ASNT NDT LEVEL III

BASIC

MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR NDT

AS PER SNT TC 1A 2006 OF ASNT

STUDY MATERIAL

PIRT

PRAVEEN INSTITUTE OF RADIATION TECHNOLOGY

(NDT Training Division)
9A, ASHTALAKSHMI APARTMENTS
AVVAI STREET, NEW PERUNGALATHUR
CHENNI-600 063, INDIA

Email : pirtndt@yahoo.in
www.pirtchennai.com
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ASNT NDT LEVEL III

BASIC
MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR NDT

CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NDT are always indirect

Reliable correlation must be established between desired property and measured property.

Correlation between a testable quality and one which cannot be tested without destruction
requires great amount of knowledge skill and experience.

NDT correlation may require cooperation from test supervisors, designers, metallurgists,
manufacturers, customers and test personnel.

SUPERVISORY NDT PERSONNEL

Should have
Background knowledge and well versed with all NDT methods, applications,
limitation, knowledge of design, process and function to apply correct test for
possible sources of discontinuities.

Familiarity with policies, safety, environmental agencies that affect inspection

methods.

Ability to communicate is important

NDT supervisor should communicate in written & oral manner to direct instruct
and manage persons maintaining cooperation with manufacturing process.
Concise accurate reports to higher management are important.
NDT supervisory personnel are often called upon to interface with customer
personnel in solving problems and interpreting test results.

Regardless of technical knowledge by which NDT personnel obtain their portion updating and
extension of that knowledge is essential. Continual improvement of entire knowledge base is
needed, to keep up with new developments.

Greater familiarity with engineering material manufacturing process, changing design and
service requirements, management policies, government requirements, environmental impacts
and safety are vital for successful application of NDT.

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Aim of NDT: Locate faults in materials processed to some degree. Flaws may be due to original
material or processing, human error etc.

Important for NDT inspector to locate the source of the problem when it exists even when a
fault is not treated. So understanding of materials processes and possible interaction is a must.

NDT personnel should be in close contact with manufacturing personnel to understand

problems, operations involved in manufacturing process.

EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO DETERMINE REASON FOR FAILURE

Material failure
Important to know the type of failure expected by knowing what and how to inspect and
eliminate fault.

Two types of failure: Fracture (separation into two or more parts) and permanent deformation
(change of shape or position)

Fracture failure in some complex structures may be progressive

Examples of progressive failure: Breaking of gear tooth when tooth subjected to shock
(impact) loads, it increases stress and failure is more likely.

Material failure causes

Static or dynamic loads, also environmental corrosion, vibration temperature and pressure higher
than normal. The product may also be subject to abuse mechanical failure when stresses exceed
some critical value causing stress due to material defect excess load and improper type load and
design error.

Principal reason for failure under static load is large internal / external flaws poor
dimensional control during manufacturing, massive loading and unsatisfactory design.

Dynamic loads are varying loads that are single, directional or multi directional. Multi
directional is more serious. When cycle of loading becomes high, failure occurs at stress levels
far below static.

High temperature inability to support loads creep

Pressure
Creating stress above elastic limit causes plastic deformation, distortion and intensified at
elevated temperature. Fluctuating pressure of high frequency create dynamic loading decreasing
safe operating level.

Corrosive environment
Corrosion reduces the amount of material available to carry load, may create small
discontinuities serving as stress risers nucleating fatigue.
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Vibration during service

Moving parts stresses from vibration may superimpose on other loads. Principle problem of
vibration is cyclic loading & fatigue failure.

Excess loading
From abuse Accident has the human element. Overcome by factor of safety usually based on
yield strength for ranging from 5 or more.

Improper maintenance
Lack of lubrication, improper cleaning.

Aging
Some materials deteriorate with age. Plastic glasses and some metal develop a brittle
characteristic with natural aging. Susceptible to failure under shock loading.

To prevent failures using NDT

Test selected, applied interpreted with care and on the basis of knowledge of failure mechanism
and their causes.

Hence, effective control of material and product leading to satisfactory service without
premature failure.

Discontinuities and defects

Discontinuities grow into defect more likely to occur under service conditions due to fatigue or
corrosion.

Under varying loads, a small discontinuity may develop in to a crack from the stress
concentration, propagates with time.

Aircraft parts careful NDT because they are designed with high stress level and low safety factor
to keep down lot.

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CHAPTER - 2 PROPERTIES
OF MATERIAL

From the engineering application point of view, Mechanical properties of materials are most
important to consider before the selection or usage of any material, important mechanical
properties are as follows:

1. ELASTICITY
The property of a material due to which it comes to its original shape after the removal of load is
called elasticity. There is a certain limit of every material up to which it can regain its original
shape. This limit is called Elastic Limit.

Example: Spring and all other material up to elastic limit, load bearing materials.

2. PLASTICITY
The property of a material due to which it is permanently deformed (re-shaped) on the
application of load, without any rupture is called plasticity. It is opposite to elasticity. A material
can be said elastic up to elastic limit and plastic beyond that limit.

Example: All plastics, steel at red-hot position.

3. HARDNESS
It is the property of a material due to which it resists wear, abrasion and indentation. Also
hardness is the property which enables to cut the other material.

Example: Cutting tools, bearing surfaces, diamond (Hardest material).

4. HARDENABILITY
Hardenability and Hardness should not be confused with each other.

Hardness is the mechanical property related to strength of the metal and is mainly due to carbon
contents present in it. Hardenability determines the depth up to which a metal gains full
hardness in it. It mainly depends upon type and amount of alloying elements.

5. Grain Size - the physical size of the steel lattice structure - the actual size can vary due to
many thermal and forging considerations.
6. Critical Temperature - the temperature at which steel changes it structure to austenite in
preparation for hardening.

7. Toughness - the ability of a material to resist shock or impact.

8. Ductility - the tendency of a material to stretch or deform appreciably before fracturing.

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9. BRITTLENESS
The property of a material to be easily broken up into pieces within Elastic limit without
deformation is called brittleness.

Example: Glass, cast iron.

10. MALLEABILITY
If a material can be rolled or hammered to thin sheet, its property is called malleability without
being fractured.

Examples: Lead, gold.

11. TOUGHNESS
Ability of material to resist fracture due to sudden shocks (impact loads) or bending/twisting is
called toughness.

Example: Material used for hammers, dies e.g. mild steel.

12. STIFFNESS
Ability of a material to resist deformation due to the external forces is called stiffness.

13. CONDUCTIVITY
Ability of a material to allow the passage of heat or electricity through it is called conductivity.
Its opposite term is Resistively. All metals are generally good conductors.

Examples: Gold, copper etc.

14. STRENGTH
It is the ability of a material to withstand the external forces of different types before undergoing
the permanent deformation or fracture. For example:

a. Tensile strength: Maximum tension per unit area. (N/m2).

b. Compressive strength: Maximum compression per unit area.

c. Shear strength: Maximum shearing force per unit area.

d. Ultimate strength: Maximum strength of a material to withstand any external force

(pull, push or shear) before fracture is called ultimate strength.

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SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS

1. STRESS
When a force acts on a material, a resistance is produced within the material. This resistive force
per unit area is called stress.

. Stress = Force/ Area

2. STRAIN
The change in shape or size produced in the material as a result of applied stress is called strain.
For example elongation of carbon steel on hammering. It is a unit less quantity. Because its a
ratio of Change n volume per unit original volume.

3. FATIGUE
If a material undergoes repeated loads for a long time, it fails earlier than its normal life within
Elastic range. This is called fatigue. Alloy steels are best fatigue resistant.

4. CREEP
If a material is under stress for a long time, it develops a weaker position/crack which develops
further. The failure of material due to this condition is called creep. For example collapse of
bridge due to its own weight, collapse of a girder.

OR

Time dependant deformation is called Creep

9. Heat Treating - heating and cooling metal to prescribed temperature limits for the purpose
of changing the properties or behavior of the metal.

10. Austenetized - the basic steel structure state in which carbon is dissolved into iron.

11. Quenched - rapidly cooled from the critical temperature using water, oil, air, or other means.

12. Hardness - the resistance of steel to deformation or penetration.

13. Tempering - reheating to a lower temperature after quenching for the purpose of slightly
softening the steel and making it more stress-free.

14. Yield Strength - the point at which a steel becomes permanently deformed; the point at
which the linear relationship of stress to strain changes on a Stress/Strain curve.

15. Tensile Strength - indicated by the force at which a material breaks due to stretching.
16. Impact Strength - the ability of a material to resist breakage due to a sudden force.

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17. Rockwell Test - a measurement of steel hardness based on the depth of penetration of small
diamond cone pressed into the steel under a constant load.
18. ORE
The original form (raw material) of a metal in which it is present in the earth is called its ore.
Some metals are in uncombined form e.g. Gold, Copper, while some are in combined form e.g.
Lime stone, Iron ores etc.

PROCESSING AFFECTS MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Heat treatment, casting, welding and machining use head and / or deformation.

Serviceability and reliability is the ultimate purposes of most NDT.

Spherodizing
Holding normalized steel below a temperature too long to form iron energy state iron carbide
rounded globules (softest) and good mach inability but lengthy expensive treatment that
annealing and normalizing.

Steel hardening
First step austenitization than fast cooling to avoid pearlite but form mortinsis. High stresses
cause distortion and cracking from quench.

Martempering
Quenching austenitized steel in salt both at temperature above that of mortensite formation held
and removed before binate forms then air cooled to form marten site eliminating high stresses
and cracks.

Austempering
Temperature is higher and held longer until binate forms. Not as hard as mortensite but good
impact resistance.

Tempering
For directly quenched and cooled steel extreme brittleness and little ductility and very high
stresses. Reheat below lower tempering temperature to relieve stresses and improve some
ductility.

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CORROSION

Corrosion: Deterioration of material by chemical action

Direct chemical action

Electro-mechanical process with coupled anodes cathodes and electrolyte.

Galvanic series
--------------
Anodic (More corrodible)
Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Steel Silver
Gold, Platinum
Cathodic (Least corrodible)
--------------------------
Galvanic series gives order of chemical activity in seawater in relative terms

Electrolytic (electrochemical) reaction

Involves the flow of an electric current between an anode (positive) and a cathode (negative)
through the electrolyte to complete the circuit.

Sacrificial metals
Metals high in galvanic series are anodic when connected electrically will dissolve while the
cathode is protected. In case of zinc coatings on steel, zinc is attacked and sacrificed in order to
protect the steel. Magnesium rods in hot water heaters to lower corrosion of the tank. Anodes of
magnesium, aluminium or zinc attached to the steel hullo of a ship to provide protection below
the waterline. Not good practice with contacting metals of different galvanic position if
likelihood of exposure to any corrosive medium.

CORROSION RATE DEPENDENT ON SEVERAL FACTORS

Position in the electrochemical series: The greater tendency for corrosion when they are farther
apart and greater the electrochemical action.

Concentration of electrolyte: High concentration of electrolyte increases corrosion.

Oxygen content: Oxygen harmful in corrosion of iron.

Acidity: The corrosion rate is higher if the acidity is higher.

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Motion: Velocity of flowing electrolyte move corrosion products exposing new metal to attack.

Temperature: Increase in temperature accelerates corrosion.

Stray electrical currents: Localised current from leaks, grounds, or eddy currents accelerate
corrosion.

Atmospheric corrosion
In pure water the effect of corrosion is small. Moisture with impurities, salts of chlorine and
sulphur, accelerates atmospheric corrosion.

TYPES OF CORROSION
General corrosion
The corrosion occurs uniformly over exposed metal.

Pitting localized corrosion

This type of corrosion is nuclei for fatigue failure.

Intercrystalline corrosion
Following the grain boundaries a crack-like discontinuity develops. Some variations of
intercrystalline corrosion are season cracking, stress corrosion and fretting in which corrosion is
accelerated under load. Season cracking with brass and copper bearing alloys when the material
had undergone cold workings. Accelerated when the corrosive atmosphere contains ammonia.
Fretting is corrosion-assisted wear. Stress corrosion cracking in high strength steels and
martensitic stainless steels, stress corrosion cracking is usually intergranular, in austhentic
stainless steel usually transgranular susceptible aggressive corrosive environment applied or
residual stress.

CORROSSION PROTECTION
Coating the metal with a protective layer.

Metal coatings (coating of metal with another metal)

Electroplating, dipping metal spraying, cladding.

Chemical compounds
Change the chemistry of its surface. Anodizing of aluminium, steel coating of iron phosphate by
soaking in hot manganese phosphate.

Non-metallic coatings
Paint, enamel, varnishes, greases, plastics used to exclude the corrosive environment. Some
contain chemical inhibitors. Coating thickness is measured by Eddy Current testing, list-off
techniques.

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CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
FCC Metals and alloys most tolerant to flaws -
Easy to deform plastically - No ductile to
brittle transition

Imperfections in crystals
Point defects : Zero D Vacancy; Interstitial
Line defects : 1D Dislocations
Surface defects : 2D Grain boundaries
Volume defects: 3D - Voids
(D = dimension)

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CHAPTER - 3
FERROUS METALS

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTANT MATERIALS

METALS NON-METALS

FERROUS NON-FERROUS

Iron Aluminium Argon (g)

Pig Iron (Blast furnace) Calcium Carbon (s)
Cast Iron Chromium Chlorine (g)
Wrought Iron (Pure iron) Cobalt Helium (g)
Steel Copper Hydrogen (g)
S. S. Gold Oxygen (g)
All alloy steels Lead Phosphorus (s)
Magnesium Silicon
Manganese Sulphur
Mercury (Liquid) Rubber
Molybdenum Wood
Nickel Glass
Platinum Polymers
Uranium Plastics
Potassium - All gases
Silver - All liquids
Sodium (except mercury is Metal)
Tin - All organic material
Titanium
Tungsten
Zinc
All non ferrous alloys

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FERROUS RAW MATERIALS

Ore reduction
Both iron and steel have their start in the blast furnace. Iron ore (oxides of iron Fe2O3,
haematite or Fe3O4, magnetite) coke and limestone. Blast of hot air for combustion of the coke.
The iron ore is reduced by chemical reactions with carbon monoxide and directly with the
carbon. Near the bottom of the furnace, the iron collects and the slag made up of other metallic
oxides combined with limestone being lighter slag floats. Molten iron and slag are tapped off
through separate holes.

PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL

CAST IRON

C: 2 - 4%

COPOLA FURNACE

BLAST PUDDLING
IRON ORE PIG IRON WROUGHT IRON
FURNACE FURNACE

C: 3 - 4% C: 0 - 0.02%

OPEN HEARTH FURNACE

C: up to 1.5%

BESSEMER FURNACE

ELECTRIC FURNACE

CRUCIBLE FURNACE

Pig iron product of the blast surface called pig iron. Pig iron refers to the metal tapped from the
blast furnace. Pig iron contains 3% to 4% of carbon and smaller amounts of silica sulphur,
phosphorus, manganese and other elements. Pig iron is weak, is too hard to be machined no
ductility to permit deformation. Must be treated to improve ductility. Simplest ferrous materials
by causing molten metal to solidify into approximate product form making castings.
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WROUGHT IRON
Methods of reducing the carbon content of pig iron
Molten pig iron is subjected to oxidising agents air and iron oxide and the silicon and carbon is
reduced. To keep the reaction, it is necessary to stir or puddle.

Wrought iron contains non-metallic slag. It has low content of carbon and silicon. It is processed
by repeated rolling cutting. It is relatively pure iron with many fine slag stringers in the direction
of rolling.

Methods developed for reducing the carbon from pig iron without incorporation of the slag
demand for wrought iron continues, for corrosion and fatigue resistance.

PROPERTIES:
Doesnt melt but pasty at high temperatures.
Easily forged.
Ductile, malleable, weld-able, fatigue resistant.

Uses
Used for making chains, railway couplings, crane hooks, nuts, bolts, bars, etc.
Used for making several steels like crucible steel, blister steel, shear steel, etc.

CAST IRONS
Cast irons, because of their high carbon processing limitations of casting. Thin sections, good
finishes and dimensional control obtained only by deformation processing instead of casting.
Deformation only on materials having relatively high ductility requires reduction of carbon from
the cast iron. C content: 3-4%, Si content: 1-3%.

Properties
Can be easily cast (low melting point & high fluidity due to impurity)
Hard and brittle
High compressive strength & low tensile strength
Can tolerate vibrations (Damping capacity)
Uses
Used in the manufacturing of beds/basis or bodies of machines.
Columns of foundation, cylinders, flywheels, spanners.
Agriculture & textile machinery (Tractors) parts.

STEEL
When carbon content is less than 2% is called steel.

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STEEL MAKING

Reheating wrought iron and powdered charcoal in the cementation process. According to the
iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, at 1148 C carbon is soluble in iron up to 2%. Slag in the
wrought iron migrated to the surface formed surface blisters, term blister steel.

Crucible steel
Further reduction of the slag, greater uniformity of the carbon, crucible process. Bars by the
cementation process remolded in a clay or graphite crucible slag floated steels of very high
quality.

Open Hearth steel (Basic lined)

Pig iron could be refined, steel scrap, limestone for flux and iron ore charged. reducing
action between the iron ore and the carbon of the pig iron.

Bessemer steel
The Bessemer converter charge consists of molten pig iron. Steel scrap used to reduce the
carbon content to about 0.05%, less expensive than the basic lined open-hearth inability of the
acid-lined Bessemer converter to reduce the phosphorus has restricted its use.

Electrical furnace steel

Atmosphere can be well controlled. Steel of the highest quality is produced.

Basic oxygen steel

More than 50% of the worlds steel is made by the basic oxygen process.

Basic oxygen process provides a number of advantages

Process becomes the cheapest.

Basic oxygen process limited by huge investment needs

Oxygen is used to speed steel making.

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TYPES OF STEEL

PLAIN CARBON STEEL

Ductility is desirable in deformation processing. Higher strengths obtainable with carbon are
from the standpoint of product design. Increasing the strength by addition of some carbon.
Increase of strength obtained only at some loss of ductility.

Plain carbon steels most used

Plain carbon steels are classified as low carbon, medium carbon and high carbon steels. With the
exception of manganese used to control sulphur, other elements present only in small enough
quantities.

Low carbon steel (Mild steel)

C: 0.06% to 0.25% (6 to 25 points)
They are rarely hardened by heat treatment because low carbon content permits so little
formation of hard martensite processed structural shapes as sheet, strip, rod, plate, pipe and wire.
Large portions are cold worked to improve its hardness, strength and surface-finish. They can be
readily brazed, welded and forged.

Uses: Fan blades, pipes, nails, rivets, screws, structural work, tubes, car body pressings, general
workshop purposes.

If carbon is less than 0.15%, it is called Dead Mild Steel used for wire rods, thin sheets etc.

Medium carbon steels

C: 0.25% to 0.5%
They have sufficient carbon to be heat-treated for desirable strength, hardness furnished in the
heat rolled condition. Welded but is more difficult than the low carbon steel due to changes
caused by welding heat in localized areas.

Uses: Axles, shafts, wheels, crank shaft, rollers, springs, wire ropes, heat treated high tensile
machine parts

High carbon steels

C: 0.5% to 1.6% (50 to 160 points)
They are classed as tool and die steel in which hardness is a principal property. They are always
water-quenched.

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ALLOY
Certain materials (Elements) are added to improve the quality of a specific material. The new
product is called an Alloy. The material with longer quantity is called base material or parent
metal while the material added in smaller quantity to improve quality of base material is called
alloying element.

Example:
Steel is an alloy of iron (carbon is added)
Bronze is an alloy of copper (tin is added)

ALLOY STEELS
Plain carbon cheapest steels cannot completely fulfil the requirements. Their properties can be
improved by addition of various elements in the form of alloys. Plain carbon steels are alloys of
at least iron, carbon and manganese. Hardness and the strength of any steel alloy, depends on
amount and the form of the iron carbide or other metal carbides present.

Grain size and toughness

Nickel retarding grain growth in austenite range.

Corrosion resistance
Most pure metals have good corrosion resistance generally lowered by impurities. Carbon
lowers the corrosion resistance very seriously. Copper and phosphorus beneficial in reducing
corrosion. If chromium content greater than 12% leads to a separate class called stainless steels.

Low alloy structural steels (small amount of alloying elements)

Good weld ability ductility and impact strength than plain carbon steels.

Low alloy AISI steels

Contain less than 8% alloying elements. They are more costly than plain carbon steels. They
have improved hardenability.

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STEELS

On the basis of their usage alloy steels are grouped as follows:

1. TOOL AND DIE STEELS OR HIGH SPEED STEEL

These are steels which can be used successfully at high speeds or as a cutting tool that
machines the metals and other special applications where hardness even at red-hot condition is
required. Tungsten is chief element of these steels. These are further divided according to
composition in properties as follows:-

Manganese steels
Oil hardening
They contain 0.85% to 1% (85 to 100 points) of carbon, 1.5% to 1.75% of manganese to
improve hardenability; small amounts of chromium, vanadium and molybdenum to improve
hardness and toughness qualities.

Chromium steels
High chromium tool and die steels clenched in oil. One group of the high chromium steels called
high-speed steels has additions of tungsten, vanadium and sometimes cobalt to improve the
hardness in the red heat range.

Molybdenum steels
Cobalt steels

Uses: Water-hardening carbon tool steel

Hot work tool steel Shock
resistance tool steel

2. STAINLESS STEELS OR CORROSION RESITANT STEEL

Stainless steels are difficult to machine and weld but can be processed including casting, rolling,
and forging.

The major alloying elements in this steel is chromium (12 30%) and Nickel (0 22%). They
are very corrosion and heat resistant and have good tensile strength. There are three groups of
stainless steel alloys:

i. AUSTENTIC STAINLESS STEELS

It contains: - 16 26 % chromium
- 3.5 22 % nickel (Austenitic stabiliser)

It is hardenable, weldable, non-magnetic, and highly corrosion resistant. Example are Type 302,
304, 316 etc. that are used widely in chemical industries.

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ii. FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

It contains: 15 30% chromium and the rest is normal steel. It is machinable and weldable.
Used for kitchen utensils and automobile parts.

iii. MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

It contains 12 20% chromium and rest is normal steel. Normally used for mild corrosion
resistance (corrosion due to atmosphere, fresh water etc.)

3. HEAT RESISTING STEEL

These are obtained by adding chromium, nickel and tungsten to plain carbon steel. They bear
heat ranging from 800 1100 oC.

4. CAST STEELS
The high temperatures necessary make melting and handling difficult than cast iron.
Mechanical properties of cast steel poorer than those of the same material in wrought form. Cast
steel is isotropic. Principal advantage of cast steel is its lack of directional properties. Wrought
steel tend to become anisotropic.

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STEEL ELEMENTS INFORMATION

Carbon (C)
19. Increases edge retention and raises tensile strength
20. Increases hardness and improves resistance to wear and abrasion
Chromium (Cr)
21. Increases hardness, tensile strength and toughness
22. Provides resistance to wear and corrosion
Cobalt (Co)
23. Increases strength and hardness and permits quenching in higher
temperatures
24. Intensifies the individual effects of other elements in more complex steels
Copper (Cu)
25. Increases corrosion resistance
26. Increases wear resistance
Manganese (Mn)
27. Increases hardenability, wear resistance and tensile strength
28. De-oxidizes and de-gasifies to remove oxygen form molten metal
29. In larger quantities, increases hardness and brittleness
Molybdenum (Mo)
30. Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness
31. Improves machinability and resistance to corrosion
Nickel (Ni)
1. Adds strength, hardness and corrosion resistance
Phosphorous (P)
32. Improves strength, machinability and hardness
33. Creates brittleness in high concentrations
Silicon (Si)
34. Increases yield strength
35. Increases tensile strength
36. De-oxidizes and de-gasifies to remove oxygen from molten metal
Sulphur (S)
1. Improves machinability when used in minute quantities
Tungsten (W)
1. Adds strength, toughness and hardness
Vanadium (V)
37. Increases strength, hardness and resistance to shock impact
38. Retards grain growth

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Phase diagram of pure iron PIRT

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CHAPTER - 4 HEAT
TREATMENT

Heat treatment is method to change the properties of metals by controlled heating and cooling of
metals. The properties improved by heat treatment are machinability, softening, hardening,
ductility, grain structure, and removal of stresses in material.

Note: Heat treatments are generally done on Plain carbon steels only. Alloy steels are difficult to
heat treated. Similarly non-ferrous metals are generally not heat treated.

Plain carbon steels 0.2% are not treatable. They are used without heat treated in applications in
applications where ductility and formability is required.

Some terms related to heat treatment are explained below;

LOWER CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

The temperature at which the phase transformation begins in an alloy on heating.

UPPER CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

The temperature at which the phase transformation is completed.

PRE-HEATING
Heat treatment required before welding.

POST-HEATING:
Heat treatment required after the welding.

HYPOEUTECTOID, EUTECTOID, HYPEREUTECTOID STEELS

Carbon can be present in iron in various percentages. At 0.8% carbon & remaining iron, the
alloy i.e. steel exhibits lowest transformation point and all steel (austenite) transforms at that
point. This is called Eutectoid Point.

Thus
0.8% Carbon steel is called eutectoid steel Below
0.8% carbon steel is hypo-eutectoid steel Above
0.8% carbon steel is hypo-eutectoid steel

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METHODS OF HEAT TREATMENT

Important heat treatment methods are as follows;
Normalising Annealing Hardening Tempering Case
hardening

i. NORMALISING
As the name indicates, it is the method to bring the metal to its normal state. Thus the purpose
is:
to produce uniform fine grain structure
to remove stresses produced during manufacturing processes like forging or cold
working.

The process is to heat the steel 40o C above upper critical temperature for a sufficient time and
then cooling it in still air. Low carbon steels are most often normalised.

ii. ANNEALING
It is the method to soften the metal to make it machinable and increase ductility.
Low carbon steels (L.C.S) are heated up to 650 oC and cooled in furnace or sand &
is called Process annealing.
Hypoeutectoid steels are heated 20-30 oC above the upper critical temperature
while hypereutectoid steels are heated to about 750 o C for sufficient time & then
slowly cooled in furnace and then in the air. It is called full annealing.

iii. HARDENING
It is the method to make the steel sufficient hard to withstand wear and to enable the steel to cut.
The process is to heat hypo eutectoid steels up to 40oC above the U.C.T (upper critical temp.)
and hypereutectoid steels to 775 oC. The steel is then Soaked and Quenched.

Soaking is the phenomenon to hold the steel at required temperature for considerable time for
proper penetration of heat.

Quenching is the phenomenon to suddenly cool the hot steel in any medium like air, water salt
solution or oil. Cooling rate may be from 150 to 200 oC per second.

iv. TEMPERING
After hardening process, the steel becomes very hard and brittle. In order to make it useable,
another process tempering is required.
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Tempering removes extra hardness and gives toughness. Steel is heated to a temperature below
the lower critical temperature (depending upon the usage of steel). It is then quenched or
allowed to cool off naturally.

The temperature for this operation is often judged by the colour appearance in the polished
surface of an article. For example, at 300oC, the colour of spring become blue.

v. CASE HARDENING

As the name indicates, the process is carried out to make outer surfaces of a material hard. It is
because of the requirement that in some components (usually of low carbon steel), we need
inner material to be ductile and tough while outer surface to be hard to resist abrasion, wear etc.,
like in gear wheels.

Following are the five methods;

a. FLAME HARDENING
It is a common & cheap method. Outer surface is heated by a flame along with rapid cooling at
the same time.

Examples: Lathe beds, shafts, axles.

b. INDUCTION HARDENING
Its a semi-automatic form of flame hardening with better results. An electric filament called
element gives heat to surface while moving around it.

Examples: Certain cutting tools, shafts, axles & gears.

c. CARBONISING
In this process, the steel is exposed to a hot carbon-enriched environment due to which some
carbon is diffused at the outer surface of material & hardens it.

d. NITRIDING
For very hard layer, material is exposed to Nitrogen enrich environment (usually NH 3 gas) at
high temperature. A nitriding layer appears over the steel components.

e. CYANIDING
In this process, the component (low carbon steel) is placed or suspended in a sodium cyanide
(NaCN) molten bath. Time duration depends upon penetration required & then quenched in

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water or oil.

PRE-HEATING AND POST-HEATING

When a metal is fabricated or joined to another metal by welding, two types of problems are
created in the material:

i) Formation of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) ii)

Formation of Residual Stresses

Heat-Affected Zone is the zone or area around the welded portion which is under severe heating
due to welding action. Here the properties of the metal changes than the remaining portion &
becomes the weaker section.

Residual Stresses are produced in the material because of the fact that due to heat absorbed by
the molecules near the welding portion, they expand & on cooling contract, very quickly then
the remaining molecules. Due to this difference, they come under tension or compression and so
stresses are developed.

In order to avoid or reduce these bad effects, metals are heated to a suitable temperature before
and after welding and this is called pre-heating and post-heating respectively.

Stainless steels do not require Pre-heating or post heating.

For plain carbon steels having above 0.3% carbon, pre-heating & post heating is must. Usually
200-300 oC is sufficient.

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CHAPTER - 5 NON
FERROUS MATERIAS

Non ferrous metals

Example: Cu, Al, Ni, Mg, Be

Non ferrous alloys

Example: Brass (Cu Zn) Bronze
(Cu Sn) Duralumin
(Al Cu) Monel (Ni
Cu)

Aluminium, magnesium and beryllium have densities of from one-fourth to one-third that of
steel.

The corrosion resistance of most nonferrous metals is generally superior to all ferrous metals
except stainless steel.

Many nonferrous metals, protective finishes are not needed.

Zinc is superior in corrosion resistance. Low melting points permit its use in die casting with
longer die life.

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ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Aluminium and copper are the most important of the nonferrous metals. Copper used for
electrical conductors. Density of aluminium is about one-third that of iron, steel and brass.

Aluminium has excellent ductility and corrosion resistance.

Pure aluminium has excellent corrosion resistance poor properties endurance limit of 5,000 to
20,000 psi. Weakness prohibits the use of aluminium when vibration is combined with high
stress levels. It is necessary to observe special precautions to eliminate the occurrence of stress
risers, notches, scratches and sudden section changes. Another deficiency is the loss of strength
parts made of aluminium at elevated temperature. Loss of ductility near the melting point (a
condition called hot shortness) makes the processes of casting and welding more difficult.

Pure aluminium is soft and weak but corrosion resistant. The highest purity is necessary only for
electrical use.

Pure aluminium and most alloys not harden able by heat treatment: The additional strength
is obtained only by the presence of the alloy in solid solution. However, the alloys are subject to
work hardening and recrystallization treatments as are all metals.

As a cast metal, pure aluminium is subject to then drawbacks relatively high melting
temperature leads to excessive oxidation entrapment of gases in the molten metal. The fluidity of
some liquid alloys is too poor for flow into thin sections. Some are subject to high shrinkage and
cracking. Among the casting alloys that are not heat treatable are those containing silicon only.
Silicon improves fluidity decreases shrinkage.

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COPPER ALLOYS

Copper has excellent thermal and electrical properties

Copper has outstanding electrical and thermal conductivity and excellent corrosion resistance,
compared to ferrous metals. White aluminium has higher conductivity than copper on a weight
basis. Copper alloys have excellent resistance to atmospheric corrosion, particularly under
marine conditions. Useful for radiators and other heat exchangers.

Brasses and Bronzes

Zinc principal alloying element with copper is known as brass. If tin is used a principal alloying
element it is known as bronze.

Some alloys heat-treat hardenable

A few of the copper alloys are hardenable by a solution precipitation treatment similar to that
used for aluminium.

Tin and lead improve machinability and castability.

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NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel has better corrosion and heat resistance.

Considerable nickel is used as an alloying element in steel

Ni is used either as a plating material for corrosion resistance.

Nickel and copper are completely soluble in the solid state. Ni alloys with different
compositions are available.

Ni base alloys
Monel Ni (70%)
Cu (30%)

Inconel 600 Ni (76%)

Cr (15%)
Fe (8%)

Incoloy 800 Ni (32%)

Fe (46%)
Cr (21%)

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MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Corrosion resistance of Mg is good in normal atmosphere.

Mg has high stress at notches/imperfection. Magnesium

alloys are work harden easily.

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BERYLLIUM ALLOYS

Although beryllium is the lightest metal available, extremely high cost restricts its use.
Magnesium is therefore the lightest metal commercially available. Corrosion resistance is good
including marine atmospheres.

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ZINC ALLOYS

Low cost but also low strength

Preferential corrosion feature valuable Good corrosion resistance when used as a coating on
ferrous materials. Plating or coating with zinc called galvanizing.

Excellent roofing material useful for dry cell battery cases and for photoengraving plates.

Low melting temperature of benefit for die casting

Excellent casting properties in metal moulds. Zinc alloys used in die casting give much greater
die life. Zinc can be die cast in thinner sections than other metals. Good natural corrosion
resistance.

Stainless steels
Have better strength and corrosion resistance than plain carbon or low alloy steels.

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NON-METALS

PLASTICS
Smallest unit structure that identifies the chemical involved is called a monomer. By heat, light,
pressure, these monomers may be made to join and grow into much larger molecules by the
process of polymerization.

Polymerisation involves the connecting of the monomers into long chains. Properties depend on
the degree of polymerization. Thermosetting polymerization takes place in which cross-linking
occurs between adjacent chains resulting in greatly increased rigidity.

TYPES OF PLASTICS
Thermoplastics
Plastics that are called thermoplastic have the degree of polymerization controlled in the initial
manufacture. They soften with increasing temperature and regain rigidity as the temperature is
decreased. Process is reversible.

Thermosetting plastics
Undergo a further cross-linking type of polymerization by the application of heat. Initial
thermoplastic stage is followed by the thermosetting reaction at higher temperatures or with
prolonged heating. Thermosetting reaction is chemical in nature and irreversible so that once it
has taken place, further heating results only in gradual charring and deterioration.

The cellulose plastics among the thermoplastics and phenol formaldehyde phenolic are among
thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics are somewhat lower in strength hardness but higher in
toughness than thermosetting materials. Thermosetting plastics generally have better moisture
and chemical resistance than thermoplastics.

Though ultimate strengths of many metals are greater than that available with plastics, some
plastics with drawn nylon filaments may have tensile strength 50,000 psi, is actually greater than
some low strength steels.

Applications of plastics: Insulators where chemical resistance is important.

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CHAPTER - 6
CASTING

Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity and solidify into a useful shape.

CASTING PROCESS
The process starts with a pattern
Pattern is to represent the finished product. Roughly the same size as the finished part with
slightly oversized dimensions to allow for shrinkage and additional allowances on surfaces that
are to be machined. Mould fulfilling the function of a negative of the pattern.

A mold is constructed from the pattern

Second step is to build a mould. Mould is designed that it can be opened for removal of the
pattern. Pattern may have attachments to serve as channels for flow of material. These channels
or runners must be cut in the mould.

Mould cavity filled with molten material

Liquid metal is poured through the channels to fill the cavity completely allowed for
solidification. Product is then ready for removing the excess metal that has solidified in the
runners.

Casting process involves a change of state of material from liquid to solid.

Heat is being given up to the mould material in contact. First portion of the material to cool will
be the outside of the liquid and a large number of unit call form around the interface. Each unit
cell becomes a point of nucleation for growth of a metal crystal. First grains to form in the skin
of a solidifying casting are likely to be of a fine equiaxed type with random orientation and
shapes.

Second phase
Second phase is also directional
Crystal growth is in a direction towards the hot zone. Therefore, grow in a columnar shape
toward center, growth may occur on the sides of these columns, producing structures known as
dendrites pine-tree shaped.

Third phase
The wall thickness of frozen metal increases, cooling rate of the remaining liquid decreases even
further, and the temperature of remaining material trends to equalize. Slow cooling will permit
random nucleation at fewer points, grains grow to large sizes.

Grain characteristics influenced by cooling rates

First grain to form around outside would be fine equiaxed. Columnar and dendritic structure
present in directions towards the last portions to cool. Finally, the center of the heavy sections
would be the weakest made up of large equiaxed grains. This sections that cool very quickly
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will develop neither the columnar nor the coarse structure but fine structure. NDT

may be difficult due to effects from variable grain size in massive castings.

Eutectics
Grain size produced with a eutectic alloy is smaller than the grain size of a pure metal due to a
smaller temperature gradient and the formation of a greater number of points of nucleation.

Noneutectics freeze through a temperature range

Instead of freezing at a single temperature eutectic freeze over a temperature range.

Dendritic grain growth is much more evident in the noneitectic alloy metals than in pure metal.

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SHRINKAGE

SHRINKAGE OCCURS IN THREE STAGES

First stage of shrinkage

First stage of shrinkage occurs in liquid state

Second stage of shrinkage

Second stage of shrinkage occurs during transformation from liquid to solid.

Third stage of shrinkage

Third stage of shrinkage occurs during solid contraction.

PROGRESSIVE VERSUS DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION

Progressive solidification: In Progressive solidification the freezing of a liquid occurs from the
outside toward the centre.

Directional solidification: In directional solidification the freezing occurs from one part of
casting to another.

Casting design and procedure should cause the metal farthest from the point of entry to freeze
first with solidification moving toward a feed head.

Hot spots are focal points for solidification

The highest temperature areas after pouring are called hot spots. Defects are most likely at hot
spots created by section changes or geometry.

Control of hot spots usually by proper design

Hot spots located at points of greatest sectional dimensions. Non uniform section thicknesses,
and intersecting members are troublesome. Solution involves changing the design.

Uniform section thicknesses desirable

Section changes should be minimized as much as possible in order to approach uniform cooling
rates and reduce defects. Pouring iron, heavy sections tend to solidify as gray iron with
precipitated graphite. Thin sections cooling at higher rates hold the carbon in the combined state
as iron carbide turn out to be hard brittle white iron.

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POURING

Most pouring done from ladles

Turbulent flow harmful

Turbulent flow, which is caused by pouring from too great a height or by excessive rates should
be avoided. Turbulence will cause gas to be picked up that may appear as cavities or pockets.
Rough, fast flow of liquid metal may erode the mould and result in loss of shape. Cold shuts are
also a result of turbulent flow. Drops of splashing metal lose heat, freeze, entrapped as globules
that do not joint completely.

Pouring rate
Pouring rate used in filling a mould is critical. If the metal enters the cavity too slowly, it may
freeze before the mould is filled, flowing in one direction may solidify and then be met by metal
flowing through another path to form a defect known as a cold shut.

If the pouring rate is too high, it will cause erosion of the mould walls with the resulting sand
inclusions. High thermal shocks result in cracks and buckling.

Rate of pouring is controlled by the mould design and the pouring basin, spruce, runner and gate
dimensions.

Superheat affects casting quality

Earlier metals are superheated from 100 to 500 C above their melting temperature to increase
their fluidity and to allow for heat losses. The temperature is a too low, misrun and cold shuts
will show up. If the temperature at pouring is too high, metal may penetrate causing very tough
finishes, may cause excessive porosity or increased gas development leading to voids and
increased shrinkage from thermal gradients. High pouring temperature increases the mould
temperature, decreases the temperature differential, allows greater gain growth with a weaker,
coarse grain structure.

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CHILLS

Risers
Risers, feeders or feed heads serve as wells of material attached outside casting to properly
supply liquid. Most liquid contraction is taken care of during pouring. A riser may supply
replacement for some of this contraction.

Chills
Chills help in directional solidification heat-absorbing devices inserted in the mould usually
made of steel, cast iron or copper.

Internal chills become an integral part of the casting. This type of chill is made up of the same
material as the casting.

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SAND MOULDING
Sand moulding most commonly used for construction of mould.

Procedure for sand moulding

Sand main structural material for the mould
A pattern properly shaped and sized cavity in the sand
A flask provides a means of removing the pattern after the mould is made.
A ramming method compact the sand
A core form internal surfaces
A mould grating system provide a means of filling the mould cavity
Sand is then packed around the pattern and between the walls of the flask

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GREEN SAND

Green sand is a mixture of sand, clay and moisture.

Majority of castings are poured in moulds of green sand. which relatively inexpensive.

Sand grains held together by clay

Water conditions the clay

Water is the third requisite for green sand moulding.

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PATTERNS

Patterns made of various materials principally wood, metal, plastic or plaster, constructed
slightly larger than the expected resulting allow for shrinkage of metal, during and after
solidification. Extra material is also left on surfaces to be machined or finished contracted with
suitable draft angles to facilitate their removal.

Flasks
Flasks are open-faced containers that hold the molten medium as it is packed around the pattern.
Upper half cope and the lower half drag.

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SAND COMPACTION

Packing or ramming of sand in a mould

Sand that is packed too lightly will be weak and may fall out of the mould, buckle or crack.
Loosely packed grains at the surface of the cavity may wash with the metal flow or may permit
metal penetration resulting rough finish. Sand that is too tightly compacted will lack
permeability, restrict gas flow and be a source of blowholes.

Peen butt rammers may be used on a bench or on the floor by manual operation.

Jolting and squeezing use mechanical energy performed by use of moulding machines.

Jolt compaction involves lifting of the table carrying the model and dropping it against a solid
obstruction. Squeeze compaction by pushing a squeeze plate against the outside of sand.
Combination of jolting and squeezing is frequently used.

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CORES

Cores are bodies of mould material, usually in the form of inserts that exclude metal flow to
form internal surfaces in a casting. Cores made of dry sand and contain no clay. It must be
strong enough that its own buoyancy, as liquid metal rises around it, will not cause it to break or
shift.

Collapsibility
Core should collapse immediately after metal solidification takes place.

Radiography testing is frequently used to determine core shifting during casting.

Chaplets
Long slender cores might give way under pressure of the flowing metal given additional support
by the use of chaplets. Chaplets become part of the casting after they have served their function.

Radiography reveals whether the chaplets have completely fused with the base metal.

Green sand process extremely flexible

It is most economical of all the moulding processes. Sand is reusable.

Limitations of green sand are its low strength in thin sections. It cannot be used for casting thin
fins or long, thin projections. The moisture present in green sand produces steam when
contacted by hot metal.

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DRY SAND MOULDS

Elimination of moisture reduces casting defects

The moulds are made of green sand modified to favour the dry properties then dried in an oven.
The absence of moisture eliminates formation of water vapour and reduces the casting defects.

Skin drying
When the mould open, the inside surfaces are subjected to heat from torches, radiant lamps, hot
dry air, or electric heating elements to form a dry insulating skin around the mould cavity. It can
be stored only for short periods before pouring water in the main body will redistribute itself.

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FLOOR AND PIT MOULDS

Large moulds difficult to handle

Extremely large castings such moulds cannot be moved about. Floor moulds made in the
pouring position are building in large flasks opened by lifting the cope with an overhead crane.
The cope flask usually must be constructed with special support bars to prevent the mould
material from dropping free when it is lifted.

Drag of pit moulds below floor level

Pit moulds use the four walls of a pit as a flask for the drag section. Cope assembly is of core
sand or may be made in large flask similar to that used for a floor mould.

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SHELL MOULDS

Dimensions held within a few thousandths of an inch eliminate machining.

Sand bonded with thermosetting plastic

It covers a heated metal pattern. Heat of the pattern causes the mixture to adhere and semi cures
the plastic. Thin sell is baked in place or stripped from the pattern further cured by baking at 300
C. Thickness of shell is approximately 3 mm. Its resistance to springing apart is low, may be
necessary to back it up with loose sand.

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METAL MOULD

Metal mould is used whenever the quantities manufactured justify additional expense.

Permanent mould casting

Metal mould used mostly for low melting point alloys

It is reused many times. Cast iron and steel are the most common materials with which the
mould is made. Mostly for aluminium, copper, magnesium and zinc alloys.

High accuracies and good finishes

Permanent mould casting has several advantages over sand casting. Dimensional tolerance: +
0.25 mm.

Higher conductance of heat causes a chilling action, producing finer grain harder stronger
castings. Used in the manufacture of automobile cylinder heads, automobile pistons, low
horsepower engine connecting rods and other nonferrous alloys.

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DIE CASTING

Pressure is applied to the liquid metal to cause it to flow rapidly and uniformly into the cavity.
The die is of metal.

Hot chamber die casting

Keeps metal melted in a chamber through which a piston moves into a cylinder to build up
pressure forcing the metal intro the die.

Machines limited to low pressures

Piston subjected to pressure are heated to the melting temperature of the casting metal, hot
chamber are restricted to lower pressures. High speed, low cost process low pressures o not
produce the high density.

Cold chamber die casting

Molten metal poured into the shot chamber. Piston advances to force the metal into the die.

Castings quality high

Sections as thin as 0.4 mm will tolerances as small as 0.5 mm very good surface finish material
properties high because the pressure improves the metal density (fewer voids). Die casting
cannot be used for the very high strength materials.

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INVESTMENT CASTING

The working pattern destroyed during investment casting

Investment casting is also known precision casting or the lost wax process. A new wax pattern is
needed for every piece cast.

Starting with a master pattern about which a metal die is made. Metal die used making any
number of wax patterns. Wax pattern dipped in a slurry fine refractory material and encased in
the investment material. Wax, then removed from the mould by heating. Investment moulds are
preheated to suitable temperature for pouring. After pouring and solidification investment is
broken away.

Process limited to small castings

High quality at high cost

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PLASTER MOLD CASTING

Moulds made of plaster of paris produce good quality finish and good dimensional accuracy.

Casting cools slowly

Good insulator, insulating property permits lower pouring rates with less superheat, less
shrinkage, less gas entrapment from turbulence with opportunity for gases to escape. On the
other hand, because of slow cooling large grain growth is a serious problem.

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

A rotating mould to develop centrifugal force acting on the metal to improve its density toward
the outside of the mould.

True centrifugal casting

Shapes the outside of the product with a spinning mould. Cast iron sewer pipe, shafts for large
turbines, propeller shafts for ships and high pressure piping. NDT is to check the wall thickness,
columnar grain structure.

Semi centrifugal casting

Revolving a symmetric mould about the axis of the moulds cavity and pouring that cavity full.
Density will vary with dense strong metal around the outside and more porous weaker metal at
the center. Wheels, pulleys, gear blanks to obtain maximum metal properties near the outside
periphery.

Centrifuge casting multiple products

Number of equally spaced mould cavities are arranged in a circle about a central pouring spree.
The mould is revolved. Gases tend to be forced out, improves metal quality.

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CONTINUOUS CASTING

Molten metal enters end of the mould and solid metal is drawn from the other.

Good quality castings possible

Exclusion of contact with oxygen while molten and during solidification produces high quality
metal.

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MELTING EQUIPMENT

Cupola
Cast iron is melted in a special chimney like furnace called a cupola. Similar to a blast furnace,
used for refining iron ore. Charged through a door with layers of coke, iron and limestone taking
off melted iron as it accumulates in the well at the bottom.

Crucible furnaces
Crucibles constructed of graphite, silicon carbide or other refractory material.

Reverberatory furnaces
Play a gas-air or oil air flame through nozzles the side walls of a brick structure, directly on the
surface of the charged material. High melting rate.

Electric arc furnaces

High intensity heat source used to melt any metal no products of combustion and oxygen can be
excluded from contact quality is usually high.

Arc may be direct between an electrode and the charged metal or indirect between two
electrodes above the charge.

Induction furnaces
Heat dissipated from eddy currents. Coils high frequency alternating magnetic field causes
internal eddy currents that heat the charge to its melting point.

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CHAPTER 7
WELDING

Welding: Permanent union of metallic surfaces by establishing atom to atom bonds between two
surfaces.

NATURE OF BONDING
Atomic bonding essential
Welding include reference to heat and pressure. Two perfectly matched clean surface are brought
together within suitable atomic spacing, atomic bonds be established be welded.

Atomic cleanliness and closeness

Exposure to the atmosphere results in almost immediate formation of oxide or sulphide films.
Atomic closeness requires that the distances between atoms brought into inter atomic spacing
contact. Even the best qualities have finite roughness of much higher order than atomic
distances.

Melting common but not essential

Cleanliness may be established by chemical cleaning by melting so that surface films float or by
fragmentation as a result of plastic deformation, filling with a liquid metal as in brazing and
soldering without the joined metals.

Welding accomplished any combination that establishes atomic cleanliness and atomic
closeness.

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FUSION BONDING
Parent or base metals are completely melted. Impurities float to the surface. No pressure is
necessary.

Metallurgical effects like casting

Unmelted base metal serves as mould.

Effects such as grain-size variation shrinkage that occur in casting will occur in fusion. NDT for
weldmnents is similar to that for castings.

Filler sometimes added

More used fusion-welding processes additional molten metal filler is supplied.

Welded joint strength

Depends on the composition metallurgical structure of the filler material and base metal,
residual stresses build up as a result of the differential heating and cooling.

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PRESSURE BONDING

Heat aids cleanliness and closeness

Pressure alone may be sufficient to form a bond, but heat is used strengths are lower as
temperature is raised. Pressure and flow cause some fragmentation of the oxides, most arte quite
brittle and cannot maintain a continuous film.

Overall joint efficiency high

No pronounced solidification shrinkage. Stronger than the original cross section as result of the
enlargement that occurs with plastic flow.

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FLOW BONDING

Filler material of different composition and lower melting temperature.

Three different operations using flow bonds are braze welding, brazing and soldering.

Braze welding
In braze welding, the filler material having a melting point above 425 C used. Alloys used are
copper or silver based. Fluxes are heated on the joint surfaces for cleaning used for joining and
repairing cast iron.

Brazing
Filler material is applied to a close-fitting joint by capillary action. Filler material may be rod;
wire, foil, slug or powder fluxes similar to those used in braze welding.

Low strength of very thin joints due to the formation of capillary dams caused by uneven
surfaces prevent complete filling. Overcome by use of ultrasonic vibration while brazing.

Sloppy fit-up of joints can also cause the molten braze filler to fail to completely fill the joint.
Porosity and inclusions are other possible defects.

Soldering
Soldering is similar to both braze welding and brazing. The essential difference is in the melting
temperature of the filler metal which is below 425 C. Important materials are lead-tin alloys.

The mechanical strengths are low. Used for providing fluid tightness, for electrical connections,
sheet metal joint filling in automotive assembly work.

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COLD BONDING

Heat not essential to bonding

With greater loads than used in pressure bonding, plastic flow for fragmentation of surface
impurities can be established in ductile materials at room temperature.

Contact area increased

Welds are made by squeezing the metal between two punch faces cause metal flow normal to the
direction of load. Area of contact is increased, brittle surface oxides fragment.

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WELDING

Some of the metal is actually melted in most cases and welded parts are subject to deformation
and high shrinkage on cooling including melting, alloying, solidification, casting, hot and cold
working recrystallization and heat-treating.

Most gases are highly soluble in molten metals but have decreasing ability to stay in solution as
temperature lowers, leading to problems of gas entrapment.

Rapid solidification rates may lead to segregation of some elements, particularly coring-type
segregation may occur. These entrapped gases can form voids or brittle compounds. One of the
most serious conditions is the embrittlement resulting from hydrogen trapped in steel.

Fillers of composition different from that of the base metal are used to compensate for welding
faults or rather over-compensate for improvement. Nickel filler in welding cast iron to control
grain growth and give ductility. Stainless steel filler may be used with higher allow content than
the base material to insure corrosion resistance.

Cooling rates higher than in casting

Grain size effects are not confined to the molten metal, because high enough temperature results
in annealing, allotropic transformation and recrystallization.

Heat affects base material

Area immediately surrounding the molten metal will be heated above the transformation
temperature and some degree of austeritization can occur. Final results will depend on the
cooling rates.

Multiple cooling rates

For metal heated above the transformation temperature the cooling may be equivalent to that
required for annealing, normalizing or actually quenching to marten site, provided enough
carbon is present. When combined with the uneven shrinkage, can result in brittle structures
subject to cracking. Low carbon filler material often used in welding higher carbon steels to
avoid excessive marten site. In fusion zone the composition would be near the composition of
the filler material. Even with rapid cooling, the structure would consist mainly of ferrite with
sufficient ductility to shrink without cracking.

Preheating lowers cooling rate

The cooling rate will be reduced because of the reduced thermal gradient established. Average
grain size will be larger structures will be softer because of the reduced cooling rates.

Post treatment is sometimes valuable

Composition of the weld could be like that of the base metal with proper heat treatment.

Some stainless steels are subject to the formation of chromium carbide during welding and may

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lose much of their corrosion-resistant qualities.

DISTORTION AND STRESSES

Restraints create stresses and distortion

With restraint on heating or cooling of localized areas at a more rapid rates than other (self-
restraint). The greater shrinkage occurring on the wide side of the Vee, leads angular distortion.

Multipass welds amplify effects. Each pass contributes to the distortion.

While a vee weld will always tend to distort angularly. As the weld proceeds along the groove,
the heating of the base metal along the edge of the groove but ahead of the actual weld leads to a
spreading of the plates.

Some degree of restraint always exists. Any fusion weld will contain some residual stresses
when completed and cooled to room temperature. These stresses will be both tensile and
compressive because a balance must exist.

For a weld along the edge of a plate, the longitudinal shrinkage will cause curvature as
indicated. Although the plate has no external restraint, it will be subject to stresses.

For a circular weld around a pipe, self-restraint exists. The shrinkage along the length of the
weld results in a reduction in diameter. The result high tensile stresses in the weld and high
compressive stresses in the pipe on both sides of the weld.

Stresses reduced by post heating

Based on two facts: (1) no stresses higher than the yield stress can exist in a material at any
given temperature, and (2) if an entire unrestrained body is cooled uniformly from any given
temperature, no increase in stress will occur. If entire weldment is heated to an elevated
temperature, yielding will occur and the stresses reduced. As the temperature is reduced, the
entire weldments will shrink, but no new stresses will be introduced.

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Forge welding- a pressure bond

A reducing or carburizing flame prevents or reduces decarburization and causes less oxidation of
steel. An excess of oxygen produces a strongly oxiding flame yields maximum temperatures.
With three parts oxygen one part acetylene, the temperature is 3482 C (6300 F). Other
temperature range from 815 C (1500 F) at the tip of the inner cone of a neutral flame (one to
one proportions of oxygen and acetylene) to about 3300 C (5972 F) in the hottest portions of
the outer envelope.

The electric arc is one of the hottest sources of energy temperature are near 6090 C
With typical arc-welding conditions of 25 volts at 300 amperes.

Ionization establishes current path

Most gases are very poor conductors at room temperature and the voltage necessary to maintain
an arc over any practical distance would be very high. Gas molecules at arc temperatures they
ionize (lose some electrons by collision) in numbers sufficient to make the gas highly
conducting for electric current. When the arc is extinguished, it cools and loses its ionization,
reionization must occur before the arch can be re-established.

With long arcs and highly conductive gases such as hydrogen, higher inputs are required to
maintain the arc.

Consumable electrodes transfer this metal by fine metal spray or by relatively large globules
may even short-circuit. Electrode burn-off is directly proportional to the welding current for any
given rod diameter.

Molten metal is shielded by protective gases from oxidation and other reactions with the arc
atmosphere. By the burning of coatings on the welding rod itself or by a glow of shielding gas.

Straight polarity-welding rod negative

Measurable influence on burn-off rate and the amount of spattering. When the rod is negative
called straight polarity. Rod is positive called reverse polarity.

Percussive welding
Process associated with pressure than fusion making butt joints between the flat ends of work
pieces without filler material. The work pieces are connected to a large capacitor charged to
about 3,000 volts, and then driven towards each other by high spring or air pressure. Before
contact can take place, arcs with current on the order of 50,000 to 100,000 amperes are
established. High currents heat work to vaporization capacitor is nearly discharged at which time
the pressure completes the contact. But percussive welding may be used for joining widely
dissimilar materials.

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Stud welding
Use of an arc for welding developed in the shipbuilding industry for attaching steel studs to the
steel deck. The stud is supported in a special gun and forms the electrode. It is then moved to the
work until an arc is established, drawn back, then forced into the work. With sufficient pressure
to cause some upsetting of the end of the stud.

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ARC-WELDING ELECTRODES
First function of the coating is to provide a gaseous shield that flushes away the atmospheric
gases to prevent oxidation and other gaseous contamination of molten metal. Shield generally
also contains ionizing constituents to assist in ionizing the arc atmosphere by reducing the
effective ionization potential so that the arc may burn with lower applied voltage. Sodium salts
are used for direct current welding rods. Potassium salts are used for alternating-current welding
rods for which arcs are more difficult to maintain because the current passes through zero 120
times each second for each cycle of 60 hertz current.

In addition provides slag-blanket forming, protective layer over the deposited weld metal. The
insulating coating reduces the rate of cooling and protects the hot metal from atmospheric
oxidation and gas absorption at the higher temperatures at which gases are readily soluble in the
metal.

Coating may add filler

In high deposition-rate rods for flat position carry powdered iron or iron oxide to add to the
deposition rate. Contact electrodes are designed with coatings that burn off slowly.

Inert gas shield-Tungsten electrode

Welding of metals and alloys such as magnesium, titanium, stainless steels with gas tungsten-arc
welding. An arc is maintained between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work piece.
While shielding is provided by an inert gas commonly argon or helium, particularly for welding
some of the difficult materials.

Wire electrode may supply filler

Gas metal-arc welding filler material in wire form, which is continuously fed into the weld metal
pool, shielding gas or mixture of gases to provide the protective atmosphere.

Argon, helium or mixtures of argon and helium are the commonest shielding gases for high alloy
steels and nonferrous metals chemical inertness. Carbon dioxide gas is frequently used when
welding mild steel.

Automatic welding under flux

Submerged arc welding shielding is provided by a granular flux fed from a hopper to surround
the arc completely.

Glassy slag blanket that protects the molten metal and the solidified weld as it cools permits
very high current densities that give deep penetration. Higher welding speed for a given current.

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ELECTRIC RESISTANCE HEATING

Heat for hot pressure welding processes is supplied by the passage of electric current through the
work.

Spot welding for joining sheet metal

The most important applications of resistance heating are for spot welding. Joint between flat
sheets, spot welds are obtained by concentrating the pressure and current flow with shaped
electrodes.

Modified spot welding

The two most common variations are seam and projection. Seam welds produce a continuous
joint used where pressure or liquid tightness is a requirement.

Many cases, multiple spot-welds or single spot confining the area of contact to projects on the
surface. Uses of projection welding include joining of electrical contacts.

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ELECTRO-BEAM WELDING

Stream of high-energy electrons is focuses electrically toward a spot. Rapid localized heating.
The process is carried out in a vacuum. No contamination or oxidation high temperatures
removes impurities that may be present. Weld may be of higher quality. The high rate of heating
restricts the heat-affected zone and there is minimum distortion. A ratio of fusion depth to width
of as much as twenty is possible.

The process uses high cost equipment. Electron beam welding valuable for welding beryllium,
molybdenum, zirconium, hafnium and other refractory metals.

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PLASMA ARC
For most gases, stable molecular form at room temperature contains two atoms, but the gas
when ionized becomes monatomic. Plasma is a gas that has been heated to such a temperature
that the gas is ionized. A reduction in temperature results in the recombination of atoms to the
molecular form and the release of energy as heat.

A stream of gas is ionized by heat as it is passed through an electric arc. Thermal expansion of
the gas stream caused it to flow at supersonic speeds as its diameter is restricted by the magnetic
properties of the arc. Drop in temperature caused by contact with the relatively cool work
surface results in loss of ionization and release of large amounts of heat directly at the surface to
be heated. High intensity high rate of heat transfer useful for welding high conductivity metals
such as aluminium.

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ULTRASONIC WELDING
Vibration aids cleaning
Cold bonding may be performed with less deformation by applying high frequency mechanical
energy in the process called ultrasonic welding. Vibrations introduce shearing forces that assist
in the fragmentation.

Both spot and seam welds may be made and the widest use has been for metals difficult to join
by conventional processes. These include stainless steel, molybdenum, zirconium, various
bimetal combinations and thin foil or sheet aluminium. The upper limit is about 0.100 inch,,
although thin sheets may be welded to thicker sections. Ultrasonic welding is also an important
assembly method for plastics.

Friction welding
Friction welding mechanical energy is supplied not only to facilitate fragmentation but also to
develop heat. Welds in heavy round sections. Friction develops sufficient heat to make the metal
plastic.

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ELECTROSLAG WELDING

Slag protects the heated metal

Joined are placed in a vertical position with a gap between them. Water cooled copper shoes
cover the gap. slag is first deposited in the gap and a wire electrode introduced to form an arc.
Once the arc has melted the slag, the arc is automatically extinguished and heat is produced by
the passage of current through the molten slag. The electrode is fed into the slag as it melts.
Copper shoes are gradually raised. The process might well be defined as continuous casting,
with the base metal and the copper slides forming a mobbing mould. The slag forms a protective
layer.

Multiple electrodes needed for heavy sections

Principal applications forming welds between plates and for producing heavy walled cylinders
rolled from flat plate, shaped rather than flat slides may be used for producing tee joints.

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EXPLOSION WELDING

Particularly suited to joining large areas of two or more metals of different compositions.

A uniform covering layer of explosive material is detonated to produce a shock uniformly across
the material to be welded. Materials spaced a small distance apart.

The shock from explosion wave closes the gap such a way that surface impurities are pushed
ahead and extremely high pressures establish the contact between the metal and welding.

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DIFFUSION WELDING

Solid state processes

Pressure, temperature, time-independent variables

The process involves the establishment of a smooth, clean surface maintained until weld is
accomplished. Protecting the surfaces in an inert gas. Low to moderate pressure is applied to the
surface to be joined and same time, the temperature is raised. Temperature usually falls
someplace between the crystallization temperature and the melting temperature of the material.
Used for joining special alloys in aerospace and atomic energy applications.

The individual parts making up weldments are most frequently cut from rolled sections. Ideally,
the finished weldments may be thought of as an homogenous structure equivalent to a single
part.
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JOINTS

Although some joints are more confidently welded by some processes than by others.

Fusion weld types

FILLET
SQUARE GROOVE
BEVEL GROOVE
VEE GROOVE
J-GROOVE
U-GROOVE

Five basic types of joints are used for welding:

Butt joints
Tee joints
Lap joints
Corner joints
Edge joints

Weldability
The relative ease with which a sound union may be produced between two parts by welding.

Hardenability
Term is related to the cooling rate necessary to form a structure of given hardness in steel. In all
welding processes, the metal is heated above the melting temperature and cracking or high
residual stresses as the metal cools differentially can be prevented only by yielding of the metal
in the weld area. With few exceptions, any element that is added to pure iron increases its harden
ability and therefore decreases its weld ability by reducing ductility and increasing the
possibility of cracks or high residual stresses. Increased welding difficulty can be expected as
carbon or alloy content is increased in any steel. Exception is vanadium, which reduces harden
ability.

Thermal conductivity
Another factor affecting welds ability. If a metal had infinitely high thermal conductivity, it
could not be fusion welded at all because it could not be locally melted. Aluminium has such
high conductivity that high rates of heat input are required. One the other hand, stainless steels
have low conductivity results in hot spots and very high temperature gradients in the weld zone
results in increase of the stresses developed on cooling.

Recrystallization
Material that has been cold worked is automatically recrystallized during welding and usually
for a considerable distance away from the actual weld. Weldments made from work-hardened
aluminium may actually be more ductile. The heat affected zone than in the unheated base
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metal. Grain growth will follow recrystallization.

Corrosion resistance
The corrosion resistance stainless steels may be especially affected by welding. At low cooling
rates, small amounts of carbon combine with chromium and reduce the corrosion resistance.
Corrosion resistance will likely be lowered in some spots. Post heat treating of stainless steel
weldments is nearly always required to restore maximum corrosion resistance.

Heat causes other changes. Practically all metals oxidized at welding temperatures. May not
directly affect strength, it does affect appearance producing surface imperfections that lead to
fatigue failures or serve as focal points for intergranular corrosion.

And machining is nearly always necessary for close dimensional control. When close tolerances
must be held, stress relief prior to machining is usually required.

If the amount of distortion can be predicted, the parts to be welded may be purposely off-
positioned before welding to compensate. Like over bending sheet metal to compensate for
spring back. Automatic compensation will occur in a double-groove weld.

Pre-heat and post heat treatment

Solutions to the problems of stresses and distortion are pre-and post-and post-heat treatment of
weldments. Pre-heat treatment does not eliminate shrinkage and yielding that lead to stresses,
but by lowering the yield strength of the base metal, it provides a greater volume through which
the shrinkage may be distributed, and by lowering the thermal gradients the weld zone, it
reduces the size of the stresses distributing them over greater areas. Post-heat treatment relieves
stresses by permitting yielding to occur at reduced stress levels, it can also help restore a
uniform structure with an improved grain size, particularly in steel.

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WELD DEFECTS
General sources of weld defects include: improper design, poor joint preparation, defects in the
parent material, improper welding technique, faulty solidification of molten metal, and heating
or cooling effects.

FUSION WELDING

Defects are of three general classes.

Those associated with drawing or dimensional.

Those associated with structural discontinuities in the weld itself.

Those associated with properties of weld metal or welded joint.

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WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
Porosity
Pockets or voids. Gases are produced remain in the solidified metal. Few small, scattered pores
may not create significant harm except in the most critical applications.

Inclusions
Common inclusions are slag, metal oxides, and non-metallic solids that are entrapped during
welding. They are to some degree associated with types of welding. In welds made with an inert
covering gas, inadequate fast flow or excess moisture in the gas can result in oxide and porosity
formation. In Tungsten arc process, small bits of tungsten are occasionally dislodged from the
electrode and enter the weld metal.

Incomplete fusion and inadequate joint preparation

Incomplete fusion can occur in any location where the base metal, or previous pass weld metal
has not been brought up to fusion temperature. Inadequate joint penetration usually occurs in the
root area of the weld.

Undercut
Result of melting base metal and not replacing it with weld metal, leaving a notch or groove.
May be a serious defect.

Cracks
Usually caused by high stresses set up by localized dimensional changes. Caused by the large
thermal gradients established during heating and cooling of a weld joint. Cracking may occur
during welding, during cooling, or with hard or brittle materials at some later time. Weld cracks
are most likely to occur when weldments are of heavy sections creating a faster quenching
action.

Primarily cracks are of three types-transverse, longitudinal, and multiple star shaped crater
cracks.

Crater cracks single or star-shaped multiple mat propagate into longitudinal cracks due to
interrupted process or at start, stop.

Cracks in the heat affected zone of base metal occur almost entirely only in metals that are heat-
treat hard-enable (having high harden ability).

Surface irregularities
May be nuclei of future failure but usually they have little significance. Spatter weld ripple,
uniformity of bead, other surface qualities are frequently covered by specification.

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WELD METAL AND BASE METAL PROPERTIES

Weld metal
Properties of the weld metal are controlled basically by the weld filler material and the way it is
deposited.

Base metal
Similar to weld metal tests, most tests for checking properties of base metal are destructive.

BASIC SYMBOLS FOR NDT

Types of test Symbol
Acoustic Emission Testing AET
Eddy Current Testing ET
Leak Testing LT
Magnetic Particle Testing MT
Neutron Radiographic Testing NRT
Penetrant Testing PT
Radiographic Testing RT
Ultrasonic Testing UT

These symbols are used on a drawing with a testing symbol very much like to welding symbol
used to specify welding types and procedures.

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CHAPTER - 8
PLASTIC FLOW

Hot rolling or forging operations will involve plastic flow.

Deformation offers unique advantages

Numerous factors account for the use of deformation processes. Many shapes more
economically produced by deformation. Difficulty of casting very thin sections.

Properties of wrought materials are in general much improved over their case counterparts.
Rolling, forging and drawing tend to improve both strength and ductility.

Deformation increases probability of defects

Metal processing performed on virtually every product sometimes during the manufacturing
cycle.

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EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION

Work hardening and recrystallization

Permanent change of position is effected, because of redistribution of dislocations, change of
grain size and other metallurgical effects. Material is said to be strain hardened. Cold worked or
work hardened.

Ductility recoverable
Changes in properties associated with work hardening are due to the strained and unstable
position. Changes may be reversed supplying energy (heat) to the atoms by the process called
recrystallization. Atoms rearrange themselves into an unstrained condition similar to that which
existed before strain hardening. Temperature at which the rearrangement takes place is called the
recrystallization temperature and varies with different metals.

Above the recrystallization temperature, it is termed hot working. Hot working therefore permits
continuous deformation instead of the cycle of cold working, recrystallization to regain ductility
and more cold working.

Recrystallization requires time

Recrystallization depend on finite movements of atoms within material and on the formation of
new grain boundaries, which take finite amounts of time. The actual time required will depend
on actual temperature as well as on the rate of straining.

DIRECTION EFFECTS
Alignment of crystals develops directional properties
Metals used in manufacturing are ordinarily polycrystalline materials with more or less random
orientation of the crystals. A polycrystalline metal with random orientation of the crystals, the
differences tend to average out. With plastic deformation, crystal fractures, rotations, and
reorientation lead to loss of randomness. As a result, the properties become different in different
directions.

Directional effect may be either beneficial or harmful

As drawn wire directionality is seldom harmful. The best properties particularly strength are
developed parallel to the direction of drawing where they are most need in use. The loss of
ductility perpendicular to the direction of rolling may cause secondary drawing or being
operations to be difficult or impossible. Difficulty may be overcome by proper layout. The
directionality developed by working is never completely eliminated because even
recrystallization grains are likely to have preferred orientations.

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GRAIN SIZE

For any given metal or alloy, the grain size is established on solidification based on the cooling
rate. Rate determined by the mould material superheat present, the section thickness of the
casting. When it is intended that metal be subjected to some deformation process, it is still
necessary to first cast the metal into an ingot. Most desirable forms for ingots are usually quite
large with a heavy cross section and a large mass. Therefore, the cooling rate for ingots is quite
slow compared to most other castings, grain size is very large.

(n-1)

N = 2 where N = Number of grains per square inch at 100X

magnification n = ASTM grain size number

Grain size refined mechanically and thermally

Either hot or cost, results in crystal fractures, rotations and realignments that produce a small
grain sixe as the material is strain hardened. If following the strain hardening, recrystallization
takes place because of subsequent heat treatment. Grain size immediately after recrystallization
will always be small.

Regrowth at elevated temperatures

Metal that is held at too high a temperature or at an elevated temperature for too long a time
following recrystallization will undergo the phenomenon of grain growth. Given sufficient
freedom crystals tend to grow to a critical stable size, grain size of the final product will depend
on the place where processes stop.

Importance to nonferrous materials

The majority of nonferrous metals only methods for grain-size control. During recrystallization
grain refinement for metals that exist in only one crystalline form can be accomplished only by
hot working. Cold working and recrystallization following strain hardening and grain growth
will occur any time metals are held at excessive temperatures for sufficient time.

Ferrous grain size refined two ways

Not only during working and recrystallization but are heated through the transformation range.
Grain size of body-centered cubic iron (below the transformation temperature), the face-centered
crystals that form after transformation will always be smaller. However, the size of the face-
centered crystals will increase if the metal is held above the transformation temperature, the
amount of growth will depend on the temperature level and time.

Whatever grain size established in the face-centered crystals will be preserved when the
transformation is made back to body-centered cubic iron. This refinement requires that the metal
be reheated through the transformation temperature range. T

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RELATIVE EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING

Hot worked metal soft and ductile

Generally exhibit maximum ductility and minimum hardness. Any effects of strain hardening
will have been continuously relieved by recrystallization at the hot-working temperature.

Faults minimized by hot work

Ingots having relatively large cross sections, results in pronounced casting defects such as ingot-
type segregation (composition differences within crystals), dendritic micro porosity and macro
porosity from gas evolution), shrinkage cavities and inclusion of metallic oxides, slag and other
foreign matter. Some of these faults are removed by cropping the ingot. Discarding of as much
as one-third of the top where the largest shrinkage occurs during hot working have their effects
minimized by the closing and welding of voids and the elongation of inclusions.

Major deformation by hot working

Cold working is used primarily as a finished process and usually follows hot working that has
been used to accomplish the major portion of deformation.

Last cold work effective

With any degree of cold working, the material could be restored to the original conditions of
elastic limit and ductility by recrystallization and could then be subjected again to cold
deformation. The final strength and ductility depend on cold working after the last
recrystallization treatment.

Reduced ductility desirable for most machining

Cold finishing is generally desirable. The overall machinability of most metals is improved with
reduced ductility because of improved finishability. Much of the bar material to be finished by
machining is cold rolled or cold drawn. The compressive stresses left on and near the surface of
most cold-worked material are of some benefit when the material is subjected to fatigue
conditions in service. Fatigue failures generally start at areas of high tensile stresses on the
surface of parts, and the residual surface compressive stress reduces the actual value of surface
tensile stress due to applied loads.

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FINISH AND ACCURACY

Surfaces qualities affected by high temperatures

Most metals are subject to rapid oxidation at their hot working temperatures. Oxide formation is
frequently no uniform, and scale may spell off, exposing new metal to oxygen contact. Face
finish and dimensional accuracy determined by the rate of oxidation.

Effects on low melting alloys not serious

For aluminium other nonferrous alloys, hot-working temperatures are low enough that oxidation
is not serious, good finishes and close accuracies may be held.

Decarburization changes surface composition

Steel high working temperature subjected to selective oxidation. The carbon burns at a higher
rate than the iron to leave a decarburized shell. Subsequent heat treatment depends on carbon
content, does not produce desired results on the surface. High carbon hot-rolled steels are
usually at least 1/16-inch oversize in permit surface removal. Decarburized layers can severely
limit the application of eddy current tests. Eddy current techniques provide a measure of the
thickness of decarburization, thus assuring adequate removal.

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PROCESS REQUIREMENTS

Cold working is performed at room temperature.

One of the principal benefits of hot working is that metals are weaker at high temperatures and
can be deformed with lower loads and less work.

Equipment life reduced by high temperatures

The dies, a tool that comes into contact with heated materials must be able to maintain adequate
hardness and strength made of heat-resisting alloys or be water cooled. Nondestructive tests are
used to aid in determining when tooling repairs are needed or when the useful life of the tooling
is being approached.

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CHAPTER - 9 MILLWORK
AND FORGINGS

MILLWORK
ROLLING
Rolling is the first process in converting a cast material into a semi finished product. In this
process the first cast material called Ingot is passed between two rollers due to which it becomes
thinner and longer & also properties are modified. These thinner & longer lengths are cut to
smaller pieces called Billets. These are then re-rolled to desired shape like plates, sheets, flat
strips, etc.

Rolling improves the strength & the pores or voids in the material are removed. There are two
types of rolling:

Cold rolling
When the rolling of a metal takes place at a temp. below its re-crystalline temperature.
(usually room temperature) it is called cold rolling. The steel so obtained is tough, ductile
and strong.

Hot rolling
Hot rolling is the common initial operation

Rolling of metal into flat and two dimensionally formed shapes. By passing the material
between flat or shaped rollers that squeeze the material and cause it to few to an elongated form.
Work is usually done hot to reduce the energy requirements and to permit ductility recovery by
recrystallization as deformation occurs.

Blooms, slabs and billets

Following reduction of the ore. In the case of steel, following carbon reduction. most materials
start as cast ingots that are rolled initially into blooms, slabs, billets. Blooms and billets are
approximately square cross sections of large and snail size and slabs are rectangular shapes. All
are destined for further deformation work by rolling, forging, or extrusion.

Thickness reduction by compression.

Mill rolling major portion of stress is compressive.

Blooming mill reversible

Cast ingot is rolled back and forth between rolls.

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Continuous casting eliminates ingots

Continuous casting eliminates the making of ingots and their breakdown in the blooming mill.
The continuous casting is made in a heavy slab or plate form that can be introduced directly into
the hot-roll stands. Another advantage elimination of ingot cropping

Billets smaller than blooms

Blooms are frequently reduced to billet size.

Hammer forging for specials

Demand wrought materials in large shape not adaptable to rolling may be of variable size.
Example; a large steam turbine shaft by a forging operation

Continuous hot rolling

Following the primary reduction usually further rolled in some secondary operation. Material
proceeds directly from one rolling stand to the next, with progressive reduction. Scale breaking
rolls are followed by high pressure water or steam sprays for removal of scale. Most of the flat
hot rolled steel is further processed by cold rolling.

Surface oxidation
Working at high temperature permits maximum deformation. Oxidation temperature for some of
the constituents, burning and scale result.

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COLD WORKING

Properties changed by cold working

Most steel is shipped from the mill in the hot-rolled condition. Material is cold finished by
additional rolling in the cold state or by drawing through dies. Materials that are treated in this
way must have sufficient ductility at the beginning but that ductility is reduced as the hardness,
yield strength and tensile strength are increased as the deformation progresses.

Flat products
Flat products of a steel mill are called strip, sheet, plate or bar. Most are cold finished by rolling
shows typical arrangements of stands for cold rolling strip or sheet.

Since cold rolled strip and sheet is usually produced with high accuracy thickness requirements,
some mills are equipped with on-line ultrasonic or radiation thickness gages.

A variety of bar shapes rolled

Bar material can be in the form of square, rectangular, round, hexagonal and other shapes. Most
bar shapes are not adaptable to close dimensional control in cold rolling and are therefore
finished by drawing through hardened dies in a machine called a draw bench inserted through
the die and gripped in the draw head. Round stock may also be cols finished by rolling between
skewed roller in a process called turning or center less ground for highest accuracy.

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TUBE AND PIPE MAKING

Pipe refers to a hollow product used to conduct fluids. Tubing is generally seamless.

Pipe and tubing

Tubing products involves both hot and cold working. Working being used in the rough forming
stages and cold working in the finishing and sizing operations. Most pipes made by welding
processes are steel. Nearly all-nonferrous tubular products are made by seamless processes.

Pipe by welding
Skelp from a reel passes through a furnace and is drawn through forming rolls where it is
shaped. Welding rolls then apply pressure to establish the butt-welded joint. Rollers squeeze the
pipe to smaller size after which it is cut to length. Both types of butt-welded pipe may require
some cold finishing.

Resistance welded tubing

Light gage steel tubing by resistance welding of stock that has been formed cold by rolls which
progressively shape the material from flat strip to tubular form. After forming, the tube passes
between electrodes through which welding current is supplied and pressure rolls that maintain
pressure in the weld area. Material is heated only locally, the pressure produces flash. Flash is
removed by cutter immediately following the welding operation. Inside flash reduced by a
rolling or forging action against a mandrel.

Some pipe welded with filler metal

For large sizes to an unlimited upper limit manufactured by forming of prate or sheet and
welding by any of the fusion processes. Submerged-arc is often the most economical.

Spiral-welded pipe
Light gage pipe or tubing accomplished by resistance welding of a continuous spiral butt or lap
joint.

Seamless Tubing
Seamless refers to a tubular product that is made without welding. Involves piercing of round
billets. With subsequent deformation operations to control the final diameter, wall thickness and
length. The skew rollers flatten and advance the billet with a helical motion Material is forced
over a bullet-shaped mandrel.

Seamless tubing is also much used as a raw material for many machined parts, such as
antifriction bearing races.

Some tubing made by press operation

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Seamless tubing is produced by a press-type operation similar to shell drawing.

NDT of seamless tubing

The press-type operation can cause tears and other defects. For irregularities in sizing and wall
thickness, eddy current testing encircling coils is used for inspection at rates up to several
hundred feet per minute.

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EXTRUSION

It is the process in which heated metals are pushed through dies. Metals thus acquire the shape of
the die. For example solid bars, tubes, seamless pipes

Tubing may be extruded by direct or indirect methods with mandrels. Indirect reverse extrusion
requires lower loads. Lead-sheathed electrical cable produced extruding the lead around the
cable as it passes through the die.

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SHEARING

Shearing is a cutting operation.

Shearing used for a variety of purposes.

Shearing grouped as follows:

Shearing Slitting Cutoff
Parting Dinking Blanking
Hole-making operations
Punching Slotting
Perforating Semi notching
Notching Lancing
Piercing
Finishing operations
Trimming Shaving

Straight line shearing

The term shearing generally refers to straight-line cutting performed on a squaring shear that has
permanently mounted.

Slitting
For reducing coil stock to narrower widths

Bending
Bending is to cause localized plastic flow about one or more linear axes the material without
causing fracture.

Ductility required for bending

To set up stresses that exceeds the yield point of the material and cause permanent deformation.
Shearing is possible ob materials having very low ductility as well high ductility. Bending is
possible only on materials having sufficient ductility. The severity of bends depends on the
ductility.

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Outside radius distorted

Inside of the radius is subject to high compressive stresses that may cause an increase in width.
The high tensile stresses on the outside of the bend cause thinning of metal. Metal is actually
squeezed at the completion of the bend.

Forming
Include simple bending, multiple bends made along more than one axis.
Roll Forming: Alternative to conventional bending
Metal is shaped by means of a continuous bending action. Some stretching occurs. Roll forming
is used for making tubing

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DRAWING
Drawing involves not only bending but also stretching and compression of the metal over wide
areas. Automobile fenders, aircraft wing and fuselage panels, kitchenware and square or
rectangular box shapes.

Single form used in stretch forming

Stretch forming the sheet to be formed is held under tension with sufficient force to exceed the
yield point and pulled down over, or wrapped around, the single form block. Used most in the
aircraft industry for large wing and body sections.

Spinning
Most spinning is done cold but for heavy materials without sufficient ductility elevated
temperatures are used. Include pressure tank ends, kitchenware.

Tooling wood is the most common form. Nearly all metals may be spun, most of them cold.
Limitations include the operation time involved and the skill required of the operator. Spinning
tool is held and manipulated manually. Some thinning of the metal occurs. Wrinkling and tearing
are present.

Use of the high energy rate forming (HERF)

Explosive forming
High explosives detonated in air or in water at some distance from the work piece. Pressures as
high as 4 million psi creates a shock wave in the fluid medium that transmits the energy to the
work piece. In the second method, a closed die is used and lower pressures of about 40,000 psi
are developed. This system is particularly useful for bulging operations.

Electrical energy methods

Sudden release of electrical energy stored in banks of condensers. One method, a spark is
created between two electrodes while they are submerged in water or air near the work piece.
Second method, a high current discharged through a small diameter wire results in vaporization
of the wire. In either case, a shock wave is created that transfers energy to the work piece.

Newest methods involves the release of stored electrical energy through a coil near the work
piece. Magnetic field induces eddy currents within a conductive work piece which sets up fields
that interact with the coil fields to create high forces. With properly designed coils, tubular
shapes may be expanded into a die or compressed onto a mandrel or various inserts. The system
has been called either electromagnetic forming or inductive-repulsive forming.

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EXTRUSION
Extrusion a high energy process
Most metals are ductile enough for extensive extrusion only at high temperatures. Loads are
high and require large heavy equipment. Die materials must be able to withstand the high loads
and temperatures without excessive wear. This presents a particularly serious problem with steel
musty be heated to about 1250 C to have sufficient ductility for extrusion.

Steel may be extruded hot with glass as a lubricant, but the life is short.

Used extensively for nonferrous materials

Primarily for aluminium, copper, lead, alloys and plastics. May metals may extrude at room
temperature. For lead, tin and zinc, this actually means hot working because the recrystallization
temperatures are at or below room temperature.

Flexible process but limited to uniform cross sections

Principal error is in straightness and most extrusions require straightening.

Limitation: Maintaining uniform cross-sectional thicknesses.

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FORGING
Forging is the process in which material is heated above the re-crystalline temp. (temp. at which
new crystalline structure grows) and forces are applied to obtain desired shape.

Forging is three dimensional

Forging operations exhibit three-dimensional control of the shape.

Forging dies may be open or closed

The purpose of forging is to confine the metal under sufficient pressure to cause plastic flow. In
open die forging, the metal is alternately confined in different directions. With closed impression
dies, the work material is fully confined in a manner similar to casting.

High compressive loads required

Forging methods which the metal is worked throughout at the same time, the flow can be
produced by constant squeezing pressure or by impact. Large amounts of work energy required
and the need to exceed the yield strength throughout the material frequently done hot,
particularly when constant pressure is supplied.

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NDT of forgings
Ultrasonic testing is used for internal discontinuities, while magnetic particle and penetrant
methods are used for detecting surface flaws.

Open die forging

Blacksmithing
When quantity of parts to be manufactured is small cost of tooling must be kept low. Blacksmith
or hammer forging used hammer and anvil with manual power. Accuracy and shape dependent
on the operators skill. Duplication accuracy is limited, large quantities can seldom be
economically produced.

Power assist for heavy work

Hammer forging an extension of blacksmith forging for larger work power is supplied by
pneumatic, hydraulic or mechanical hammers. Operator still responsible for positioning the work
under hammer may lay special tools over the hammer faces for producing some shapes.

Rotary Swaging
Is constructed like a straight roller bearing with the inner race replaced by a powered spindle
carrying shaped dies in slots. As the spindle rotates, the backs of the dies are forced inward as
they pass each rear. Machines of this type are used most frequently for reducing the ends of bar
tube or wire stock. Rotary forging may be done either hot or cold.

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CLOSED DIE FORGING

Closed dies expensive
Matched metal dies, like partners made for each shape to be forged.

Tooling investment is higher for forging than casting because forgings compete best in high
strength applications.
Voids tend to close and be welded shut under the high heat and pressure and inclusions are
elongated to the degree that they have the effect on the strength in some directions.

Sequential steps necessary

In forging, a suitable quantity of metal is placed between the halves of the die forced to conform
to the shape of the die by pressure. In drop and press forging, the dies are not completely closed
until the forging is completed. Then Dies are closed. Metal may be squeezed. For most forgings,
some preshaping operations are used to insure that right quantity of metal is already at the
proper place. Operations are frequently similar to open die or hammer forging and include
upsetting (enlarging the cross section by pressure from the end), drawing (reducing the cross
section of stock throughout), fullering (reducing the cross section of stock between the ends),
edging (distributing the metal to the general contour of the finished stock and blocking (shaping
to rough-finished form without detail).

Necessary to provide some excess metal insure that a carts of the final die cavity are filled.
Parting line through which this excess metal is -'creed into a gutter. Excess metal called flash
removed in a secondary operation.

Steel drop forged - nonferrous materials press forged

Any metal with enough ductility could be either press forged or drop forged. Steel is almost
exclusively drop forged because of the large capacity presses that would be required and because
the die life would be shortened by the longer time of contact. Most nonferrous metal are press
forged. Slow squeezing action permit deeper flow of the metal than in drop forging. Most
common machine forged parts made in very large quantities such as bolts, rivets, nails, small
gear blanks, small automotive fittings

Forging with progressive application of pressure

In any closed die forging operation, constantly applied pressure or by impact that the
compressive strength of the material is exceeded through cut material.

Roll forging progressively reduces cross section

When a cylindrical part is to elongate. The drawn section may be tapered. Heated work piece is
placed between the first groove and the rolls are energized to make one turn, after which the
work piece is moved to the next groove and the operation repeated.

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CHAPTER - 10 POWDER
METALLURGY

Art of producing metal powders and objects shaped from individual mixed or alloyed metal
powders with or without nonmetallic constituents, by pressing or molding objects may be
simultaneously or subsequently heated to produce a coherent mass Production of platinum,
tantalum, osmium, tungsten, and similar refractory metals. Furnaces were not available for
complete melting of these materials. Only procedure for producing to press them into coherent
masses and sinter at temperature below the melting point of tungsten. A second major advantage
production of porous shapes obtained with lighter pressing pressures or lower sintering
temperatures useful as chemical catalysts, filtering elements and bearings. Process involves a
series of steps Powder must first be produced.

Properties influenced by heat-pressure cycle

Some sintering takes place under high pressure at room temperature. However, cold pressing
usually followed by sintering a temperature somewhat below the lowest melting point of any of
the constituents.

Mixing important to product quality

To promote homogeneity. The mixing and blending more important. Small organic materials
may be added to reduce segregation and other to act as lubricants.

PRESSING
Mechanical and atomic bonds established
Every atom is surrounded by a force field that is effective at up to a few atom diameters bringing
adjacent particles close enough that these atomic forces can be effective.

Deformation increases contact area

The face-centered cubic [FCC] metal such as nickel, copper, and lead do not work harden
readily and can be deformed with low pressures. Body centered cubic [BCC] structures of iron,
tungsten, and vanadium, require much higher pressures.

High temperature accelerates bonding

Surface will be rearranged both by plastic flow and mutual attraction. Increasing temperature
aids both of these mechanisms by decreasing resistance to plastic flow and by increasing the
energy of the atom. Particles that have been severely work hardened as a result of the plastic
flow may recrystallize at elevated temperatures, the new crystals may actually cross re original
particle boundary to establish complete atomic bonds.

Multidirectional forces desirable

Opposition motions are used to reduce the effect of sidewall friction. Densities depend on the
particle size and shape, the material the pressure, the time and the temperature.

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Uniform density difficult with complex shapes

SINTERING
Sintering mechanism by which solid particles are bonded by application of pressure or heat, or
both.

Sintering a no melting procedure

Can be accomplished at room temperature with pressure alone, but is most often performed at
elevated temperature; same time or after pressure has been applied. Sintering is a fully solid-
state process. Application of heat and pressure together called hot pressing. Applications of heat
after the particles have been closely packed by cold pressing.

Density improved with hot pressing

Plasticity is greater and they recrystallize more readily, thus permit high densities with lower
pressures. For some materials, a graphite die is used for each part pressed.

Protective atmosphere desirable

SIZING AND POSTSINTERING TREATMENTS

Parts that require close tolerances must always be finished. Cold working may be used for minor
changes of dimensions. Limited by the lack of ductility.

Conventional heat treatments possible

The treatments are usually not as effective because of the porous structure restricting the heat
conductivity. Voids are stress concentration points that only limit service loads but also increase
the stresses arising from thermal gradients during heat treatment. Include annealing for softness,
grain refinement for improved ductility. Quench hardening of carbon steels, prestation hardening
of nonferrous materials or surface hardening of non-ferrous materials or surface hardening by
carbonizing, cyaniding and nitriding.

Machining
Mach inability of sintered materials is usually poor. Some types as the cemented carbides,
grinding is the common finishing process.

Properties Improved by impregnation

Impregnation Inorganic materials, such as oils or waxes may be impregnated into porous metal
for purposes of lubrication.

Impregnating high melting temperature metals with low melting temperature metals. A porous,
iron produced from low cost iron powder impregnated with molten copper has better strength,
ductility and Mach inability. Sintered iron has also been impregnated with lead alloys to improve
antifriction properties for use as bearings.

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APPLICATION FOR POWDERED METAL PRODUCTS

For many refractory (high melting point) materials is the only practical means of shape
production. Tungsten refractory metal has a melting point of 3400 C and no crucible exist for
using conventional casting. Tantalum and molybdenum are similar.

Cemented Carbides an Important Powder Product

Use is for cutting tools and cutting tool tips or inserts cemented carbides are also used for small
dies where wear resistance is important. Tungsten carbide, titanium carbide and tantalum
carbide. Cutting tools are manufactured by using a strong, tough material as a core and
impregnating the surface with titanium carbide or another hard, wear resistant material.

Sintered Bearings
Sintered porous bronze bearings. After cold pressing, bearings are impregnated with oil
available for lubrication. They provide long service with low maintenance. Porous materials are
also useful as filters.

Unusual alloys formed by powder metallurgy

Composite electrical materials combination with silver, nickel, graphite or copper wide
application as electrical contacts and commentator brushes. Many permanent magnets are
produced by powder metallurgy. 80% of the iron-based metals are finishing processed wrought
material.

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CHAPTER - 11

MACHINING

MACHINING FUNDAMENTALS

Close accuracies, good finishes

The high accuracies and surface finishes are possible.
Cutting tool is merely a device for applying external loads to the work material.

Single-point tool moving into the work and subjecting it to compressive loading. The load may
be broken down into two forces: a force perpendicular to the tool face called the normal face.

Chip formation depends on material and force direction

If the material is of brittle nature, it will be able to stand only a small amount of plastic
deformation without fracture failure. If it is have ductile, long continuous strip ribbon, but not
fracturing. Material is deformed in such a way that the chip is always thicker and shorter than
the material from which it is made.

With brittle materials the chips break into segments because of the inability of these materials to
withstand the deformation of chip formation without fraction. Short segments usually produces
best results concerning tool life and surface finish.

When ductile materials are machined the resulting chips tend to hold together producing chips
that are continuous before breaking free.

Most chips from ductile materials tend to form somewhat intermittently with some material
adhering to the chip temporarily, leads to fluctuating forces may cause chatter and leaves
partially removed particles on the work surface affecting the finish and wear qualities.

A part will feel warm or hot depending on the amount of material removed or there may even be
considerable. In many chips, red heat can be observed at the tool tip as it cuts nearly all cases
chips will show discoloration from being exposed to air at room temperature.

Very high localized temperatures gradients can set up thermal stresses sufficient to cause small
surface cracks.

Strength at elevated temperatures-an important characteristic

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Requirements for a satisfactory cutting tool are harder and stronger than the material it is to cut
it be able to maintain these properties at the temperature to which it will be exposed when
cutting. Ability to maintain hardness and strength at elevated temperatures.

Carbon tool steel

Plain high carbon steel consists0.9% to 1.2% carbon. Machinable in its annealed condition. Heat
treated hardened and tempered little used.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

Maintain cutting hardness and strength to about 550 C. many drills, reamers, milling cutters,
cutting speed has relatively small effect

Cemented carbides
A powder metallurgy product of tungsten, titanium, and/or tantalum carbides combined in
various mixtures with cobalt or nickel. Used most as a cutting tool tip or insert. Withstands
temperatures over 1100 C.

Ceramics or Cermets
Another powder metallurgy product been made of almost pure aluminum oxide economical.

Diamonds
The hardest material known to man but brittle subject to failure from thermal shock form for
machining low tensile strength materials aluminum, sintered bronze, graphite, and some plastics.

Coated tool materials

Strong, shock resistant tool coated with hard, wear resistant materials. Example is titanium
carbide impregnated into the surface of high speed steel to take advantage of the values of each.

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ABRASIVES

As wheel, sticks or stones or in free form. In use each abrasive grain as it makes contact with the
work cuts by exactly the same mechanism, as would a single point cutting tool.

Aluminum oxide
A hard and strong grain.

Silicon oxide

It has harder and sharper grains than aluminum oxide more brittle break easier.

It is used for grinding low strength materials.

Diamond
Case crushed, graded and usually supported by a metal or ceramic back up material. It is
used to a great extent for finish grinding some of the harder cutting tools.

Boron cubic nitride

Approaches the hardness of the diamond wheel for tool grinding.

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MACHINE TOOLS
Five basic types of machine tools:
Turning and boring
External cylindrical machining is called turning, internal cylindrical machining is called boring.

Drilling
Fluted tool with two or more cutting lips advanced axially into the work piece. The principal
work is the making of or enlarging of cylindrical holes.

Milling
Which like the drill press employ special multi edge cutters. Milling machines permits
multidirectional feeding the cutters perform their principal cutting on their periphery edges.
Feed and Cutting motions.

Straight line machines

Provide straight line cutting motion. This includes the shaper straight-line motion of the cutter,
the planer straight-line motion of the work piece, and the broach straight-line motion of a special
multitooth cutter.

Grinding drive rotating abrasive wheels at high cutting speed.

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MACH INABILITY

Chip-forming operation that uses a hard and strong tool to cause localized failure in a work
piece.

Mach inability - an inherent material quality

Relative ease with which any material may be machined. Finish, power consumption and tool
life-may be considered in Machinability.

Finish
Brass normally finishes better than steel under any given set of conditions.

Waviness - Board uniform variations

The gross conformance of a surface to its intended or theoretical shape is controlled by the
accuracy of the machine tool motions, by vibrations or deflections of the machine tool or
workpiece and by deformations. Waviness conformance that is relatively widely spaced or large
in size.

Roughness -Fine uniform variations

Relatively finely spaced surface irregularities, the height, width and direction. Roughness may
be due to higher frequency vibrations.

Lay-direction of tool mark pattern

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NUMERICAL CONTROL
Numerical control (N/C) systems which can function by repeating a certain cycle of operation.

Practically all N/C equipment is of special design with an integrated control system cost is high.

Major benefits include reduction of the human element requiring less inspection, short set up
time, when program has already been prepared for previous runs.

Principles of operation
Consists of strong information in the form of numbers and supplying that information in proper
order to the machine to cause predetermined cycle of operation.

Program storage
Storage media such as magnetic tape, punched cards been used. The presence or absence of
holes at various locations along the eight channels are bits of information that make up
characters and words which can be interpreted by the machine reader to initiate action.

Machines of closed loop design

Most machines of closed loop design which generate feedback signals for control system.

Most of the machine tools fitted with N/C fall in the general categories of lathes, drilling
machines and milling machines.

N/C advantages
Reduced tooling costs by use of simplified jigs and fixtures.
Low setup time.
Excellent repeatability
Relatively good accuracy.
Fewer errors
Reduced lead time.
Accuracy and time saving

N/C disadvantages
Original machine more costly. Machines more complex require more maintenance. Personnel
require special training and skills. Require more floor space than conventional types.

Computers
Many programs prepared for N/C can best be done by use of a computer to perform lengthy
computations. In addition to computer assisted programming, some equipment is designed to be
directly operated by a computer and eliminates the need for a tape and tape reader. The N/C
equipment may be connected directly to its own small computer.

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