LECTO COMPRENSION

DE TEXTOS acadmicos
INGLS ESPAOL

Carrera de especializacin en
Docencia universitaria

Facultad de medicina unt

Catedra de idiomas

PROF. Norma guzman de koss

Prof. Patricia cuenya

INTRODUCCIN

Uno de los objetivos principales del presente material es el de proponer un modelo metodolgico para
asistir al lector con propsitos especficos a lograr una lectura comprensiva en base a la complementacin
de conocimientos pre-existentes, identificacin de formas lingsticas, e interpretacin de las mismas para
llegar a una reconstruccin personal del texto.
Se requiere adquirir habilidades y destrezas que le permitan al estudiante o profesional realizar una
lectura comprensiva de bibliografa especfica de determinada especialidad; reconocer la relevancia de la
informacin presentada mediante la aproximacin global al texto y el enfoque topogrfico, es decir un
anlisis de la organizacin discursiva del texto cientfico escrito e integrar la informacin nueva a la
existente mediante una lectura crtica.
Para poder lograr una lectura lo ms cabal posible, el lector necesita estar familiarizado con los
elementos discursivos propios de un texto cientfico escrito, reconocer palabras familiares y similares en
ambas lenguas, prestar atencin a la repeticin de palabras, utilizar la informacin no verbal que sirve de
apoyo, conocer los elementos de coherencia y cohesin, la organizacin del texto en prrafos y la relacin
que existe entre estos, entre otros elementos que resultan fundamentales en el momento de acercarse a un
texto para poder obtener la informacin que se est buscando. Un factor importante a tener en cuenta al
pretender que la lectura sea no slo comprensiva sino tambin veloz es desalentar, en lo posible, la
dependencia del lector con el diccionario considerado por muchos como el nico elemento capaz de
solucionar todos los problemas de lectura, un concepto que bien sabemos est muy lejos de la verdad. Para
ello existen tcnicas a ser internalizadas que convierten el rol antiguamente pasivo del lector en un ser
activo, centro mismo de la lectura y por lo tanto un individuo capaz de discernir lo puntual de lo
secundario.
Este manual proporcionar informacin terica a travs de ejemplos concretos ilustrativos, y una
seccin dedicada a textos de prctica con ejercitacin diversa.
En conclusin, teniendo en cuenta la premisa de que las habilidades de lectura no son especficas del
lenguaje sino universales, la idea principal por detrs de este enfoque es que en todo uso de una lengua
existen procesos comunes de razonamiento e interpretacin, que independientemente de las formas
superficiales, nos permiten extraer significado del discurso. Consecuentemente, no es necesario
concentrarnos ntimamente en las formas superficiales de la lengua, sino centrarnos en las estrategias
interpretativas que nos permitan manejar dichas formas superficiales, es decir, por ejemplo inferir el
significado de tems lexicales a partir del contexto, usar la diagramacin visual textual para determinar el
tipo de texto, etc. y de este modo lograr una interpretacin lo ms lograda posible y no una mera traduccin
que muchas veces carece de sentido.

IMGENES DE POWER POINT

1)
LECTO COMPRENSIN DE TEXTOS ACADMICOS

Aprendizaje del cdigo lingistico:

aspectos sintcticos
aspectos morfolgicos
aspectos lexicales
Desarrollo de estrategias de lectura eficaces:
skimming (tcnica del vistazo)
scanning
anticipacin y prediccin
inferencia
identificacin de patrones de organizacin del texto
uso de las caractersticas topogrficas del texto
Conocimientos previos acerca de la especialidad:
reconocimiento de terminologa especfica

2)
El lector pone en movimiento una serie de estrategias cognitivas y
metacognitivas para comprender el texto escrito.
La aplicacin de estrategias activas:
a) procesos cognitivos
b) mecanismos lingisticos innatos
c) operaciones generales del pensamiento
d) transferencia al idioma materno
El trabajo metacognitivo es significativo en tanto ayuda a seleccionar la
estrategia adecuada segn el texto abordado y facilita el monitoreo del
propio proceso de comprensin.

3)
Leer es : a) Comprender el lenguaje escrito
b) Proceso complejo de interaccin
entre el lector ( conocimientos lingsticos y
del tema) y el texto (informacin)

Estrategias de comprensin lectora:

1) Lectura rpida global: idea principal
2) Lectura profunda: ideas principales y
secundarias, interrelacin entre prrafos
(coherencia y cohesin)

4)
El lector pone en movimiento una serie de estrategias cognitivas y
metacognitivas para comprender el texto escrito.
La aplicacin de estrategias activas:
a) procesos cognitivos
 b) mecanismos lingisticos innatos
c) operaciones generales del pensamiento
d) transferencia al idioma materno
El trabajo metacognitivo es significativo en tanto ayuda a seleccionar la
estrategia adecuada segn el texto abordado y facilita el monitoreo del
propio proceso de comprensin.

5)
ESTRATEGIAS MAS FRECUENTES

Leer oraciones en forma completa.

Evitar una lectura lineal
Evitar el uso constante del diccionario
Poner atencin a la repeticin de palabras, palabras
transparentes, signos de puntuacin e indicaciones tipogrficas
Inferir el significado de las palabras desconocidas mediante la
contextualizacin de las mismas

6)
PALABRAS DE CORTE

PREPOSICIONES: of / in / on / at / for / under / with / without / during / by /

from / to / after / before entre otras

AND / BUT / THAT / WHO / WHICH / WHOSE / WHEN / WHILE / BECAUSE/ AS

entre otras

FORMA VERBAL: is / are / can / have / has/ may / will y verbos en general.

Good communication skills with patients are critical in the delivery of

effective patient care.

A portfolio is defined as an assessment system that contains evidence of

progression in the competencies.

The use of multiple formats provides greater variety in the areas of content
that are evaluated.

7)
PALABRAS TRANSPARENTES / FALSAMENTE
TRANSPARENTES Y DE CORTE
 The selection / of educational strategies / is based / on three cardinal
principles.
The medical teachers' competency / in the area / of instructional methodology
/ includes effective communication / of the course objectives / to the students,
knowledge and skills / about diverse instructional methods, and / the ability to
choose correct methods / of instruction.

The response / of medical education / to the demands / in instructional

methodology / has resulted / in several beneficial changes.

8)
INTERPRETACIN DE LAS FORMAS ING
Como sustantivo:
Clinical teaching is unique to medical education. It involves a number of variables
that are peculiar to it, such as clinical reasoning, and patient teaching.
Como adjetivo:
Continuing medical education depends upon learner motivation and self-directed
learning skills.
Como forma verbal: que + verbo conjugado
A questionnaire covering the different areas of clinical competency was used for
data collection.
Al comienzo de oracin
Understanding the learning process helps clinical teachers to be more effective.

9)
VOZ PASIVA
During teaching and learning activities, students are continually assessed on
their performance.

Evaluation of educational program is needed to assure the best training for

medical students and ultimately best care for patients.

Fifteen competencies were mentioned in the literature.

OSCE has been validated as an efficient teaching tool.

The use of simulation for emergency medicine resident assessment has

been described.

MATERIAL TERICO PRCTICO SOBRE LECTO COMPRENSIN DE

TEXTO ACADMICO EN INGLES
 CARRERA DE ESPECIALIZACIN EN DOCENCIA UNIVERSITARIA

CATEDRA DE IDIOMAS FACULTAD DE MEDICINA UNT

LA FRASE NOMINAL

La frase nominal tiene como ncleo al Sustantivo que cuenta en la mayora de los casos con Pre y Post
Modificadores que pueden ser: Determinador. Adjetivo o Adverbio.
El ncleo de la Frase Nominal puede identificarse por su posicin ya que es la palabra que por lo general
precede al verbo; a signos de puntuacin o a palabras como : of, in, on, for, that y muchas otras.

Ejemplos de cmo detectar el ncleo de una Frase Nominal:

1- Learning is more passive than active.

2- Asynchronous education can provide
3- Research about professional development

Observaremos ahora algunos de los diversos casos de ncleo con pre y post modificacin:

A) Determinador + Sustantivo

1- A teacher 6- Any experience

2- The distinction 7- Other complications
3- The examiners 8- Each series
4- These concepts 9- Their competencies
5- Our findings 10- Several methods

B) Determinador + Adjetivo + Sustantivo

1- The traditional methods 6- A medical school

2- Some clinical performances 7- These random measurements
3- A critical point 8- The usual challenge
4- Many different activities 9- The relative benefits
5- The recent study 10- This rare condition

C) ( Determinador ) + Adjetivo + Adjetivo + Sustantivo

1- The important educational components

2- Specific educational purpose
3- A good clinical teacher
4- Experienced resident physicians
5- A valuable learning tool

D) Determinador + Sustantivo 1 (and) + Sustantivo 2

1- The evaluation and treatment of

2- The student exams
3- The key forces
4- A competency framework

E) ( Determinador ) + Sustantivo 1 + Sustantivo 2 + Sustantivo 3

1- Health care education

 2- Teacher education courses
3- Health system planning

F) ( Determinador ) + ( Adjetivo ) + Adjetivo + Sustantivo 1 + Sustantivo 2

1- Continuing medical education

2- A secondary school teacher
3- Patient care clinical skills
4- Interactive computer simulation

G) (Determinador) + Adverbio + ( Adjetivo ) + ( Adjetivo ) + Sustantivo

1- A highly negative predictive value

2- Basic clinical skills
3- A morphologically diverse group

Es posible encontrar tambin frases nominales con una estructura guionada, presentamos aqu algunos
ejemplos:

1- history-taking skills: Las habilidades para la anamnesis

2- learner-centered approaches: Los enfoques centrados en el estudiante
3- competency-based medical education: La educacin mdica basada en competencias
4- self-learning evaluation: la evaluacin del auto-aprendizaje
5- ever-changing clinical enviroment: El entorno mdico en permanente cambio

En los textos se encuentran muchas ms formas posibles de combinar los elementos de la frase nominal,
aqu slo se han seleccionado los patrones ms frecuentes.

FRASE NOMINAL CON INFLEXION APOSTROFADA ( sustantivo + sustantivo )

1- The physicians tasks: las tareas del mdico

2- The students needs: las necesidades de los estudiantes
3- Physicians services: los servicios de los mdicos
4- Individuals age and sex: la edad y sexo del individuo

PARTICIPIOS Y FALSOS PARTICIPIOS COMO MODIFICADORES EN LA FRASE NOMINAL

1- The used measurement : La medicin usada

2- The associated factors: Los factores asociados
3- A standarized patient: un paciente estandarizado
4- The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: El syndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida.
5- A well- known disease: Una enfermedad bien conocida.

MORFOLOGIA: PREFIJOS Y SUFIJOS

Resulta muy valioso conocer el modo en que se forman las palabras ya que nos sirve como una estrategia
de lectura que agiliza la identificacin de un item lexical con su correspondiente funcin y significado. El
Prefijo se ubica antes de la palabra base y usualmente modifica el significado de dicha palabra. El Sufijo
es la partcula que se agrega al final de la palabra base y usualmente modifica su funcin gramatical.
Destacaremos en el siguiente listado los prefijos ms comunes que encontramos en los textos de Medicina.
PREFIJO EJEMPLO
Un- unidentified: no identificado
In- inapropriate: inapropiado
Im- imposible: imposible
Mis- mistaken: errneo equivocado
Non- non-Western country: pas no occidental
Over- overproduction: sobreproduccin
Sub- sublingual : sublingual - debajo de la lengua
Contra- contraindication: contraindicacin
Hypo- hypokalemia: falta de calcio - hipopotasemia
Hyper- hiperventilation: sobreventilacin

En el caso de los sufijos, poder reconocer la funcin gramatical de las palabras a travs de la identificacin
de los sufijos que las forman facilita la derivacin de sus significados.

SUFIJOS FORMADORES DE.

SUSTANTIVOS ADJETIVOS VERBOS ADVERBIOS
-ance / -ence -able / -ible -ate -ly
-ary -al / -cal / -ar -en
-ation /-tion/-ion -ed -ize
-cian / -ian -ful -fy / -ify
-dom -less
-ism -is / -ical
-ist / -yst - ive
-ity -ous / -ious
-ment -y
-ness
-or / -er
-hood
-ship
LA INFLEXION ING EN LA FRASE NOMINAL
La inflexin ING causa algunas dificultades al lector ya que cumple tres funciones principales: a) como
sustantivo b) adjetivo y c) como verbo.
1) COMO SUSTANTIVO AL COMIENZO DE ORACION = a un sustantivo o infinitivo
Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the teaching courses is now recognized= El
monitoreo y la evaluacin de la efectividad de los cursos de enseanza se reconoce actualmente
Developing instructional objectives involves learning the fundamentals = Desarrollar los
objetivos instructivos implica el aprendizaje de los fundamentos
2) COMO ADJETIVO
Although significant improvements in teaching methodology have been made = Aunque se han realizado
significativas mejoras en las metodologas de enseanza .
The quality of the teaching and learning process needs to be assessed. = La calidad del proceso de
enseanza y aprendizaje necesita ser evaluado.

3) COMO FORMA VERBAL CONJUGADA = QUE + VERBO CONJUGADO

Standarized patient encounters using patient actors can create = Las entrevistas con los pacientes
estandarizados que usan actores como pacientes pueden crear ..
 Otros casos a tener en cuenta en relacin a la inflexin ING por su gran frecuencia en los textos
cientficos son los siguientes:

A) PREPOSICIN + -ING = PREPOSICION + INFINITIVO

Their use has been effective in decreasing the incidence... = Su uso ha sido efectivo para disminuir la
incidencia...

With the aim of reaching the objectives... = Con el objetivo de alcanzar los objetivos
B) BY + -ING = ANDO IENDO (sin traducir by)
It can make learning more effective by removing barriers of time and distance. = Puede hacer que el
aprendizaje sea ms efectivo quitando las barreras del tiempo y la distancia.

LA FRASE VERBAL
VERBO TO BE:

El verbo To Be es el ms comnmente encontrado en los textos de carcter cientfico.

Se traduce como ser - estar.

1) En tiempo presente se traduce como : es - son - est(n)

A major aim is the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles = Una meta importante es la adquisicin
de hechos, conceptos y principios
2) En tiempo pasado se traduce como : era(n) - estaba(n) - fue - fueron
The debate was necessary. = El debate fu necesario.

3) La forma participio pasado es been y se traduce como : sido - estado

All the questions have been answered correctly. = Todas las preguntas han sido/fueron contestadas
correctamente.

4) La forma ING es being y se traduce como : siendo

5) La forma infinitiva es be y se traduce como : ser estar

FORMAS IMPERSONALES DE TO BE

THERE IS - THERE ARE se traduce como hay existe/n

There is a great variety of methods. = Hay / Existe una gran variedad de mtodos.
There are many possible solutions to the problem. = Hay / Existen muchas soluciones posibles para al
problema.
THERE WAS - THERE WERE se traduce como: haba hubo
THERE HAVE / HAS BEEN se traduce como: ha(n) habido
There has been a growing interest in the development of new strategies.= Ha habido un creciente inters
en el desarrollo de nuevas estrategias..
THERE WILL BE se traduce como: habr(n)

THERE MAY /MIGHT BE se traduce como: puede/podra haber

VERBO: TO HAVE : TENER

Forma Presente : have - has se traduce como: tiene(n) - posee(n) y tambien puede
interpretarse como presenta(n).
The students have several opportunities.= Los estudiantes tienen varias oportunidades.
This article has a conceptual framework: = Este artculo tiene /presenta un marco conceptual.
Forma Pasada: had se traduce como: tena(n) - tuvo - tuvieron

VERBO AUXILIAR: HAVE / HAS: HABER

Competency based education has placed greater emphasis on: La educacin basada en competencias ha
puesto gran nfasis en
Problem-based learning (PBL) and its variants have emerged as a convenient and efficient way of :
El aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP) y sus variantes han surgido como una manera conveniente y
eficiente de

VERBOS MODALES O DEFECTIVOS

Estos verbos acompaan al verbo principal y se encuentran con mucha frecuencia en la literatura cientfica.
CAN: se traduce como el verbo poder en su forma presente: puede(n)
Most teaching methods, including lectures, small group discussion and excercises can be translated into an
electronic format. = La mayora de los mtodos de enseanza incluyendo la clase magistral, los grupos de
discusin pequeos y los ejercicios pueden ser traducidos en formato electrnico.
COULD: se traduce como poder, en su forma pasada: poda(n) y con el sentido de probabilidad
podria(n)
The quality of the teaching and learning processes could be assessed through student feedback, peer
evaluation and assessment of the product of the educational programme. = La calidad de los procesos de
enseanza y aprendizaje podran ser evaluados mediante la respuesta de los alumnos, la evaluacin de los
pares y la evaluacin del producto del programa educativo.

MAY: se traduce igual que el verbo can y tambin con la connotacin de probabili-
dad, es decir, como podra(n).
Some important skills may be less dependent on content. = Algunas habilidades importantes podran ser
menos dependientes del contenido.

MIGHT: se traduce como podra(n)

Faculty development activities might be organized as a series of special workshops = Las actividades de
desarrollo del equipo docente podra organizarse como una serie de talleres especiales.
MUST: se traduce como el verbo deber
Generally, all computer-based methods must follow the same educational principles as traditionally-based
educational methods in order to maximize effectiveness. = En general, todos los mtodos basados en la
computadora deben seguir los mismos principios educativos que los mtodos educativos tradicionales para
maximizar la efectividad.
SHOULD: se traduce como debera(n)
Ideally, the assessment should provide insight into the actual performance= En forma ideal, la
evaluacin debera proporcionar conocimiento acerca del desempeo real

TIEMPO PRESENTE SIMPLE

 Es el tiempo verbal ms encontrado en los textos cientficos y se traduce al espaol como el tiempo
presente del modo indicativo.
La forma afirmativa se puede reconocer mediante las terminaciones -s, -es, -ies para la tercera persona
del singular. En su gran mayora, los verbos no presentan mucha dificultad en su reconocimiento por su
similitud morfolgica con verbos del espaol.
Formative assessment provides feedback to students = La evaluacin formativa brinda informacin a los
estudiantes.
This study verifies our previous observations. = Este studio verifica nuestras observaciones previas.
At higher level, students apply the rules differentially to specific situations. = En un nivel avanzado. Los
estudiantes aplican las reglas en forma diferente a situaciones especficas.
La forma negativa se reconoce por los auxiliares do / does + not + verbo
The on-line facilitators do not respond as quickly to students needs. = Los facilitadores en linea no
responden tan rpidamente a las necesidades de los estudiantes.
A summative assesment does not provide sufficient feedback. = Una evaluacin sumativa no brinda
suficiente informacin (respuesta).

TIEMPO PASADO SIMPLE

Los verbos en ingls se clasifican en:
A) Regulares: Se identifican porque su terminacin est dada por los sufijos d, -ed, -ied en la forma base
del verbo
Hundert defined competence in medicine as = Hundert defini la competencia en medicina
como

B) Irregulares: No son de fcil reconocimiento ya que sufren cambios morfolgicos, algunos de ellos
mantienen un cierto parecido con la forma base del verbo y en ciertos casos no presentan ninguna
diferencia con dicha forma (se adjunta lista de verbos irregulares). Algunos ejemplos son los siguientes:
give gave ( dar, proporcionar) put put ( poner, colocar)
have had ( tiene, presenta) find found ( encontrar, hallar)
send sent (enviar) come came (venir, concurrir)

This approach gave students the opportunity to experience the emotions of a real patient.=
Este enfoque dio /brind a los estudiantes la oportunidad de experimentar

TIEMPOS PERFECTOS
Las formas perfectas de los tiempos verbales tienen al verbo have, has y had con el significado de
haber seguido por el pasado participio del verbo que porta el significado.
Some authors have mentioned the importance of using a variety of creative, non-traditional teaching
techniques. = Algunos autores han mencionado la importancia de usar una variedad de tcnicas de
enseanza creativas y non tradicionales.
This teaching method has been quite prominent in education. =Este mtodo de enseanza ha sido
bastante importante en educacin.

TIEMPO FUTURO
La idea de futuro se expresa mediante el uso del verbo auxiliar will seguido del verbo que porta el
significado.
The choice of assessment method will depend on the purpose of its use. = La eleccin del mtodo de
evaluacin depender del propsito de su uso
 LA VOZ PASIVA

La voz pasiva es una de las estructuras que aparece con mayor frecuencia en los textos cientfico tcnicos y
puede ser interpretada de varias maneras, siguiendo el mismo orden que tiene la estructura en Ingls o
empleando en la mayora de los casos la forma de pasiva con se. Muchas veces la voz pasiva se
encuentra al final de la oracin, en cuyo caso resulta ms conveniente para una mejor comprensin
colocarla al comienzo de la misma.
La voz pasiva se forma con el verbo to be seguida por el participio pasado de los verbos regulares
(terminados en ed) o irregulares.

A) PASIVA PRESENTE : am / is / are + participio

Since teaching is considered a very important aspect of a physicians work, such educational programs are
often viewed as a form of continuing medical education.= Ya que la enseanza se considera un aspecto
muy importante del trabajo del mdico, esos programas educativos se ven por lo general como una forma
de educacin mdica continua.
B) PASIVA PASADO: was / were + participio
The study was conducted at a single medical school = El estudio fue llevado a cabo en una sola escula de
Medicina
Various assessment methods were used in both undergraduate and postgraduate medical education =
Diversos mtodos de evaluacin se usaron en educacin mdica de grado y posgrado.

C) PASIVA DE PRESENTE PERFECTO : have / has + been + participios

The Objective Structure Clinical examination (OSCE) has been widely adopted as a tool to assess
students, or doctors competences. = El Examen Clinico Estructurado Objetivo (OSCE) ha sido
ampliamente adoptado como una herramienta para evaluar las competencias de los estudiantes o
mdicos....
During the last three decades, medical schools have been faced with a variety of challenges from society,
patients, doctors and students. = Durante las ltimas tres dcadas, las escuelas de medicina se han
enfrentado a una serie de desafos de la sociedad, los pacientes, los mdicos y los estudiantes.

D) PASIVA DE FUTURO
These causes will not be considered because they are rare = Estas causas no sern consideradas porque
son raras.
E) PASIVA DE VERBOS MODALES: can
may + be + participio
must
should

Individual learners intrinsic motivation can be affected by previous experiences. = La motivacin

intrnseca de los estudiantes puede estar afectada por las experiencias previas.
There is an assumption that learning from one context (eg. basic science) may be applied to other
contexts. = Existe una suposicin de que el aprendizaje puede de un context ( por ejemplo: la ciencia
bsica) puede aplicarse a otros contextos.
Aspects of competence which must be tested include the ability to respond to new information and a
variety of interpersonal skills. = Los aspectos de la competencia que deben ser evaluados incluyen la
capacidad para responder a la nueva informacin y una variedad de habilidades interpersonales.
The teachers role in motivation should not be underestimated. = El rol del docente en la motivacin no
debera ser subestimado.

E) FORMAS PASIVAS IMPERSONALES

 It is not known what role = Se desconoce que rol.

It has been suggested that = Se ha sugerido que...

Appropiate practice should be urged... = Se debera recomendar prctica apropiada...
It must be noted that = Debe notarse que
Es importante destacar que cuando la frase verbal en voz pasiva se encuentra al final de la oracin, para
una mejor interpretacin es conveniente ubicarla al comienzo de la misma.
Different approaches to curriculum planning can be adopted. : Se pueden adoptar diferentes enfoques en
relacin el planeamiento del plan de estudio.
Standards for assessment should be developed. : Se deberan desarrollar estndares para la evaluacin.

ADJETIVOS Y ADVERBIOS
Entre las formas de establecer comparaciones en ingls encontramos:
A) Comparativos que expresan igualdad: as....as
Applying knowledge to real-world situations is as important as learning from experience =
La aplicacin del conocimiento a las situaciones de la vida real es tan importante como el
aprendizaje a partir de la experiencia.
B) Comparativos que indican inferioridad: not so...as - less....than
This method is now less frequent than in the past = Este mtodo es ahora menos frecuente
que en el pasado.
C) Comparativos que indican superioridad: Pueden distinguirse dos formas: el comparativo
propiamente dicho, cuando se comparan dos ncleos, y el superlativo, cuando se comparan ms de
dos. Se identifica un adjetivo o adverbio en forma comparativa porque poseen la terminacin
-er -ier o por presentar la partcula more delante y en ambos casos puede estar seguidos por than
The past decade has seen greater emphasis placed on a more performance-based assessment
approach = El siglo pasado ha visto un mayor nfasis sobre un enfoque de evaluacin basado ms en
el desempeo.

The qualification was higher than expected. = La calificacin fue ms elevada de la esperada
Active participation of the learners is often more important than passive observation =
La participacin active de los alumnos es generalmente ms importante que la observacin pasiva

Un adjetivo o adverbio en forma superlativa se identifica por que est por lo general precedido por
el artculo determinado the y la terminacin est -iest o precedido por the most.
The highest number of= El nmero ms elevado de

Existen casos de adjetivos y adverbios irregulares que son presentados en la siguiente tabla:
Adjetivo o Comparativo Superlativo
Adverbio
good = bueno better = mejor the best = el/la mejor
well = bien better = mejor the best = el/la mejor
bad = mal, malo worse = peor the worst = el/la peor
little = poco less = menos the least = menos , el mnimo
few = pocos fewer = menos the fewest = menos, los mnimos
much = mucho more = ms the most = ms, la mayora
many = muchos more = ms most = ms, la mayora.
 They have achieved the best results with the least effort and in the shortest time. =
Lograron los mejores resultados con el mnimo esfuerzo y el ms corto tiempo.

Lecturing is the most widely used teaching method in higher education.=

La clase magistral es el mtodo de enseanza ms ampliamente usado en la educacin
superior.

Un caso particular que aparece con cierta frecuencia en los textos cientficos es una estructura paralela
con dos formas comparativas pero precedidas por el artculo determinado the, que se traduce como :
cuanto ms...tanto ms / mayor...

The more elaborate the resulting knowledge, the more easily it will be retrieved particularly
when learning takes place in the context in which the knowledge will be used. =
Cuanto ms elaborado sea el conocimiento resultante, ms fcilmente ser recuperado,
particularmente cuando el aprendizaje ocurre

LA NEGACIN
Es muy importante tener en cuenta para una correcta interpretacin de un texto cientfico tcnico el uso de
la negacin, la que puede estar expresada de varias maneras.
A continuacin encontraremos ejemplos que ilustran diversos casos que se encuentran con mucha
frecuencia.
1) La partcula negativa: not
Competence is not the same as "knowing" = La competencia no es lo mismo que el conocimiento

2) La partcula: no generalmente delante de un sustantivo : se niega el verbo

No training in specific teaching skills was provided to earlier generations of doctors =
No se brind formacin en habilidades de enseanza especficas a las anteriores generaciones

3) La estructura: not only...,but also = nos solo/solamente... sino tambin

Effective teachers therefore need to stay up to date, not only with their subject discipline
knowledge but also with appropriate, contemporary educational theory.
Not only does the learner improve clinical skills, but preceptors also report that they, too, benefit
from reviewing the basics and seeking new knowledge.

4) La expresin : neither...nor= ni....ni y la `partcula nor = tampoco

5) La expresin: fail to seguida por un verbo = no + verbo

lack = falta de, carencia de
none = ningn, ninguno/a
Es importante tener en cuenta los casos de doble negacin ya que en tal caso la interpretacin del concepto
es positiva. Algunos ejemplos de esta situacin son los siguientes:
This situation is not uncommon. = Esta situacin es comn.
It is not illogical to assume a cause-effect relationship. = Es lgico suponer una relacin causa
efecto.
 CLUSULA RELATIVA
Entre los pronombres relativos que aparecen con mayor frecuencia precediendo una clusula
subordinada encontramos: who which that whose where when why whom - how y casos
en los cuales una preposicin antecede al pronombre, tal es el caso de in which in whom
En el caso de los pronombres: who which whom que puede traducirse literalmente como: quien,
el / la / lo cual y sus respectivos plurales, normalmente se traducen como:que ya que es sta la
expresin ms corriente en espaol.
Those are the students who have passed the tests = Esos son los estudiantes que han aprobado
las pruebas.
There are many limitations to its use which may give misleading results. = Existen muchas
limitaciones a su uso lo que podra dar lugar a resultados errneos.
The consequences are that most resources are concentrated on the oldest subjects, whose
potential lifespan is relatively limited. = Las consecuencias son que la mayora de los recursos
estn concentrados en los sujetos ms aosos, cuyo perodo de vida potencial es relativamente
limitado.

ORACIONES CONDICIONALES
Las oraciones que expresan condicionalidad son bastante frecuentes en los textos cientficos. Se reconocen
porque en su gran mayora tienen la palabra: if que puede interpretarse como si o cuando.
Algunos oraciones que sirven como ejemplo de oaciones condicionales se encuentran a continuacin:
Substantive reform will be possible only if there is a strong willingness to support the educational
mission
If society wants trainees to become competent professionals who add to patient safety in the long
run, they must be given opportunities to develop

Otras palabras que se encuentran en oraciones condicionales y las caracterizan como tal son: unless que
se interpreta como a menos que salvo que excepto que , provided (that) como siempre
que, so long as como siempre y cuando y otras que aparecen con menor frecuencia.
Unless the diabetic patient compensates for this fluid loss by increasing his fluid intake (polydipsia), severe
dehydration can result. = Puede producirse una severa dehidratacin a menos que / salvo que / excepto
que el paciente diabtico compense la prdida de fludo incrementando su ingesta de lquido (polidipsia)

CLUSULAS ADVERBIALES
Las clusulas adverbiales son introducidas por diversas conjunciones que expresan diferentes significados.
Estas conjunciones, tambin llamadas conectores lgicos , marcan una determinada relacin entre los
conceptos o la informacin que incluye el texto. Se incluir aqu un listado de los conectores ms
frecuentes y que consideramos se deben tener en cuenta para una mejor comprensin ya que permiten una
mayor cohesin y coherencia dentro del discurso escrito.
A) DE ADICIN
and: y moreover: adems
as well as : tambin furthermore: adems
also: tambin too: tambin
in addition. adems
in addition to: adems de
besides: adems
B) DE CONTRASTE :
although: aunque, si bien
though: aunque, si bien
but: pero
however: sin embargo, pero
in contrast: en contraposicin
in spite of: a pesar de
despite: a pesar
nevertheless: no obstante
on the contrary: por el contrario
on the one (other) hand: por un(a) lado / parte, por otro lado
while: mientras que
whereas: mientras que
yet: sin embargo
else. en caso contrario
C) DE RAZN O RESULTADO
as a consequence: como consecuencia
as a result (of) : como resultado (de)
because: porque
because of: debido a
consequently: consecuentemente
due to: debido a
since. puesto que, ya que
owing to: debido a
so: por lo tanto, as
therefore: por lo tanto
thus: as, de esta manera
for: ya que
hence: por lo tanto, por eso
for this reason: por esta razn
D) DE EJEMPLIFICACIN O EXPLICACIN
for example: por ejemplo
for instance: por ejemplo
in other words: en otras palabras, de otro modo
such as: como, por ejemplo
in fact: en realidad
that is: es decir
E) DE PROPSITO
so that: de modo que
in order to: para
so as to: a fin de, para
for this purpose: para este propsito, a este efecto
in order that: a fin de que
in case: en caso que
F) DE COMPARACIN
as: como
as if: como si
as though: como si
in a similar way: de manera similar
in like manner: de la misma manera
in this way: de esta manera
like: como
likewise: de la misma manera
similarly: similarmente, de forma similar
unlike: a diferencia de
 G) DE RESMEN O CONCLUSIN
in all: en total
in brief: en sntesis
in short: en sntesis
on the whole. en general
to concluye: para conclur
to sumarize: para resumir
to sum up: para resumir, en conclusin

H) DE ENUMERACIN, SECUENCIA Y TEMPORALIDAD

as: a medida que, mientras que, cuando, porque
as soon as: cuando, tan pronto como
first(ly): primero
at first: al principio
eventually: finalmente
finally: finalmente
lastly: finalmente
next: luego, a continuacin
then: luego
after: despus
before: antes
when: cuando
while: mientras
until: hasta (que)
meanwhile: mientras tanto

PALABRAS Y EXPRESIONES DE ALTA FRECUENCIA

A continuacin se presenta un listado con palabras y expresiones que suelen aparecer con mucha
frecuencia en los textos cientficos.
A
above: sobre, arriba de, anterior, precedente, superior
across: a travs de , en frente
again. nuevamente, otra vez
among: entre, en medio
as: cuando, como, a medida que
at once. de inmediato
about. aproximadamente, acerca de, casi.alrededor de
although: aunque, si bien
always: siempre
as fas as: hasta donde
as long as: siempre y cuando
as a matter of fact: en realidad
all: todo, completamente
as soon as: tan pronto com, ni bien, cuando
accordingly. por lo tanto, en consecuencia
as a whole: en su totalidad
at random: al azar
at least: por lo menos
at large: en general
available: disponible
account for : representa, explica, da cuenta de

B
back. posterior, espalda. dorso
behind: detrs, por atrs
beneath: abajo, debajo
between. entre, en medio de
both: ambos, los dos
 by virtue of: a causa de
before: delante de, adelante, antes (de)
below: debajo (de), abajo inferior
beyond: ms all, despus de
but: pero, sino, salvo, excepto
beside: al lado de, junto a
by: por, mediante,

C
concerning: respecto a, en lo que respecta a
closely: intimamente, muy
consequently: por lo tanto, en consecuencia, por consiguiente

D
develop: desarrollar, presentar
down: abajo, hacia abajo
during. durante
due to: debido a, por, a causa de
despite of: a pesar de
differ from: diferir de

E
each: cada (uno), todo(s), cada cual
each other: mutuamente, entre si
either...or: o...o
even. an, incluso. Como adjetivo: uniforme, constante
else: ms, otro ms
everything: todo
everybody/one: todos, cada uno

F
(a) few: pocos/as, no muchos/as, algunos/as
for: para, por, durante, porque, puesto que
further: otro, adicional, adems
from. de, desde
furthermore: adems

G
give rise to: causar, producir, ocasionar

H
here: aqu
however: sin embargo, no obstante, pero

I
in: en, dentro (de), adentro (de), interior, interno
incide: interior, adentro, en el interior
if: si, cuando
into: a, en, dentro de
in front of: delante
in a way: de cienta manera
in order to: para

J
just: recin, justo, apenas
just in case, en caso de

L
lead to: producir, ocasionar, llevar a, conducir a
like: como, tal como, semejante, parecido, similar
likewise: asimismo, igualmente, adems
likely: probablemente
M
many: muchos, numerosos
more: ms, adems de
moreover: adems, por otra parte

N
near: cerca (de), cercano, junto a
neither...nor: ni...ni
next: junto a, al lado (de), prximo, siguiente
neither. ningn
nevertheless: sin embargo, no obstante
nothing: nada

O
off: fuera de, lejos, completamente
of. de, por
on: sobre, encima de
on the left: a la izquierda
on the right: a la derecha
on the one hand: por una parte
out: fuera, afuera, externo
over: sobre, por encima de, durante
often: frecuentemente, a menudo, generalmente
once: una vez que, cuando
only: slo, solamente, nico
outside. fuera (de) , a excepcin de, externo, afuera

P
provided that: siempre que, con tal que
Perhaps: tal vez, quizs

Q
quick: rpido, veloz
quite: bastante

R
rather: algo, un poco
rather than: antes que, y no
round. alrededor (de). Como adjetivo: redondo, circular
remain: continuar siendo, seguir siendo
result in: produce, ocasiona, causa
result from: proviene de, es consecuencia de

S
since: ya que, puesto que, a partir de, desde
so: por lo tanto, por eso, de este modo, tan
so that: de manera que, de modo tal que
something: algo, alguna cosa
such: tal(es), tan
such as: como, tal como, por ejemplo
somewhat: algo, un poco, en cierto modo
still: todava, no obstante, sin embargo. Como adjetivo: inmvil, fijo.

T
that: que, aquel, aquella, se, sa
then: luego, entonces, despus
those. esos/as, aquellos/as
through: a travs de. por
throughout. por todo, en todo
toward: hacia, para
though: aunque, si bien
than: que
the former: el primero mencionado ( de dos )
the latter: el ltimo mencionado (de dos)
 U
under: debajo (de), inferior, menor
unless: a menos que, a no ser que, excepto que, salvo que
up: arriba (de), hacia arriba
up to: hasta
underneath: debajo (de) por debajo
until: hasta

V
very: muy, sumamente

W
well: bien
what: que, lo que
whatever. todo lo que
whenever: cada vez que, en cualquier momento
wherever: donde sea que, en cualquier lugar
whether: si
while: mientras (que), en tanto (que)
whereas. mientras que
which: cual, el/la cual, los/las cuales
with. con
within. dentro (de)
without: sin

PALABRAS DE TRADUCCIN ENGAOSA

Existen un conjunto de palabras que denominamos falsamente transparente o de traduccin engaosa,

ya que pueden conducir muy frecuentemente a errores de interpretacin. Esto ocurre porque se trata de
palabras que por su aparente facilidad o parecido con su forma en espaol se traducen en forma incorrecta
sin consultar el diccionario. Presentaremos aqu un breve glosario con algunas de ellas y su adecuada
interpretacin:

actual: verdadero, real

argument: discusin, debate
communicable: transmisible, contagioso
compliance: adherencia, cumplimiento, elasticidad
current: actual, presente
definite: claro, categrico
diversin: desviacin, derivacin
elaborate: complicado, complejo, detallado
enlarge. agrandar, dilatar, ensanchar
eventual: definitivo, final
fact: hecho
fatal: mortal
fall: caer, descender
figure. cifra, nmero, cantidad
infant: lactante, nio de la primera infancia
involve: comprometer, involucrar, afectar
involvement: compromiso
large: grande, grueso
major. principal
mold: hongo
ocurrence. existencia, aparicin
physician: mdico
postulate. proponer (como verbo)
principles: principios
prospect: perspectiva
responsive: sensible
remove: eliminar, extraer, extirpar
sane: sensato, cuerdo
 sensitive. sensible
several: varios, divesros, mltiples
success: xito
surgery: ciruga
relate: relacionar, vincular
refer: derivar
referral: derivacin
severe: grave, intenso, agudo
topic: asunto, tema
ultimately: por ltimo
unusual: atpico
up to: hasta
various: diferentes, diversos

GLOSARIO
(incluye terminologa especfica de Educacin)
A
ABILITY : capacidad, aptitud, habilidad.
ACCOMPLISH: lograr, realizar
ACCOUNT FOR: representar, explicar que.
ACQUISITION: adquisicin.
ACHIEVE: lograr, alcanzar ACHIEVEMENT: logro
ADD: agregar, aadir.
ADDRESS: abordar
ADJUST: adaptar, ajustar ADJUSTEMENT: ajuste, adaptacin.
AIM: objetivo, apuntar, dirigir.
ALLOW: permitir.
AMOUNT: cantidad, monto.
APPEAR: parecer, aparecer APPEARANCE: aparicin
APPROACH: enfoque, aproximacin, conducta
AS: como, cuando, ya que, porque
ASSESS: evaluar, valorar ASSESSMENT: evaluacin
ASSUMPTION: suposicin, hiptesis.
ATTEND: asistir, tratar ATTENDANCE: asistencia
AVAILABLE: disponible, existente.

B
BACKGROUND: antecedentes.
BALANCE: equilibrio, balance.
BE ABLE: poder, ser capaz de.
BEGIN: comenzar BEGINNING: comienzo
BEHAVIOUR: conducta, comportamiento.
BELIEVE: creer. BELIEF: creencia
BROAD: amplio.

C
CAPABLE OF: ser capaz de, poder.
CARE: cuidado, atencin, asistencia.
CHANGE : cambiar, cambio CHANGING: cambiante.
CLEAR: claro.
CLERKSHIP: rotacin, rotante.
COMPRENHENSIVE: exhaustivo. completo
CONCERN: inters, preocupacin. CONCERN: importar, concernir, preocupar.
CONCERNING: con respecto a, acerca de.
CONSISTENT (WITH): coherente, lgica/o, compatible con.
CURRENT: actual.
CURRICULUM (s): plan de estudio. CURRICULA: planes de estudio.

D
DATA: datos
DECREASE: disminuir
DEEP: profundo.
DEPTH: profundidad.
DEVELOP: desarrollar, formar. DEVELOPMENT: desarrollo, formacin.
DISEASE: enfermedad, patologa.

E
EFFECTIVENESS: efectividad.
ENABLE: permitir.
ENGAGE: requerir, comprometer. ENGAGEMENT: compromiso, obligacin.
ENHANCE: aumentar. ENHANCEMENT: aumento.
ENVIROMENT: ambiente, medio ambiente.
EVOLVE: evolucionar.

F
FACT: hecho.
FACULTY: cuerpo docente o facultad.
FEATURE: caracterstica, rasgo
FIELD: campo.
FINDING: hallazgo, resultado.
FOCUS: enfocar, hacer foco
FOLLOW: seguir FOLLOWING: siguiente(s), despus, posterior
FRAMEWORK: marco (terico), sistema

G
GAIN: obtener, ganar.
GUIDELINES: recomendaciones, pautas, criterios
GREAT: gran

H
HAPPEN: ocurrir.
HEAL: curar, cicatrizar. HEALED: curado, cicatrizado.
HEALTH: salud.

I
IMPROVE: mejorar IMPROVEMENT: mejora.
INCREASE: incrementar, aumentar.
IMPAIR: daar, deteriorar, afectar IMPAIRMENT: alteracin, trastorno, deterioro.
INVOLVE: involucrar, implicar, comprometer INVOLVEMENT: compromiso

K
KEY: clave.
KNOW: saber, conocer KNOWLEDGE: conocimiento

L
LEAD TO: produce, lleva a.
LEARN: aprender LEARNING: aprendizaje LEARNER: estudiante
LECTURE: clase magistral
LESS: menor, menos
LEVEL: nivel
LOSE: perder LOSS: prdida LOST: perdido
M
MAIN: principal.
MAKE: hacer.
MEET: cumplir.
MONITOR: controlar.
MOST: la mayora.

N
NEED: necesitar, necesidad

O
OUTDATE: antigua.

P
PLACE : lugar, colocar
PRACTITIONER: mdico general.
PERCEIVE: comprender, darse cuenta, percibir.
PERFORM: desarrollar, desempear. PERFORMANCE: desempeo, destreza.
PHYSICIAN: mdico.
POSTGRADUATE: graduado.
POTENCIAL: potencialidad, posibilidad.
PREGRADUATE: alumno de grado.
PREPARE: preparar
PREPAREDNESS: preparacin.
PROVIDE: proveer, proporcionar.

Q
QUALITY: calidad.

R
RANDOMIZE: aleatorizar, distribuir al azar.
RANGE: rango, amplitud, intervalo.
RANGE FROMTO: se extiende desde.hasta
REALIZE: darse cuenta.
REASON: razn. REASONING: razonamiento.
RECORD: registro, informe, registrar, anotar.
REQUIREMENT: requisito
RESEARCH: investigacin
RESPONSE: respuesta
RESULT IN: producir, ocasionar, trae como consecuencia
RESOURCES: recursos.
RESULT IN: producir, ocasionar, dar lugar a.
RESULT FROM: proviene de, es consecuencia de

S
SEARCH. buscar, bsqueda, investigacin
SEE: ver, observar.
SEEK: buscar, investigar.
SEEM: parecer.
SETTING: mbito, circunstancia, institucin, caso.
SKILLS: habilidades.
SHARE: compartir.
SHOULD: debera
SHOW: mostrar, demostrar.
SOLELY: solamente, nicamente.
SUBJECT: matria, tema, individuo, sujeto
SUGGEST: sugerir.
SUMMARIZE: resumir, hacer resumen SUMMARY: resumen.
SUPPORT: apoyo, soporte.
SYLLABUS: programa de estudio.

T
TAKE: tomar.
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT: tener en cuenta, considerar
TEACH: ensear TEACHING: enseanza TEACHER: profesor
TERM: trmino, denominar, llamar.
TEST: prueba, poner a prueba, probar.
THERE IS, THERE ARE: hay, existe.
TIME: momento, tiempo.
TIMES: veces.
TRAIN: formar, capacitor. TRAINING: formacin, capacitacin, entrenamiento.
TRAINEE: practicante.
TREAT: tratar. TREATMENT: tratamiento.
TRIAL: ensayo, estudio.

U
UNDERGRADUATE: alumno, estudiante de grado
UNDERLYING: bsica, de base, subyacente.
UNDERSTAND: comprender. UNDERSTANDING: comprensin, conocimiento
UNKNOWN: desconocido.

V
VARIOUS: diversos, diferentes

W
WAY: forma, manera, va.
WHOSE: cuya/o.
WORLDWIDE: en todo el mundo.

Y
YIELD: rendimiento, producir.

LISTA DE VERBOS IRREGULARES

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Spanish

arise arose arisen surgir
be was / were been ser
beat beat beaten golpear
become became become convertirse
began begun
begin comenzar

bet bet/betted bet/betted apostar

bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
bring brought brought traer
build built built construir
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught atrapar
choose chose chosen elegir
come came come venir
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrarse
cut cut
cut cortar

deal dealt dealt dar, repartir

do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed soar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen caer
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought pelear
find found found encontrar
flee fled fled huir
fly flew flown volar
forget forgot forgotten olvidar
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar
forsake forsook forsaken abandonar
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got got tener, obtener
give gave given dar
go went gone ir
grind ground ground moler
grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had tener
hear heard heard or
hide hid hidden esconderse
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held tener, mantener
hurt hurt hurt herir, doler
keep kept kept guardar
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber
lead led led encabezar
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let dejar
lie lay lain yacer
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met conocer, encontrar
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
quit quit/quitted quit/quitted abandonar
read read read leer
ride rode ridden montar, ir
ring rang rung llamar por telfono
rise rose risen elevar
run ran run correr
say said said decir
see saw seen ver
sell sold sold vender
send sent sent enviar
set set set fijar
sew sewed sewn/sewed coser
shake shook shaken sacudir
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown/showed mostrar
shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk encoger
shut shut shut cerrar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir
sit sat sat sentarse
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid deslizar
sow sowed sown/sowed sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled deletrear
spend spent spent gastar
spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled derramar
split split split partir
spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled estropear
spread spread spread extenderse
stand stood stood estar de pie
steal stole stolen robar
sting stung stung picar
stink stank/stunk stunk apestar
strike struck struck golpear
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swim swam swum nadar
take took taken tomar
teach taught taught ensear
tear tore torn romper
tell told told decir
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
tread trode trodden/trod pisar
understand understood understood entender
wake woke woken despertarse
wear wore worn llevar puesto
weave wove woven tejer
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
wring wrung wrung retorcer
write wrote written escribir
 ANEXO DE TRABAJOS PRCTICOS

TRABAJO PRCTICO N 1

1- Globalization of medical education is important, but it is also important to consider

differences in educational systems, local settings, and culture when evaluating clinical
teachers.

2- Self assessment (self regulation) is a vital aspect of the lifelong performance of

physicians. Self monitoring requires that individuals are able not only to work
independently but also to assess their own performance and progress.

3- Various assessment methods are available to assess clinical competence according to

the model proposed by Miller. The choice of assessment method depends on the purpose
of its use: whether it is for summative purposes (promotion and certification), formative
purposes (diagnosis, feedback and improvement) or both.

4- Teaching and learning methods in medical education have much in common with those in
other health and social care professions.

5- Teaching, learning and assessment methods used in undergraduate medical

education are continually changing.

6- In the Problem Based Learning (PBL) method of teaching, learning is based around
problems. It is an attempt to apply theories developed and evaluated in cognitive
psychology research to educational practice.

7- The curricula should reflect the skills, knowledge, care and behaviour expected of
doctors. Those who deliver teaching and training should have the appropriate skills and
attitudes. All of these elements should be regularly assessed. In addition, medical
education and training should reflect the diversity of the society in which the doctor is
practising.

8- The quality of the teaching and learning process needs to be assessed through student
feedback, peer evaluation and assessment of the product of the educational programme.

9- We are all familiar with summative assessment, where teachers measure the
achievement of learning goals at the end of a course. Formative assessment,
however, provides feedback to students that can be used to improve their learning.
Think of formative assessment as assessment for learning while summative
assessment is assessment of learning.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 2

1-Student assessment is a comprehensive decision making process with many important

implications beyond the measure of students success. Student assessment is also related to
program evaluation. It provides important data to determine the program effectiveness, improves
the teaching program, and helps in developing educational concepts.

2- Student-cantered learning (SCL) is currently attracting immense attention and is widely used in
the teaching and learning literature. Many terms have been linked with student-centred learning,
such as flexible learning, experiential learning, and self-directed learning and therefore the
slightly overused term student-centred learning can mean different things to different people.
3-Active learning is an approach that places responsibility of learning on the learner. Students
may be required to participate in activities, apply their knowledge, seek solutions to problems and
to reflect on their experience.

4-The Learning Climate is the tone or atmosphere of a teaching situation. It should be stimulating
and supportive so that learners can freely acknowledge their limitations.

5-Assessment methods that are used in the undergraduate medical education can be broadly
subdivided into two: assessment of knowledge and its application (Multiple choice questions,
essay, etc) and assessment of clinical competence (long case, short case and objective
structured clinical examination [OSCE]). There are five major criteria for determining the
usefulness of a particular method of assessment: Reliability, Validity, Educational impact, Cost
effectiveness and Acceptability.

6-Most lecturers have probably experienced the difficulties of constructing valid questions for
written exams.

7-Currently, one of the main interventions that are widely expected to contribute to teachers
professional development is confronting teachers with feedback from resident evaluations of their
teaching performance.

8- Simulation is another category of teaching and learning method that allows practice of learned
skills in safe situations that closely resemble real life. Simulation allows the careful and gradual
transfer of learned skills into actual practice. Role-play and standardized patients are examples of
simulation in medical education.

9- The dynamics of changes in medical education is determined by multiple factors that need to
be discussed and articulated as a whole. The evaluation of medical competence is a complex
task, and no single evaluation tool can effectively assess the physician's knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 3

1-Learning Styles: People vary in the way they can best learn new information or skills. One
classification system divides into structured, relational, and analytic styles. Each style has its
strength and weaknesses as well as its preferred learning environments. In order to gain
competence most efficiently, it is helpful for each learner to be aware of his/her style. Similarly,
teachers should pay attention to the preferences of each learner in order to maximize educational
gains.

2- The medical teachers should possess a fundamental understanding of curriculum planning

and evaluation including how to set educational objectives and prepare and execute an
educational plan. There are several curricular innovations that are of interest to medical teachers.
One of the criticisms of the traditional curriculum is the excessive amount of information that
medical students are asked to "learn" due to the explosion in knowledge in biomedical sciences.

3) All methods of assessment have strengths and intrinsic flaws. The use of multiple observations
and several different assessment methods over time can partially compensate for flaws in any
one method.

4)Teacher-Centered Education is an educational system in which the teacher is the central or

key figure and activities such as the formal lecture and the formal laboratory are emphasized.
Individual students have little control over what they learn, the order in which they learn and the
methods they must use. In this approach, learning is rather more passive than active. It is the
opposite of the learner-centered approach.

5) OSCE has been accepted as a valid, reliable, and practical way of assessing clinical
competence based on student's performance in history taking, physical examination, medical
procedure, communication, data interpretation, laboratory test or X-rays. Clinical reasoning and
problem-solving can be assessed as well.

6)A standardized patient (SP) is a person simulating the signs and symptoms of disease and is
capable of providing feedback to the candidate on clinical skills of history-taking, physical
examination, and interpersonal relationships.

7)Teaching and learning methods in medical education have much in common with those in other
health and social care professions. Teaching and learning approaches are designed to ensure
that students acquire the appropriate scientific and clinical knowledge; that they acquire the
practical, procedural and communication skills or competencies needed to practice medicine, and
that they develop professional attitudes and demonstrate behaviors appropriate to the practice of
medicine.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 4

1) The OSCE is one of the most commonly used practical assessments in medical education. In
an OSCE, learners travel through a series of stations (for example containing a simulated
medical scenario, data sets for analysis or practical procedure) where they are asked to perform
a specific task. At each station there is a task with instructions for the learner and material (e.g. a
manikin, simulated or real patient, laboratory test result) and an examiner. The learner spends a
fixed amount of time at each station (usually five or ten minutes) before moving onto the next
station.

2) Clinical examinations should include an assessment of student ability to recognize abnormal

clinical findings (and their distinction from normal) and the ability to provide an appropriate
interpretation of these findings.

3) One of the current themes of medical education is that it has become recognised as a lifelong
process.

4) Effective teachers therefore need to stay up to date, not only with their subject discipline
knowledge but also with appropriate, contemporary educational theory, methods and techniques.

5) Successful medical teaching also requires that teachers are able to address learners needs
and understand the variations in learners styles and approaches. Teachers can accomplish these
requirements while creating an optimal teaching-learning environment by utilizing a variety of
teaching methods and teaching styles. If teachers use a variety of teaching methods and styles,
learners are exposed to both familiar and unfamiliar ways of learning which provide both comfort
and tension during the process ultimately giving learners multiple ways to excel.

6)Teaching in the clinical environment is a demanding, complex and often frustrating task, a task
many clinicians assume without adequate preparation or orientation.
Twelve roles have previously been described for medical teachers, grouped into six major tasks:
(1) the information provider; (2) the role model; (3) the facilitator; (4) the assessor; (5) the
curriculum and course planner; and (6) the resource material creator. It is clear that many of
these roles require a teacher to be more than a medical expert. In a pure educational setting,
teachers may have limited roles, but the clinical teacher often plays many roles simultaneously,
switching from one role to another during the same encounter.

7)Understanding the learning process will help clinical teachers to be more effective. Several
theories are relevant. All start with the premise that learning is an active process and, by
inference, that the teachers role is to act as facilitator. Cognitive theories argue that learning
involves processing information through interplay between existing knowledge and new
knowledge. An important influencing factor is what the learner knows already. The quality of the
resulting new knowledge depends not only on activating this prior knowledge but also on the
degree of elaboration that takes place.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 5

1) Motivation can be intrinsic (from the student) and extrinsic (from external factors).
Assessments are usually a strong extrinsic motivator for learners. Individual learners intrinsic
motivation can be affected by previous experiences, by their desire to achieve, and the relevance
of the learning to their future. A teachers role in motivation should not be underestimated.
Enthusiasm for the subject, interest in the students experiences, and clear direction all help to
keep students attention and improve assimilation of information and understanding. Even with
good intrinsic motivation, however, external factors can demotivate and disillusion. Distractions,
unhelpful attitudes of teachers, and physical discomfort will prompt learners to disengage.

2) Seminars and tutorials are some of the most traditional models for learning in groups in higher
education. The words can be used interchangeably but the main aim of both is to encourage
group discussion. Tutors have three roles in managing these types of small group teaching
methods managing the group, managing the learning and managing individuals. Tutorials can
provide an opportunity for checking progress of individual student, identifying areas where they
may be having difficulties and giving detailed feedback on assignments.

3) A competency-based curriculum also seeks ways to achieve greater diversity among medical
students. In the case of competency-based education, professors ultimately will need to learn
how to integrate a variety of materials from several different fieldssome of them quite possibly
outside their area of expertiseinto their own lesson plans. It also requires more dialogue with
students, and evaluation methods that may involve a range of techniques.

4) In problem based learning (PBL) students use triggers from the problem case or scenario to
define their own learning objectives. Subsequently they do independent, self directed study
before returning to the group to discuss and refine their acquired knowledge. Thus, PBL is not
about problem solving per se, but rather it uses appropriate problems to increase knowledge and
understanding. The process is clearly defined, and the several variations that exist all follow a
similar series of steps. Group learning facilitates not only the acquisition of knowledge but also
several other desirable attributes, such as communication skills, teamwork, problem solving,
independent responsibility for learning, sharing information, and respect for others.

5)Rubrics are used to identify levels performance of a specific task. Each level of a rubric is
defined by specific indicators of the overall performance. For each indicator, a description
outlines the mastery criteria needed to achieve the correlative level of success. Rubrics can be
used as both formative and summative measures of performance.

6)Although rubrics may not be useful for multiple-choice examinations, the clinical experience
provides an opportunity for performance-based assessments, and rubrics can be used to
objectively assess performance.

7) Feedback is a communication technique in which the teacher provides information to the

students about their progress in mastering certain skills or achieving learning objectives of the
course. Feedback is an essential component of teaching and learning that connects instruction
and assessment.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 6

1) The terms competency and clinical competency are used increasingly in medical education.
Many definitions of clinical competency are proposed. Simply speaking, competency is 'the ability
to carry out a set of tasks or a role adequately or effectively' (Burg and Lloyd). From the
perspectives of education, competency denotes a trait different from knowledge acquisition and
comprehension. Competency is more related to the ability of the learner to apply the knowledge
and comprehension appropriately in relevant situations.

2)Continuous development of new, more sophisticated technologies and methodologies are key
features in improving the clinical skills taught to medical students and other health care
professionals. Medical colleges, schools of medicine, and other health care educational programs
have traditionally assessed students performance using a combination of multiple-choice and
essay questions. However, these methods of assessment may not adequately evaluate mastery
of essential clinical skills and measure cognitive learning in clinical settings. Furthermore, clinical
faculty members often see a disparity between performance of high achievers in the classroom
and in clinical settings. This inconsistency may stem from differences in testing for memorization
of information and clinical application of knowledge. Therefore, the use of performance-based
assessment methods, such as the OSCE in health care education is of fundamental importance.

3) Performance is defined as 'actual carrying out of the task or role' (Burg and Lloyd). Thus,
although competency is a much valued attribute, it does not necessarily mean that the learner
would perform the task in real situation. An extension of the topic includes the concept of
'competent performer'a learner who performs the task or the role in a competent manner. In
practical terms, a learner is considered to be competent if he is able to carry out a set of defined
tasks that is considered as a necessary requisite to function as an independent physician. Thus,
a competent physician is able to provide medical care and /or other professional services in
accord with practice standards established by members of the profession and in ways that
conform to the expectations of the society.

4)Standardized patient examinations are used to assess the ability of physicians and medical
students to collect medical history and physical examination data and create a therapeutic
relationship with the patient. A standardized patient is a person trained to accurately and
consistently portray a patient with a particular medical condition. Based on an encounter between
the standardized patient and a student, both the standardized patient and medical professionals
can make judgments about the quality of the performance along a number of dimensions (e.g.
history-taking, physical examination, interpersonal, and communication skills).

5)Communication skills are now recognized as important components of clinical skills and are
trained in most medical school curricula worldwide. However, such skills are still insufficiently
addressed during clerkships and postgraduate training, despite the fact that they tend to decline
unless regularly recalled and practiced.

6)Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges the students to 'learn
to learn/ working cooperatively in groups to obtain solutions to real world problems. The problems
are used as a trigger factor to raise their curiosity and activate their prior learning. As such, the
problem acts as an initiator of their learning. These problems simulate actual problems that are
likely to be faced by the students in their professional life. Thus, the learning is contextual.
 TRABAJO PRCTICO N 7

1) Portfolio assessment in medical education is a relatively new concept. There is considerable

interest in portfolio as this is widely believed to support student-centered and self-directed
learning and assessment. Portfolio is useful both as a learning and assessment tool. . A portfolio
is a repository of one's personal and professional goals, achievements, and the methods of
achieving those goals.

2) Assessment is entering every phase of professional development. Assessment is a crucial step

in educational process. Before making a choice of assessment method, some important
questions must be asked: what should be assessed? and why assess? For an assessment
instrument one must also ask: is it valid? Is it reliable? and Is it feasible? What is assessed and
which methods are used will play a significant part in what is learnt.

3)Over the past decade, medical schools, postgraduate training programs, and licensing bodies
have made new efforts to provide accurate, reliable, and timely assessments of the competence
of trainees and practicing physicians. Such assessments have three main goals: to optimize the
capabilities of all learners and practitioners by providing motivation and direction for future
learning, to protect the public by identifying incompetent physicians, and to provide a basis for
choosing applicants for advanced training.

4)Formative assessment is defined as information communicated to the learner that is

intended to modify his or her thinking or behaviour for the purpose of improving learning. It is
part of a feedback process in which a learner is able to evaluate their response in light of the
information received, and make adjustments.

5)Medical education has seen major changes over the past decade. Medical education is an
ever evolving field and many changes such as the development of core curricula with electives or
options and more systematic curriculum planning have been advocated. Alternatives to traditional
didactic teaching such as integrated teaching, problem-based learning are also being
increasingly implemented.

6)The qualities that an effective medical teacher should possess has been a subject of debate
and research. Sutkin et al. while evaluating their own most effective teachers list five recurring
features that the most effective teachers possess. These are recognition of a relationship,
emotional activation, generate responsibility, self-awareness and competence. They list the first
four as noncognitive qualities that are often intangible when evaluating good teachers. Apart from
knowledge and competence, it is important to be aware of the non-cognitive or the intangible
qualities that an effective teacher possesses. These include instilling self-confidence in students
and encouraging creativity.