MASONRY

Lecture 12
BRICK/BLOCK/STONE
MASONRY

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3
 Contents need to understand

Masonry - materials
Types of masonry units
Manufacture of bricks
and blocks
Characteristics and
testing of bricks
Mortar for
brickwork/masonry work

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 MASONRY

Type of construction whereby units are laid

together to form a structure

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 Masonry construction

Masonry Construction = masonry units +

mortar
Masonry units:
Bricks
Blocks
Stones
Made from a variety of non-organic
material

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 MASONRY UNIT

BLOCK

STONE BRICK

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MASONRY STRUCTURE
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MASONRY STRUCTURES

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10
 DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Strength
Durability
Resistance to water, noise
and fire
Aesthetic
Other special requirements
e.g. blast resistance

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BRICKS

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 Bricks

Bricks are produced in many

formats: solid, perforated
and hollow

Typically 215 x 102 x 65 mm

(length x width x height)

Made of clay, sand-cement,

concrete and calcium silicate

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 Types of bricks (shape)

Face shell Central web

End web

Cell
Solid
End web cavities exceeding 25 % of
Hollow total volume of brick.

Frogged
Perforated
volume of indentations
holes 25 % of gross must not exceed 20 % of
volume of the brick gross volume.
 Types of Clay Bricks

Three types of clay bricks:

1) Common general use; not design to provide good
finish or high strength; usually plastered, non-load
bearing
2) Facing for attractive appearance; no cracks; may
or may not be load bearing; durable
3) Engineering good strength and durability; high
density; well fired (load bearing walls, retaining
walls, sewers, embankments etc.)

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Common Brick

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Facing Brick

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Facing Brick

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 ENGINEERING BRICK

Column

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20
 Types of Brick

Clay brick
Mortar brick
Calcium Silicate brick
Others
Need to understand: material,
manufacturing, properties,
applications
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 CLAY BRICKS

Clay bricks continue to be the most important

building units
Raw materials are clay or shale
Efficient material to use in terms of their energy
consumption
Strong and durable

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 Clay for Brick-making

A variety clay composition and minerology deposited at

different geological period; from soft sticky mud to
shale
Hence bricks are differ in their properties- colour,
texture, strength, density and durability
Only 30-40% of brick-making clay are clay minerals
Clay minerals-size less than 2 microns; the amount and
particle size present in the clay affect the cohesiveness,
forming characteristics, drying and firing properties of
the clay

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 Cont.
Too much clay can result in high drying shrinkage; adding sand can
reduce drying shrinkage
Clays are hydrated aluminosilicates (predominance is silica and
alumina); the main minerals are: kaolinite, Illite, montmorillonite
Other mineral present in clays are: potash (K2O), Lime (CaO), Soda
(Na2O), Magnesium (MgO) and iron (FeO, Fe2O3)
Chemical analysis may be undertaken, together with minerological
examination can assist in identifying the presence of chemicals and
clay minerals in the raw materials

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Manufacturing of clay bricks

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 Stiff mud process
PUG MILL Grind clay
Preparation

MIXER Mix clay

EXTRUDER Form clay strip

Formation

WIRE CUTTER Cut

bricks

Drying TUNNEL DRYER @ 40oC 150 oC

Dry bricks 24 48 hrs

KILN
Firing Burn bricks @ 930 oC
1320oC.
60-80 hrs.
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 Manufacturing Clay Bricks

1) Clay Preparation
Objectives:
1) improve homogeneity and plasticity of clay
2) control of physical and chemical properties such as
shrinkage, colour and vitrification temperature
3) well prepared clay eliminate problems during the
production process thereby reduces the rejection
rates

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 Clay Preparation (cont.)

Process
Digging, crushing, sieving, grinding,
proportioning, mixing, tempering
Add chemicals for special purpose;
eg. barium carbonate react with
soluble salts producing insoluble
product (expensive)

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 MOULDING

Process of giving shape to

the bricks
A variety of shaping
methods that depends on
the moisture content and
consistency of the clay

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 Semi Dry Process

Moisture content @ 10%

Granular consistency, pressed in 4 stages
After pressing be textured or sand faced
Can be fired without going through drying stage
Smooth finish

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 Stiff Plastic Process

Moisture content @15%

Extruded and then compacted into a mould
under high pressure
Many engineering bricks are made this way;
clay containing large quantity of iron oxide
help the fusion during firing
Smooth finish

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 Wire Cut Process

Moisture content @ 20%

Extruding a column of clay through a die
and cut by tensioned wire
Extrusion to a size which allow dry and
firing shrinkage
Perforated bricks are made this way, the
perforation being formed during extrusion

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 Soft Mud Process

Moisture content @ 30%

Soft clay from shallow deposit
Rolled in sand or sawdust and pressed
manually into a mould

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 DRYING OF BRICKS

Green bricks contain a considerable amount of moisture

depending on the shaping process
The moisture content has to be further reduced before
firing can be carried out
Objectives:
Enable brick to be stacked higher in the kiln
Avoid too much shrinkage happening in the kiln which
might cause the stack to become unstable
Enable firing temperature to be increased more rapidly

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 Drying of Bricks (cont.)

Important for green bricks with high moisture content;

Temperature being increased while humidity progressively
decreased
Low rate of drying to avoid stresses that cause cracking and
distortion
Dried until approximately at critical moisture content (leather-hard)
Sufficiently rigid and strong for handling and stacking
Chamber or tunnel dryers takes 1 or 2 days, natural drying takes 6
weeks

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 FIRING OF BRICKS

Changes their physical structure and give them good

mechanical properties and resistance to water
Sintering of clay increases the strength and decreases
the soluble salt without loss of shape
Silica and alumina do not melt, they are fused together
with metallic oxides
THREE stages of firing:
1) 100 C water evaporation
2) 400 C burning of carbonaceous matter
3) 900 1200 C sintering of clay
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 Firing of Bricks (cont.)

Clay composition and chemical changes during

firing influence the final colour of bricks
Fe2 oxidation produce red colour bricks
Large amount of lime produce yellowish-brown
colour bricks

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 QUIZ 3

List 5 main processes of

manufacturing of clay brick and give
one objective of each process
 Properties of clay bricks

Physical properties
Colour Engineering properties
Texture Compressive strength
Size Water Absorption
Density Initial rate of suction
Efflorescence and
soluble salt content

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 Colour and texture

Variety of colours:
red, yellow, brown
etc
Depending on
mineral content and
firing temperature
Variety of textures:
smooth, rough,
bark face etc.

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 Density

Varies from 1300 2200 kg/m3

Important for thermal and
acoustic property of wall
Heavier wall better sound and
thermal insulation
Solid units have higher thermal
conductivity

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 Size
Bed face
Header face

Stretcher
102.5
face
mm

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Bed joint Head joint
mm
215
mm

Actual size 215 X102.5 X 65 mm

often called work size (BS) Coordinating size
(brick size +mortar thickness)
225 X112.5 X 75 mm
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 Size

Dimensional tolerance (MS 76/BS 3921):

Sizes of bricks must not be outside the ranges

shown in Table 1
Must not exceed the coordinating size
Test method overall measurement of
24 bricks

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 Table 1: Limits of sizes (MS/BS)

Coordinating Work size Overall measurement of 24

size (mm) (mm) bricks

Maximum Minimum
(mm) (mm)

225 215 5235 5085

112.5 102.5 2505 2415
75 65 1605 1515

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 Test of brick

Dimension
Compressive strength
Absorption
Initial rate of suction
Efflorescence

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 Test Methods for Dimension

Length Width Height

Dimensional deviations
Overall measurements of 24 bricks
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 Compressive strength

Most important mechanical properties

Measure of quality
Use for classifying bricks
Varies in accordance to materials and
manufacturing methods
Available in strengths of 5 100 N/mm2

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 Test Methods for Bricks

Compressive strength
Select 10 bricks from a stack
Bricks are immersed in water for 24 hours before testing
Faces are capped between 3 mm ply sheets or packed before
testing to reduce the effects of roughness, lack of plane and
platen effects
Bricks loaded normal to its bed face. Tested until failure.
Compressive strength is calculated as the average of 10 bricks
as below:
maximum load
Compressive strength = N/mm2
bed face area

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Compressive Strength

Compressive Machine 49
 Water Absorption

Water absorption is the quantity of water

that could be absorbed by the unit
Indicate porosity
Varies widely, clay units from 4.5 to 21%,
calcium silicate units from 7 to 21% and
concrete units from 7 to 10%
Clay bricks which absorb between 4.5 and
7.0% of their weight can be used as damp-
proof course material

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 Water Absorption

Highly absorptive clay bricks remove

water from mortar preventing
complete hydration of cement
Relation of water absorption to
flexural strength of masonry

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 Water Absorption

Two types of tests:

1) 24 hours cold immersion test
(Partially saturated condition)
2) 5 hr. boiling test (Fully saturated
condition

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 24 hours cold immersion test (ASTM C67)

Select 5 bricks from a stack

Dry bricks in the oven @110C for not less than 24
hrs
Cool the specimen and weigh each brick (Wd)
Immerse the dry bricks in clean water at 15 to
30C for 24 hours
Remove the bricks and weigh each brick (Ws)
Calculate the absorption of each brick as follows:

Absorption % = Ws - Wd
100
W d
Report the average absorption for the 10 bricks
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5 hours Boiling Test

Select 10 bricks.
Heat at 110 C for not less than
48 hours dry bricks.
When cool, weigh the bricks
and record the dry mass (wd)
Then boil for 5 hours and then
allow to cool naturally in the
water a minimum of 16 hours
and a maximum of 19 hours.
Weigh each brick and record
the wet mass (ws)
W -W
Water absorption A %= 100
W
s d

d

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 Classification of clay bricks according to compressive
strengths and absorption (BS)

Designations Average Average

compressive absorption not
strength not less greater than (%
than (N/mm2) by weight)
Engineering A 70 4.5
Engineering B 50 7.0
Damp-proof 5 4.5
course 1
Damp-proof 5 7.0
course 2
Others 5 No limits
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 Characteristic flexural strengths and levels of
water absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1, 1985)
Characteristic flexural strength, fkx N/mm2

Plane of failure parallel to Plane of failure perpendicular to

bed joints bed joints
(i) (ii) and (iv) (i) (ii) and (iv)
Mortar designation (iii) (iii)

Clay bricks 0.7 0.5 0.40 2.0 1.5 1.2

having a water
absorption less
than 7%
Between 7 % 0.5 0.4 0.35 1.5 1.1 1.0
and 12 %

Over 12 % 0.4 0.3 0.25 1.1 0.9 0.8

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 Initial rate of suction (IRS)

The rate at which bricks absorb water from

mortar during laying

Measured in kg/m2/min. For clay bricks

generally range from 0.25 2.05 kg/min/m2
Low values < 0.25 kg/min/m2
High values > 1.5 kg/min/m2

Necessary for bond between bricks and mortar

Water tightness

Critical for highly stressed masonry structures

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 Initial Rate of Suction
Select 10 bricks
Dry bricks in the oven
When cool, weigh the bricks
and record the dry mass (m1).
Then immerse the dry brick in
water for 1 min. Depth of
immersion is 3 1mm
After 1 min remove the wet
bricks and weigh (m2)
Calculate initial rate of suction
using formula below:

1000 (m - m )
IRS (kg/m2 /min) = 2 1
A
A is the area of the immersed face of the brick in mm2

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 Efflorescence and Soluble Salt Content

Efflorescence is the white

deposits (salts) on brick
surfaces
Salts from bricks, ground
and environment
Usually occurs on new
brickwork
Affect appearance but often
harmless
Bricks exceeding the
heavycategory should be
rejected
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Efflorescence and Soluble Salt
Content

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 Efflorescence and Soluble Salt Content

Spalling effects of Source of

bricks water
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 Levels of efflorescence (MS/BS)

Nil No perceptible deposit of salt

Slight Up to 10% of the area of the face covered

with a deposit of salt, but unaccompanied
by powdering or flaking of the surface.

Moderate More than 10% but not more than 50% of the
area of the face covered with a deposit of
salts but unaccompanied by powdering or
flaking of the surface.

Heavy More than 50% of the area of the face covered

with a deposit of salts and/or powdering or
flaking of the surface.

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Applications

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 Calcium Silicate Bricks
(sand-lime)

Consists of 90-95% sand

(majority passing 1.15 mm
sieve)
lime (aggregate lime ratio
by weight of 10 20 :1)
water

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 Manufacturing

Mixing Mixing of sand,

lime, pigments and
water

Pressing Pressed under very

high pressure to give
shape and
compaction

Autoclave High pressure steam

curing combining lime
and sand to form
calcium silicate. 65
 Properties of
Calcium Silicate Bricks

Size
Colour
Water absorption
Strength
Shrinkage

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 Size and Colour

Size similar to
clay bricks
Colour Calcium
silicate and are
usually light grey
and other paler
shades

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Paving Units

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69
 Water Absorption

Varies between 6 to 16 %
Absorption is less relevance
for calcium silicate and
concrete units

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 Strength

Compressive strength is the

criteria
Typically strength varies from
14 27.5 N/mm2

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 Compressive Strengths Classes and
Requirements of Calcium Silicate (BS187)

Designations Class Mean compressive Shrinkage not

strength of 10 bricks greater than
not less than (N/mm2) (%)

Load-bearing 7 48.5 0.040

brick or facing 6 41.5
brick 5 34.5
4 27.5
3 20.5

Facing brick or 2 14.0

common brick

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CONCRETE BRICK AND BLOCK

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 Blocks
Three main types
of blocks
Solid blocks blocks
containing no formed
cavities
Hollow blocks blocks
containing cavities which
fully penetrate the block

Cellular blocks blocks

containing cavities which
do not fully penetrate the
block 74
Block

75
Block

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 Concrete Bricks and Blocks

Bricks are units with size not

exceeding 337.5mm in length,
225mm in width and 112.5mm
in height. Bigger than this are
called blocks
Lengths 400 600 mm,
heights 150 300 mm
Thickness 60 250 mm
Consists of aggregates, cement
and water
May contain additives such as
air entraining agents,
pozzolanic material, colouring
pigments
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 Concrete bricks and blocks

Standard blocks

Screening 78
 Manufacturing of Concrete Blocks
Cement, aggregate,
Aggregates are stored water, pigments and
separately by density and Mix is fed into
other admixtures are a mould and
gradation, then weighed and combined to form
transported by conveyor to consolidated
damp but not wet mix. by vibration
mixer.

Separate and Mixing Molding

weigh aggregate

Curing Ejection
Curing is done under saturated
conditions. Temperature may be
Units in sets of
raised to accelerate hydration
three ejected from
(steam curing) for 18 hours, or
moulds.
autoclaving (high pressure) steam
for 4-12 hours.
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 Manufacturing

Handling of aggregates Block machine

in a plant in operation
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 Properties of Concrete Blocks (BS 6073)

Type Face size (440 215 mm)

Thickness (mm) Minimum average

compressive strengths
of unit (N/mm2)

Solid 75
100
7.0 21.0
Solid or cellular or 140
hollow 150
190
200
215
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 QUIZ 4

What are the differences between clay

bricks, calcium silicate and concrete
bricks in term of application?

Name them.
Glass Blocks

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Stone

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 Stones

Most common
Limestone
Granite
Marble
Slate

Marble quarry 85
86
Applications

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MORTAR FOR BRICKWORK

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MASONRY MORTAR

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MORTAR

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 MORTAR
A mixture of materials for jointing
masonry units
Made up of sand, a binder such as
cement or lime, and water
The thickness of mortar in brickwork is
normally 10 mm thick and should not
exceed 15 mm because of high
shrinkage
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 FUNCTION OF MORTAR

Joint the units together

Seals any gaps to resist wind and
rain penetration
Take up the tolerances between
building units, fill up the holes
between the units

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 REQUIREMENTS

Should be able to support the weight of

the brick
Should not segregate, easy to spread and
align the units
Adhere to the vertical face of the units
Should impart sufficient strength to the
whole unit

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 REQUIREMENTS (cont.)

Should permit movement (unless this is negligible or

joints are provided). When movement occurs, it should
take place in the form of microcracks within the mortar
rather cracking of the bricks or blocks
mortar must not be stronger than the units it is
bonding
Should be durable, resisting the penetration of water
through the units
Should contribute to the aesthetic appearance of the
wall

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 SAND FOR MORTAR

Well graded even distribution of particle sizes from

fine to coarse. In well graded sand the void is one-third
of the total volume
Sand containing silt and clay should not be used which
can lead to unacceptable shrinkage movement
Sand lack in finer particles causes poor water retention
resulting in a harsh unmanageable mortar

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 BINDER MATERIALS
Hydraulic lime
From limestone contaminated with clay which
gave the resulting hydraulic properties
Relatively weak and slow setting
Only suitable for thick wall and low stress
Lime-sand mortars are obsolete

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 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Principal binding ingredients in modern

binders
Cement and sand (1:3) by volume
produces high strength, good durability,
density and hardness
For most application such properties are
not required.
Can be replaced with pozzolanic materials
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 MASONRY CEMENT
Premixed binder, 75% OPC, 25%
inert fine mineral filler and
powdered air entraining
admixture
On no account should masonry
cement be used in place of OPC in
making up the other type of
mortar
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 SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement may be

used in place of OPC to combat sulphate attack
where prolong wet condition are likely
The soluble sulphates are either from the
ground or in clay bricks
The proportion of the mortar constituents are
not altered

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 Table 15 BS 5628:Part3

Cement: Masonry Cement:San

Lime: sand cement:sand d with
Superpl.
Increasing Increasing 1:0 to :3 - -

Strength and Ability to 1:1/2:4 to 1:2.5 to3.5 1:3 to 4

4.5
Improving accommodate 1:1:5 to 6 1:4 to 5 1:5 to 6

durability movements 1:2:8 to 9 1:5.5 to 6.5 1:7 to 8

(arrow upward) (arrow 1:3:10 to 1:6.5 to 7 1:8

downward) 12
100
 NON-HYDRAULIC LIME

Insufficient setting and hardening strength to make

them as a total binder
Added as a binder constituent to produce cement:
lime: sand mortar
Lime has good water retentive properties which give
good workability characteristics and promote bonding
of the Portland cement
Have better resistance to rain penetration

101
 AIR-ENTRAINERS
As an alternative to lime as a binder supplement, the
reduced volume can be made with minute bubbles by
adding air-entraining agent
In powder/liquid form but must be intended for mortar
Air entrainment must not exceed 12% of the volume
because it reduces the bond strength
At 15% or above the bonding performance is seriously
impart
Induces good plasticity/workability characteristics

102
Linear Thermal Movement of Masonry unit and Mortar

Material Coeff. Of Linear Thermal

Expansion (x 10-6/K)
Fired-clay masonry 4-8
units
Concrete masonry units 7 - 14

Calcium silicate 11 - 15
masonry units
Mortars 11 - 13
103
 Moisture movement and Thermal properties of Common
Building Materials
Material Reversible moisture Irreversible moisture Coeff. Of Thermal
movement movement Exp. (x10-6/K)
Timber +- 0.5-2.5 _ 4 - 70
Steel - _ 10 - 18
Concrete +-0.02-0.10 -(0.03-0.08) 7 - 14
Dense concrete +-0.02-0.04 -(0.02-0.06) 6 12
agg. products
Lightweight agg. +-0.02-0.06 -(0.02-0.06) 8 - 12
conc.
Aerated +-0.02-0.03 -(0.05-0.06) 8
(autoclave)
products
Calcium silicate +-0.01-0.05 -(0.01-0.04) 8 - 14
brick
Clay brick +-0.02 +(0.02-0.07) 5104
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 Thank You
HAVE A NICE DAY

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