Maughan Engineering Consultants

3. CHAPTER 3 - OPERATION ........................................................................................................... 3-1

3.1 GENERAL...................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 OPERATING PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS....................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Load Cycling ....................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Loss of Cooling.................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.3 Temperature Control ........................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.4 Over-loading........................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2.5 Start/Stops............................................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2.6 Turning Gear Operation...................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.7 Off-line Stationary ............................................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.8 Cleanliness and Contamination........................................................................................... 3-3
3.2.9 Unbalanced Armature Load Current & Asynchronous Operation ..................................... 3-3
3.2.10 Sudden Short Circuit Events................................................................................................ 3-4
3.2.11 Synchronizing Errors........................................................................................................... 3-4
3.2.12 Loss of Excitation ................................................................................................................ 3-4
3.2.13 Over-fluxing Incidents ......................................................................................................... 3-5
3.2.14 Loss of Lubrication.............................................................................................................. 3-6
3.2.15 Cooling Water Leaks ........................................................................................................... 3-6
3.2.16 Oil Entry .............................................................................................................................. 3-7
3.2.17 Overspeed ............................................................................................................................ 3-7
3.2.18 Collector and Brush Holder Rigging................................................................................... 3-7
3.2.19 Auxiliaries............................................................................................................................ 3-8
3.2.20 Alarms ................................................................................................................................. 3-9
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3. Chapter 3 - Operation
3.1 General
Ideally a generator would operate with few load cycles and always within the parameters
recommended by the equipment designers. Since these ideal conditions are neither possible nor
practical, it is worthwhile to consider the affects on generator reliability and length of life of
common operating practices, i.e., load cycling, start-stops, temperature control, over-loading, off-
line turning gear, off-line stationary, cleanliness and contamination, unbalanced armature load
current.

In addition, mis-operation and malfunction will have a determining influence, e.g., cooling water
leaks, oil entry, loss of cooling, synchronizing errors, sudden short circuit events, loss of
lubrication, over-speed, loss of excitation, over-fluxing incidents, auxiliary system failures, alarm
failure or misinterpretation.

These affects on reliability and length of life from normal operation, mis-operation and
malfunction will be considered below.

3.2 Operating Problems and Concerns

3.2.1 Load Cycling

All generator components are adversely affected in various ways by cyclic loading. Increased
maintenance and shortening of life will lead to:

Armature bar groundwall and internal insulation mechanical deterioration and migration

Core looseness and punching migration

Stator wedging systems loosening

Stator bar end winding support system degradation

Field copper cracking, foreshortening, lengthening

Field turn insulation and slot liner mechanical deterioration and migration.

3.2.2 Loss of Cooling

This is a potentially serious condition. Partial loss of cooling may cause no damage, if load is
appropriately reduced. However, the extreme of total cooling loss can destroy the stator and field
insulation systems, if allowed to persist. This condition may also cause internal paints to blister,
therefore requiring removal. (On water cooled stator windings, insufficient water flow to an
armature bar can quickly boil the water in that bar and thereby stop water flow; the immediate
result will be gross overheating of the bar. Fracture of the bar insulation will occur on both ends
of the bar at the first radius outside the slot.)

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Alignment between generator and turbine will also be affected and can result in high vibration
problems.

3.2.3 Temperature Control

Adverse affect of operation above recommended temperature values will primarily influence life
of the insulation systems, although field copper mechanical properties will fall off rapidly with
elevated temperature. Operating substantially below recommended temperatures can adversely
affect critical properties of the metallic components.

3.2.4 Over-loading
Because over-loading even by modest amounts substantially influences reliability and life,
designers continue to emphasize the importance of operating within specified design limits. In
particular, the reactive capability curve limits should be maintained (Figure 3-1). Differential
expansions of armature bars and field copper will increase, with accompanying increased
mechanical deterioration rates. Also, over-temperature conditions will tend to exist and will
impact life of insulating materials.

Figure 3-1. Typical Capability Curve

3.2.5 Start/Stops
In addition to temperature cycling, start/stop operation mechanically cycles all components of the
field. This includes wedges, collectors, retaining rings, fan rings, and field forging. Shrink fit
locations are also cycled. Non-body mounted retaining rings go through a heavy flexing of the
field copper at the inboard end of the rings. Generally speaking, generators do not like shutdowns.

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3.2.6 Turning Gear Operation

On those units with rotation speed sufficiently high for centrifugal force to overcome gravity,
above about 50 rpm, impact of turning gear rotation should be minor if proper bearing lubrication
is maintained.

Low-speed turning gear operation allows field coils and blocking to continually shift with
rotation. This is the root cause of the copper dust phenomenon. Otherwise, low speed turning
gear should not affect reliability if bearing lubrication is maintained properly.

3.2.7 Off-line Stationary

Provided that internal humidity is properly controlled so as to avoid insulation troubles and
metallic component corrosion, deterioration should be negligible. On outdoor units, water-
containing components must be kept above freezing temperatures.

3.2.8 Cleanliness and Contamination

Buildup of contaminants is a serious deterioration mechanism. Contamination can be fatal to
insulation systems, particularly field insulation, but also stator windings, if severe. Conductive
contaminates are a major problem to both fields and stators. Contamination is a particular concern
in the event of oil leaks. Figure 3-2 shows a severely contaminated field forging after removal of
the field winding.

Figure 3-2. Contamination Build-up in Ventilation Circuit of Air-Cooled Generator with

Inadequately Maintained Filtered Open Ventilation System

3.2.9 Unbalanced Armature Load Current & Asynchronous Operation

Unbalanced armature current produces what is called negative sequence current. These currents
cause field body current at an apparent frequency of 100/120 Hz at rated speed. Asynchronous
operation, including closure of the generator load breaker with field at stand-still, also causes field
body current which can be very high. If sufficiently high, effect will be damaging to the field in a
very short time, Figure 3-3, and can cause destructive field component failure, Figure 2-31.

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Figure 3-3. Field Heating Resulting From

Asynchronous Operation

3.2.10 Sudden Short Circuit Events

These events can be among the most destructive to a generator, particularly larger generators. If
the fault is within the generator, or close to the generator on the low side of the transformer,
conditions are particularly severe. Armature current can break armature bars, deform bars in the
end windings, throw bars out of the stator slot (Figure 2-11), crush gas cooled bar ventilation
tubes (Figure 2-12), and generally harm a generator.

System faults and synchronizing errors are accompanied by high torque on the field, which is
transferred into the turbine. In the process, the couplings may slip, bolts may be deformed, shafts
broken, and the turbine severely damaged.

Fortunately because of the high reliability of isolated phase buss, close-in faults are rare on large
machines. Also short circuit is most likely to occur due to flashover near peak armature voltage;
this will limit current to about one-half the theoretical maximum obtained if a short circuit were to
occur at the instant of zero armature voltage on the AC voltage cycle. Because force is a function
of the square of current, force would be limited to one-forth of theoretical maximum. But even so,
the forces can be very high, on the order of 100 times normal operational force.

3.2.11 Synchronizing Errors

Mis-synchronizing has similar impact to sudden short-circuit fault. If the angle of error is small, a
few degrees, damage is unlikely. If the error is high, approaching 180 degrees, the effect on the
armature winding is that of a severe sudden short circuit. Since closure can occur at the instant of
zero voltage on the AC voltage wave, maximum possible forces can be applied. The result would
probably cause damage to the armature winding with any type of end winding support structure.
Synchronizing near 120 degrees error places the maximum possible torque on the turbine-
generator shafts, and can be expected to slip couplings and cause damage to rotating components.

3.2.12 Loss of Excitation

Excitation loss while carrying load will result in asynchronous operation; unit speed will increase
a few percent to a point where current will automatically flow in the field forging sufficient to
cause the generator to operate as an asynchronous machine. The generator will continue to deliver

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to the power grid whatever power the turbine is producing. If allowed to persist, severe and
destructive damage may occur to the field in a matter of moments.

Reclosure of the field will cause the generator to pull back in step as the field builds back up over
a period of a few seconds. This will place some additional duty of the armature winding; however,
this may be preferable to a continuation of asynchronous operation if the steam valves cannot be
closed and the machine shut down.

3.2.13 Over-fluxing Incidents

This condition is most likely to occur while disconnected from the system. (If the stator is
connected to a grid, excess field will result in high vars output, i.e., high lag power factor.)

Under non-synchronized conditions, excess field current will cause magnetic circuit saturation.
Exciters are capable of output of more than 3 times the necessary field current for rated no-load
stator voltage. A field current value of 1.5 times no-load field current will give about 1.20 times
rated armature voltage. On an unsynchronized generator, this field current will cause significant
stator magnetic circuit saturation. This, in turn, will drive significant flux beyond the outside
diameter of the core, and will also increase duty from core end leakage flux. If the condition is
prolonged, core iron damage can be expected. Values of field current for varying load conditions
are provided by manufacturers on the V-curve, Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4. Typical Generator V-Curve

The condition of maximum exciter current output to an unsynchronized generator can be expected
to destroy the stator core, probably in a matter of several seconds, Figure 3-5. Core iron burning
will be particularly severe at the core ends and at the keybars. Tooth burning is likely to cause
stator-winding failure, with additional core burning and contamination damage.

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Figure 3-5. Core Damage Resulting from Over-fluxing

3.2.14 Loss of Lubrication

This is one of the most serious of turbine-generator malfunctions. If loss is partial and is
immediately corrected, little or no damage may result. However, if the machine comes down
without oil, severe bearing and turbine rotating component damage will occur. Oil fire is likely,
Figure 3-7, and if the machine is hydrogen cooled, hydrogen fire can be expected.

Several redundancies are incorporated into lubrication oil systems, but failures of this type still
periodically occur. Furthermore, the severe vibration is likely to fracture bearing oil supply lines.
Due to the several back-ups provided to assure lubricating oil supply to the bearings under all
conditions, the system will tend to pump the oil tank dry into the resulting fire.

Extensive equipment and plant damage can be expected in the event of complete loss of
lubrication oil.

3.2.15 Cooling Water Leaks

Serious water leaks can cause insulation failure. Slow cooler leaks may result in deposit of residue
on the stator winding. This water, in conjunction with cooler tube soldering lead, can result in
formation of lead carbonate, a hazardous material. The deposit in Figure 3-6 has the appearance of
lead carbonate.

Figure 3-6. Foreign Material on Stator Winding from

Cooler Leak

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If the field uses 18/5 retaining ring material, a slow persistent leak can cause stress-corrosion
catastrophic fracture of a ring in a period of only a few months.

3.2.16 Oil Entry

Oil ingress, if allowed to persist, can adversely affect stator-wedging systems, deteriorate
insulation materials, and increase collection of other contaminants in unwanted locations. In large
amounts, oil can plug gas ventilation passages in gas cooled high voltage bushings and elsewhere.
Fortunately, oil ingress in modest amounts is ordinarily not severely damaging, as many
generators are rather oily after a period of operation.

3.2.17 Overspeed
Excessive overspeed can destroy a turbine-generator, Figure 3-7. Even if fracture does not occur,
components may yield and stretch to a point where replacement is required.

Figure 3-7. Broken Turbine Control Standard after Severe

Vibration and Fire

3.2.18 Collector and Brush Holder Rigging

Carbon-brush collectors have historically been an operations/maintenance concern on turbine-
generators. This is understandable in that this relatively small generator component is one of the
most frequent causes of generator forced outages. The primary root cause of collector service
problems is the failure to perform the on-going daily inspection recommended by the OEMs.
While this inspection and the associated maintenance effort are relatively minor, it is sometimes
overlooked or done inadequately. Performance of the daily inspection and the needed
maintenance should result in identifying and correcting collector operating conditions before any
serious problems can develop. This in turn will greatly reduce or eliminate exposure to carbon-
brush collector service problems.
One of the primary reasons for inadequate attention to the collector and brushes is the concern for
safety issues associated with handing energized components brushes typically operate at 125 to
500 Vdc. There is the legitimate concern with possible hazards to personnel and equipment due to
need to adjust and replace brushes while the generator is operating. Even with field voltage
removed, the brushes may still be energized to about 125 Vdc by the field ground detection
circuit. Larger machines usually have insulated magazine brush holders that allow brush
maintenance without contact with the collector voltage; smaller machines usually do not.
Fortunately retrofit removable brush holder retrofits are available to replace individual fixed

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brush holders. At least one design is available which is essentially a drop-in replacement, and the
retrofit can be accomplished at modest cost during a one-day outage.

The preventative maintenance check list, below, can be used as a guide in reviewing plant
collector inspection/maintenance practices to assure that optimum collector maintenance is being
accomplished.
Daily Inspections:
Inspect for sparking between brush and rings.
Listen for brush chatter.
On brush holders without constant pressure springs, check that pressure is still within
acceptable range.
Look for loose, frayed, or blue pigtails.
Check for dust or oil.
Look for short brushes.
Check for any instability or increase in indicated field temperature recorder readings.
Watch for any changes from previous conditions.
Any abnormalities should be immediately reported to responsible plant maintenance
and/or management personnel.

Weekly Inspections:
On brush holders without constant pressure springs, adjust brush-spring pressures so they
are all within proper range.
Remove a brush at random, and examine its wear face for evidence of pitting, edge
chipping, grooving, or threading.
Check all brushes for hang-up in the brush holder.
Examine brush springs and pigtail connections.
Spot-check for vibration, and record and plot the levels on long-term chart.
Observe brushes and pig-tails with infrared scope.
Observe collector rings with stroboscope.
Replace worn and/or deficient brushes, removing one brush (or magazine) at a time.
Note the appearance of collector ring surfaces and of the brush films on the rings for any
change from normal.
Inspect air filters. Replace or clean as necessary.
Conditions should be recorded and timely correction of deficiencies should be
accomplished.

3.2.19 Auxiliaries
The pumping units, valves, and piping associated with the auxiliaries tend to be a source of
constant minor maintenance. However, the auxiliaries generally are not a major problem if given
proper on-going maintenance.

Alarm conditions, such as high levels and low pressures, should be immediately addressed since if
left unattended may lead to a serious forced outage. Conditions of particular concern include low
oil pressures, high gas flow from the stator cooling water or hydrogen seal systems, and liquid
accumulation in the detectors.

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3.2.20 Alarms
Instrumentation monitoring the status of the generator from the control room is limited in
quantity, with few backups, sometimes ambiguous information, and infrequent alarm conditions.
As a result, misinterpretation, misunderstanding or procrastination in response to alarm conditions
occasionally occurs, with serious consequences.

For example, failure to respond to one or two RTDs or TCs reading high temperature on a liquid
cooled stator winding can result in winding double-failure to ground with extensive arc damage.
Core monitor alarm may be false or indicative of beginning stages of fatal burning of insulation.
Sudden increase in vibration may be minor or the beginning stages of catastrophic failure. High
cooling gas temperature may be a bad sensor or a generator in the process of severe overheating.
A field ground alarm may be of little consequence or preliminary stages of forging burning or a
double ground problem.

Most power plants now incorporate a Distributed Control System (DCS). Correct response(s) to
each of the various generator alarms should be programmed into the DCS.

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