fat is mixed in ghee etc.
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901
Child suffering from Marasmus
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Goitre
Chapter-13 (P-213)
 Health of a person depends on the type of the food he eats. If we take balanced & non
adulterated food then our body remains healthy, well built and disease free, but our body
becomes ill by the use of imbalance, insufficient & adulterated food.
All food materials of our daily use may generally be adulterated. Food can be adulterated
in the following ways
1. Food material has no original form & properties.
2. Food may be mixed with cheap and low quality material.
3. Inedible & harmful material as colours/dyes are mixed in food.
4. More quantity of preservatives may be mixed for preservation of food.
5. Contaminated or infected adulteration.

13.8.1 Important edible food items and list of impurities

S. Food material/eatables Adulterant
No.
1. Flour, maida Sand, glutine, old maida.
2. Pulses Khesari dal, small pebbles, straws of wild weeds etc
3. Milk Water, starch.
4. Ghee, butter Starch, animal fat, vegetable oil/ghee etc.
5. Mava Blotting paper, starch

6. Oil Artificial colour, cheap oils.

7. Grains/cereals Soil, small stone particles, bran, old grains,

other seeds etc.

8. Black pepper Seeds of papaya

9. Turmeric Grinded bricks, starch coloured with lead chromate
10. Coriander powder Animal dung powder, horse dung powder, wood powder
11. Chilly power Grinded brick, wood powder
12. Sugar Starch, fine white sand
13. Tea leaves Seed coat (black gram), powder of tamarind seed
14. Sweets Harmful colours, starch

Chapter-13 (P-214)
13.8.2 Effects of Adulteration on Health
Harmful colour and toxic material in food are injurious to health. Dropsy caused by
the use of Argimone maxicana seed oil mixed to mustard oil. Paralysis is caused by the use
of khesari dal mixed with pulses. Harmful adulteration of colours in food causes dreaded
disease like cancer and other adulterations cause slow toxic effect on the body.

13.8.3 Prevention of Adulteration

Food adulteration can be tested by simple laboratory tests.
1. We should not use food if there is possibility of unedible colours and change in
original form, taste and properties.
2. We should purchase only I.S.I./Ag marked sealed packed edible.
3. We must see the expiry date of preserved food enclosed in tin or box.
4. We should read the instruction printed on label of packed food material thoroughly.

13.8.4 Tests for Identification of adulterants in food materials.

1 Milk : Test of density of milk for identification of percentage of mixed water.
Lactometer is used to measure the density of milk so that we can check the percentage
of water or other adulterants.
2. Condensed milk or mawa : Iodine test can be used to check the adulteration of
starch/and maida.
3. Salt, Sugar : These can be dissolved, filtered,dried and weighted to find the quantity
of adulteration.
4. Food grains & pulses : Adulterated materials may be hand picked and weighed to
find the percentage of adulterants.
5. Tea leaf : Put tea leaves on the wet white paper and then observe. If yellow/red colour
spots appear on the paper, it means colour is added as adulterant.
6. Black Pepper : Choose the papaya seed. The papaya seeds can be separated by picking.
7. Olive : If olive is wrinkled it mean olive oil has been extracted.
8. Vegetable oil : To the given oil, mix conc. nitric acid and shake properly. A red-
brown layer is formed after some time. It indicates adulteration in oil.
Activity
Objective : To test the presence of carbohydrate (starch) in a given food sample.
Material required : Test tube, iodine solution, edible material like mawa
(concentrated milk).
Method : First dissolve given food in water and add two drops of iodine solution. If

Chapter-13 (P-215)
 the solution turn blue or black, it confirms the presence of starch in the given
material.
Conclusion : With the above activity we can get information of adulteration by testing
the starch in food material.

13.9 Properties of Drinking Water : 123456789012345678901234567890121234

We need clean drinking water for our health along with a
balanced diet. Use of impure and infected water causes many
diseases. The main diseases caused due to the infected water are
jaundice, typhoid, and cholera. Drinking water should not have
metallic compounds because they also cause many diseases in the
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Teeth Flourosis
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234

body.
The sulphates of calcium and magnesium produce hardness in water, due to which
dysentry and other gastric disorders appears. The fluoride in water is one factor which
affect the health. Higher concentration of flouride causes flourosis in which colour of
teeth changes.
In the same way changes in structure of bone occur in bone flourosis . Thus drinking
water should have following properties :
1. It should be clean, pure, transparent, tasteless, odourless and colourless.
2. It should be free from germs and impurities.

13.10 Primary Information of World Health Organization (WHO)

You might have seen the name of WHO (World Health Organisation) on the packets
of ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution) life saving solution.This is a world wide organisation
working in the field of health. It has its headquarter at Geneva. This organisation perform
following functions :
1. To prepare standard values regarding drinking water.
2. To advise about health problem.
3. To frame the rules for health and get it implemented all over the world.
4. To prepare standard values of pollutants of various food material.
5. To carry out health related worldwide missions like to generate awareness in people
regarding epidemics and local diseases, immunization from these disease, to carry
out pulse polio programme, to give information regarding the use of antibiotics and
insecticides etc.

Chapter-13 (P-216)
6. To make available clean drinking water, cleaning arrangement, health education,
laboratory and health facilities to the rural people.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

1. What is the meaning of adulteration in food materials?
2. What properties should a drinking water have?
3. When was WHO established?
4. What are the effects of adulteration of food on health?

13.11 Diseases in Human beings

Sometimes imbalance in the biological processes, psychological reasons or infection
by pathogens cause an adverse effect on health resulting a disease. Disease is DIS-EASE
which means not feelling at ease.
Original word of disease is barrier or hurdle which means hurdle in good
health, means origin of abnormality defect in body is called a disease.

We can define it as follows :

Illness or disease is a condition of body in which living being becomes abnormal or
defective, structurally or functionally.

Causes of Diseases
Diseases are always caused by some biotic or abiotic factor. Main causes of diseases
are as follows :
1. Nutrients : Deficiency or excess of nutrients in the body causes many diseases.
2. Biotic factor or pathogens : Some organisms found in nature enter our body to cause
a disease. This are called a pathogen.
3. Other factors : Physical factors (temperature, pressure), chemical factors (Urea, Uric
acid), mechanical factors (accident) cause many diseases.
Kinds of diseases

Communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases

1. Communicable diseases :
Such diseases are caused by biotic factors like bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and
worms. Disease causing organisms spread (Communicate) through air, water, food or insects.
Therefore these are called communicable diseases. For example cholera, tuberculosis. etc.

Chapter-13 (P-217)
2. Non-communicable diseases :
These diseases are not transmitted from an infected person to healthy person. That is why
these are called non-communicable diseases. Such non-communicable diseases are caused
due to the deficiency of nutrients. Details of some major human diseases are given below.
Name of the disease : Malaria
Pathogen : Plasmodium vivax (Protozoa)
1. High fever with headache
2. Cold and body-ache
3. Nausea and vomiting
Prevention : The causal factor of this disease is a parasite found in the
mosquito named female Anopheles. Thus to control malaria,
protection from mosquitoes is must.
The growth and Reproduction of mosquitoes occur in stagnant
water, so there should not be any stagnant water near the
houses.
Larvacidal fish (Gumbuthia) should be put in tanks and ponds
full of water.
Treatment : Chloroquinine, quinine, permaquinine like drugs may be taken
on the advise of physician.
Name of the disease : Influenza (flu)
Pathogen : Myxovirus Influenza (virus)
Symptoms : 1. Fever with cold
2. Coughing, sneezing and formation of mucus
3. Headache and bodyache
Prevention : It is a communicable disease so avoid the direct contact with
patient. Also keep a cloth on mouth when coughing, sneezing.
Treatment : Use antibiotic by the advise of physician.
Name of disease : Jaundice
Pathogen : May occur both by bacteria or virus
Symptoms : 1. Loss of appetite
2. Weakness
3. Weight loss
4. Skin, nails and eyes turn yellow and urine becomes yellow.
Prevention : 1. Patient should be given light food and rest.
2. Food having more glucose should be given.
3. Give sterilized (germ free, boiled or treated) water to the
patient.

Chapter-13 (P-218)
Treatment : In this disease liver is mainly affected by the virus Thus, the drugs
to disinfect liver and glucose is mainly given to the patient.
Hepatitis : Just like Jaundice, Hepatitis is also a disease of liver, caused
by the virus. This virus also enter the body through
contaminated water. This virus is of three type A, B, & C.
Vaccination has been developed against it.
Name of the disease : Rabies (Hydrophobia)
Pathogen : Rabies virus or street virus.
Symptom : 1. This disease is caused by biting of animals like dog, cat
monkey, fox and rabbit. This virus enter the body of a healthy
person through saliva of animals.
2. Virus mainly affects, the nervous system, due to which a
severe headache and condition like mental disability/
disturbance occur.
3. The patient of hydrophobia is having fear from water.
4. The patient throat is chocked.
Prevention : Antirabies vaccine should be injected to pet animals. Dont
touch the wounds of affected person.
Treatment : 1. Wounds should be treated with antibiotics.
2. Desired Number of rabies vaccines should be
injected as per the advice of the physician.
Name of disease : cholera
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Pathogen : Vibrio cholerae 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Symptoms : 1. This disease is transmitted through 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
contaminated food and water. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
2. Frequent vomiting and loose motion. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
3. Weight loss and dehydration. 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
Prevention : 1. Use clean drinking water 123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
2. Vaccination of cholera.
3. Avoid contaminated food and water.
4. This disease is transmitted through flies so more care is
required for sanitation.
Treatment : 1. Treatment should be done by the advice of physician.
2. Oral rehydration solution (ORS) should be given
frequently to recover deficiency of water.

Chapter-13 (P-219)
 To make oral rehydration solution; add a pinch of salt and one tea spoonful of
sugar to one glass of water boiled and cooled given to the patient frequently.
Name of disease : Dysentry
Pathogen : Balentidium coli (Protozoa)
Symptoms : 1. Bleeding with motion.
2. Frequent loose motion.
3. Dehydration and weakness.
Prevention : 1. This disease also spreads through flies so their control is
must.
2. Dump the urine & stool of the patient underground
3. Avoid using contaminated food and water.
Treatment : Antibiotic drugs like carbasone, oriomycin and terramycin
should be used.
Name of disease : Typhoid 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Pathogen : Salmonella typhi (bacteria) 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Symptoms : 1. Headache and bodyache. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
2. High fever. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
3. Development of small 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
shining rashes on body. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
4. In severe infection, bleeding12345678901234567890123456789012123456789

from intestine.
Prevention : 1. This disease also spreads through flies, thus its control
is necessary.
2. Proper sanitation and personal hygiene required, if this
disease spreads.
3. The sputum, urine and stool of the patient be dumped
underground.
Treatment : 1. Vaccination of T.A.B.
2. Treatment with chloromycetin under the guidance of
physician.
Name of disease : Tuberculosis (TB)
Pathogen : Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms : 1. Loss of appetite and weight loss.
2. Cough and fever.

Chapter-13 (P-220)
 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
3. Pain with cough. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
4. Difficulty in breathing. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
5. This disease affects 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
respiratory system, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
intestine, bones and 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
lymphatic system. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901
Prevention : 1. Special attention should
be given to the patient's hygeine
2. Contact with the patient should be avoided.
3. The patient should be given nutritious food.
4. The stool-urine and clothes of patient should be kept
separately.
Treatment : 1. B.C.G. vaccination should be done,
2. Treatment should be done at governmental DOT centre.
Name of disease : AIDS(Acquired Immuno deficiency syndrome)
Pathogen : HIV (Human immuno deficiency Virus)
Symptoms : This disease has no special symptom because after the
infection of virus, the patient loses his immunity. In this
condition he gets any disease which does not get cured.
After the infection of this virus the major symptoms
which are seen :
1. Diseases are not completely cured.
2. Weight loss
3. Swelling in lymph glands
4. Continuous fever.
5. The number of blood platelets decreases.
Transmission of Disease :
This disease gets transmitted through following ways :
1. By Blood tranfusion (from infected blood)
2. Infected needle, Instruments or the tools of a Barber.
3. From HIV infected mother to the offspring.
4. By sexual contact with HIV infected person.
Prevention 1. Presence of HIV should be tested during blood
transfusion and organ transplantation.
2. One syringe should be used only once.

Chapter-13 (P-221)
Treatment : The exact treatment of AIDS is still not discovered. Prevention
and care from AIDS is correct treatment.
Deficiency Diseases : Those diseases which are caused due to the deficiency of
nutrients are called deficiency diseases. Such as
Marasmus : Due to the deficiency of protein.
kawasiorkor : Due to the deficiency of protein.
Scurvy : Deficiency of vitamin C.
Rickets : Deficiency of Vitamin D.
Beri-beri : Deficiency of Vitamin B1.
Pellagra : Deficiency of Vitamin B5
Xeropthalmia : Deficiency of Vitamin A.
Anemia : Deficiency of iron in food
Goitre : Deficiency of iodine in food.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Though body is made up of many highly complex organ system still it works as a single unit.
Community health is also as necessary as personal health.
Proper nutrition, healthy habits, exercise and rest are necessary for good health.
The food which has all nutritive substances or nutrients in proper proportion is called a
balanced diet.
The main components of food : Carbohydrate, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, roughage
and water.
Vitamins are of many type A, B, C, D, E, and K etc.
The condition due to the lack of balanced diet is called malnutrition and the disease due to
this is called deficiency diseases.
Adding unwanted material in the food is called adulteration.
Adulteration can be tested.
Pure drinking water with a balanced diet is important for health.
WHO is a world wide organisation which function for health related work at world level.
Generally diseases are of two types : Communicable and non-communicable.
Bacteria, virus and protozoa are major pathogenic organisms.
Mosquitoes, flies, and other insects act as vectors of diseases.
There is no treatment for AIDS.
The patient of hydrophobia has fear from water.
Cholera and jaundice are the diseases caused by contaminated water.
HIV (Human immunodeficiency Virus) is the cause of AIDS
Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) should be given to the patient frequently in diarrhoea.
First time Dr. Ronald Ross (1887) told that disease causing organism of malaria is
transmitted through mosquitoes. He was awarded Nobel Prize for the discovery.
Chapter-13 (P-222)
 EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. What is nutrition?
2. Write the major funcions of proteins.
3. Deficiency of which vitamin causes Beri-beri disease?
4. What is anemia ? Deficiency of which vitamin causes this disease?
5. Write name of two diseases caused due to protein malnutrition.
6. What is a disease?
7. Write name of one communicable disease?
8. What are non-communicable diseases?
9. Write full name of AIDS.
10. What is the name of pathogen causing tuberculosis?
Short answer type questions :
1. Which diseases are caused due to excess of flouride in water?
2. Give main functions of food.
3. On what factors does balanced diet depend on?
4. Which disease is caused due to deficiency of vitamin D in human?
5. Which salts are dissolved in hard water?
6. What is Oral Rehydration Solution? Give method of its preparation.
7. Give one cause each for the spread of typhoid, diarrhoea and cholera.
8. Describe hydrophobia disease.
9. Give the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases.
10. What precautions are to be taken in a communicable disease?
Long answer type questions :
1. What is the importance of health?
2. What are the functions of world health organisation?
3. What are the main components of food? Write their sources also.
4. Why does our body need vitamins and minerals?
5. Which adulterants are added in the following food materials? Oil, milk, black pepper,
food grains, ghee.
Essay type questions ;
1. Write an essay on pathogens, vectors, symptoms and treatment of malaria.
2. Write an essay on AIDS.
3. Explain tuberculosis in detail.
4. Explain deficiency diseases with examples.
PROJECT
Find out the causes of following diseases and collect information about
their treatment and then prapare a notebook.
1. Formation of holes in leaves. 2. Falling of hair in dog. 3. Cracking heals.

Chapter-13 (P-223)
 CHAPTER - 14

Food Resources : Sustainable Agriculture

12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 The development of agriculture has taken place along with
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 the development of human civilization. The needs of early man
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
were quite limited and he was concerned mainly with food, shelter
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
and clothing. At that time there was no problem of food material
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 due to lesser population and limited needs. The population
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
increased at a very fast rate, as a result of development in human
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
civilization, due to which available food grains became
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
insufficient. After independence the biggest problem of our
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 country was the availability of food for the entire population. At
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 that time our country was dependent on import of food grains
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
from other countries. Our scientists made a lot of efforts to solve
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
the food problem because of which our country became self
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456 sufficient for food grains. For this achievement the role of
Green Revolution has been very significant under which high
Let us Learn yielding crop varieties, chemical, fertilizers, insecticides,
14.1 Sustainable pesticides, irrigation and modern agricultural implements were
Agriculture effectively used and there was expected increase in food grain
production. But due to over exploitation of natural resources
14.2 Necessity and
our land faced many problems like acidity, alkalinity, salinity,
importance of
soil erosion and the soil also became polluted.
sustainable
agriculture But food problem was our biggest problem. Therefore to
make availability of food for the growing population, excessive
14.3 Mixed Farming
use of chemicals and modern agricultural techniques were used
14.4 Mixed cropping for the production of crops. Although the production increased
14.5 Crop rotation significantly but excessive use of chemicals has created many
serious problems today. The residues of these chemicals have
14.6 Improvement of entered the food chains and this has made present human life
crops and that of future generations very unsafe.
14.7 Methods of To solve all these problems sustainable agriculture was
Plant Breeding developed. In this system the natural resources are used in such
a manner that a balance is maintained between present and the
future. We can improve our agriculture by adopting such practices
like mixed farming, intercropping, crop rotation, minimum use

Chapter-14 (P-224)
of chemical fertilizers, land reclaimation, use of biofertilizers etc. In this chapter we will
learn some of these practices.
14.1. Sustainable Agriculture :
Sustainable agriculture refers to such a system of agriculture in which the environment
and natural resources are effectively used and conserved in such a way that it is able to fulfil
the needs of present and future generations. Sustainable agriculture is also known as
environmental agriculture. In this system the main source of nutrients are organic substances
and, thus, also known as organic farming. The main aim is to develop such a system which
should be economically viable, environment friendly and giving maximum agricultural yield.
14.2 . Necessity and importance of sustainable Agriculture
We all know it well that the area of available agricultural land is limited and it cannot
be increased. Contrary to this, our population is increasing at faster rate due to which the
availability of land area per person is decreasing day by day.
The requirements of food materials from a limited land area can only be fulfilled by
increasing the food production of that land. But at the same time effort to increase the
production per unit land area should not adversely affect our environment and the natural
resources. 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
.z
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
Land (in hectare)

12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 .vz
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
12345
12345 12345
12345 123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
.}
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345 123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
12345 12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345 12345
12345
12345
12345
12345 123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
123
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
12345 12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456

1950-51 1999-2000 2020

Available agricultural land per person in India

Control of environ- Conservation of Control over

mental pollution biodiversity increasing CO2 levels

Importance of
sustainable
agriculture

Conservation of Check on decreasing

soil quality Forest area

Chapter-14 (P-225)
Difference between Sustainable Agriculture and Present Agriculture
S.No. Points Sustainable Agriculture Present Agriculture

1. Quality of obtained Food materials are safe Residues of toxic

food materials substances are present in
food materials.
2. Requirement of Bio fertilisers, manure Chemical fertilizers are
essential nutrient compost, crop rotation, mainly used.
elements mixed farming are
used to meet the
requirements.
3. Control of pests Agricultural and Mainly done by using
biological techniques chemical pesticides
are used.
4. Effects on Ecosystem Ecosystem becomes Ecosystem is adversely
more stable and affected and forest area
deforestation is is decreased.
checked.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

What is sustainable agriculture?
How sustainable agriculture is useful?
What are the methods to improve agricultural practices?
How sustainable agriculture is different from present agriculture?

14.3. Mixed Farming :

When on a farm alongwith crop production, some other agriculture based practice like
poultry, dairy farming or bee keeping etc is adopted, then this system of farming is known as
Mixed Farming.
1. Food-fodder : Food crops grown along with fodder crops
2. Agro forestry : Trees grown along with crops.
3. Fodder orchard : Fruit trees grown along with fodder crops.

14.3.1. Advantages of Mixed Farming

Our Farmers can be benefitted by adopting some other agricultural practice alongwith
farming in the following ways.
1. Farmers income is increased.
Chapter-14 (P-226)
2. Labours can find work throughout the year on the farm.
3. Fodder and manure are made available at a lesser cost.
4. Land use is maximized.
5. Labours get employment opportunities on the farm.
6. Dairy farming provides pure and nutritious substances like milk, curd, ghee, butter,
cream, cheese etc.
7. Farmers time is meaningfully utilized.

14.3.2. Limitations of Mixed Farming

1. Due to excessive work, management becomes difficult.
2. More finances are required for this type of farming.
3. Large sized farms are required for mixed farming.

14.4. Mixed Cropping

The practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in one field is followed in
our country since olden times. Even today, if we visit the fields in rural areas in the months of
July August we find that alongwith soyabean crops the plants of pigeon pea (Arhar), maize
and jowar are growing and in the months of October November we can see mustard plants
growing along with wheat crop. This practice is called as mixed cropping. Thus, the practice
of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field is known as mixed cropping.
In this farming one crop is the main crop and the other is the secondary crop. All the
agricultural tasks like, ploughing, sowing, adding manure or fertilizers, irrigation, weeding
etc are done keeping in view the main crop. Generally the following mixed cropping patterns
are followed in different areas of Madhya Pradesh.

Soybean + Pigeon pea Wheat + mustard

lllll lllll
Jowar + Soyabean Wheat + Linseed lllll lllll
lllll lllll
Maize + Soyabean Wheat + Gram lllll lllll
lllll lllll
Cotton + Moong Linseed + Gram lllll Main crop lllll
lllll X Secondary lllll
Jowar + Urd Jowar + Gram lllll crop lllll
main crop mixed crop

The concept of mixed cropping can be made clear by visiting a nearby agricultural
farm or village.

Chapter-14 (P-227)
Principles of mixed cropping
While growing two or more crops in a field, following principles should be kept in mind so
that maximum benefit is obtained from mixed cropping :
Cereal crops should be grown alongwith pulses crops as the later are helpful in
increasing fertility of soil through nitrogen fixation.
Crops with different types of root systems should be grown together. Like deep rooted
crops can be grown with crops having shallow roots.
Crops having more growth should be planted with crops having lesser growth.
Crops with different water requirements should be grown together and the time of
water requirement should also be different.
Crops affected by same type of pests and diseases should not be grown together.
Crops sown in the same season should be grown together, like maize with soybean or
wheat with mustard and linseed etc.

Advantages of Mixed Cropping

There is lesser financial risk involved in crop production.
Fertility of the soil is not adversely affected.
The infestation of insects, diseases and weeds will be reduced.
Land use becomes more effective.
Soil erosion can be prevented.
There is increase in the yield of crops.
Cost of production becomes cost effective.
Different types of agricultural products are obtained which are helpful to fulfil the
needs of a family, like cereals, pulses, nutritious fodder, easy cash etc.

Difficulties of Mixed cropping

Following difficulties are met in practicing mixed cropping :
Difficulty in getting good quality seeds.
There is problem in weed control
It is inconvenient to use different types of insecticides and pesticides.
Harvesting can not be done properly.
Keeping in view these difficulties and the increasing demands of food materials the
traditional mixed cropping is retailored and a new system known as inter-cropping is
developed. In this system two or more crops are grown simultaneously in a field in different

Chapter-14 (P-228)
rows and in a definite proportion. Based on research studies, favourable patterns of different
crops are determined. These patterns can be 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 2 : 2, 1:3 etc. For the dry regions of
Madhya Pradesh, Soybean and arhar can be best grown in the pattern of 4 : 2, that is four
rows of Soybean and then two rows of Arhar can be grown in the entire field. The pattern of
other intercropping crops have also been determined according to different areas and by
adopting these we can increase the crop yield and bring stability.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012
Inter cropping of maize and moong Inter cropping of gram and Jawar

Differences between mixed cropping and intercropping

S.No. Mixed cropping Intercropping

1. Its main aim is to minimise risk in Its main aim is to increase the
crop production despite uncertain production per unit area.
climatic conditions.
2. The seeds of two or more crops are Seeds are not mixed together.
mixed and sown by scattering or
may be sown in rows.
3. In this method crops are not grown The crops are grown according to a
in definite ratios. proper sequence and ratio in different
rows.
4. Difficulty is faced to provide Different types of fertilizers and
different fertilizers and insecticides insecticides for each crop as per the
for each crop separately. requirement can be used.

5. Separate harvesting of each crop It is possible to harvest each crop

becomes difficult. separately.

6. To obtain seeds of a single crop is Seeds can be obtained of each crop

difficult. easily.

Chapter-14 (P-229)
 Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. What do you understand by mixed farming?
2. What are the advantages of mixed farming?
3. In which agricultural system food crops are grown with fodder crops.
4. What are the difficulties of mixed farming?
5. How is intercropping better than mixed cropping.
6. Give four examples of mixed cropping followed in your area.

14.5 Crop rotation

Growing of the same type of crop continuously on a piece of land makes the soil
deficient in nutrients. There is increased risk of pests and diseases for the crop and the
physical properties of soil are adversely affected. This problem has motivated the farmers
to grow different types of crops in their fields and they felt the need of crop rotation.
Thus, growing of different crops on a piece of land in preplanned successions to
maintain the soil fertility is called as crop rotation.
Through crop rotation we can improve the crop productivity along with maintaining
the soil fertility
Depending upon the duration, crop rotation can be classified into three types :
One year rotation : It is completed in one year or less then one year.
Soyabean Gram Maize gram
Cotton Gram Maize Peas
Two year rotation : It is compeleted in two years or less than two years
Soyabean Wheat Maize Gram
Maize Gram Soyabean Wheat
Soyabean Sugarcane Moong
Multiple year rotation : It is completed in more than two years
Rice Peas Soyabean Sugarcane
Maize Gram Moong Sugarcane Berseem
Cotton Oats Sugarcane Peas Maize Wheat

14.5.1. Principles of Crop Rotation

After shallow rooted crops, deep rooted crops should be grown.

Chapter-14 (P-230)
 The crops with more fertilizer requirement should be followed by crops with lesser
fertilizer requirement.
Cereal crops should be followed by pulse crops.
After the crops with more water requirement, the crops with lesser water requirement
should be grown.
Crops susceptible to a particular type of pest should not follow one another.
The crops requiring deep ploughing should follow crops requiring shallow ploughing.
For a particular piece of land while planning for crop rotaion following points in addition
to the principles should be kept in mind.
By following the principles of crop rotation and by the selection of best and beneficial
crop rotation practice for a particular land area, we can improve the crop productivity.

Available Financial
Climatic Market
Area of land sources of condition of
conditions demand
irrigation the farmer
Availability Government
of rules
labourers

14.5.2. Importance of crop rotation

By adopting crop rotation, different physical, biological and financial benefits can be
obtained as follows :
Depletion of soil fertility does not occur.
Infestation of weeds is reduced thereby reducing the cost of weeding.
Physical conditions of soil are improved.
Cost of crop production is reduced and crop productivity is increased.
Soil erosion can be prevented.
Available resources like land, fertilizers, manure, equipment, labour and irrigation
can be fully utilized.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
What do you mean by the term crop rotation?
Name four types of crop rotation practised in your area.
How does crop rotation help in sustainable agriculture?

Chapter-14 (P-231)
14.6 Improvement of crops :
We find around us different types of fruits, vegetables, cereals etc. which differ in
their colour, size and shape, taste, plant height and other such characters. For example the
varieties of chillies differ for their pungent taste, onion varieties differ for their colour,
that of wheat for plant height, rice varieties for their flavour, pulses for their protein
percentage and the productivity potential of various varieties differ to a great extent. It is
clear from this that in nature we find several varieties of the same plant and each variety is
having its specific characteristics. For example, tall varieties of wheat require more
fertilizers and water but have low yield. Therefore, a need was felt to improve the
characteristics of plant varieties so that the needs of increasing population can be fulfilled
by improving the productivity of food grains, fruits, vegetables etc.
Improvement of crop varieties is an important part of sustainable agriculture as through
this we can develop high yielding and disease resistant crop varieties so that the present
demand of grains can easily be fulfilled.
Plant Breeding : Plant breeding is a science in which different methods are studied to
bring improvement in the basic characteristics of plants so that these are made economically
more useful. In plant breeding, the varieties of crops are improved keeping in view, the
specific objectives which are as follows :
1. Development of high yielding varieties.
2. Improvement of certain characteristics like dwarfism in cereals, protein content of pulses,
nutrient content in fruits and vegetables.
3. Early ripening of crops.
4. Development of disease and insect resistant crop varieties.
5. Development of varieties that can be successfully grown in acidic and alkaline soils.
6. Development of varieties that are able to tolerate, drought, frost, water logging etc.
7. Development of varieties that can be grown in any climatic (light and temperature)
conditions
Dr. M.S.Swaminathan
Born on 7th August, 1925. Dr. Monkambu Samvasivan
Swaminathan is considered as eminent agricultural scientist and
architect of Green Revolution in India. United Nations
Environment Programme has described him as father of
economic ecology for his outstanding contribution in the field
of agriculture and environment protection. He was awarded
World Food Prize in 1987 for his contribution of fighting
against hunger. Govt. of India has honoured him with highest
civilian award Padamshree in 1967, Padambhushan in 1972 and
Padamvibhushan in 1989 for his unforgettable contribution in

Chapter-14 (P-232)
 the field of agriculture. A plant geneticist by profession, he has contributed to the
Agricultural development of India. He is former Director, IARI and Director General
ICAR, NewDelhi, and Director General International Rice Research Institute, Manila.
He has been chosen for UNESCO Chair in M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Chennai and presently is Chairman of National Agricultural Commission.
14.7 Methods of Plant Breeding
The process of obtaining the plants with desired characteristics by changing their
genetic make up is called Plant Breeding. For this following methods are used.
(i) Introduction (ii) Selection (iii) Hybridization (iv) Mutation (v)
Polyploidy (vi) Genetic engineering.
(i) Introduction : In this method, a crop variety is transported from the place of its
cultivation to another place where it was never grown earlier. To make a wild plant into
agriculturally cultivated plants is also covered under Introduction. There has been
substantial increase in crop productivity in India through the introduction of improved
dwarf wheat varieties from Mexico, Soybean from China and IR-8 Rice variety from
Philippines.
(ii) Selection : In this method of plant breeding the plants with desired characteristics are
separated from a large group and are propagated further to get new varieties. Selection
is an important and necessary process in every programme of plant breeding. It is of
two types.
(a) Pure line Selection : In this method of Selection, maximum number of plants
with desired and superior characteristics are selected from a group having different
varieties. The seeds of each selected
Main steps of Hybridiaztion
plant are sown in different rows and
from off springs again the plants with Deciding the objective of
desired characteristics are selected. hybridization.
The seeds of these selected plants are Selection of parent plant
again sown in different rows. In this
Selfing of selected plants through
way the process of selection is carried
out for many generations. At the end self Pollination.
much superior plants as compared to Emasculation-removing stamens
the initial group are obtained. This from bisexual flowers.
whole process takes 7-10 years. Crossing the two parent plants
(b) Mass Selection : In this method, first (sexual reproduction).
of all plants having desired
Selection of plants with desired
characteristics and looking similar are
characteristics.
selected. Then the seeds of all the
selected plants are mixed and sown in

Chapter-14 (P-233)
 a field and once again the plants with desired characteristics are selected, their
seeds are obtained and mixed together. This process is continued for many
generations till the plants attain all the desired characteristics.
(iii) Hybridization : It is considered as the best, modern scientific method of plant
breeding through which improved varieties of plants can be produced by bringing the
desirable genes of different plants into one plant by crossing them through sexual
reproduction. The crossing may be between different varieties or between different
species. In this way offsprings produced through hybridization are called hybrids.
(iv) Mutation : In this method, the plants or their seeds are treated with physical or
chemical agents like gamma rays, beta rays, methyl sulphonate or ethyl sulphonate.
This treatment causes sudden and stable change in the genetic make up and thus new
varieties are produced.
(v) Polyploidy : In this method of plant breeding, new varieties are produced by changing
the number of chromosome sets. Polyploidy in plants can be induced by a chemical
called Colchicine.
(vi) Genetic Engineering : In this method new varieties are developed by recombination
of DNA (Deoxy Ribonucleic Acid)
Genetic make up : In each organism different characteristics are determined by
genes. For each characteristic there is a specific gene. This gene specificity of
each organisms is called genetic make up.
Chromosome : Thread like structures found in the nucleus of each cell are called
as chromosomes.
Hybridized varieties of some food crops

Name of the Crop Main hybridized varieties

Rice Ratna, Jagannath, Annupama, Garima, Hansa, Kaveri
Maize Ganga-1, Ganga safed-2, Deccan, Highstarch Ranjit, Ganga-4,
Ganga-7
Jowar C.H.C-1, C.H.C.-2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Bajra H.V.-1, H.V.-2, H.V.-3, H.V.-4
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The necessity of sustainable agriculture was felt ot fulfil the needs of present and future
generations without damaging the environment and the natural resources.
Sustainable agriculture is a kind of agriculture in which food production is increased
substantially without affecting the environment.
Sustainable agriculture is also known as environmental farming or organic farming.
In mixed farming, along with farming, some other agriculture based practices are also

Chapter-14 (P-234)
 carried out.
The process of growing two or more crops simultaneously in a field is called as
mixed cropping.
The process of growing different crops in succession on an area at a particular time is
called as crop rotation.
During crop rotation, pulse crops (leguminous crops) should be included in order to
maintain the fertility of the soil.
The two crops infested with the same type of pests/insects should not be grown in
succession during crop rotation.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1. What is meant by sustainable agriculture?
2. Define mixed farming.
3. Explain crop rotation and its advantages.
4. What is meant by inter-cropping?
5. Name the methods of plant breeding.
Short answer type questions.
6. Describe the importance of sustainable agriculture in modern times.
7. What are the main difficulties of mixed farming?
8. Give some examples of the pattern of mixed cropping generally followed.
9. What are the disadvantages of mixed cropping?
10. Explain the process of Introduction giving examples
Long answer type questions.
11. Justify that sustainable agriculture is better than the present agriculture.
12. What are the advantages of mixed farming?
13. What are the main principles of mixed cropping?
14. What is hybridization? Explain with the help of examples
Very long answer type questions.
15. Explain the need and objectives of crop improvement.
16. Explain plant breeding and describe its various methods.
PROJECT
Collect the samples of different varieties of wheat grown in your district and
write two characteristics of each variety on a chart having samples of the wheat
varieties, pasted on it.

Chapter-14 (P-235)
 CHAPTER - 15

Food Resources : Animals

1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
15.1 Need and importance of Food Resources
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Agricultural land is limited and population is increasing
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 tremendously. So our food demand is also increasing very fast.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
Only in continent of Asia itself approximately 61% homes are
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 suffering from lack of proper nutrition. This problem is more
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
serious in rural areas. Thus for obtaining best nutrition, in
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345
1234567890123456789012345678901212345 addition to increasing plant food products, there is dire need to
conserve animal food products. We obtain animal foods mainly
Let us learn from milk producing animals, egg laying birds, and meat
15.1 Need and providing animals. In India, animals like cows, buffalo & goat
importance of are reared for milk, hens for eggs and meat, sheep, goat, pig and
Food Resources fish for meat are reared for production at commercial level. Now
: Animals a days rabbit rearing is also coming up as a useful business in
our country.
15.2 Animal
Providing food Indian Dairyman Dr. Vergese Kurien
resources and
Famous for the name of Milkman of India, Dr.
main breeds of
Vergese Kurien was born in
animals and
Kerala on 26th November, 1921.
birds.
He started his professional
15.3 Housing and career as Dairy Engineer and by
Nutrition for fulfilling the dream of Milk
Cattle and Development Programme
poultry Birds. (operation flood) he gave an
15.4 Breeding in unmatched contribution in white
Animals revolution. He is considered as
the father of white revolution. He established National
15.5 Main diseases Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in India.
of cattle and
their We should make available animal food product of high
prevention. nutritional value along with food grains to our increasing
population so that they can get balanced food. The quality and
production of animal food resources can be increased by proper

Chapter-15 (P-236)
care, required nutrition, reproduction, improving breed and controlling various diseases.
Keeping these objectives in mind, Government of India has made a praise worthy attempt
to increase milk and fish production through white and blue revolution respectively. After
a great success in white revolution our country is heading towards blue revolution (fish
farming).

Importance of animal food products

The use of animal food product is less, but looking to the limited availability of food grains
and the pressure of agriculture, the importance of animal food resources are as follows:
1. These food resources save our food grains.
2. Alternative food products are available.
3. Animal food products are nutritious.
4. Many persons get employment through animal husbandry.
5. Raw materials like leather, hair, bones etc. for many other industries are obtained.

15.2 Animal Providing Food Resources and Main Breeds of Animals

And Birds
Many species of animals providing food resources in India are cow, buffalo, goat,
sheep, fish, pig and rabbit and other marine animals are crabs,
oyster and prawn etc. We have plenty of vegetarian people in
India, the milk producing animals like cows, buffaloes, goat
has special importance. In view of meat production goat, sheep,
pig, fish and rabbit are important animals. Similarly for eggs
and meat production poultry birds like hen also have important
place.
Sahiwal Breeds cow
Cow rearing : Cow has got special importance in the
Indian culture. It provides milk for us and bullocks for farming
and transport purposes. There are about thirty popular breeds
of cow in India. They are divided into three classes.
Milk Breeds : These breeds are high milk yielder but
their calves are not useful for farming. These are Red Sindhi,
Sahiwal, Gir and Deoni.
Khillari Breeds cow
Draught Breeds : They yield less milk however their
calves are best for farming and bullocks. Amrit Mahal, Dangi, Kangayam, Mewati, Khillari
etc.

Chapter-15 (P-237)
 Dual Purpose Breeds : Cows of these breeds are high milk yielders and their calves
are also useful for agricultural work. Haryana, Tharparkar, Ongole, Krishnavelly etc.
In addition to the cows of Indian breeds, cows of various exotic breeds are also reared
or domesticated. Many exotic breeds of cow are Holstein Fresian, Brown Swiss, Aiyer
Shayer Jersey. These breeds have more milk yielding capacity than Indian breeds. To get
increased high yield, cross breeds have been developed. Major cross breeds are as follows :
Karan Swiss : This breed has been developed by crossing bull of Brown Swiss and
Cow of Sahiwal breed. Its milk production capacity per lactation is 3200 litre.
Karan Fries : This has been developed by cross between bull of Fresian and a cow of
Holstein breed. Its average milk production is 3600 liters per lactation.
Jersind : This breed is being developed by a cross between red Sindhi cow and Jersey
bull. Its milk production capacity is 3700 litre per lactation.

Many breeds are domesticated in Madhya

Pradesh but Nimadi and Malwi breeds are indigenous
breeds of Madhya Pradesh found mainly in Nimad and
Malwa regions respectively.

Main Breeds of Buffaloes :

Buffaloes generic animals are also domesticated for
milk production in India. There are ten breeds of buffalo in
our country. The important breeds are Murrah, Bhadawari,
Jaffrabadi, Mehsana etc.
Main Breeds of Goat :
Goat milk is considered to be the best food for children,
aged persons and patients. We also get food in the form of
goat meat. Various breeds of goat are domesticated in M.P.
and India. Jamunapari breed is one major milk producing breed
which gives 1.5 to 2.0 litres milk per day. Additionally the
young males are also providing meat.
Barbary Goat is called city goat because it is maintained
just by keeping it tied with rope where as other breeds required
to be taken for a walk outside which is not possible in cities.
Exotic breeds of goat : Sannen, Teengan, Alpine & Anglo
Nubian goats are exotic breeds. Sannen breed is known
as queen of milk.
Murrah Buffallo
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
Barbari Goat
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Chapter-15 (P-238)
Main Breeds of Sheep : Sheep are mainly domesticated for getting wool and meat products.
Sheep also provide us milk in addition to wool.
Wool Producing Indian Breeds of Sheep : Bikaneri, Marwari, Bhakarwal, Karnah,
Bhadarvah, Gurej, Rampur Bushair, Hasan, Deccany.
Meat Producing Breeds : Jaloni madia & Nellore.
Meat & Wool producing breeds Hissar Dale, Bellari, Lohi, Kacchi etc.
Merino breed is famous breed for finest wool in the world. Merino, Remboulet
Southdon, Koriuel etc. sheep are main exotic breeds.
Poultry Breeds : There are 20 25 breeds which are useful economically and can be
domesticated in our country. Aseel, Ghagus, Game, Chitgaon, Vasra, Karaknath, Jersey
joint are major breeds domesticated for meat or poultry.
Karaknath is the well known breed of fowl found in Jhabua district of Madhya
Pradesh. Its meat, blood and body is completely black and its meat is delicious. Cock
weighs about 1.5 kg and hen about 1.0 kg. But its egg laying capacity is very less.
Aseel is the best meat breed in India. This breed provide high yield of meat but is not a
good egg layer. Aseel breed cock has weight of about 4 - 5 kg and of hen is about 3 4 kg.
White leghorn, Minorca, Aan Cona and campirus breeds are exotic breeds reared for
production of eggs.

Other Animals Husbandry :

In addition to the above given live stock and poultry, fish and pig also has important
contribution in meat production.
Fish Farming : Indigenous breeds of fish in India are Catla, Rohu, Marigal and exotic
breeds are Silver Carp & grass carp. Catla has best growth power.
Piggery : Large white Yorkshire, middle white Yorkshire, Verkshire, Chester white,
Durac etc are the Indian and exotic breeds of pig. They are domesticated for meat and hair.
Rabbit Farming : This business is also flourishing in our country because meat of
rabbit has more proteins and less fat and cholesterol. Besides it has fast reproduction and
growth rate, small gestation period and capacity to produce 4 5 litres in a year which makes
rabbit farming possible and more profitable. In India, there are available six breeds of rabbit
which are Newzealand White, Grey joint, White joint, Black Brown, Soviet Chinchila and
Dutch.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

1. Which are the food providing main animals in Madhya Pradesh?

Chapter-15 (P-239)
 2. Which are suitable Indian breeds of dairy (milk) cows?
3. Which are the draught breeds of cows?
4. Give examples of cross breeds of cow and their milk production capacity.
5. Which are major breeds of buffaloes?
6. List the wool providing breeds of sheep.
7. What are major causes of rabbit farming business development?

15.3 Housing and Nutrition for Cattle and Poultry Birds.

To get maximum products from cattle and other animals providing good housing and
nutrition is necessary. Mainly two types of housing are used to protect cattle and poultry
birds, from extreme climates like excessive cold, heat and rain.
1. Temporary Sheds 2. Permanent Sheds
1. Temporary shed : They are low cost houses which are made by fixing wooden rods
and roof of grasses and other shrubs and the floor made by levelling the soil of the
ground.
2. Permanent houses : Permanent and strong sheds are made for large scale dairy farming
and poultry. The walls are strong and net like as per need, floor made of cement- concrete.
The following characteristic should be present in the houses of cattles and poultry
birds.
Housing/Shed should be on upper area so that water does not collect there. It
should have proper electricity and water arrangement.
The floor of house should be slopping so that urine/dung / feaces and other waste
should be easily removed and keep the floor dry and clean for the cattle.
Sheds should have proper arrangement for entry and exit of clean and fresh air
and for entry of sufficient amount of sunlight.
Sheds should be clean & bacteria free.

For cows, buffaloes and goats, single or double row cattle sheds are used. Double
row cattle sheds can accomodate more cattles. In these cattles are tied by keeping
them face to face or back to back
In piggery, every animal has his own space alloted for it because they can not be kept
in tied position.

Poultry Houses (Shelters) :

Chapter-15 (P-240)
 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
Two type of systems are used for 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
temporary or permanent shelters for poultry. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
1. Deep litter system 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
2. Cage system 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
In deep litter system the birds are kept 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
in close rooms, on the floor of which is spread 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
6 to 12 inches thick layer of wooden powder 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
or other material. The food and water are kept 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121
in separate utensiles. In cage system, the birds 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121

are kept in separate cages. There is separate Cage system

arrangement of food & water for each bird.
The floor of the cage is having net and is slanting so that there is no garbage or waste in the
cage. The eggs rolls down and comes forward from where it is collected.

Nutrition of Cattle and Poultry Bird

To get maximum benefit from cattles and birds, their diet should be decided on the
basis of age, production and work to be taken. As diet has major importance in animal farming
and poultry farming. Therefore, the food requirement of cattle and poultry should have
following characteristics :
1. The cattle-birds should be given nutritious food during gestation period for embryo
development.
2. Young cattles should be given food, containing more protein.
3. The diet of cattles doing hard work should have more carbohydrates,which will provide
them more energy.
4. The diet of animals, birds should be based on climate and their health conditions.
5. Health check-up should be done, if the animal is not taking proper diet.

Sources for different components of cattle feed

1. Carbohydrates Wheat, rice, oat, maize, jowar.
2. Protein Groundnut, cotton seed or soyabean cake & various pulses.
3. Fat Seeds or oil of groundnut, soyabean or pinseed.
4. Mineral Salt, green fodder, mixture of minerals salts.
5. Roughage Green fooder, barseem, silage etc.
6. Water In addition to giving water two times per day, salty water should also be
given some time.
Chapter-15 (P-241)
 Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. Which systems are used for poultry birds housing?
2. Which facilities should be present in an ideal cattle shed?
3. Which things need to be kept in mind while deciding the diet of cattle & birds?
4. What type of food should be given to poultry birds?
5. What are the main food sources providing carbohydrate & protein in cattle's diet?

15.4 Breeding in Animals

Reproduction is that process in living beings by which they can produce

offsprings of their own type.

Male and female reproductive organs in cattles are separate. Eggs are produced in the
ovary of female. The cycle of production of egg is called oestrous cycle. The age of cow
when it become pregnant for the first time is between 2.5 to 4.0 years. The time period of
production of egg in cow is called oestrous or heat period.

Oestrous period of cow can be identified on the basis of following

symptoms :
1. Cows take less food and urinate frequently.
2. Cows become restless and encircle around the fix point.
3. Cows mount on other cattle.
4. A yellow viscous substance oozes out of the cows vagina.
The cow has heat period of 8 to 36 hours. During this period, cow is mated with best
quality bull. After mating, eggs of female and sperms of male fertilize to form zygote in the
uterus of cow. This zygote develop in the form of embryo and takes birth as calf when fully
developed.
Every cattle has different gestation period. The female who does not get pregnant enters
the oestrous cycle again.
The main objectives of cattle reproduction is as follows:
1. To increase milk production in dairy cattle.
2. To improve breeds of cattles.
3. To increase resistance against diseases in cattle.
4. To acquire desired characters in cattle.
5. Increase lactation period in cattle.

Chapter-15 (P-242)
Artificial Insemination : Gestation period in
To increase the production capacity of cattles, efforts are different cattles.
being made in the whole country through artificial insemination
Cow 282 days
method. In this method, semen is collected from the best breed
of bull in an artificial vagina. It is freezed and preserved at proper Buffalo 310 days
temperature. It is injected into the vagina of female during heat Goat 150 days
period through artificial means. Here the sperms present in
Sheep 150 days
semen fertilize the egg to from zygote, which later on develop
in the form of embryo and give birth to young one. Pig 114 days
Advantages of artificial insemination : Rabbit 30 days
1. The semen obtained from one bull by this method can be
used to inseminate female cattle ten times more than by natural method.
2. Frozen semen can be stored for a long period and can be carried to remote places
with ease.
3. This method can check the spread of sexually transmitted diseases in cattle.
4. This method is economical and the small farmers / dairy owners can be saved from
the expenditure of raising bull.
Embryo transfer Technique :
This is improved and modern technique for improving the breeds of animals. In
this method developed embryo is removed from pregnant superior cattle breed and
transferred into uterus of another female for further development.
15.5 Main diseases of cattle and their prevention
Many types of diseases occur in animal food resources which adversely affects their
production, growth and work capacity. A healthy animal is recognised by its definite body
temperature, pulse and respiration rate and it has regular feeding, but in diseased conditions
all these processes become abnormal. Different symptoms appear in various disease conditions
of cattles and birds. At the beginning of disease, animal stops taking food and water, and its
production lowers down and it takes along time to bring it to normal condition.
Our main aim is to protect the cattle and birds from diseases. In cattles, diseases
occur due to adverse conditions, malnutrition or decline in the immunity. In cattle and
poultry, birds the diseases are mainly caused by microbes and parasites.
Disease of Dairy Cattle :
Diseases caused by viruses in dairy cattle are mainly foot-and-mouth disease and
Rinder pest. Main bacterial diseases in the the cattles are haemorrhagic septicemia, black
quarter, anthrax etc. In cow generic cattles, milk fever disease is caused due to deficiency
of calcium. In sheep and goat, virus causes sheep and goat pox.

Chapter-15 (P-243)
Poultry diseases :
Fowls are very sensitive poultry birds. Thus they needs to be protected from the cold.
Very young birds get cold in winter, so chicks and birds die. In hens infectious bronchitis,
fowl pox and merek diseases are caused by viruses. Where as pulorem and cholera are caused
by bacteria. Similarly coccideosis disease is caused by a parasite.
Diseases of Pigs :
Similarly diseases found in pigs like foot and mouth disease, cholera, brucellosis, swine
pox, anthrax etc. are caused by bacteria and viruses.
Diseases of fish :
Diseases like infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) and viral haemorrhagic septicemia
(VHS) in fish are caused by viruses. Serious infections also occur in fishes by polluted water.
Control of diseases :
Diseases are caused due to various reasons in animal bird farming. Following efforts
can be made to protect the animals from the diseases.
Keep infected cattles away from healthy ones.
Destroy the infected material and burry them inside the ground.
Veternary doctors should be immediately informed about the spread of disease.
Cleaning and sterilization of cattle shed & poultry cages.
Changing the pasteur fields.
Cleanliness of cattles & their attendants.
Proper checkup of new cattles before keeping them in a herd.
Regular health check up by veternary doctor.
Providing nutritious and balanced food to the cattles.
Vaccination of cattles for different diseases well in time.
Major Institutions of India Concerned with live stock
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (NDRI), Haryana.
Indian Veternary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, Barellei (U.P.)
Find out the answer of these questions your self :
1. How the identification of oestrous period is done in the cow herds?
2. Give four main objectives of reproduction in cattles.
3. Explain artificial insemination.
4. Write main differences in a healthy and a diseased cattle.
5. Name the major diseases of poultry.
6. Mention major bacterial diseases of cow and buffalo.
7. Write major steps to protect live stock from diseases.

Chapter-15 (P-244)
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
Plant proteins are different from animal protein.
Live stock provides us food in the form of milk, eggs and meat.
Goat is domesticated mainly for the meat in addition to milk.
Pashmina is found as a layer of soft material under the hairs in Kashmiri Goat from
which famous Pashmina shawls are prepared.
White Revolution is concerned with the increase in milk production and Operation
Flood is the name given to milk development programme.
Blue revolution is concerned with the increase of fish production.
Aseel is a famous Indian fowl breed which is well known for its meat.
Karaknath is a famous meat producing fowl of Madhya Pradesh which is mainly found
in Jhabua district.
In cattle, diseases are mainly caused by bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
In cows, milk fever disease is caused due to the deficiency of calcium.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1. What do you understand by white revolution?
2. Which is the Indian dairy cow breed giving maximum milk yield?
3. Which are the major draught breeds producing superior calves for agriculture purpose?
4. Which cow breeds have been crossed to produce Karan-Swiss and Karan-Fries?
Short answers type questions
1. Which are the main meat producing animals?
2. Explain main features of Barbari breed of cow.
3. What is the advantage of double purpose breeds used in poultry farming?
4. Give types of cattle sheds and their advantages.
Long answer type questions
1. Explain the importance of animal food resources for human food.
2. Give details of Indian breeds of buffaloes.
3. How should be an ideal cattle shed?
4. Mention main remedies to protect cattles and poultry birds from various diseases.
5. What is artificial insemination? Give its advantages.
PROJECT
Collect information about milk producing animals in your surroundings
on the following points :
1. Housing arrangement for milk animals.
2. Food of milk yielding cattles and their arrangement.
3. Arrangement for the treatment of diseased animals.

Chapter-15 (P-245)
 CHAPTER - 16

Our Natural Resources

Coal and Petroleum
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
In Indian culture nature is respected like mother as it
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 fulfills all the requirements of mankind. Since the very
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 beginning of human civilization, we are dependent on nature
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
for fulfilling our requirements. These natural resources have a
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 great contribution in the development of our civilization.
Let us learn Natural resources can be defined as follows :
16.1 Classification of
natural resources The sources which exist in nature are called natural
16.2 Effects of resources eg. air, water, soil, minerals etc.
depleting of
resources 16.1. Classification of Natural resources
16.3 Regeneration of Nature has given us the abundance resources of many
natural resources. substances.
16.4 Coal and
Petroleum as
Natural resources
natural resources.
16.5 Destructive
distillation of
Inexhaustible Exhaustible
Coal. (Which do not exhaust) (Which exhaust)
16.6 Petroleum.
Soil, energy etc
16.7 Carbon and its
compounds.
Renewable Non-Renewable
16.8 Tetravalancy of
carbon.
Water Petroleum
16.9 Catenation of
Forest Minerals
carbon Animals Coal
16.10 Classification of From the above classification it is obvious that the nature
Hydrocarbons.
has provided us two types of resources. Those resources which
16.11 Homologous never exhaust are called inexhaustible resources and the
series.
resources which are limited for use are categorised as
16.12 Isomerism
exhaustible resources.
16.13 Methods of
preparation and The exhaustible resources are further divided into two
characteristics of categories. Water, forest and wild animals are the resources
methane, ethene
which can be renewed or regenerated, while petroleum, minerals
and ethyne.

Chapter-16 (P-246)
and coal are the resources which when exhausted, can not be renewed or regenerated, as
they are formed by natural calamities million years ago. Therefore these are categorized as
non-renewable resources.
The description of some of the natural resources as follows :

16.1.1. A i r
Earth is the only planet which is surrounded by atmosphere (containing oxygen). Thats
why life exist here. Air is an important natural resource, which has various gases in definite
quantity. The change in the percentage of these gases affects the necessary conditions for
living beings. In the present times, the problem of pollution in the atmosphere is increasing
due to human activities. The increase in the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air is causing
the world wide problem of global warming.
To keep our environment pollution free we should adopt following measures.
1. Promote the plantation.
2. Make efforts to reduce the pollution.
3. Use such fuels in domestic work which cause less pollution.
4. Make efforts to reduce carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
5. Include the measures to reduce the pollution in industries.

16.1.2. Water
Water is the most precious treasure of nature. Water is an indispensible component
of our ecosystem and essence of our life. Earth has approximately 75% of water which is
known as hydrosphere. Though the water is present in abundance yet the whole world is
facing the problem of drinking water. This is because the quantity of pure drinking water
present is very less which can be understood by following diagram.
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901 25% land

12345678901
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901
12345678901 75% water

12345678901 97% sea water out of

Earth total water

3% pure water
Only 0.4% water is present in rivers

77.2% the total pure water frozen in the form

and ponds which is drinkable
of ice on earths poles which cannot be used
as drinking water
22.4% of pure water is found in earths layers and
is also not available for drinking
Fig 16.1

Chapter-16 (P-247)
 It is clear from the above diagram that the whole world is facing acute shortage of
drinking water. The amount of this water is further reduced due to water pollution and over
exploitation. The total water resources present in our country is 1869 km3 in the form of
rivers and 432 km3 as ground water. Our country has four major zones based on the annual
ratio of rains, they are arid zone, medium arid zone, partial dry zone and dry zone. Therefore,
for the conservation of water we should seriously think over the following points.
1. To control the industrial and domestic pollution.
2. Limited consumption of water.
3. To adopt modern technique for increasing the ground water resources eg. rain water
harvesting.
4. Make efforts for the conservation and purification of rivers, dams and other water
resources.

16.1.3. Soil
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earths surface and is also an important natural
resource. Plantations on the soil fulfill most of our day to day needs like food grains,
vegetables, herbs, woods etc. Though the soil is an in-exhaustive natural resource but its
fertility is being adversely affected due to various reasons of pollution. In comparison to
the soil formation, the soil erosion caused by winds, water and other pollution is faster
which should be controlled, hence the conservation of soil is necessary.
On the basis of physical nature and structure, the soil can be of following types :
1. Water logged 2. Black 3. Red 5. Sandy 6. Laterite

For the conservation of soil the following measures should be taken :

1. To control the weathering of soil due to strong winds and floods.
2. To promote the use of organic fertilizers and pesticides instead of chemical fertilizers
in the field of agriculture.
3. The urban and industrial polluted water should be used for agricultural purposes only
after treatment.
4. The fertility of soil gets reduced by growing the same crop regularly. Therefore the
crop rotation should be done for different crop combinations.
5. Adopt measures to prevent the soil erosion.

16.1.4. Salts
The salts or minerals are the natural resources which are exhaustible though they are
found in abundance in nature. The consumption of these salts or minerals are increasing

Chapter-16 (P-248)
day by day, Thus these natural resources are getting exhausted. Though the soil regains its
fertility slowly, yet the following measures should be taken for the conservation of soil.
1. Limited use of minerals.
2. To set up the industry for the recycling of minerals.
3. To use the available alternatives for the minerals found in limited quantity.

16.1.5. Energy
Energy is essential for our day to day life. The changing life style and the new
discoveries have increased the utilization of energy. In earlier times coal, wood, petroleum,
hydropower etc. were the main sources of energy. But now a days efforts are going on to
search new alternative sources of energy as the problem of exhaustion of coal, petroleum
is rising due to their over consumption. The sources of energy are divided into following
two categories :
1. Non renewable or conventional sources-e.g. coal, petroleum etc.
2. Renewable or non-conventional sources-e.g. Solar energy, wind energy, energy
produced by nuclear fusion etc.
Coal and petroleum are also called the fossil fuels. Solar energy, wind energy,
hydropower, nuclear energy etc. are pollution free sources of energy. Many power plants
have been developed to generate these. Now solar energy is being converted into electrical
and thermal energies. Solar energy is consumed through solar cookers and solar heater
cells. Dams are built up on river for the generation of hydropower. Wind energy is being
converted into mechanical and electrical energies.
These days ocean currents, tidal energy, thermal energy, ocean thermal energy are
being developed as the important energy sources.

16.1.6. Plants and animals

Plants and animals are the important components to maintain the ecological balance
and are necessary for the fulfillment of our day to day needs. Plants absorb solar energy to
supply the food to the whole world. Plants and animals also provide us fuel, cloth, leather
and manure. Therefore plants and animals are complimentary to each other and both are the
biological components of ecosystem. By conserving these components many natural
resources are conserved automatically. The following measures are necessary to conserve
them :
1. Plantation along the roadside, around the fields and on wastelands.
2. Ban should be forced on hunting and poaching of wild life and irrational cutting of
forests.
3. Plantation on destroyed forests.
4. To develop the game sanctuaries and national parks for the protection of wild life.

Chapter-16 (P-249)
5. To adopt other necessary measures for the conservation of plants and animals.
6. The forest act and wild life protection act should be strictly enforced.

16.2 Effects of depletion of resources

Man has over exploited the natural resources due to increasing population and
technological developments. This has caused the following effects.
1. Imbalance in nature : Over exploitation of resources has caused inbalance in the
nature. Fossil fuel, coal and wood are constantly used for various industrial, transport
and other daily life activites. Due to this, the carbon present in these resources is
liberated in the form of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a green
house gas that increases the atmospheric temperature. This leads to global warming
causing an imbalance in the ecosystems existing on the earth.
2. Depletion of materials and struggle for existence: Due to indiscriminate and over
exploitation of resources, the available materials get depleted and the living organisms
have to struggle for their existence. For example, man has been using wood for
thousands of years. For the last few centuries forests are being lost continuously and
it is estimated that within few centuries all the protected forests will be lost. Due to
this, many wild life species will become endangered and will have to struggle for
their existence.
3. Hindrance in economic progress : Economic progress is a matter of primary
concern for all the developing countries. There is over dependance on natural
resources due to lack of scientific and technological knowledge. Shortage of resources
affects the economic development. For example, India depends on thermal power
(generated from coal) for all its energy requirements. But the available coal reserve
can meet the demand for few hundred years only. The gap between energy demand and
supply is continuously increasing and its effect on economic progress can be clearly
observed.

16.3. Regeneration of natural resources

All the living beings i.e. man and animals have equal rights on all the natural resources.
Over exploitation should be avoided to fulfill the needs of any one of them. As man is the
most responsible living being, so he owes the responsibility of the protection and
regeneration of these resources. In context of changing environmental scenario he should
make more efforts for the conservation of these resources.
The common man has also an important role in the conservation of natural resources.
The sole dependence on government measures for the conservation of natural resources is
not enough to protect them. For this the organisation of awareness campaigns, seminars,
poster competition, exhibition etc is advisable.

Chapter-16 (P-250)
16.4. Coal and Petroleum
Coal is a hard black substance which is obtained from underground coal mines. While
petroleum is a coloured viscous liquid which is obtained from petroleum wells. Therefore
coal and petroleum both are the minerals as well as the prime sources of energy. As they
are formed beneath the surface of earth, therefore they are kept under the category of
natural resources.
Coal and petroleum both are the most useful substances which on distillation provide

highly precious organic compound used in several purposes. Coal, petroleum and natural
gas are collectively called fossil fuels. The fossils which are formed by the under ground
burrial of plants and animals millions years back get decomposed at high pressure and high
temperature to produce coal, petroleum and natural gas. This is the reason, they are called
as non renewable energy resources. Once they get exhausted it will take several centuries
to regenerate them.

16.4.1. Coal
Coal is a complex mixture of many compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In
coal carbon exists as free element in some quantity. The compounds of nitrogen and sulphur
are also present in small quantities in coal. The coal mines below the surface of the earth
mainly exist in China, America, England, Germany, Poland, Australia, and India. In India
coal mines are mainly found in abundance in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
The biggest coal mines of our country are in Bokaro in Bihar state and in Raniganj in West
Bengal. The process of formation of coal below the surface of the earth is a very slow
chemical process which is known as carbonization. Different types of coal are obtained
during the process of carbonization, which have different percentage of coal.
Table-1

S.No. Types of Coal Approximate % of Carbon

1. Peat 60% (coal of inferior quality)
2. Lignite (soft coal) 70%
3. Bituminous 80%
4. Anthracite (hard coal) 90% (Coal of superior quality)

16.5 Destructive distillation of Coal

Organic compounds of multiple use are formed on heating the coal at high temperature
in absence of air in closed retort. This process is called the destructive distillation of coal.
For the destructive distillation of coal in the laboratory, two boiling tubes of hard glass are
taken and arranged as shown in fig 16.2. The powdered coal is taken in boiling tube A while
some water is taken is boiling tube B. The heating of boiling tube A is gradually increased

Chapter-16 (P-251)
 after a slow start.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Boiling tube of hard glass
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Powdered coal
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Coal gas
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Burner Water + Ammonia
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Coaltar
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
Fig 16.2 Destructive distillation of coal

On fast heating the following products of coal are obtained

1. Coal gas 2 Ammonia 3. Coal tar 4 Coke
1. Coal gas : It is insoluble in water. Coal gas is the mixture of hydrogen, methane and
carbon monoxide. All these gases are inflammable and generate the heat. Therefore it
is used in the form of fuel and reductant.
2. Ammoniacal liquor : On heating the carbon powder ammonia gas is generated which
gets dissolved in water of tube B to form ammonical liquor. This ammoniacal liquor
is used in making fertilizers.
3. Coal tar : Coal tar is a viscous black liquid which gets deposited at the bottom of the
tube B during the destructive distillation of coal. The useful substances like benzene,
toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenol are obtained by the fractional distillation of
coal. The black viscous substance called pitch is obtained by the distillation of coal
tar and is used in the construction of roads.
4. Coke : The black residue left in tube A after the removal of volatile substances is
known as coke. Coke contain 98% of carbon in it. It is used as reducing agent in
metallurgy.
16.6. Petroleum
Petroleum is a black viscous oily substance having pungent smell. Petroleum is obtained
by drilling the rocks, therefore it is called petroleum (petro = rocks and oleum=oil).
Petroleum is formed by the decomposition of plants and animals of ocean burried under
the sand and mud at the bottom of the sea at high pressure and high temperature in presence
of bacterias.
The crude petroleum oil obtained from the rocks contains some solid, liquid and
gaseous hydrocarbons along with water, salt and particles of sand.

Chapter-16 (P-252)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Drilling Machine Uppermost layer of the earth
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Rock
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Natural gas
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Rock
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Petroleum
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Water
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Rock
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Fig 16.3 Petroleum gas beneath the surface of earth
The petroleum wells are found in the world in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, America, England,
Russia, Mexico and China. The first petroleum well of the world was discovered in year
1859 at Peristvania of U.S.A. In India the oil wells are found (i) at Ankleshwar and Kalol in
Gujarat (ii) at Rudra sagar and Lukwa in Assam (iii) in Mumbai approximately 1000 meters
below the sea level, which is known as Bombay High. Every-year approximately 22 million
ton oil is supplied by the Bombay high, which is little less than half of the total requirement
of our country.
In India, at first the oil exploration from the oil wells was carried out in year 1867 at
place called Mekkam in Assam.
In India, oil refineries are in Mumbai, Chennai, Baroni, Digboi, Gauhati, Haldia, Cochin,
Koyali and Vishakhapattanam. Most of them are controlled by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Petroleum gas (up to 25C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Petroleum ether (30C to 80C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Gasoline petrol (80C to 170C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Kerosene oil (170C to 250C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Diesel oil (250C to 350C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Fuel oil (350C to 400C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Residual oil (above 400C)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
(Lubrication oil, praffin vax, Asphalt and
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
petroleum coke are obtained by fractional
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
distillation)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Fig 16.4 Fractional distillation of petroleum.

Chapter-16 (P-253)
16.6.1. Refining of petroleum
The impurities of the petroleum extracted from oil wells are removed by fractional
distillation. The fractions having different boiling points are obtained separately by fractional
distillation.
The crude petroleum oil is heated up to approximately 400C before sending to the
lower part of a very high fractionating column. The vapours so formed of petroleum rise in
the fractionating column and gets condensed according to their boiling points. The condensed
fractions are collected through different channels of the fractionating column as their boiling
points are different. The fraction of petroleum which is not vapourised is taken out through
the outlet present at the bottom of the fractionating column in the form of residual oil. By
the fractional distillation of coal the substances like petroleum gas, lubricating oil, paraffin
wax, asphalt and petroleum coke are obtained.
In the following table the products obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum
are given with number of carbon atoms present, their boiling points and uses.
Table
S. Name of Product No of Carbon Range of Uses of Product
No Atoms boiling point
1. Petroleum gas Hydrocarbons up to 25C 1 Liquid petroleum Gas
atoms from (LPG) is used as fuel
C1 to C4 2 It is used in the tyre
manufacturing industry
in the form of carbon
black
3 In manufacturing of
hydrogen fertilizers
4 . It is used in the
formation of petrol by
polymerisation
reaction
2. Petroleum ether Hydrocarbons 30C to 1 It is used in dry
from C5 to C7 80C cleaning of clothes
2 Used as solvents
3. Gasoline or petrol Hydrocarbons 80C to 1 Used as fuels for
form C7 to C10 170C automobiles
2 Used as solvent and in dry
cleaning

Chapter-16 (P-254)

and grease
 3 Used in preparation of
petrol gas
4. Kerosene oil Hydrocarbons 170C to 1 Used as domestic fuel
from C10 to C12 250C 2 For lighting purpose in
lamps
3 For manufacturing the jet
fuel
5. Diesel oil Hydrocarbons 250C to 1 In the form of fuel for
from C13 to C15 350C heavy vehicles like buses,
trucks, railways engine,
ships
2 As fuel in irrigation pumps
3. In generating electricity
through generator
6. Fuel oil Hydro carbons 350C to 1 For heating the furnaces
from C15 to C17 400C and boilers in industry
7. Lubricating oil Hydro carbons above 1 As Lubricants for
C17 to C20 400C machine
8. Paraffin wax Hydrocarbons above 1 In manufacturing candles,
C20 to C30 400C vaseline, ointment, wax
paper and grease.
9. Asphalt Hydrocarbons above For constructing the upper
C30 to C50 400C surface of the road
10. Petroleum coke Pure form above 1. Used in the form of
400C electrodes as it is good
Conductor of electricity
2. In form of fuel.

Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)

When petroleum gas is filled in the gas cylinders at high pressure it liquifies, therefore
it is also called liquid petroleum gas (LPG). LPG is the mixture of butane, propane and
ethane hydrocarbons, when gas comes out the nossele of the cylinder and reaches to the
burner by passing through the tube it gets converted from liquid state to its original gaseous
state due to reduced pressure.
Though LPG is a colourless, odourless gas but to identify its leakage, ethyl mercapten
(C2H5SH) having a pungent smell is added to it. It comes under the best fuel category.

Chapter-16 (P-255)
 1. By the combustion of 1 gm of LPG, 50 kJ thermal energy is produced.
2. Any type of smoke or ash is not formed by the combustion of LPG.
3. It does not cause any type of air pollution.
4. LPG is easily transported from one place to another by filling it in cylinders.
5. These days it is used to run four wheelers.
Find out the answer of all these questions yourself :
1. Write the gaseous components of the coal gas.
2. Write down the names of the types of coal
(a) Which has minimum carbon content
(b) Which has maximum carbon content
3. Write down the names and uses of the products obtained by fractional distillation
of coal tar.
4. On which theory is the fractional distillation of petroleum based?
5. Write down the names and uses of the any four substances obtained from
petroleum.
6. Draw a labelled diagram of the fractional column used in the fractional distillation
of petroleum.
7. Write the full form of LPG.
8. Write down the characteristics of best quality fuels.
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
16.7 Carbon and its compounds 123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789
Carbon (C) is the element of second period of group 14 123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789
(old group 4) of the periodic table. 123456789012345678901234
123456789
P=6
123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789
Atomic number 6 N=6
123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
Electronic configuration 2, 4 123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
In the free state in nature carbon occurs in form of allotropes such as diamond, graphite,
coal and charcoal etc. This means that the carbon compounds are found in abundance in
nature. Carbon is found in the form of compound in various minerals, vegetation, animals,
petroleum products, food products and in air also.
Earlier the compounds of carbon were found only in animals and plants so they were
named as organic compounds (organ = Bio organ). Lavoiser was the first scientist who
stated that the carbon is an essential element of each biological substances. But in 1828
Wohler succeeded in manufacturing urea in laboratory and thus proved that organic
compounds can also be prepared in the labs. These days petroleum, rubber, rayon, plastic,

Chapter-16 (P-256)
perfumes, medicines and genes controlling the hereditary properties have also been prepared
in the laboratories. Carbon has the tendency to form long chains through mutual
combination. This is the reason why today more than a million of organic compounds are
known. These compounds are studied under the separate branch of chemistry which is known
as organic chemistry.
The branch of chemistry under which the compounds of other elements are studied is
called is inorganic chemistry. Some of the compounds of carbon like carbides, oxides,
halides similar to inorganic compounds. Thats why they are studied under inorganic
chemistry. Inorganic compounds are electrovalent in nature and show the ionic properties.
The organic compounds of carbon have elements hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur
and halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) apart from the carbon. The compounds containing
only carbon and hydrogen are called as hydrocarbons. Covalent bond is present in the organic
compounds.

16.8. Tetravalency of carbon

The reason behind the occurance of carbon compounds in large number is the
tetravalency of carbon in organic compounds and its property of catenation. We have seen
that the atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4, this means it
has 4 electrons in its outermost shell. To achieve the electronic configuration of its nearest
noble gas it should give 4 more electrons or lose 4 electrons. As far as the change in the
energy is concerned it is better that it should gain electrons instead of losing. This is the
reason why carbon atom gets the stable configuration by sharing 4 electrons separately
with other atoms. Thats how carbon forms four covalent bonds, which is known as the tetra
valency of carbon.

16.9 Catenation :
Carbon has the unique tendency to unite with other carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
They form a long chain by joining each other. This property of carbon is known as catenation.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C C C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C C C C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123 C
C C C C C C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
Straight chain Branched chain cyclic chain of
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
of six carbons of 6 carbons 6 carbons
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C C C CC C C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C=C C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
C
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
carbon chain having
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
carbon chain having
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
double bond
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123
triple bond
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123

Chapter-16 (P-257)
 Many types of chains are formed due to this property of catenation. On each addition
of carbon atom a new compound is formed. Innumerable compounds of carbon are formed,
due to this property of catenation. The carbon chain in compounds can be of any type,
straight, branched or cyclic.
4 lines of 4 covalent bonds are drawn around the carbon atom. Maximum number of
compounds can be formed by the addition of hydrogen or any other atom on the free
covalencies of carbon as shown in the above diagram.

Hydrocarbons
Some of the organic compounds which are formed by only carbon and hydrogen are
called as hydrocarbons. Petroleum is the main source to obtain the hydrocarbons by the
fractional distillation.

16.10. Classification of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are classified in many ways but generally they are classified in two
categories :
(i) Saturated hydrocarbon
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons : Those hydrocarbons in which each carbon atom in bonded
with other carbon atom by single bond. like methane, ethane, propane etc. The simplest
compound of this group is methane (CH4) collectively they are called alkanes.
Alkane : The general formula of alkane is CnH2n+2 where n = number of carbone
atoms. example : In methane, there is one carbon n = 1 on putting n = 1 in formula CnH2n+2
C1H2 x 2 + 2 = CH4
The formula of ethane is C2H6
In the same way the formulae of other members can be written and explained. The
description of first saturated hydrocarbons is given in the following table.
While naming any hydrocarbon the following prefixes are added on the basis of the
number of carbon atom present and suffix ane is added while writing the name of alkane
Table-3 Homologous series of Alkane
Number of prefix suffix Name of Formula of
carbons alkane alkane

C1 Meth Ane Methane CH4

C2 Eth Ane Ethane C2H6
C3 Prop Ane Propane C3H8

Chapter-16 (P-258)
 C4 But Ane Butane C4H10
C5 Pent Ane Pentane C5H12
C6 Hex ane Hexane C6H14
This series of saturated hydrocarbons is called alkane series or homologous series.
There is a difference of -CH2 between two members of this series. The structure of simplest
compound methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) of this series are as follows
H
H H
H C H H C C H
H H
H
Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6)

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbons which have double or triple bonds between two carbon atoms are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons. In double bond two electron pairs and in triple bond three
electron pairs are shared. The hydrocarbons which have double bond are called alkene and
the hydrocarbons which have triple bond are called alkyne. There are two separate categories
of alkenes and alkynes. The general formula of alkene is (CnH2n) and the general formula
of alkyne is (CnH2n-2). Some of the members of their series are as follows:

Table-4 : the homologous series of alkene and alkyne

Alkene Alkyne
(CnH2n) (CnH2n-2)
Molecular formula Name Molecular formula Name
C2H4 Ethene C2H2 Ethyne
C3H6 Propene C3H4 Propyne
C4H8 Butene C4H6 Butyne
C5H10 Pentene C5H8 Pentyne
C6H12 Hexene C6H10 Hexyne

The first member of alkene has two carbons. There is a double bond between the two
carbon atoms. Its name is eth-ene or ethylene or ethene. Its molecular formula according
to CnH2n will be C2H4. The structural formula of ethene can be written as follows

Chapter-16 (P-259)
 H H
C = C
H H

The next two members of the alkene group are propene and butene.

H H
H
H H
H C C =C H C C C =C
H H
H H H H H

C3 H6 propene (Propylene) C4 H8 Butene (Butylene)

Alkyne
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which have triple bond are called alkynes. The suffix
yne is added to their names. The general formula of alkyene is CnH2n-2
The first member of alkyne series is ethylene (eth + yne ethyne). It is generally
called as acetylene. Its molecular formula is HC CH (C2H2)
The structural formula of acetylene is written as follows :
C2H2 ethyne (acetylene) HC CH
The other two members of alkyne group are propyne and butyne

H H
H

H C C =C H H C C - C C H

H H H

C3H4 Propyne (Methyl acetylene) C4H6 Butyne (Ethyl acetylene)

From the above examples of structural formulae you will find that around each carbon
atom there are four valency lines.

Alkyl group :
Alkyl group is formed by removing one hydrogen atom from alkane. The general
formula of alkyl group is CnH2n + 1
Example : On removing one hydrogen atom from methane (CH4), methyl group

Chapter-16 (P-260)
(-CH3) is obtained while removing one hydrogen from ethane (C2H6) ethyl group (-C2H5)
is obtained. The line drawn in the side of the group shows the empty place created by
removal of hydrogen. Therefore any monovalent atom can be added at this place. Alkyl
group is generally depicted by letter R-.

16.11 Homologous Series :

All these organic compounds which have similar structure and chemical properties
are the member of same homologous series. Many homologous series will come across
during the detailed study of organic compounds. Here we will study the homologous series
of only alkane, alkene and alkyne hydrocarbons.
Chemical properties of all the alkanes are same. In these carbon and hydrogen atom
are attached by single bond. The names and the molecular formulae of the members of this
homologous series were given earlier in the table. The difference between the two members
is -CH2 as the general formula for all is C2H2n + 2. That means the molecular formula of
ethane is obtained by adding CH2 in methane CH4.

The characteristics of homologous series :

1. All the members of one homologous series have one general formula.
2. There is a difference of CH 2 between the two consecutive members of
homologous series.
3. The difference between the molecular weight of the two consecutive members
of the homologous series is 14.
4. All the members of homologous series have similar chemical properties.
5. There is gradual difference in the physical properties of the members of
homologous series. Melting point, boiling points and density also increases
gradually with increase in molecular weight.
6. The methods of preparation of all the members of homologous series are
approximately same.
7. Similarly the homologous series of alkene and alkyne are given earlier.

16.12 Isomerism :
There is a difference in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the organic compounds
which have similar molecular formula. The chemical and physical properties or the
compound with different arrangement of carbon atoms are also different. Like in the
molecular formula of saturated hydrocarbon of 4 carbon atoms the carbons are arranged in
following manner :

Chapter-16 (P-261)
 Isomers of butane (C4H10)
(v) l l l l (w) 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 l l l

Structure
two
or CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
1 2 3 4 n-butane (common name)
5
As the carbon atoms are attached with each other in a straight chain thus the name of
this compound is n butane (normal butane)

Structure H
One
CH 3 C CH 3

or
CH 3
Iso butane (common name)

In structure two, three carbon atoms are in a straight chain and the fourth carbon atom
is attached in the form of methyl group to the side chain. Thus the common name of this
compound is isobutane.
Hence we can define that when the molecular formulae of the organic compounds are
same but the structural formulae are different then it is called isomerism and the compounds
the isomers of each other.
Hydrocarbons having more than three carbon atoms exhibit isomerism.
Isomers of pentane (C5H12). The arrangement of five carbons can be of following
three types :
4
or or l
1 2 3 4 5 2
1 2 3 4 1l l l 3
l5
l 5

Chapter-16 (P-262)
 On the basis of the above arrangement there can be three possible isomers of propane

H H H H H

H C C C C C H
Structure one or CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
H H H H H n-pentane
(normal pentane)

Structure two or C H 3 C H 2 C H C H 3
CH3
Iso pentane

or
Structure three

Neo pentane

Isomerism is present in alkenes and alkynes either due to the difference in the position
of the double and triple bond or due the difference in the carbon chain. The alkene of four
carbon atom or butene (C4H8) can be written as follows :
CH3 CH2 CH = CH2 CH3 CH = CH CH3
Butene -1 Butene-2
Isomerism is Alkynes : The alkynes of four carbon atoms can be written in the following
ways.
Structure one HC C CH2 CH3 (Butyne 1)
Structure two CH3 C C CH3 (Butyne 2)

Chapter-16 (P-263)
 Answer these questions yourself :
1. How many types of hydrocarbons are there?
2. CnH2n + 2 is the general formula of .................. hydrocarbon.
3. The general formula of alkene is ................ .
4. C2H2 is an .............. the name of which is acetylene.
5. The molecular formula of ethylene is ...............
6. The general name of propyne is ..................
7. Classify the following compounds in alkanes, alkenes and alkynes :
C2H4, C3H4, C4H8, C5H12, C5H8, C3H8, C6H10
8. Name the homologous series having the general formula CnH2n 2 and write the
name and molecular formula of the first four members.
9. Write down the characteristics of homologous series.

16.13. Methods of preparation and characteristics of methane, ethene,

ethyne
16.13.1 Methane : CH4
1. Occurrence : Methane is the first member of the homologous series of alkanes.
The natural gas found with the petroleum obtained from petroleum wells contains
approximately 90% of methane. Methane gas is formed by the decomposition of animals
and plants by the bacterias in the swampy areas where the water is stagnant. Thats why
methane gas is also called marsh gas (marsh = swamp). Methane gas is also found in coal
mines, bio gas, gobar-gas and coal gas.
2. Laboratory method of preparation of methane : In laboratory methane gas
is prepared by heating sodium acetate with soda lime. Soda lime is the mixture of sodium
hydroxide and calcium oxide. The only participating substance in soda lime ((NaOH +
CaO) is NaOH.
According to the following diagram the mixture of soda lime and sodium acetate is
taken into boiling tube of copper. The tube is heated slowly in beginning and later the
heating rate is increased. Methane gas generated by heating is collected over water by the
downward displacement of water after passing through the delivery tube.

Chapter-16 (P-264)
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Boiling tube
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Delivery tube
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Methane gas
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Gas jar
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Sodium
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
acetate
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
+
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
beehive shelf
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Lime
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Soda
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Trough
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Water
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

Fig 16.5 Preparation of methane in laboratory

Chemical equation is as follows :
CH3 COONa + NaOH CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium acetate Sodium Methane Sodium carbonate
hydroxide
3. Physical properties of methane gas
Methane is colourless, odourless gas which is lighter than water. It is insoluble in
water but soluble in non polar solvents like ether, alcohol and carbon tetrachloride. Similar
to carbon dioxide, methane gas also exhibits the green house effect. It means that this gas
blocks the thermal radiation to reach the earth.
4. Chemical properties of methane
1. Combustion : Methane gas forms carbon dioxide and water vapour on heating
in the air. Lot of heat is generated during the reaction
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat
Methane Oxygen Carbon Water
(from air) dioxide vapour
2. Reactivity : Methane is saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are
attached to the hydrogen atoms by four single bonds. Therefore, methane does not show
addition reaction like alkene and alkyne generally. The hydrogen atoms of methane are
substituted by any other atom. This reaction is called substitution reaction.
Chlorination of methane.
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
Methane Chlorine Mono Hydrogen
chloromethane chloride

Chapter-16 (P-265)
 Methane reacts with chlorine in sunlight. Four hydrogen atoms are substitued by four
chlorine atoms one by one and CH3Cl (methyl chloride) CH2Cl2 (methylene di chloride),
CHCl3 (chloroform) and CCl4 (Carbon tetra chloride) are formed respectively.

5. Uses of methane
1. It is used as domestic fuel.
2. Methane is used in making carbon black (used in) rubber industry.
3. It is used in preparation of chloroform, carbon tetra chloride, methyl alcohol,
formaldehyde and methyl chloride.

16.13.2 Ethene (ethylene)

C2H4 or CH2=CH2 Ethene is the first member of homologous series of alkenes. It is
present in coal gas and natural gas. Methane is artificially prepared by the cracking of
fractions of petroleum which have high boiling point eg. kerosene. When alkanes of high
molecular weights are heated to the high temperature then the molecule breaks into alkenes
and alkanes of low molecular weight. The process of breaking a molecule at high temperature
is called thermal cracking.
1. Preparation of ethene in laboratory
In the laboratory ethene gas is prepared by heating ethanol (C2H5OH) with concentrated
sulphuric acid (in excess) at 160 1700C

H2SO 4
C H 3C H 2 O H C H 2 = C H 2 + H 2O
170o C
Ethenol Ethene gas

Firstly, 25 ml ethanol is taken in round bottom flask as shown in the figure. Now 50
ml of concertated sulphuric acid is added through thistle funnel. (little amount of aluminium
sulphate is also added to prevent the formation of foam on heating.) The flask is then heated
on sand bath up to 160 170C after completing the arrangement as shown in figure. Pure
ethene gas is produced, which is collected by the downward displacement of water. Flask is
heated on sand bath. KOH solution absorbs the impurities of SO2 and CO2

Chapter-16 (P-266)
 Ethanol + Sulphuric Acid (1:1)
Thermameter
Ethanol + Conc. Sulphuric Acid + +Al2 (SO4)3

C2H4
Sand bath Water

H2SO4 KOH

Fig 16.6 Preparation of ethene in laboratory

2. Physical properties of ethene : Ethene is also a colourless and odourless gas.

It is insoluble in water but soluble in non polar organic solvents. The density of ethene is
approximately equal to density of air.
3. Chemical porperties of ethene :
(i) Combustion : Ethene gives carbon dioxide and water vapour on combustion in
air. Large amount of heat is generated in this process.
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
Ethene Oxygen Carbon Water
(ethylene) from air dioxide vapour
Ethene burns with smoky flame.
2. Reactivity : Ethene is more reactive than methane because it is an unsaturated
hydrocarbon having double bond. Double bond is weaker than the single bond. Therefore, it
breaks under the influence of any other reactant. One valency each on both carbon atoms
gets freed by breaking of a double bond and one bond is left between them. The reactant
gets attached to both the carbon atoms Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions.
(i) Addition of chlorine : Saturated compound 1 2 dichloro ethane is formed by
the addition of one chlorine atom to ethene,
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 Cl CH2 CH2 Cl
Ethene Chlorine 1 2 dichlro ethane
(Unsaturated) (Ethylene di chloride)

Chapter-16 (P-267)
 (ii) Addition of hydrogen : Ethane is formed when ethene reacts with hydrogen in
the presence of Ni catalyst
Ni catalyst
CH2=CH2 + H2 CH3 CH3
Ethene heat Ethane
The process of making ghee from vegetable oil by passing hydrogen gas over it, also
takes place in the similar way. The saturated hydrocarbons formed by passing the hydrogen
gas over the unsaturated hydrocarbons are in solid form (or semi solid form) at the room
temperature.
(iii) Polymerisation of ethene : When a large number of unsaturated hydrocarbons
join together to form a big molecule, then the process is called polymerisation and the big
molecule so formed is called polymer. The single unit of polymer is called monomer.
Solid polymer polythene (poly + ethene) is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene
gas when heated at temperature 200C and approximately at 2000 atmospheric pressure.
200C
n(CH2=CH2) ( CH2 CH2)n
ethene monomer 2000 atm pressure Polythene (polymer)
n = more than 1000
More than 1000 atoms of ethene unite together to form polythene. Both the ends join
further with other atoms in similar way
(- CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 -)n
Polythene

4. Uses of ethene (ethylene)

(i) It is used in preparation of ethyl alcohol and glycol. Glycol is used in the formation
of fibres like polyester, terelene etc.
(ii) Ethene is used in preparation polythene. Polythene is used in making wrappers for
packing, bags and many other domestic items.
(iii) Ethylene is use in ripening of green fruits.
16.13.3 Ethyne (acetylene)
Ethyne is the first member of homologous series of alkynes, which has the molecular
formula C2H2 and structural formula H C C H. Ethyne is found in coal gas. It can be
formed by the cracking of alkanes of high boiling point.
1. Laboratory method for the preparation of ethyne (acetylene) : Ethyne is
prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of water on calcium carbide. Water is dropped
dropwise through the dropping funnel. The impurities of phosphene and ammonia is removed

Chapter-16 (P-268)
by passing the obtained acetylene through acidic copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution. Before
the experiment air is removed from the flask by oil gas, because acetylene forms an explosive
mixture with air. As the large amount of heat is generated during the reaction, the pieces of
calcium carbide placed over the sand are spread in the bottom of the flask. It is collected
by the downward displacement of water.
CaC2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Calcium carbide Acetylene
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Water
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Dropping funnel
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Acetylene
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Conical tlask
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Beehive shelf
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Trough
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Calcium Acidified
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
CuSO
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
carbide 4
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Sand
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Fig 16.7 Preparation of acetylene in laboratory

2. Properties of Ethyne
Physical properties : Ethyne (acetylene) is a colourless gas which has the odour
like ether. When acetylene is prepared by calcium carbide it has the odour like garlic, due
to the presence of impurities of phosphorus and hydrogen sulphide. Ethylene is insoluble
in water but soluble in organic solvents.
Chemical properties :
1. Combustion : Ethyne on combustion in air burns with smoky flame and gives carbon
dioxide and water large amount of heat is generated during the reaction .
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + heat
Ethyne Oxygen Carbon Water
(acetylene) dioxide vapour
Due to the very high percentage of carbon (92.3%) present in ethyne, the complete
combustion of carbon doesnt take place. Some of the carbon particles left unburnt give
smoky flame on combustion. When acetylene burns in the burner of very small pores then
due to the proper supply of oxygen it gives luminous smokeless flame. This property is
used to generate light acetylene lamps.

Chapter-16 (P-269)
 The temperature of oxyacetylene obtained by burning the acetylene with pure oxygen
is approximately 3000C. Because of this property it is used in welding torches.
2. Reactivity : Ethyne (having triple bond) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Triple bonds
are too weak in comparison to the double bond. They break under the influence of any
other reactant atom. One valency each on both the carbon atoms freed by the cleavage
of one bond out of three existed between the two carbon atoms . As the second bond
breaks again one valency each on both the carbon atoms get freed. Like this after
breaking of two bonds out of three both the carbon atoms acquire two free valencies
each The molecules of other reactants get attached to these free valencies. Thats why
ethynes also undergo addition reaction.

breaking breaking
HCCH H-C=C-H H C C H
of one bond of second bond
two free valencies four free valencies

(i) Addition of chlorine to ethyne : Addition of chlorine to ethyne takes place in two
steps. Firstly, one molecule of chlorine adds to form dichloroethene. Then one more
molecule of chlorine atom adds to dichloro ethene to form tetra chloro ethane.
HC CH + Cl2 HC=CH

Cl Cl
1,2 - dichloroethene
Cl Cl

HC =CH + Cl2 H C1 C2 H

Cl Cl Cl Cl
1, 2 - dichloroethene 1, 1, 2, 2 - tetrachloro ethane
(ii) Addition of hydrogen to ethyne : Ethyne adds to two atoms of hydrogen gas in two
steps to form ethene and ethane respectively.
Ni catalyst Ni Catalyst
CH CH + H2 CH2 = CH2 +H2 CH3 CH3
heat heat
Ethyne Ethene Ethane

(iii) Polymerisation reaction : When acetylene is passed through the red hot tube then
its three molecules unite together to form benzene (polymerisation).

Chapter-16 (P-270)
 Red hot tube
3H C C H

Ethyne (acetylene)

Benzene
4. Uses of acetylene
(i) To generate the light in acetylene lamp.
(ii) The oxyacetylene flame of ethyne (acetylene) is used to weld the metal pieces.
(iii) In the preparation of acetaldehyde, acetic acid and ethyl alcohol.
(iv) It is used in preparation of plastic, synthetic rubber and synthetic fibre.
5. Test of unsaturation in ethene and ethyne
1. Bromine water test : The red colour of bromine water disappears when ethene or
ethyne is added in it. But when ethane is added to the bromine water the red colour of
bromine water does not disappear. Ethene and ethyne undergo the following addition
reaction with bromine water.
Br2
CH CH + Br2 CH Br = CH Br CH Br2 CH Br2
Ethyne Bromine 1, 2 dibromo ethene 1, 1, 2, 2 tetra bormo ethane

CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2 Br CH2 Br

Ethene Bromine 1, 2, dibromo ethane
2. Bayer test (Potassium permagnate test) : The voilet colour disappears when acidic
potassium permagnate (Bayers reagent) is added in ethene, ethyne or other unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
Answer these questions yourself.
1. Write the main sources of occurrence of methane.
2. Complete the following reactions and balance them.
(a) CH4 + O2
.....................................

(b) CH4 + Cl2

.....................................
(c) CH3 COONa + NaOH .....................................
(d) C2H4 + O2
.....................................
(e) C2H4 + Cl2
.....................................
(f) C2H5OH + H2SO4
.....................................

Chapter-16 (P-271)
 (g) Ca C2 + H2O
.....................................
(h) C2H2 +O2
.....................................
(i) C2H2 + 2Cl2
.....................................
(j) C2H2 + Br2
.....................................
(k) 3C2H2
.....................................
(l) n C2H2 Red

hot tube
.....................................
(m) C2H2 + H2 .....................................
3. Which are the tests to differentiate between ethane and ethene.
4. What happens when the vegetable oil is hydrogenated?
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Our main natural resources are soil, air, water, coal etc.
It takes thousands of years for the formation of natural resources.
As there is very less quantity of drinking water on earth. Therefore it should be used
economically.
For the conservation of plants and wild life, forestation and development of wild life
sanctuaries are the prime alternatives.
Coal and petroleum minerals are the main non renewable sources of energy. They
should be used more economically.
Coal and petroleum are formed by the decomposition of fossils of plants and animals
burried in depths below the surface of earth at high temperature and pressure, by the
bacterias. It takes millions of years in their formation as the process of decomposition
is very slow.
The useful substances like coal, gas, ammonical liquid, coal tar and coke are obtained
by the destructive distillation of coal.
The prime organiations which extract oil from oil wells in India are ONGC (Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation), OIL (Oil India Limited) and IOC (Indian oil Corporation)
By the fractional distillation of petroleum the very important fractions like petroleum
gas, ether, petrol, kerosene, diesel, fuel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, asphalt and coke
are obtained.
L.P.G ( Liquid Petroleum Gas) used as domestic fuel is obtained from petroleum
gas.
The pollution caused by burning of coal and petroleum substances is very harmful for
human health. It causes many breathing problems.
Carbon is a tetravalent element which has the characteristic of forming a long chain
with other carbon atoms. This characteristic is called catenation and due to this organic
compounds are found in large quantity.
The compounds formed by carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are
of two types saturated and unsaturated.

Chapter-16 (P-272)
 Saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes which have the general formula CnH2n+2.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types, ethene and ethynes. The general formula
of alkene is CnH2n and the general formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2.
Alkane are single bonded, alkenes are double bonded and alkynes are triple bonded
substances.
The organic compounds are also named by IUPAC method apart from their known names.
IUPAC names are international. There is a specific way of writing them.
These organic compounds which have similar properties and chemical structure are
of the same homologous series.
The general formula of the members of homologous series is same, but there is a
difference of CH2 between the two subsequent members. There is a gradual change in
their physical properties.
The organic compounds which have the similar molecular formula but different
structural formula are called isomers and this phenomenon is called isomerism.
There are two isomers of butane, n-butane and isobutane.
n pentane, isopentane and neopentane are three isomers of pentane.
Methane gas is also called marsh gas. It is prepared in the laboratory by heating sodium
acetate with soda lime.
The important compounds like chloroform (CHCl3) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
are formed when methane reacts with chlorine in the sunlight.
Ethene is prepared in the laboratory by heating ethanol at 160-170C in the presence
of concentrated sulphuric acid.
Polythene is formed by the polymerisation of ethene. Ethene gas is used in ripening
the raw fruits.
Ethyne (acetylene) is prepared in the laboratory by dropping the water dropwise on
calcium carbonate (on dropping water in excess an explosive mixture is formed.)
Benzene is produced by the polymerisation of ethyne.
The red colour of bromine water disappears when it is added in unsaturated
hydrocarbons like ethene and ethyne. This is known as bromine water test.
The violet colour of potassium permagnate disappears when its acidic solution is
added to unsaturated hydrocarbons like ethene and ethyne. This is called Bayers test.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions :
1. What is coal and how is it formed?
2. Why are coal and petroleum called natural resources or non renewable energy
resources?
3. What is the number of carbon atoms in the kerosene oil fraction? On which temperature
is it distilled?
4. Name two places in India where the oil wells are in abundance.
5. Write any one use of petroleum ether.
6. Write any one use of petroleum coke.

Chapter-16 (P-273)
7. Why are the organic compounds formed in large quantity, give the reason.
8. What is catenation?
9. Carbon is tetravalent, explain why.
10. Write the general formula of alkyne.
Short answer type questions :
1. Write down the formulae of alkane, alkene and alkynes containing three carbon atoms.
2. Write the name and structures of the three isomers of pentane.
3. What precautions should be taken while preparing acetylene from calcium carbide in
the laboratory.
4. Write the names and molecular formulae of the first five members of homologous
series of alkanes.
5. Write only the balanced chemical equation used for the preparation ethylene in laboratory.
6. What is soda lime? Which hydrocarbon is prepared by using it?
7. What is polymerisation of acetylene.
8. Give one example each of substitution and addition reactions.
Long answer type questions :
1. Draw a labelled diagram of destructive distillation of coal and write the uses of the
obtained products.
2. Draw the labelled diagram of fractional column used in the fractional distillation of
petroleum, write the names and uses of the fractions obtained at various temperature.
3. Describe the laboratory method of preparation of methane with diagram. Write the
uses of methane.
4. Draw the clear labelled diagram of the method used for the preparation of acetylene
in laboratory and write down the equation and precautions needed.
5. Describe the laboratory method of preparation of ethylene with labelled diagram.
6. What is isomerism?
7. Explain the effects of continuous decreasing of natural resources on the balance of
nature?
Write the equations only, what happens when.
1. Methane reacts with chlorine in sunlight.
2. Combustion of ethene takes place.
3. Bromine water is added in ethyne.
4. Ethyl alcohol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at temperature 160-170C.
5. Calcium carbide reacts with water.
How will you obtain the following ?
1. Benzene from acetylene.
2. Polythene from ethene.
3. Methane from sodium acetate
PROJECT
Write a detailed essay on the process of recycling of any renewable source, which you might have
observed around you and submit in to your teacher in the form of project file.

Chapter-16 (P-274)
 CHAPTER - 17

Habitat, Adaptation and Medicinal Plants

123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
The term Environment is derived from a word environ
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
meaning surroundings of an organism. Thus, every thing that
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 surrounds us is our environment. Protection of the environment
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 has become a challenge for earths existence. Therefore it
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
becomes necessary to know about the components of the
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 environment. In this chapter we will accquire the detailed
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 knowledge of various components of the environment.
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 17.1 Habitat
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234
123456789012345678901234567890121234 Habitat is a place where an organism lives, grows and
develops. You might have seen a snake in a burrow, fish in water
Let us learn
and weaver bird in a nest as a weaver bird can not live in water
17.1 Habitat and fish can not survive in a nest.
17.2 Adaptations in Therefore, a place where an organism lives and gets food,
Plants shelter and favourable climatic conditions for its growth
17.3 Adaptations in development and reproduction is called as its Habitat.
Animals Each organism lives in a specific habitat and for living in
17.4 Medicinal this habitat some characteristic features are found in its body.
plants and their Birds have wings to fly, and aquatic animals (fishes) have fins to
importance swim in water. These are called as adaptive features of the
organisms.
Such structural changes found in the organism which help
to live in a particular habitat are called as Adaptations. These
modifications are generally passed on to the next generation.

17.1.1 Types of Habitats

Aquatic habitat Terrestrial habitat Aerial habitat

Example : Fish Example:Cow, Mango Example : Crow,
Hydrilla, Lotus etc. Human beings etc. Parrot etc.

Chapter-17 (P-275)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Xerophytes
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Hydrophytes
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Mesophytes
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456
Leaves : As huge amount of water can be lost through leaves,
therefore, these are small and pointed or modified into
spines. In some xerophytes, the leaves are altogether
absent. Leaves may be covered with thick hair and the
stomata are sunken. Sometimes leaves are covered with
thick waxy cuticle to curtail water loss. Stomata in these
plants generally open during night.
Stem : Stem is succulent and green and performs
photosynthesis. Example : Agave, Opuntia, Aloe.
Cactus plants are found where there is scarcity of water. To reduce the water
loss their leaves are modified into spines. All the parts of the plants accumulate water
and these can live without water for several days. Some important cactus plants are
used as follows:
Aloe vera : In medicines and cosmetics
Euphorbias : For skin cancer
Caraluma : For joint pains.
2. Mesophytes : These plants are found in such places
where water is neither less nor in excess.
Following adaptations are found in these plants.
Roots are well developed
Stem is solid and branched.
Leaves are broad, large and provided with stomata.
Example : Mango, Banyan, Rose.
Chapter-17 (P-276)
17.2 Adaptations in Plants
Various plants found in nature have different
habitats. On the basis of habitat the plants are divided
into three types.
1. Xerophytes : Those plants which grow in a place
deficient in water are known as Xerophytes. These are
found in deserts and sandy places, Following adaptive
features are found in xerophytes.
Roots : These grow very deep in the soil and are
extensively branched.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Opuntia
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Do you know
Opuntia : In jam and candy.
Alcalvides : To reduce blood pressure
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Banyan
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
3. Hydrophytes : These are found in places where plenty of 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
water is present. These are also known as aquatic plants: Aquatic 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
plants are of three types. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Free floating plants : Example : Water hyacinth, 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Pistia. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Submerged plants : Example - Hydrilla 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Rooted aquatic plants : Example - Lotus, Vallisneria 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
Following adaptations are found in these plants. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456
12345678901234567890123456789012123456

Roots are poorly developed or absent. Eichhornia (water hyacinth)

Stem is less developed.
Large air spaces are present which make the plants spongy and float in water.
Leaves are covered with waxy cuticle that protects them from decaying.
Activity :
Objective : To collect information of adaptive features found in xerophytes,
mesophytes and hydrophytes.
Method : Collect mesophytic, xerophytic and aquatic plants found near your house.
Observe their characteristic features, compare these and complete the following table-

S. No. Name of Place of Features of Features of Features of

plants collection root leaves stem

Conclusion :Xerophytes, mesophytes and hydrophytes have different features

17.3 Adaptations in Animals :

In animals also specific structural and functional modifications are found. These
adaptive features help them to live successfully in their habitats. There are three types of
adaptations found in animals.
A. Terrestrial Adaptations : These are the modifications to live on land. The land animals
are adapted in many different ways.
Runners - Deer, Kangaroo. Burrowers - mouse, snake.

Chapter-17 (P-277)
 Diggers - Rabbit, Shrew. Climbers- Monkey, squirrel.
Gliders- Draco, Hyla, Chameleon.
All these animals show different adaptive features.
(i) Modifications of feet
Pantigrade : These animals walk with the help of sole of their feet.
Example :Camel, Elephant.
Digitigrade : These animals run with the help of their toes. Example : Dog, Cat.
Unguligrade : The tips of toes are modified into hooves that help in running .
Example : horse, donkey, cow, goat.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
(ii) Modification of head : The head of some animals 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
become narrow and forms a snout that helps to dig a 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
burrow. Example : Rat, shrew. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
(iii) Modifications for respiration : Land animals have lungs 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
for breathing. 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
B. Aquatic Adaptations : These are the modifications to 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
live in water. Sea animals can not survive in a lake or 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
river and pond fish can not live in a sea either, because 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
the sea animals are different from fresh water animals . 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Aquatic animals have following 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012
Fish : having bilaterally
modifications : symmetrical body and fins
(i) Bilaterally Symmetrical body : This type of
body creates less friction and helps to swim by cutting across the water currents.
(ii) Fins : These help in swimming.
(iii) Webbed feet : These also help in swimming.

Chapter-17 (P-278)

(iv) Airfilled Bladder : In some animals
like fish, air bladder is found which
keeps the body buoyant.
(v) Breathing is through gills.
C. Aerial adaptations : These modifications are
for flying in air. The animals having aerial
adaptations are also known as arboreal animals
as their habitat is on the tree. Some of these
birds live in nest and some others live on trees
without making a nest.
These birds have following adaptations for
flying in air
Forelimbs are modified into wings.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234

Claws of different birds showing adaptations

Bones have air spaces.
Muscles for flying are found.
Claws of the birds are modified into different forms as shown in figure.

Conservation of habitat
Human beings construct houses, factories, dams rivers and railway lines for their
convenience and due to this the habitats of several animals are destroyed and these have to
move to some other place. In a new place the reproductive capacity of these animals is
affected and their number starts decreasing. In this way many animals species become
endangered and extinct. This results in the imbalance in the environment.

Activity :
Objective : Make a list of such human activities that result in natural disasters, cause
problems and imbalance in the environment.
S. No. Human Activity Problems
1. Coustruction of dams Floods
2. Mining Earthquake.

Conclusion : If we work against nature, the environment becomes imbalanced

resulting in different types of problems.

Chapter-17 (P-279)
 Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
Q.1 What do you understand by habitat ? How many types of habitats are there ?
Q.2 What do you understand by adaptation ?

Q.3 What would happen if birds had hands in place of wings.

Q.4 Why are the leaves of xerophytes small and pointed ?
Q.5 What is the advantage of air spaces in aquatic plants ?

Q.6 What are the adaptive features of aquatic animals that help them to swim?
Q.7 Why is conservation of habitat essential?

17.4 Medicinal Plants and their Importance :

In India, medicinal use of plants has been in practice since ancient times. Ayurveda is
the oldest medicinal system of the world. In this system, various plants are used to cure the
diseases. The most important benefit of this system is that generally no side effects are caused
in the body.
Since vedic times several plants have been identified which have medicinal importance.
Indians have been growing Tusli plants in their backyards and are using turmeric, cloves
ginger, garlic, cumin, ajwain etc. as medicinal condiments in their kitchens since ancient
times. Thus , Ayurveda system of medicine is scientific and convenient.
India had made a good progress in the field of medicine in vedic times itself. In the
scriptures of Ayurveda there is a mention of Ashwini and Kumar the twin brothers as great
physicians of vedic times. They had special capability in the field of medical science and
surgery. They made a medicine from herbs and gave it to Rishi Chyavan who was very old.
By taking this medicine the Rishi became healthy and regained his youth and lived a very
long life. Today we know this medicine as Chyavanprash.
In the Atharvaveda facts regarding Ayurveda and medical science are available, where
many disease curing herbs and their uses are described. The person who treats the diseases
with herbal medicine is known as herbalist. Dhanvantri is known as God of Ayurveda. He
contributed a lot in the propagation of medicinal importance of plants.
Most of the plants growing around us are useful in the treatment of one or the other
diseases. By acquiring some knowledge about the use of plant parts we can keep ourselves
healthy and disease free.

Chapter-17 (P-280)
 Dhanvantari
In India Dhanvantri is worshipped as a God in the field of medical sciences and
Arogya. It is believed that once devatas and demons together churned the ocean and
obtained fourteen jewels. Amongst these, one was a pot of nectar (Amrit Kalash) with
which Dhanvantri appeared. Considering churing of ocean (Samudra Mantham) as
metaphor, we can say that by churning the ocean of knowledge Dhanvantri appeared
with medical science scripts for human welfare in the form of Amrit Kalash. Just two
days before Diwali we celebrate Dhanvantri Jayanti as Dhanteras in his memory. He
developed several types of nectar like medicines and made them available for human
society. Due to these benevolent acts he is worshipped as a God. Lokmanya Bal
Gangadhar Tilak made calculations based on movement of planets for the time when
Lord. Dhanvantri appeared and stated that it should be 6075 B.C.
We start our day with a cup of tea. Ginger not only enhances the taste of the tea
but its medicinal properties keep us healthy. We add turmeric, onion, garlic, coriander
to our vegetables. All these have medicinal properties, therefore these should
essentially used.

Medicinal Plants and their Importance

S. Medicinal Botanical Plant part Uses Special features

No. plants Name of medicinal
importance
1. Sadabahar Vinca rosea all parts anti cancerous, A specific chemical is
useful in muscular found in all parts
pain and nervous of this plant which
system. imparts vitality to
the body.
2. Aak Calotropis milky pain reliever The leaves and
(Akowa) procera latex and anti congestant flower of this plant
are diuretic (Produce
a large quantity of urine).
3. Anwla Emblica fruits Source of vitamin Should be taken daily in
officinalis C helps in increasing the from of chyavanprash.
blood and gives
strength to body
4. Bhui Phyllanthus fruits Used in jaundice, Near the backside of leaves
Anwla niruri and the leprosy, Hapatits B present small granule like
entire structure known as bhui
plant anwla.

Chapter-17 (P-281)
5. Methi Trinonella leaves, relieves body Its seeds have the quality
foenum flowers ache and useful to make the bones strong
graceum in diabetes and reduce body weight,
generally it is used as a
vegetable.

6. Coriander Coriandrum leaves, useful to reduce It is used as condiment

sativum flowers, body swelling, use which is famous for its
fruits for brain related cool properties.
diseases, mouth ulcers
and throat diseases

7. Kalmegh Andrographis all parts useful in malaria All parts of this plant are
paniculata typhoid, fever of medicinal importance
odema, skin and
blood disorders

8. Shankh Evolvulus Extract purification The flower are Shank

Pushpi pluricalis of plant of bood and for shaped. It is an important
skin disorders plant in Aurveda.

9. Bhringraj Eclipta Leaves skin dieseases The plant is found growing

alba and stem and hair growth in grasses looks like a
small wead

10. Garlic Allium juice of treatment of Mostly used as condiment.

sativum bulb sprain, asthma This plant has unlimited
properties.

11. Tulsi Ocimum Leaves pain reliever, Grown in Indian houses

sanctum insecticidal, anti since ancient times.
baterial, useful in protect from germs.
cold, cough and
controlling glucose
level in blood.

12. Ginger Zingiber Under cold and cough It is also used daily as
officinale ground stem condiment.

13. Neem Azadirachta Bark, Root insceticidal Every part of this plant is
indica leaf, flower useful for skin useful. It helps to purify
fruit disorder and blood air.
purifier.

14. Onion Allium Leaves, useful in sprain Used daily as condiments

cepa bulb and in sun stroke. in Indian household. Its
extract has cool effects.

Chapter-17 (P-282)
 Important Information
Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow is an institution that is involved in
research on plants of Indian origin and identifies the medicinal properties in these
plants.
Tropical School of Medicine, Kolkata in working on the herbal importance of
plants
Tulsi is grown everywhere due to its medicinal properties and its ability to purify
the atmosphere.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

Q.1 Give botanical names of five medicinal plants used in our daily food.
Q.2 Give botanical name of the following plants (i) Anwla (ii) Sadabahar (iii) Kalmegh
(iv) Tulsi (v) Neem.
Q.3 Which plant is used in tea for cold and cough?
Q. 4 Why is Tulsi plant grown in houses every where?
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The place where an organism lives comfortably, grow and develops is known as habitat.
It is of three types : Aquatic, terrestrial and aerial.
The organisms show certain modifications to live in a particular environment. These
modifications are generally carried to the next generation and are called as adaptations.
Plants show adaptive features according to their habitats Xerophytic plants show all
adaptive features to conserve water.
Kangaroos use their tails to maintain balance while running.
The hooves of a horse are modified toes.
Due to various human activities, the habitats of several organisms are destroyed. Due
to this, organisms move in search of alternative habitats, thereby adversely affecting
their reproductive capacity. In this way the risk of their becoming extinct increases.
Most of the plants growing around us are useful for their medicinal properties.
EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1. What is meant by habitat?
2. Explain the term adaptation.
3. Give two examples each of xerophytes and hydrophytes.

Chapter-17 (P-283)
4. Which organs of a horse are modified to hooves?
5. What is the use of fins of a fish?
6. What are the breathing parts of an aquatic animal?
7. Give the common name of Trigonella, foenum, graceum and Phyllanthus niruri.
8. Name a plant useful in sprain.
Short answer type questions
1. What is meant by adaptive features?
2. Name different types of habitats giving two examples for each type.
3. How many types of modifications are found in the feet of terrestrial animals. Give
examples.
4. The head of rat and shrew form a snout. How is it used ?
5. Why is the body of aquatic animals bilaterally symmetrical ?
6. Explain the importance of air bladder in aquatic animals ?
7. How is the knowledge of medicinal plants useful for us ?
Long answer type questions
1. Explain the adaptive features of xerophytes .
2. What would happens if :
(i) Xerophytes had broad and expanded leaves.
(ii) Birds had solid bones.
(iii) Aquatic animals had hooves in place of webbed feet.
(iv) Dogs and cats walked with the help of sole of their feet.
3. Giving examples of arboreal (aerial) animals, explain their adaptive features.
4. Giving the botanical names of four medicinal plants growing around us, describe their
parts having medicinal importance.
5. Describe three human activities that create imbalance of the natural environment
6. If the habitats of the organisms are not conserved then many species will become
exinct. Explain this statement giving examples.
7. Write an essay on medicinal plants.

PROJECT
Prepare a pictorial booklet of the organisms lotus, opuntia, mango, gilki, banyan,
snake, monkey, horse, shrew, fish and different birds showing adaptive features
of each.

Chapter-17 (P-284)
 CHAPTER - 18

Biosphere
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
The part of earth where life or living organisms are found
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
is called biosphere. Earth is the only planet where life is
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 possible although efforts are being made to find the
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
possibilities of life on other planets as well. Life is possible
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
on earth because the factors essential for life like land, water
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
and air (oxygen), are present on earth Living organisms interact
with all these three components known as abiotic factors.
Let us learn Abiotic and biotic (plants, animals micro organisms and
18.1 Ecosystem human beings) factors of the earth form the biosphere.
18.2 Components of
the ecosystem 18.1 Ecosystem
18.3 Food Chain All the living organisms are interacting with different
and Food Web. factors of their environment. The living organisms respire and
obtain food, plants take water and minerals from soil and
18.4 Energy flow
photosynthesise in the presence of sunlight etc. These are the
18.5 Energy crisis : activities which link the living organisms with each other and
Causes, with the environment.
Control and
Conservation. For example, the plants prepare their food with the help
of sunlight. Animals obtain their food from plants or other
18.6 Bio geo
animals and after the plants and animals die, micro organism
chemical
breakdown the constituents present in their bodies liberating
cycles
these to the environment again. In this way there is a continued
18.7 Types of interaction between living and nonliving organisms forming a
Ecosystem system called ecosystem.
18.8 Biomass
Ecosystem is a structural and functional unit formed by
18.9 Biodiversity the coordinated activities of all biotic and abiotic factors of
and its the environment. Tansley (1935) used the term Ecosystem for
importance the first time.
18.10 Imbalance in
Ecosystem 18.2 Components of the ecosystem
18.11 Biotechnology There are two types of components of an ecosystem.

Chapter-18 (P-285)
 Ecosystem

Structural Functional
component component

Biotic Components Abiotic Components Autotrophs Hetrotrophs

A Structural components : These are of two types :

1. Biotic Components
The biotic components include all living organisms. These are of three types

Biotic Component

Producers Consumers Decomposers

Producers : The organisms that synthesize their food are called as producers. Green plants
in an ecosystem synthesize their food and are known as producers. For example
algae, grass and all chlorophyll containing plants. During photosynthesis these plants
synthesize their food by converting solar energy into chemical energy and therefore
called as autotrophs.
Consumers : The organisms in an ecosystem which depend on other organisms for their
food are called as consumers. These are of three types.
(i) Primary consumers : The organisms which consume plants as their food are
called as Primary consumers or herbivores. Example : cow, goat, elephant etc.
(ii) Secondary consumers : The organisms which consume those animals that eat
plants (herbivores) are called as secondary consumers or carnivores. Example :
fox, wolf etc.
(iii) Tertiary consumers : The consumers that eat secondary consumers are called
as tertiary consumers. Example : peacock, eagle, tiger, cheetah etc.
(iv) Decomposers : When the producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
die, their dead bodies are acted upon by the micro organisms as result of which
these are decomposed into simpler organic compounds. These micro organisms
are called as decomposers. These degraded elements are again consumed by the

Chapter-18 (P-286)
 plants for photosynthesis. In this way the abiotic components are cycled in an
ecosystem.
2. Abiotic Components : The non living components of an ecosystem are kept in this
category.
Abiotic Components

Organic Inorganic Climatic

Components Components factors

Organic components : These are the decaying remains of the plants and animals.
Example : Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc.
Inorganic Components : These are involved in the formation of organic substances
and also in the cycling of materials.
Example : Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Carbon dioxide, water etc.
Climatic factors : Sunlight, temperature, humidity, rainfall etc.
Sunlight : Plants prepare food in the presence of light. Some organisms are light
sensitive.
Temperature : Development of organisms and their activities are controlled by
temperature.
Water : It forms the major part of protoplasm of living organisms and affects them in
the form of water vapours and rainfall.
(B) Functional Components : These are of two types Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
1. Autorophs : The organisms prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis, are
known as autotrophs.
Example : All green plants.
2. Heterotrophs : The organisms which cannot prepare their food like plants but depend
upon other organisms for food are called hetrotrophs. These are of follwing types :
Herbivores : Depend on plants for food.
Carnivores : Depend on other animals flesh for food.
Omnivores : Consume plants as well as animals as their food.
Parasites : Depend on other organisms for food and cause damage to these.
Saprophytes : Obtain food from dead and decaying organisms.

Chapter-18 (P-287)
18.3 Food chain and Food Web
Food chain : The food prepared by plants (producers) goes to primary consumers
and then to secondary and tertiary consumers in sequential manner and at the end the dead
bodies of plants and animals are decomposed by decomposers. In this way in nature, the
organisms consume other organisms and themselves being consumed by some other
organisms. If we arrange these organisms in a sequence, a chain will be formed and this
sequential chain is called as food chain. The process of who eats whoms or the process
of eating and being eaten is called a food chain.
Food Web : Food is not always transferred in a straight chain. An organisms may be
related to more than one food chains and can be a herbivore or omnivore. Due to this, a
network of food chains is formed, called as food web. In other words, in nature no food
chain exists independently but is linked to other chains. Thus forming a food web.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Source of energy
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Producers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Primary
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Secondary
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Tertiary
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Top
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567
Food chain in grassland ecosystem
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Top Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Secondary
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Primary
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Producers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Decomposers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901
Food web in a grass land ecosystem

Importance of Food Chain

The process of transfer of energy and of nutrients occurring in nature can be understood
with the help of food chain.
The activities and inter relatedness of different organisms can easily be explained.
Accumulation of toxic materials can also be explained in a food chain.

Chapter-18 (P-288)
Desert, coastal and Marine Ecosystems
Ecosystem of an area represents a complex relationship amongst abiotic factors,
habitats and the organisms living in these habitats. Such relationship is found
everywhere, may it be desert or deeper layers of sea.
Based on the organisms and their living conditions around them, the ecosystem can
be of following types.
a. Desert ecosystem : Deserts are extremely hot and dry places. As the clouds are very
few or may not be found at all in such places, due to which deserts become very hot
due to solar radiations. On the contrary the night tempreature is quite low in these
places as clouds are not there to absorb the heat. As a result of this the conditions
become quite adverse for existence of living organisms. So the question arises : Does
any ecosystems exist in deserts under such environmental conditions ?
Several ecosystems exist in deserts. There are many types of plants, insects, reptiles,
birds and mammals found in such places. All such living organisms are adapted to live
in desert conditions. For example, the desert plants have thick waxy coating to prevent
water loss and the roots of these plants grow very long to absorb water from the
deeper layers of soil. Some insects found in these areas can store small seeds which
serve as a source of food for them under adverse conditions.
b. Coastal and marine ecosystem : Oceans form the biggest part of the aquatic
ecosystem which covers about seventy percent of the earth. Marine ecosystem includes
oceans, estuaries, coral reefs and coastal areas. Marine ecosystem provides habitat
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
(a) (b) (c)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678

Food chain in (a) Forest (b) grassland (c) pond

Chapter-18 (P-289)
 to a wide range of organisms - microorganisms to huge mammals like whale and seal.
Several types of fishes and birds are dependent for their food and shelter on marine
ecosystem. The sea water is characterised by high salinity and the extent of salinity
considerably affects the species diversity that inhabit the sea.
The lagoons, mangroves, marine grasses, rocky and sandy beaches constitute the coastal
ecosystem.
Do you know that
Spraying of insecticides harms not only the insects alone, but the organisms at
each trophic level are badly affected thus it becomes injurious to all the organisms.
This is why the spraying of D.D.T. is banned.

Trophic Levels
Find out the answer of these questions yourself : In an ecosystem,
1. What is biosphere? plants are eaten by
2. Define an ecosystem. herbivores which are eaten
by carnivores. These
3. Name the biotic components of an ecosystem. carnivores are also eaten by
4. Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem. some other carnivores. In
this way food is transferred
5. Draw a line diagram of a food web.
from plants to herbivores
and then to carnivores. On the basis of this sequence different nutritional levels of organisms
are formed which are called as trophic levels.
In an ecosystem the nutritional levels of producers and consumers are
known as Trophic levels.

Herbivores Carnivores Carnivores

Green plants
(producers) (Primary (Secondary (Tertiary
consumers) consumers) consumers)

First Second Third Top/Fourth

Trophic level Trophic level Trophic level Trophic level

The number of trophic levels may vary with the ecosystem. More complex ecosystems
have the higher number of trophic levels, Although,. the number of trophic levels may vary
but the organisms in the last trophic level are not consumed by other organisms and this is
called as top trophic level and the organisms of this level are known as top consumers.

Chapter-18 (P-290)
Functions of an Ecosystem
There are two main functions of an ecosystem
1. Energy flow 2. Biogeochemical cycles.
18.4 Energy Flow :
All biotic components require energy for biological activities. Sun is the main source
of energy. Only plants can convert solar energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy
from producers goes to consumers of different levels and reaches the top consumers. This
is called as Energy flow and it is always unidirectional.

The process of sequential transfer of energy from its source to producers

and then to consumers of different levels and finally to decomposers is known
as Energy flow.

Plants convert solar energy into chemical energy (Carbohydrates).

Flow of energy is unidirectional and is from producers to top consumers.
Some part of energy at each trophic level is lost to the environment in the form of
heat.
Some part of energy is also utilised by the organisms in metabolic activities.
Some energy is left unutilised and is passed to the next trophic level.
At each trophic level 90% of the energy is utilised or lost and only 10% is passed to
the next trophic level.
Example : The figure shows a food chain. Green plants are able to absorb only 1% of
the solar energy. Rest of the solar energy is either dissipated or utilised to heat up the
earths environment. Green plants (producers) utilize 90% of energy absorbed on their own
metabolic activities and the rest 10% of the energy is passed to the primary consumers
(goat). Primary consumers utilise 90% of this energy and 10% is passed to the secondary
consumers (man). In this way only 10% of the energy is passed to the next trophic level.
This is called as ten percent law.
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Sun Primary consumers Secondary
Producers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
consumers
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

Chapter-18 (P-291)
 Sun

Energy absorbed
by atmosphere Radiation energy
absorbed by plants Energy used for
heating of earth

1% of energy absorbed by
Energy used in
metabolic plants is converted into
chemical energy Loss of energy in
the form of heat
activities unused energy 10%

Energy used in Primary consumers
metabolic
activities
unused energy 10% Loss of energy in
the form of heat

Energy used in Secondary consumers Loss of energy in

metabolic
activities
unused energy 10% the form of heat

Energy used in Tertiary consumers Loss of energy in
metabolic unused energy 10% the form of heat

activities

Decomposers

released in environment

Flow of energy in an ecosystem

18.5 Energy Crisis : Causes, Control and Conservation

In nature, the ultimate source of energy for all organisms is sun, but humans have
developed other sources of energy to make their life convenient and comfortable. Since
ancient times early humans have been using fossil fuels like coal and wood as sources of
energy. But with time due to increasing population, the sources of energy diminished.
Fossils fuels like coal and mineral oils also decreased. Due to environmental pollution

Chapter-18 (P-292)
rainfall was affected resulting in shortage of water. All these factors also affected production
of electricity. This resulted in decrease of fossils fuels, electricity and other sources of
energy for increasing population. This energy crisis and its causes are enumerated below :
1. Excessive use of natural energy reserves like coal and mineral oils.
2. Decrease in rainfall due to environmental pollution and global warming.
3. Reckless use of energy sources.
Control measures for energy crisis
1. Renewing the energy sources (like tree plantation)
2. Use of alternative sources of energy like wind energy, hydro energy, solar energy,
gobar gas etc.
3. Restricted use of fossil fuels
Conservation of Energy
The biggest challenge for modern man is the conservation of energy. If timely efforts
in this direction are not made at personal, social, national and global level, then the energy
crisis will be so grave that the entire human race may revert back to ancient human era.
Therefore, by paying attention to energy conservation at each level we can make not only
our present, but future too, very bright.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. What do you understand by trophic level?
2. What is top trophic level?
3. What are the main functions of ecosystem?
4. Draw a line diagram of energy flow in an ecosystem.
5. What measures can be taken to control energy crisis.

18.6 Biogeochemical cycles

In an ecosystem some substances move from biotic components to abiotic components
and from abiotic to biotic components which results in the formation of a cycle known as
biogeochemical cycle.
Interrelationship of biotic and abiotic components with environment in an ecosystem.
Nutrients move from producers to primary, secondary and then tertiary consumers.
After the death of all these, the decomposers, decompose the dead bodies of plants and
animals, release the nutrients into the nutrient pool of the atmosphere. (air, water bodies,
soil). From where these are again absorbed by the producers. Major nutrients are Carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen which form the larger part of the protoplasm of the organisms.

Chapter-18 (P-293)
 Biotic Producers

component nutrients

Primary consumers

Atmosphare, soil Decomposers nutrients Death and
decay
Secondary consumers
Abiotic
components
nutrients

Tertiary consumers

Decomposers

Soil nutrients

18.6.1 Carbon Cycle

The important part of Carbon Cycle is atmospheric carbon dioxide. The amount of
Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere is 0.032%. In addition to Carbon dioxide, Carbon
is also present as fossil fuel, igneous rocks and in water as dissolved CO2.
Plants use atmospheric CO2 for photosynthesis and release CO2 during respiration to
the atmosphere.
Green plants are eaten by
Photo
Atmospheric
CO2 and diss-
herbivores and carbohydrates synthesis olved CO2 Respiration
n

in water
tio

(formed from CO 2 during

ira

sp

photosynthesis) are transferred to

Re

Respiration
the body of the consumers. During
Green Decom-
respiration these consumers plants Consumers posers
release CO2 to the atmosphere.
When the plant and animal bodies Death
are decomposed, CO2 is released in Death Dead
remains Burning
the atmosphere.

and fossil
By burning of the remains of dead fuel
plants and animals, CO2 is produced Carbon Cycle

and released in the atmosphere.

18.6.2 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an essential element for the protein synthesis in the organisms. The amount
of elemental nitrogen in the atmosphere is 78% but the organisms are not able to utilise
this nitrogen. Plants can make use of nitrogen if it is converted to nitrates. Nitrogen cycle
operates in the following manner.

Chapter-18 (P-294)
 Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrates by the bacteria Azotobater and
Rhizobium. These nitrates are soluble in water which are absorbed by plants and in this way
nitrogen in the form of nitrates reaches the plant bodies where it is used to synthesise
organic substances like proteins.
Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates is called nitrogen fixation.
The process of formation of ammonia is called as ammonification.
Conversion of ammonia to nitrates is known as nitrification.
Conversion of nitrate back to nitrogen or ammonia is called denitrification.
Ammonification : Organic substances are converted to ammonia or amino acids by soil
micro organisms. Ammonia Nitrates
is released in the atmosphere
or soil. Nitrate Bacteria Producer (Plants)
Nitrification : Ammonia is then Consumer
converted to nitrates by the Denitrification Nitrogen
Nitrite Bacteria Fixing Bacteria
micro organisms (bacteria). decomposer
Denitrification : Nitrate is again
transformed into nitrogen, Nitrogen
Nitrite Bacteria (atmospere) Amino acid +
ammonia or some oxides by
Organic substances
the bacteria Free nitrogen is
released in the atmosphere
Nitrification Ammonification
and oxides are absorbed by the
plants and this cycle goes on.
Ammonia
18.7 Types of Ecosystem
There are two main types of Nitrogen cycle
ecosystems :
Terrestrial Aquatic
Terrestrial Ecosystems : The ecosystems found on land are known as terrestrial ecosystem.
These are of following types :
Grassland ecosystem Forest ecosystem
Desert ecosystem Hilly ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystems : These are found in water and are of two types :
Fresh water ecosystem (river, pond etc) Sea water ecosystem

18.8 Biomass :
The weight of organisms per unit area of an ecosystem is known as biomass. For

Chapter-18 (P-295)
 example, the weight of producers (plants), primary, secondary, tertiary consumers
(animals) put together is the biomass of that ecosystem.

wt. of
Top consumer
+ weight
wt. of Secondary + weight Total weight = Biomass
consumer
+ weight
wt. of Primary
consumer + weight
weight of Producers

18.9 Biodiversity and its Importance :

In the biosphere we find a number of different types of animals like monkey, human,
goat, butterfly, sparrow, snake and many more. All these animals are quite different
from each other. Similarly, we find a number of plants like mango tree, bean climber,
rose plant, grasses, palm tree which are quite different from one another. Likewise
several micro-organism of different types are found.
All these different types of animals, plants and micro organisms depict Biodiversity.
The variety found in different living organisms is Biodiversity
Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Species Genetic Ecosystem

Biodiversity Biodiversity Biodiversity

There are several types of differences met with in various organisms. These differences
are observed at different levels on the basis of the differences found in organisms, it is
possible to classify them. Following are some of the levels of these differences.
1. Species biodiversity : There can be a number of organisms of one or more species
belonging to the same genus in an ecosystem.
2. Genetic biodiversity : It is also observed that two organisms belonging to the same
species are different from one another which is considered as genetic biodiversity.
3. Ecosystem biodiversity : In the same ecosystem the organisms show differences in
their external appearance, species, nutritional behaviour etc.

Chapter-18 (P-296)
18.9.1 Conservation of Biodiversity
Each organism has an important role to play in maintaining a balance in nature. If a
specie is affected there is impact on the whole ecosystem. All the organisms interact with
each other to maintain the balance. Humans also play an important role to maintain an
ecosystem. But many human activities are putting the life of organisms in danger and this is
causing and threat to biodiversity.
The loss of biodiversity can be disastrous for human race. In nature we find that one
species is controlled by the other species. This is known as biological control For example
in a food chain of Grass Deer Lion if all the deer die, the lions will also be
affected due to shortage of food. In this way the ecosystem will be adversely affected.
Therefore, the conservation of biodiversity is essential at each level. There can be threat to
biodiversity due to following reasons.
For example due to increase in population the demand of food and houses increased.
Because of this forest land was used for agriculture and housing. By adopting mono culture
technique, that is growing single type of crop species continuously on the same land, the
fertility of soil will be affected, only single type of pest and weeds will flourish and will

Use of forest
Increase Monoculture
land for Industri- Urbani- Pollution
in human Agricultural and system of Poaching
Agriculture
alization sation
population residential
purpose

need for need for

more more
houses food

not allow others to grow and devolop. Ever increasing industries and urbanisation will also
cause loss of biodiversity. Poaching of wild animals and environmental pollution will
endanger the existence of many species of wild animals and plants. Therefore conservation
of Biodiversity is need of present times.

18.10 Changes in land use cause imbalance in ecosystems

Due to increase in human industrilization, development of basic infrastructure like
roads and dams etc. there is tremendous change in land use. Generally, to expand the
boundries of cities and towns, residental colonies are developed on agricultural land. In
cities on the banks of water bodies or land of any place is used to develop industrial
complexes. For the construction of dams and other such structures the forest land is also
used.

Chapter-18 (P-297)
 Where land use of an area is changed, it has long lasting effects. The boidiversity of
that area is depleted which drastically affects the existing ecosystem. For example, if the
wet land around a lake is developed into a residental area, the whole lake ecosystem is
disturbed and becomes imbalanced. By filling or modification of wetland areas the water
conservation capacity of a lake decreases and the water accumulation arrangements are
greatly hampered. Most of the wet lands provide habitats to many organisms. Many local
and migratory birds inhabit these wet lands and their destruction leads to imbalance in the
lake ecosystems and finally, completely eliminate the ecosystem.
Change in land use and imblance in ecosystems as also affects the livelihood of local
people. For example in Kolkata filling of the wetlands has affected the aquatic ecosystem
and fish production was decreased by twenty five thousand meteric tons and the city was
continuously flooded during rainy season.
Method of Conservation Biodiversity
Awareness for protection of organisms. Threat to biodiversity
Protection of natural bioreserves. from humans
Establishment of wild life Sanctuaries.
Establishment of national parks. There is a superstition that to
Conservation and protection of endangered obtain the horn like structure
and exinct species through biotechnological found on the nostril of Rhinoceros
techniques. is a good omen. A lot of poaching
Biodiversity can be maintained by creating was done to get this horn and skin
awareness amongst people, of the importance of of Rhino. Due to which this animal
every single species and its role in the ecosystem. has become an endangered species.
By establishing national parks, sanctuaries and Similarly, to get Kasturi of
natural bio reserves the conservation of Kasturi Mrig a large number of
biodiversity can be accomplished. animals were killed and it is also
on the verge of extinction.
Effects of destruction of Eco-system
There are several ecosystems that exist on the earth. As a result of human activites
and /or natural calamties a change /destruction /reformation of the ecosystems may be
brought about. How is ecosystem destroyed? The adverse changes brought about in the
structural and functional aspects of any ecosystem are the indicators of its destruction.
When the ecosystem is destroyed due to natural calamities, new type of ecosystem
can be developed. For example, a forest ecosystem may be changed to grassland ecosystem
due to decline in biodiversity and change in nutrient cycles. Several examples can be cited
of natural calamities that adversely affect the ecosystem like forest fire, floods, drought,
earthquakes etc.
Various types of human activites partially or completely affect the functional aspects
of ecoystem, thus leading to its degradation or even its destruction. For example, activites

Chapter-18 (P-298)
like mining, construction of dams, water logging etc. affect the structural aspects of land
that ultimately change the biotic and abiotic factors of that area.
Factors responsible for the destruction of ecosystem:
Human activites Natural calamities
Population increase Earthquake
Migration and development floods
of new residentlal colonies
Urbanisation Drought
Industrialization Forest fire
Jhoom cultivation
Construction of big dams
Due to the increasing pressure on resources the habitats of many organisms are
destroyed that lead to ecological imbalance. Mining activities destroy the forests and
construction of dams etc. damages the ecological equilibrium of the rivers and this creates
an ecological imbalance.
In Ratlam district of Madhya Pradesh, a migratory bird (locally known as Kharmaur)
visits every year during rainy season. This bird visits here because of the vast grassland
areas of this district that are suitable for its breeding. But gradually the grassland areas are
decreasing due to the demand for agricultural land and other such factors, limiting the
breeding places for the migratory bird. Moreover, illegal poaching has also brought down
its population. As a result, the bird is on the verge of extinction and is included in the list of
endangered species.
18.11 Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a novel technique to conserve the biodiversity. Long term measure
are being taken for this. The organisms are conserved in the form of germplasm and for this
gene banks are formed

Seed Botanical
Conservation garden,
Pollens
in gene Zoological
Cultured garden,
Explants bank
Tissue culture
Corm Labs etc.
Tuber

Chapter-18 (P-299)
 Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. What are biogeochemical cycles?
2. Explain ammonification, nitrification and denitrification.
3. What is biomass?
4. Give methods of conservation of biodiversity
5. Why is it necessary to conserve biodiversity?

POINTS TO REMEMBER
A functional unit formed by the co-ordination of all the biotic and abiotic components
of the environment is called as ecosystem.
The main biotic components of an ecosystem are producers and consumers and abiotic
components are organic and inorganic substances and climatic factors.
Functional components are autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Food is transferred from producers to top consumers in a sequential step wise manner.
The interlinking of many food chains form a food web.
With the help of food chain the transfer of nutrients and interrelationship of different
organisms can be explained.
In an ecosystem there can be many trophic levels but, the first trophic level is always
represented by plants and the last by the top carnivore.
There are two main functions of an ecosystem (i) Flow of energy, (2) Biogeochemical cycles.
In an ecosystem flow of energy is from producers to consumers and then to decomposers.
Thus, energy flow is unidirectional
In nature biogeochemical cycles are continuously running.
The main biogeochemical cycles are carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle.
Ecosystems mainly are terrestrial and aquatic.
The weight of the organisms per unit area of the ecosystem is called as biomass.
Biosphere consists of a variety of different organisms and it is called as biodiversity.
The main methods of conservation of biodiversity are creating awareness amongst people,
use of biotechnology and establishment of national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries.
Due to the tremendous use of land, the water table becomes low.

EXERCISES
Very short answer questions.
1. Why is life possible only on earth?
2. Who carries out decomposition in an ecosystem?
3. Why are green plants called as producers?
4. Name any four inorganic substances found in an ecosystem.

Chapter-18 (P-300)
Short answer type questions
1. What is meant by consumers? Name the consumers of a grassland ecosystem.
2. Which are the abiotic components? Describe any one of these.
3. How many types of heterotrophs are there?
4. Why is it necessary to conserve energy?
5. If in a forest ecosystem all lions are killed, how will it affect the ecosystem?
6. From where do saprophytes obtain their food?
Long answer type questions.
1. What do you understand by ecosystem? Explain the components of an ecosystem.
2. What is meant by trophic level? Explain the different trophic levels of an ecosystem.
3. How does energy flow occur in an ecosystem. Explain the details if energy flow at
each trophic level.
4. How does nitrogen cycle occur in nature.
5. Explain the effect of tremendous use of land on the balance of ecosystem?
Essay type questions
1. Write an essay on biodiversity and its importance.
2. Spraying of insectcides even affects the top consumers. Explain this statement with
the help of a food chain.
3. Write an essay on energy crisis.

PROJECT
If there has been no rain for the last 3-4 years, that will result in decrease of
grass production immensely. In this situation how the ecosystem will be affected.
Discuss with your friends and prepare a write up on this.

Chapter-18 (P-301)
 CHAPTER - 19

Sources of Waste Materials

123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 Increase in human population and undue human interference
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
in natural environment have caused many anomalies in our
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
surroundings. Due to increase in Industrialisation and
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Urbanisation there has been a continuous increase in the quantity
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
of waste materials resulting in several problems. Garbage implies
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 to useless material thrown away after use which may be
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567 household waste, industrial waste or agricultural waste that
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
pollutes the environment.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567
19.1 Sources of Waste Materials :
Let us learn Following are the sources of waste materials.
19.1 Sources of
Household Waste : The materials produced during
waste
cleaning of the household are called household waste. These
materials
are pieces of paper, glass, plastic, polythene, vegetable peels
19.2 Classification and kitchen waste, urine, faeces etc.
ofwaste
Industrial Waste : The waste materials produced by the
materials
industries are called industrial wastes. These are useless
19.3 Methods for materials produced during processing like poisonous fumes, ash
management etc. These industrial waste are harmful for our environment and
of waste pollute water, air and soil. The industrial ash contains such toxic
materials substances as Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, Lead etc which
19.4 Accumulation make the industrial wastes much more harmful.
of waste Agricultural Wastes : The wastes that are produced
materials and during agricultural activities come in this category. These include
its effect on stem pieces, stalks, leaves, grasses, flowers, peelings, straw etc.
ecological India being agriculture dominated country, a large amount of
balance. agricultural wastes is produced. These wastes affect the
19.5 Recycling agricultural practices badly.
Commercial Wastes : These materials are produced in
various shops in a market especially in the vegetable and fruit
shops. These include glass pieces, cardboard, paper pieces,
plastic, polythene, decaying vegetables and fruits. These also
pollute the environment.

Chapter-19 (P-302)
 Sources of Waste Materials

Household wastes Industrial Agricultural Commercial

Paper, glass, plastic Wastes Wastes Wastes
and china clay Industrial ash Stem pieces, Pieces of glass,
pieces, polythene, containing toxic leaves, grasses, cardboard, paper,
peelings of substances like flowers, plastic, polythene,
vegetables, urine, cadmium, peelings, straw decaying
stools etc. chromium, lead etc. vegetables etc.
mercury etc.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

1. What do you understand by agricultural wastes?
2. Explain about industrial wastes.

Activity
Objective : To make the students aware about the ill effects of polythene and plastic
wastes.
Method : Students should be asked to observe the plastic and polythene waste
found near their school or houses and prepare a list of effects that are
caused by such wastes.
Conclusion : Use of plastic and polythene is polluting the environment and affecting
the human health.

Need of management of waste materials

Today we are facing different types of problems due to waste materials and thus
the management of these materials has become an important necessity.

Waste materials cause land, air and water pollution that adversely affect human as
well as animals, health. This may result & several infectious diseases, pulmonary disorder,
cancer etc. The discharge of toxic materials in rivers, lakes and other water sources affects
the life of aquatic organisms. To overcome these problems management of waste materials
became necessary.
The proper disposal and reuse of waste materials is known as waste management.

Chapter-19 (P-303)
19.2 Classification of waste materials :
For proper disposal of waste materials, it is essential to classify these materials. The
main advantage of classification is that it helps to select the proper method of waste disposal.
Different types of waste materials are produced in different areas. These may be in the
form of solid, liquid or gas and some of these are degradable and others are non degradable.
On the basis of degradability and nature of wastes, complete the following table (In case of
difficulty take the help of your friends or teacher.)

S. Source of Wastes Degradable Non Nature of Waste

No. waste degradable Materials
Solid Liquid
Gas
1. House hold Paper,
activities vegetable
peeling
2. Industries Plastic
polythene
3. Agricultural
activities
4. Commercial
areas (Hotel,
Shops etc.)
5. Hospitals
6. Schools
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
19.3 Management of Waste Material : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Depending upon types of waste materials their 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
management practices are different. These are : 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
1. Dumping : The waste materials are collected and put 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
in a deep pit which is then covered. In this method we 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Dumping
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
cannot utilize the energy that could be obtained from 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
waste materials. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
2. Illegal dumping : When the dumping is done at 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
places other than the specified ones it is called as 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
illegal dumping, Waste materials dumped illegally 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
can deteriorate the quality of rain water and household 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123

Compost pit
Chapter-19 (P-304)
 water and this may also cause blockage in the drainage system. Thus, such harmful
wastes which are highly toxic should be dumped properly.
3. Composting : This is the most appropriate technique for the management of organic
solid wastes.
In the garbage 40 60% of the waste is organic waste. Such waste materials containing
plants / grasses, cow dung, left over food, vegetable peeling etc. are put in compost
pit which is then covered with soil. After every fifteen days the contents are tumble
mixed and after 3-4 months, compost is ready. In this way we not only get rid of the
waste materials but a very 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
useful manure is also 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Vermi composting
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
obtained 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Vermi composting : 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
Solid waste
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
This is a modern technique 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
earth worms
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
in which earthworms and micro- 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
manure
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
organism carry out the process of 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
dried leaves
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
composting. This is a very simple, 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
soil
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
beneficial and popular technique. wooden box
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678
It takes only 25-30 days to prepare
the compost.
Advantages of vermi composting
It improves the fertility of the soil.
It improves the water absorption and water holding capacity of the soil.
Disease resistance of plants is improved.
It makes the soil more porous.
This compost is generally used for the production of fruits, flowers and vegetables.

Drainage
Generally it is considered that if faecal matter and urine etc. are allowed to drain off
these get treated but it is not so. If untreated faecal matter is discharged in drains or rivers,
the aquatic animals are unable to get oxygen for respiration and ultimately die. Therefore,
the excretory products (faeces and urine) should be treated in sequential manner as follows
:
1. The sewage water from drains and wastes from toilets, bathrooms and kitchen should
be accumulated and disposed.
2. Coarser substances should be disposed seperately

Chapter-19 (P-305)
 Method of sewage treatment

Physical treatment Biological treatment

Filteration and treatment

Sewage tanks Septic tank Municipal sewage
treatment plant

3. The liquid and solid matter of the faeces should be disposed seperately.
4. The treated sewage material should be chlorinated and then discharged in the rivers.

Methods of Sewage treatment

Physical treatment : Garbage pieces mixed in sewage are filtered out and the filtered
sewage is treated with chlorine gas and released in water bodies
Biological treatment by septic tanks :
In urban and rural areas a tank is preapared below the ground level in which domestic
faecal sewage matter is dumped. Solid 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
matter settles at the bottom and in the upper 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
Ground level
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
layer micro organisms cause 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
Cover
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
decomposition and fermentation due to 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
Inlet
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
liquid material outlet
which several simple gases and liquid matter 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
is formed. The gases diffuse to the 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
atmosphere and the liquid matter through 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
solid waste
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
pipes goes to the disposal area. 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
Septic tank
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345
Due to illegal and incorrect methods 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345

of dumping the drainage system is badly affected and the drains get choked and the water
that is not able to pass through drains come on the roads resulting in flood like situation.
Therefore, drainage system should be regularly cleaned. Unauthorised drainage connections
should not be allowed and illegal dumping should be controlled, only then we would be able
to have full advantage of drainage systems.
Indian Tradition of Waste management
We all know that waste materials and problems arising from these are due to modern
life style. The amount of wastes produced in Indian life style is quite less and these waste
materials are generally easily decomposed. For example we have the tradition of serving

Chapter-19 (P-306)
food in donas and pattals (made of dried leaves) during many festivals and community
programmes. In this way the waste materials produced are lesser toxic and these are
biodegradable thus causing no harm to the environment.
Contrary to this on account of following western life style, the amount of waste
materials produced (plastic and thermocol etc.) is more in quantity and being non degradable
these are harmful to the environment. Thus, by adopting Indian life style and traditions we
can get rid of problems of waste materials to a greater extent.

Do you know that -

By consuming polythene bags five cows on an average die daily.
In India about 15 million tons of solid wastes are produced daily.
About 900 cubic meters of biogas can be produced from one ton of urban wastes.
As compared to small towns the production of solid wastes is five times more
in cities.
The pungent smell coming out of urinals is due to ammonia gas.

Find out the answer of these questions yourself :

1. Which are the main sources of waste production?
2. How many types of wastes are there?
3. What is the necessity of waste management?

19.4 Accumulation of waste materials and its effect on

ecological balance.
It is very essential to dispose off the waste materials - which may be industrial or
house hold. If these are not disposed off properly, they will affect the ecological system
and their accumulation will pollute the environment. Waste materials especially the
industrial wastes contain such chemicals which are themselves harmful or they undergo
reaction in the atmosphere to release such gases that are extremely harzardous for human
health.
The collection of waste materials at a place or dumping of toxic chemicals in an
irresponsible manner may cause land pollution, ultimately polluting the ground water.

Legislative measures for management of waste materials

Apart from industries, various commercial establishments in the cities, hospitals,
and household produce large amount of solid wastes. If this solid waste is not disposed off
properly, this may become harmful for human health and environment.
Ministry of environment and forestry, Govt of India has provided many acts and rules

Chapter-19 (P-307)
for the management of solid wastes
Do you Know ?
produced in the cities.
At a place called Plachimada in Karnataka
The ministry has formulated the state, a bottling plant of Cocacola company is
Municipal Solid Waste (management situated. The sludge from this bottling plant was
and handling) Rules 2000, under the not treated properly but thrown away in the
Enviroument Protection Act, 1986. nearby areas. The farmers started using this
All municipal corporations of the sludge as a manure for their plants resulting in
country will have to abide by these good growth of the plants. But in a study carried
rules. Each municipal corporation out by Kerala state pollution control board, it
will have to see that municipal solid was found that the sludge contained large amount
wastes and industrial or hospital of heavy metals like cadmium and lead. Due to
wastes should not be mixed under any these heavy metals water and lands were getting
circumstances. It will be imperative polluted whichin addition affected the food
chain. Moreover, lead and cadmiun are also
for each municipal corporation to
included in carcinogenic (cancer causing)
develop a proper place for waste
disposal and also for transporting the
solid waste to that place and its proper disposal. Under the municipal solid wastes
(management and handling) Rules 2000, Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution
Control Board have been assigned the task to monitor and grant permissions to various
municipal corporations. The district collector of the area will be fully responsible for the
implementation of the Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules 2000.

19.5 Reduction of waste materials and their reuse and recycling

Solid wastes are creating serious problems for environment management. Solid wastes
are of two types :
(i) Biodegradable organic substances.
(ii) Recyclable wastes.

Biodegradable substances :
This is also known as degradable garbage. Kitchen wastes, food materials and dried
leaves etc. are included in this category. It can easily be decomposed and compost can be
prepared from this, which helps to increase the soil fertility. Solid waste contains mostly
biodegradable substances and some recyclable materials.
Biogas can be produced from bio degradable substances. It is a good fuel from which
electricity can also be produced. The left over liquid (slurry) formed can be used as manure

Chapter-19 (P-308)
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Biogas
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Gas tank
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Mixing tank Outlet tank
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Bricks
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Dung and
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
degradable
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
waste
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Outlet pipe
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Intel pipe
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
manure
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

Biogas Plant
for plants. Biogas contains 95% methane, 2% carbon dioxide and the rest is hydrogen
sulphide and water vapours.

19.5.1 Recycling :
Making a substance reusable is known as recycling.
Some of the examples of recycling are :
Used paper is made into a paste and reused.
Clothes can be used as duster and machinery wiper.
Metals can be molten and reused.
Ash and dust produced in factories can be used to make bricks.
Polythene and plastics can be recycled to prepare inferior quality plastic.
Broken glass pieces are used to prepare sand papers

Management of Solid Wastes :

1. Regular collection : for this, in every street/ colony a dustbin should be kept which
should be cleaned regularly.
2. Classification of waste materials : Whether the waste is household or industrial it
should be properly classified and grouped separately. Biodegradable and recyclable
wastes should be collected separately. Biodegradable substances should be put in a
pit, inflammable substances should be burnt and recyclable materials should be carried

Chapter-19 (P-309)
 to the specified places. Metallic waste and uninflamable substances should be taken
far away from populated areas and water bodies and put in dumping places.

Activity
Objective : To make the students aware of different waste products and their effects on
environment and also about their recycling.
Method : Prepare the following table in your notebook and complete it.
S.No. Name of waste materials Effect on environment Whether recyclable
1. Impure water Water and air pollution Yes
2. Plastic -------------------- --------------------
3. Household waste -------------------- --------------------
4. Polythene -------------------- --------------------
5. Metals -------------------- --------------------
6. Glass -------------------- --------------------
Conclusion : Waste materials have adverse effects on the environment.
Most of the waste materials can be recycled.
Find out the answer of these questions yourself :
1. What are biodegradable substances?
2. What is recycling?
POINTS TO REMEMBER
The useless materials produced in houses, markets, factories etc. are called as waste
materials.
The major sources of waste materials are households, commercial areas, agriculture
and industries.
Waste materials are of three types solid, liquid and gaseous.
The proper disposal of waste materials is known as Waste Management.
There are many methods of waste management like dumping, composting, drainage
etc.
Vermicomposting is modern, convenient and effective technique in which compost is
prepared in a short time.
To make the useless substances reusable is known as recycling. Most of the waste
materials can be recycled.
Through the recycling of wastes, useful materials can be produced. Biogas production
is an example.

Chapter-19 (P-310)
 Poisonous chemicals are developed in air, water and land due to the accumulation of
wastes.

EXERCISES
Very short answer type questions.
1. What are waste materials?
2. Name some household wastes.
3. What is biogas?

Short answer type question.

1. What is meant by composting?
2. What are the advantages of biogas?
3. Which materials can be recycled?
4. If there is improper management of waste, what legistative measures should be taken?

Long answer type questions.

1. Describe the ill effects of using polythene.
2. What are the advantages of vermicomposting?
3. Draw a labelled diagram of biogas plant.

PROJECT
Prepare a list of waste materials found in your school and how the mangement
of these materials can be done by any of the following processes.
1. Through recycling.
2. By vermicomposting.
3. Through Biogas plant.
Prepare a write up and show to your teacher.

Chapter-19 (P-311)
Chapter-19 (P-312)