Chapter 1

Earthquake Characteristics
 2
Earthquake Characteristics
Causes of earthquakes
Plate tectonics theory
Faulting
Seismic waves

Measuring earthquakes
Intensity
Magnitude
Intensity-magnitude relationships

Source-to-Site-Effects
Directional Effects
Site Effects
Dispersion and Incoherence

Effects of earthquakes
Damage to buildings and lifelines
Effects on the ground
Human and financial losses
 3
Plate Tectonics Theory
Earthquake causes and plate tectonics
An earthquake is manifested as ground shaking caused by the sudden release of energy in
the Earths crust.
Earthquake occurrence may be explained by the theory of large-scale tectonic processes
referred to as plate tectonics.
Thelithosphere
lithosphere moves differentially on the underlying asthenosphere
asthenosphere as a result of
convection currents in the mantle.
It is estimated that about 200 million years is required for the ocean floor to be replaced.
Plates are large and stable rigid rock slabs with a thickness of 100 km forming the
lithosphere.
http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/interior/how_plates_move.html

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/earthint.htm
 4
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
Earthquake causes and plate tectonics
Lithosphere is divided into 13 rigid plates including continental and oceanic
crust.
Plates move relative to one another at a rate of 1-13 cm/year.
Intense seismic activity occurs predominantly on known plate boundaries.
Large tectonic forces take place at the plate edges due to the relative
movement of the lithosphere-asthenosphere complex.
Only the lithosphere has the strength and the brittle behaviour to cause an
earthquake.

Tectonic plates (left) and worldwide earthquake distribution (right)

 5
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
Plate Tectonics (plate activity)
Plates move relative to one another at a rate of 1-13 cm/year.

~8.6 Cocos
cm/year Plate

~8.0
cm/year

http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Plate_Tectonics.html
 6
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
Seismic belts of the world (and The Ring of Fire)
Approximately 80% of worlds largest earthquakes take place in circum-Pacific belt (or
Ring of Fire).
Approximately 17% of the worlds largest earthquakes take place in Euroasian (or Alpine-
Himalayan) belt.

R. A. Daly, Our Mobile Earth, New York & London 1926, p. 6.

Graphic of "The Ring of Fire," by USGS, from "This

Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics."
 7
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
The principal types of plate
boundaries
Divergent or rift zones: plates
separate themselves from one
another and either an effusion of
magma occurs or the
lithosphere diverges from the
interior of the Earth.
Convergent or subduction zones:
adjacent plates converge and
collide. A subduction process
carries the slab-like plate,
known as the under-thrusting
plate into a dipping zone.
Subduction zones are
responsible for 90% of seismic
energy release by tectonic
movement.
Transform faults or transcurrent
horizontal slip: two plates glide
past one another but without http://go.owu.edu/~rdfusch/110maps.htm
creating new lithosphere or
subducting old lithosphere.
 8

Divergent Boundaries

.. Lihoept.

African
Plate

/ Plate
Boundaries
1' I
1 East African
I
t Rift
.A. Volcanoes

Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai Source: Gioncu and Mazzolani (2011) EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
 9
Convergent Boundaries

.. Uthosphere

henosphere

Ocean - Ocean Convergence

henosphe re

Continent- Continent Convergence

Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE

Luigi Di Sarno Source: Gioncu and Mazzolani (2011) ENGINEERING
 10
Transform Boundaries

I
I
I
-

2tJmles
I

Amr S. Elnashai Source: Gioncu and Mazzolani (2011) EARTHQUAKE

Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 11
Fault Types (Tectonic Plates)
---- ---- -- -----I00-" ----120 r--- ---- ---- -------e -- -- -- ------ v- ----20

E ura sian
Plate

SanAhdreas
Fault

Hawa i i
Hoi Spot

Pa cific
Pla t e

Ant a r ctic
Pl a te

..
100"
..
120"
..
140"
..
180"
..
160"
..
140"
..
120 100"
..
Key
-
Relative motion at
plate boundary
-
Transform plate boundary
(transform fault)
Divergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transform
)'41
I overriding /
plate

plate
ng

Convergent plate boundary

'I! Complex or uncertain
plate boundary
Mantle
hot
spot
fault s along mid-ocean ridges) (subduction zone) Is of

NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and UAKE

J boundaries are shown. Source: NYSED (2001): Earth Science Reference Tables RING
 12
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
Divergent plate boundaries form narrow bands of shallow earthquakes at mid-
oceanic ridges. EQs occur when the tensional forces that produce the plate
divergence fracture the newly formed crust. EQs are usually low magnitude.
Very large earthquakes usually occur at convergent zones.
Deep earthquakes are generally located in subduction zones (up to 700 km, Benioff
zone).
Shallow and intermediate earthquakes also occur at convergent zones.
Shallow earthquakes (5-40 km) with large magnitudes may occur along transform
faults.

Tectonic mechanisms at plate boundaries

 13
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)
Classification of tectonic earthquakes
Inter-plate earthquakes
Plate boundary earthquakes which constitute 95% of
the world-wide seismic energy release.
Intra-plate earthquakes
The genesis of this seismic activity is attributed
either to the geological complexity of the lithosphere
or anomalies in its temperature and strength.
Stress build-ups at the plate edges may be
transmitted across the plates and are released
locally in the weak zones of the crust.
1811-1812 New Madrid EQs (4 EQs with magnitudes
7.0-8.1).
Intra-plate earthquakes generally fall in two groups:
- Plate boundary-related earthquakes;
- Mid-plate earthquakes.

Earthquake Slip rate (v) Recurrence time

Fault Slip Rate
(type) (mm/year) (year)
(mm/year)
Inter-plate v > 10 ~ 100
Peru-Chile Trench 50-70
Intra-plate (plate 0.1 v 10 102 ~ 104
San Andreas, CA 20-53
boundary related)
Upper Rhine, Germany 0.15
Intra-plate (mid-plate) v < 0.1 > 104
 14
Plate Tectonics Theory (continued)

US Hazard Mapping

Earthquakes in the central and eastern

U.S., although less frequent than in the
western U.S., are typically felt over a much
broader region. East of the Rockies, an
earthquake can be felt over an area as
much as ten times larger than a similar
magnitude earthquake on the west coast. A
magnitude 4.0 eastern U.S. earthquake
typically can be felt at many places as far
as 100 km (60 mi) from where it occurred,
and it infrequently causes damage near its
source. A magnitude 5.5 eastern U.S.
earthquake usually can be felt as far as
500 km (300 mi) from where it occurred,
and sometimes causes damage as far
away as 40 km (25 mi).
 15
Intra-Plate Earthquakes

.. I

Highest hazard

...
.. . .
''

'

Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 16
Faulting

Elastic Rebound Theory (early

1900s)
When two ground masses move
with respect to one another,
elastic strain energy due to
tectonic processes is stored and
then released through the
rupture of the interface zone. The
distorted blocks snap back
towards equilibrium and
earthquake ground shaking is
produced. This process is
referred to as elastic rebound.
The resulting fracture in the
Earths crust is termed a fault.
 17
Faulting
Faults
Faults are discontinuities on the structure of the adjacent rock.
Faults produce irregularities (fissures) on the ground surface.
Not all faults are EQ faults. In some faults the relative motion takes place
gradually and do not produce any EQs. EQs occur when the relative motion
occur intermittently.

Active faults: Carrizo Plains (San Andreas fault) in California (left) and the Corinth Canal in Greece (right)
 18
Faulting (continued)
Parameters used to describe fault dimensions and motion
Azimuth (): the angle between the trace of the fault (defined as the intersection of
the fault plane with the horizontal) and the northerly direction;
Dip (): the angle between the fault and the horizontal plane;
Slip or rake (): the angle between the direction of relative displacement and the
horizontal direction;
Relative displacement (u): the distance travelled by a point on either side of the
fault plane;
Area (S): surface area of the highly stressed region within the fault plane.
Z (Zenith)
X (North)
Earthquake Magnitude Maximum
Horizontal plane Displacement (m)

Fault trace 1906 San 7.9 6

Francisco

180- 2010 Maule, 8.8 9
u Chile

1960 Great 9.5 20
Fault plane S Chilean

Parameters used to describe fault dimension and motion

 19
Faulting (continued)
Fundamental fault mechanisms

Dip-slip faults: one block moves vertically with respect to the other.

Strike-slip faults: the adjacent blocks move horizontally past one other.

Fault plane

Fault plane
Fault trace
F Fault plane
F

F
F
Dip ()

Normal Fault
Reverse Fault Foot wall
Hanging wall
Fault plane

F F
F

Fault plane

Left-Lateral Strike Slip Fault Right-Lateral Strike Slip Fault

Fundamental fault mechanisms

 20
Faulting (continued)

Fault mechanisms Fault mechanisms as a function of the rake ()

North
reverse fault reverse fault
azimuth (strike, ) right slip left slip
rake () reverse
foot wall
90
+ 0
dip () +180 180 0
-180 right -180 left
hanging wall
-90

normal
normal fault normal fault
dip () right slip left slip
0
0< <9ault)
(oblique f
pure reverse fault (= 90) pure normal fault (= -90)

0
= 9 ault)
(vertical f Pure strike slip Pure strike slip down slip
(left lateral, =0) (right lateral, =180) (= 90)
 21
Faulting (continued)

Source parameters
The focus or hypocentre of an earthquake is the point under the surface where
the rupture is said to have originated. The projection of the focus on the surface is
termed epicentre.

Earthquake foci are located by geographical coordinates, namely latitude and

longitude, the focal depth and the origin or occurrence time.

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)

Definition of source parameters

 22
Faulting (continued)
Source parameters

Many earthquakes have focal depths in the range of 5-15 km, while intermediate
events have foci at about 20-50 km and deep earthquakes occur at 300-700 km
under the surface. The three types are also referred to as shallow, intermediate and
deep focus, respectively.

Crustal earthquakes normally have depths of about 30 km or less.

The source is not a single point, hence the distance from the source required for
engineering seismology applications is ill-defined.

Definition Depth Range (km)

Shallow 5-60
Intermediate 60-300
Deep 300-700
 23
Problem 1.1

Determine the source mechanism of an earthquake with a fault that has a dip
= 60 and a rake = 45. Comment on the results.

Assignment 1.1
 24
Seismic Waves

Fault ruptures cause brittle fractures of the Earths crust and dissipate tectonic
energy in the form of seismic waves.
Earthquake shaking is generated by two types of elastic seismic waves: body and
surface waves.

Body waves
They include longitudinal or primary waves (also known as P-waves) and
transverse or secondary waves (also referred to as S-waves).

Body waves attenuate in inverse proportion to the distance x.

Surface waves
Surface waves include Love (indicated as L- or LQ-waves) and Rayleigh (indicated
as R- or LR-waves) waves.

Surface waves attenuate in inverse proportion to the square root of the distance.
 25
Seismic Waves (continued)
P-waves

Displacements decay in proportion to inverse of the distance traveled from the

source (geometric radiation).
There is no rotary motion, the only dependent variable is the volumetric strain.
Hence P-waves are characterized by a particle motion that generates a
volumetric expansion or contraction but no rotations.
Particle motion is in the direction of propagation not in any of the two
perpendicular directions.
P-waves are also called longitudinal, dilational, compressional or irrotational
waves.
 26
Seismic Waves (continued)

P-waves (continued)

Similar to sound waves

Show small amplitude and short periods
Can be transmitted in liquids and gases
Have little damage potential
Mainly responsible for vertical ground motions
 27
Seismic Waves (continued)

S-waves

Displacements decay in proportion to the inverse of the distance traveled from

the source.
Volumetric strain is zero (particle motion introduces no volume change).
Rotations are nonzero.
S-waves are called transverse, shear, distortional or equivoluminal.
Because of the close correlation between shear wave velocity and shear
modulus of elasticity, shear wave velocities are often used to characterize the
stiffness of soils and rocks (Vs,30 for ground motion recording stations).
 28
Seismic Waves (continued)

S-waves (continued)

S-wave velocity is always smaller than P-wave velocity.

Similar to electromagnetic waves.
Show large-amplitude and long periods.
Cannot propagate in fluids (not observed in outer core ~2,900 km).
Can cause significant damage.
 29
Seismic Waves (continued)

P-waves S-waves

P-waves cause alternate S-wave propagation causes vertical

compression and dilation in the motion and horizontal side-to-side
motion.
rock.

Small amplitudes and short periods. Large amplitudes and long periods.

P-waves travel faster, at speeds S-waves, are slower, usually have 50%
between 1.5 and 8 km/sec in the to 60% of the speed of P-waves.
Earths crust.
 30
Seismic Waves (continued)

Arrival of P- and S-waves

The difference in velocities of P- and S- waves may be employed to locate the
earthquake origin.

2.1 seconds
 31
Seismic Waves (continued)
Assuming homogenous soil profiles between earthquake foci and observation sites,
the focal distance x is linearly dependent on the time-lag t between the arrival of
P- and S-waves.

Layer (type) Depth v (km/s) v (km/s)

p s v P vS
x t
(km)
(1.1 a)
Crust 10 - 30 6.57 3.82
Upper Mantle 40 8.12 4.42 v P vS
220 8.06 4.35
400 9.13 5.22 18.0
Lower Mantle 670 10.75 5.95 16.0 Proposed step-function
1200 11.78 6.52

Ratios (vPvS) / (vP-vS)

14.0
2885 13.72 7.26 12.0
Outer Core 2890 8.06 0.00 10.0
3800 9.31 0.00 8.0
5150 10.36 0.00 6.0
Omori's formula
Inner Core 5155 11.03 3.50 4.0
6371 11.26 3.67 2.0
0.0
For a quick evaluation, Omoris formula 10-30 40 220 400 670 1200 2885
(Kanai, 1983) may also be used (x in Crust Upper Mantle Lower Mantle
km, t in seconds) Depth of Earth's Layers (in km)

x 7.42 t (1.1 b)
 32
Seismic Waves (continued)
The procedure to locate an earthquake epicentre and origin time is as follows:

a) Obtain seismogram records for a given observation site;

b) Select the arrival time of the body waves on the record traces;
c) Compute the time delay t in the arrival of P- and S-waves;
d) Subtract the time delay (or travel time) t from the arrival time at the observation site to
derive the origin time;
e) Use eqns. (1.1) to evaluate the distance x between the seismic station and the epicentre;
f) Draw a circle on a map around the station location (or centre) with a radius equal to x;
g) Repeat steps (a) to (f) for a second seismic station;
h) Repeat steps (a) to (f) for a third seismic station.

Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)

 33
Problem 1.2
Locate and mark on the map provided the epicentre of an earthquake that was
recorded in Italy by three observation sites 1, 2 and 3, with a time delay between
P- and S-waves of 5.0, 7.5 and 6.0 seconds, respectively. The body wave
velocities are 8.5 km/sec and 4.30 km/sec; it is up to the reader to determine
which of these values refer to P- and S-waves. Compare the results obtained by
eqn. (1.1-a) with those estimated through eqn. (1.1-b).

Assignment 1.2
 34
Seismic Waves (continued)
Rayleigh (R- or LR-) waves
Exist only in a homogeneous medium with a boundary. The particle motion
that Rayleigh waves generate is confined to locations near the ground.
The amplitude of horizontal and vertical components decays very rapidly. At
between 1-1.5 wavelength depth the amplitude becomes small enough.
Maximum amplitude occurs slightly below surface.
Below a certain depth, the horizontal displacement is in the opposite direction
from that is observed at the surface.

Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

 35
Seismic Waves (continued)
Love (L- or LQ-) waves
Significant portion of the particle motion is within zH; therefore, LQ waves are
thought of as SH waves trapped by multiple reflections within the surficial layer.
LQ waves induce particle motion along the direction of y-axis (assuming wave
propagation in x-direction). That is particle motion is in the perpendicular
direction to the propagation direction.
Propagation velocity of LQ waves depends on their wavelengths (i.e. dispersive
waves).
Different waves with different wavelength will travel at different speeds and
arrive at a particular site at different times.
Love waves with different wavelengths may interfere with one another.
Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)
 36
Seismic Waves (continued)
Dispersion of Love and Rayleigh Waves

For a homogeneous medium Love waves show dispersion

while Rayleigh waves do not.
Near the earths surface Rayleigh waves also show
dispersion due to increasing stiffness of soil and
rocks with increasing depth (i.e. body wave velocity is
not constant).
The depth to which a Rayleigh wave generates
significant displacements increases in proportion to its
wavelength.
Rayleigh waves with long wavelengths (low frequency)
will travel faster than those with short wavelengths (high
frequency) [average stiffness of propagation medium is
lower for Rayleigh waves with short wavelengths].
For EQs low-frequency components of both Love and
Rayleigh waves will usually arrive before their high-
frequency components.
 37
Seismic Waves (continued)

Love (L- or LQ-) waves Rayleigh (R- or LR-) waves

LQ-waves are generated by LR-waves are caused by constructive
constructive interference of SH interference of body waves, such as P
body waves. and SV.

Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

LQ-waves have large amplitudes LR-waves exhibit very large amplitude

and long periods.
and regular wave-forms.
For a layered soil, LQ-wave velocity
vLQ is generally: LR-waves are slower than S-waves; it
v S1 vLQ v S2 may be assumed that:
with vS1 and vS2 the velocities of S-
waves in the surface and deeper v LR 0.92 v S
layers, respectively.
 38
Seismic Waves (continued)

Surface waves (notes)

Surface waves induce large displacements; hence,

they are called principle motion.
Surface waves attenuate in inverse proportion to the
square root of the distance travelled from the source
(attenuate more slowly than body waves and they are
more distinct further away from the EQ source).
Because of their long duration, surface waves are
likely to cause severe damage to structural systems.
 39
Seismic Waves (continued)
Reflection and Refraction of Body Waves
Body waves are reflected and refracted at interfaces between different
layers of rock according to Snells law of refraction from elementary
optics.

When reflection and refraction occur part of the energy of one type is
transformed into the other. Regardless of whether the incident wave is P
or S, the reflected and refracted waves, also termed multiple phase
waves, each consist of P- and S-waves.

Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

 40
Seismic Waves (continued)
Reflection and Refraction of Body Waves (continued)
Their name indicates the travel path and mode of propagation. For example, SP
starts as S and then continues as P.
Multiple phase waves do not possess significant damage potential. However, when
P- and S-waves reach the ground surface they are reflected back. Such reflection
may lead to significant local amplification of the shaking at the surface.
It has been shown that seismic waves are influenced by soil conditions and local
topography.
Reflection and refraction of waves as they cross multiple discontinuities result in a
scattering effect that gives rise to a ground motion that is longer in duration and
more irregular than the ground motion that would be observed at a site near the
surface.

Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

 41
Seismic Waves (continued)
Attenuation of wave amplitude
Occurs mainly due to two reasons: radiation and
material damping.
Radiation (geometric) damping:
The amount of energy released by a disturbance (or
amount per unit time) is fixed.
The volume that absorbs the energy increases with
increasing distance thus the amplitude of displacements
attenuate (decay).
Without any other damping mechanism, the displacements
will attenuate with increasing distance due to radiation
damping.
Body waves (spherical wave front) attenuate in inverse
proportion to distance while surface waves (cylindrical
wave front) attenuate in inverse proportion to the square
root of distance.
 42
Seismic Waves (continued)

Attenuation of wave amplitude

Occurs mainly due to two reasons: radiation and
material damping.
Material damping:
Energy dissipation of soil and rocks as waves pass
through in the form of heat or permanent deformation.
For a constant quality factor, Q: A high frequency
wave will attenuate faster than a low frequency wave
(a high frequency wave goes more oscillations than a
low-frequency wave for the same distance).
Q depends on the material of the propagation
medium.
Q is inversely proportional to material damping.
Q is larger for P-waves than S-waves (i.e. S-waves
attenuate faster due to material damping).
 43
Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquake size can be expressed in several ways.

Intensity

Qualitative (non-instrumental) measurement.

Subjective damage evaluation based on description of earthquake effects. It
is related to population density, familiarity with earthquake, and type and
quality of constructions.

Magnitude

Quantitative (instrumental) measurement.

Objective measure of earthquake size or fault dimensions.
 44
Intensity
Intensity is a non-instrumental perceptibility measure of damage to structures,
ground surface effects and human reactions to earthquakes.

Discrete scales are used to quantify seismic intensity.

The levels are represented by Roman numerals and each degree of intensity
provides a qualitative description of earthquake effects:

i. Mercalli-Cancani-Seiberg (MCS): 12-level scale used in southern Europe;

ii. Modified Mercalli (MM): 12-level scale used in North American and several
other countries;

iii. Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK): 12-level scale developed in Central and

Eastern Europe and used in several other countries;

iv. European Macroseismic Scale (EMS): 12-level scale adopted since 1998 in
Europe;

v. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA): 7-level scale used in Japan.

 45
Intensity (continued)

M O D IF IE D
M ERCALLI I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI X II

M ERCALLI
CANCANI I II III IV V VI VI I IX X XI X II
SEIBER G VIII

M EDVEDEV
SPONHEUER I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI X II
K AR N IK

EUROPEAN
M A C R O S E IS M I C
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

JAP AN E S E
M E T E O R O L O G IC A L I II III IV V VI VII
AGENCY

Comparison and equivalence between seismic intensity scales

 46
Intensity (continued)
Intensity scales are used to plot contour lines of equal intensity or isoseismals.
The isoseismal map of the October 17, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California is
shown below. It locates the epicentre (marked as a star) and provides Modified
Mercalli (MM) intensities between isoseismals (Roman numerals), and MM intensities
at specific cities (Arabic numerals).
 47
Intensity (continued)
Structures in the immediate vicinity of earthquake sources experience very high
ground accelerations but may sustain little or no damage, depending on their
periods of vibration. On the other hand, intensity is a measure of the perceptibility
of the earthquake and its actual consequential damage.

Relating intensity to peak ground acceleration is, in principle, illogical.

Site amplification effects, directivity, source characteristics and mechanisms are

not directly accounted for in intensity scales.

The necessity of bridging the distance between historical earthquake

observations (based mainly on intensity) and code-defined forces (based entirely
on peak ground acceleration) warrants the efforts expended in correlating the two
measures.

The measurement of earthquake size should be based on the amount of energy

released at the focus. Therefore, magnitude scales have been defined as
presented hereafter.
 48
Seismographs and Accelerographs
Seismographs
Seismographs are devices that record the variation
with time of the ground displacements generated by
earthquakes.
A seismogram is a record of the variation with time
of the displacement of the ground, magnified by the
magnification factor of the seismograph, at the
location where the seismograph is installed.
Seismographs cannot record ground motion by
strong EQs near epicentral regions due to large
magnification by the device.
Mainly of interest to seismologist to measure the
Earth crust movements. Fundamental Concepts of Earthquake Engineering (Villaverde, 2009)

Accelerographs
Accelerographs measure directly the variation of
ground acceleration with time.
An accelerogram is a record of the variation with
time of the actual acceleration of the ground at the
location where the accelerograph is installed.
Can give information about the local soil conditions
and of more interest to engineers.
Can cover the practical frequency range that is of
interest to engineers.
 49
Magnitude
Magnitude is an instrumental, quantitative and objective scale.
Two types of magnitude scales: those that are based on frequency and amplitude of
seismic waves and those that are directly related to source parameters.

Local (or Richter) magnitude (ML)

It is a measure of the maximum seismic wave amplitude A (in millimetres)
recorded on standard Wood-Anderson seismographs located at a distance of
100 km from the earthquake epicentre.

Magnitude ML is related to A by the following relationship:

M L log A - logA0

where A0 is a calibration factor that depends on distance.

Earthquakes with ML greater than 5.5 cause significant damage, while an

earthquake of ML=2 is the smallest event normally felt by people.

Usually used to characterize shallow earthquakes recorded at distances of <600

km.
 50
Magnitude (continued)

Body wave magnitude (mb)

It measures amplitudes of P-waves with periods of about 1.0 second.
This scale is suitable for deep earthquakes.
It is not suitable for local earthquakes or extremely large events.
Magnitude mb is related to the amplitude A and period T of P-waves as follows:
A
m b log
T
in which () is a function of the epicentre distance (in degrees).

Surface wave magnitude (MS)

It is a measure of the amplitudes of LR-waves with a period of 20 seconds.
MS is used for large, very distant EQs (located at more than 2000 km).
Cannot be used to accurately characterize deep or relatively small, regional EQs.
The relation between amplitude A, period T, distance and MS is given by:
A
M S log 1.66 log 3.30
T
where is in degrees, the ground motion amplitude in microns and the period in
seconds.
 51
Magnitude (continued)
Moment magnitude (MW)
The ground shaking characteristics do not necessarily increase at the same rate
with the total amount of energy released during the EQ.
For large EQs the measured ground shaking becomes less sensitive to the size of
the EQ.
It accounts for the mechanism of shear that takes place at earthquake sources.
It is not related to any seismic wave.
Moment magnitude is defined as a function of the seismic moment M0:

M 0 G Au
in which G is the shear modulus of the material surrounding the fault, A is the
fault rupture area and u is the average displacement slip between opposite sides
of the fault.
Mw is thus given by:
M w 0.67 log M 0 10.70
where M0 should be expressed in ergs.
 52
Radiation Patterns (Side Note)

D. P. Robinson, et al. (2001). Simultaneous Rupture Along Two Conjugate Planes of

the Wharton Basin Earthquake, Science 292, 1145.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2001/05/10/292.5519.1145.DC1/main.html
 53
Focal Mechanisms (Beach Balls)
Schema1ic diagram of a focal mechanism

A View from side Viewf rom above

Surface of
Fault Earth
plan T -------- ::- r ,
I) / '
' ' Fault
c plane
-' ',
e P <6!.
'o / "Beach ball"
FocaI sp re q

B Strike s l i p

Normal

'V
Reverse

Oblique reverse

http :1/earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/images/beachball. gif USGS, 1996

Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 54
Magnitude (continued)

Magnitude scales do not increase monotonically with earthquake size.

Saturation is evident as magnitude increases.

Moment magnitude (Mw) is the only magnitude scale which does not suffer from
the saturation problem for great earthquakes: M ~ Mw.

9
MS
8 MJMA
mB
7 ML
Magnitude

mb
6

5
M~Mw
4

2 Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Moment Magnitude M w

Saturation of magnitude scales

 55
Magnitude (continued)

Type Author Earthquake Earthquake Epicentre Reference Applicability Saturation

Size Depth distance Parameter
ML Richter, 1935 Small Shallow < 600 km Wave amplitude Regional
(California)
mb Gutenberg & Small-to- Deep > 600 km Wave amplitude World-wide
Richter, 1956 Medium (P-waves)
Ms Richter & Large Shallow > 2000 km Wave Amplitude World-wide
Gutenberg, (LR-waves)
1936
Mw Kanamori, All All All Seismic Moment World-wide n.a.
1977
 56
Magnitude (continued)

Earthquake magnitude and seismic energy

Earthquake magnitude can be used to quantify the amount of energy released

during fault rupture.

Relationships between magnitudes and seismic energy exist, e.g.,

log E 1.5 M S 11.8

where E is in ergs. As the magnitude increases by x units, the energy increases
by a factor of 31.6x.
 57
Magnitude (continued)
Magnitude-moment relationships
Seismic moment M0 measures the energy E released by fault rupture during
earthquakes. The following relationship is applicable to all source mechanisms:

E M0
2G
where is the stress drop = 1-2 and G is the shear modulus of the material
surrounding the fault.
Magnitude-moment relationships have been defined empirically.

Expressions correlating magnitude scales and fault rupture parameters (e.g.

fault rupture length, fault surface rupture, max. observed displacement) can
also be found in literature.
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)
 58
Magnitude (continued)

Energy Release
Magnitude (equivalent kilograms of explosive)

Earthquakes E n e rg y Equ i va l e n t s
10 56,000,000,000 ,000
Chile (1960)

9 Alaska (1964) 1,800,000,000,000

great earthquake
Krakatoa Eruption
near total destruction
8 massive loss of life New Madrid , MO (18 12) World's Largest Nuclear Test (USSR) 56,000,000,000
major earthquake San Franc isco, CA (1906)
Mount St. H elens Eruption
severe economic impact Charleston , SC ( 1886)
7 large loss of life Lorna Prieta, CA ( 1989) 1,800,000,000
strong earthquake Kobe, Japan (1995)
damage($ billion s) Northridge (1994) Hiroshima Atomic Bomb
6 loss of life 56,000,000
moderate earthquake
Long Island, NY (1884)
property damage
5 2,000 1,800,000
light earthquake Average Tornado
some property damage
4 12,000 56,000
minor earthquake
felt by humans Large Lightning Bolt
3 100,000 1,800
:: Oklahoma City Bombing

2 1,000,000 56

Number of Earthquakes per Year (worldwide) ........

Correlation between magnitude and energy release Fundamentalsof

Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 59
Magnitude (continued)
1 31 Ml'l!ewtite l m ct

, ( 10 km diame1er, 0 k m i C ve'IOcity)

Earth's dally receipt.of solar energy

1

10 Eartfl's annual heat flow Cllie, 1960 tJ,.b.9.51

U .S. Annual energy consumption
10 '
Ave m ge hurricane (10 day lifet me)
l Chile 19t!O (M9.5) . -

00
" 7 .5 x 1()25
10
r Alaska 1964 (M9
world's larg:esl2
. ) Average annual
102:5
Q)
rn.Jclear el<plo$lon , gt<>M I seismic
New Madric 1811-12 .I 'e".lergy release
I:' "' 1024
Cll
(MS.0-8.3)0 ,
-; E HUtf'IICane Mt. St. HeellS
L
-6 102:3
t:= {kinetic en e r-y) \ 5 x 1o25
l Megaton '.
j,o22 Ave age ann1.1al stable
conlinental oolsmtcity
.......
n u o l e r explosiOn
'
l'&asllll.l964 ( M . 9 <')
'' M.owl ! i < J I
1021 ' J C 1l'y l..l
Hirosh.ima.aJomic borw 2.. 1o2s St.Mell!fl!
'
1020
Eleetrt4:al e'flergy of
"' '
rypiea.l U'lunders1orm \
1 019
Average comado
1 0 18 (k inetic ene "9'/}
5 .0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
10 11 10.0"
Moment magnitucf.e (M )
Ughlning 81:>ll
1 01S.

2 .0 J .o 4.0 5.o s.o 7.0 a.o s.o 10.0 t1.o 1-2.0 1a.o
Equivale nt Moment M a nitude (M')

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)

Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai Correlation between magnitude and energy release EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 60
Intensity-Magnitude Relationships

Intensity-magnitude relationships are essential for the use of historical EQs for
which no instrumental record exists.

Most of the relationships exhibit significant scatter because of the inevitable bias
presented in the definition of intensity.

Relationship between local magnitude ML and epicentral intensity I0 for Southern

California:
M L 0.67 I 0 1.00
Relationship between mb and I0 which is useful in the central and eastern USA

m b 0.49 I 0 1.66
 61
Problem 1.3

Calculate the surface wave magnitude MS for an earthquake with IMM of VII, in an
area that can be approximated by a circle with radius 20 km for a site at the
borders of the given isoseismal map. This site is located in the Western United
States. You may use the equation given below. Compare the ensuing value with
the estimates from relationships with other magnitude scales. Calculate the fault
surface displacements. Assume that the earthquake mechanism is normal.

M S 1.10 0.62 I i 1.30 10 3 ri 1.62 logri

Assignment 1.3
 62
Source-to-Site Effects
The characteristics of seismic waves are altered as they
travel from the source to the site of civil engineering
works.

Local site conditions may affect significantly the

amplitude and frequency content of earthquake ground
motions.

Nonlinearity of soil response and topographical effects

may also significantly influence ground motion
parameters.

The most important topographical parameter influencing

local amplification of ground motion is the steepness of
a ridge.
 63
Source-to-Site Effects (continued)

Structure Conditions Type Size Quantitative

Predictability
Surface Sensitive to shape ratio, Amplification at top of Ranges up to a factor ofPoor: generally
topography largest for ratio between structure, rapid 30 but generally from under-predict size;
0.2 and 0.6 changes in amplitude about 2 to 20 may be due to ridge-
phase along slopes ridge interaction and
three-dimensional
effects
Shallow and wide Effects most pronounced Broadband One-dimensional models Good: away from
(depth/width near edges; largely amplification near may under-predict at edges one dimension
<0.25) sediment- vertically propagating edges due to higher frequencies by works well, near
filled valleys shear waves away from generation of surface about 2 near edges edges extend one
edges waves dimension to higher
frequencies
Deep and narrow Effects throughout valley Broadband One-dimensional models Fair: given detailed
(depth/width width amplification across may under-predict for a description of vertical
>0.25) sediment- valley due to whole wide bandwidth by about 2 and lateral changes
filled valleys valley modes to 4; resonant frequencies in material properties
shifted from one
dimensional analysis

Effects of topographic and subsurface irregularities

 64
Directional Effects

Directivity

Directivity occurs because fault ruptures are moving wave sources which travel
at a finite velocity along the fault and beyond.

The engineering implication of such directivity effects is that sites which are
equidistant from the source will be subjected to varying degrees of shaking from
the same earthquake.

Rupture directivity also causes the polarisation of ground motion.

Polarisation causes more intense shaking in the fault-normal direction than in

the fault-parallel direction.

Permanent ground deformation can also cause significant variation in near-field

ground motions.
 65
Directional Effects (continued)

As the fault rupture moves away from the epicentre it generates ground motion from
each segment of the breaking fault. The ground motion radiates outwards in all
directions and the seismic energy propagates through expanding wave fronts.

The over-riding of stress waves or constructive interference results in larger ground

motion magnification with shorter total duration in the direction of rupture
propagation.

Directivity effects on sites toward and away from direction of fault rupture
 66
Site Effects
Site resonance effect

The ratio between the period of the site and that of the building is important in estimating the
amplification effects; this is referred to as site resonance.

The site period TS for uniform single soil layer on bedrock can be estimated from the
relationship:
4H
TS
vS
where H and vS are the depth of soil layer and soil shear wave velocity, respectively.

Periods associated to higher modes can be determined as follows:

1 4H
TS,n
2 n 1 v S
in which n represents the n-th mode of vibration (n >1).

Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering (Kramer, 1996)

 67
Site Effects (continued)

Material Depth, H (m)

(type) 1< H < 6 7 < H < 15 H 15
Loose saturated sand 60 - -
Sandy clay 100 250 -
Fine saturated sand 110 - -
Clay/sand mix 140 - -
Dense sand 160 - -
Gravel with stone 180 - -
Medium gravel 200 - -
Clayey sand with gravel - 330 -
Medium gravel - - 780
Hard sandstone - - 1200

Shear wave velocity for foundation materials

 68
Site Effects (continued)

In alluvial surface layers vibrations are amplified due to multi-reflection effects.

The ratio of the amplitude ag at the ground surface to the amplitude at the lower
boundary layer (bedrock) ab is given by:
1

ag H H 2

cos 2 2
sin2

ab v s v s

in which is the natural circular frequency of the soil layer and is the wave-
propagation impedance:
s vs

b vb
where and v are the density and velocity of the surface layer (subscript s) and
lower layer (subscript b), respectively.
 69
Site Effects (continued)

It is recommended that the ratio between the building and site periods be as
distinct from unity as possible.

The nature of soil response in earthquakes depends on the amplitude, frequencies

and duration of motion.

High amplitude motion tends to cause inelasticity in the soil. Long duration shaking
increases the susceptibility to liquefaction of saturated and partially saturated soils.

When the soil responds elastically, the observed motions at the surface are
amplified proportional to the input ground motion.

For inelastic response, the soil absorbs large amounts of the energy corresponding
to large amplitude ground motions.

Large earthquake vibrations travelling through inelastic media will exhibit lower
accelerations and large displacements, corresponding to long periods.
 70
Dispersion and Incoherence

Dispersion and incoherence may be thought of as the result of the combination of

three effects:

i. Wave passage effect: represents the time delay in the arrival of seismic waves on the
ground surface at different stations or sites;

ii. Extended source effect: number and size of earthquake sources affecting the seismicity at a
site may cause delays in the arrival time of waves;

iii. Ray path effect: caused by reflection and refraction of waves through the soil during their
propagation, non-homogeneities of soil layers and other differences in local soil conditions
under the various stations.

Sources of local spatial variability of ground motions: wave passage effect (left),
extended source effect (middle) and ray path effects (right)
 71
Dispersion and Incoherence (continued)

The coherence of two ground motions is a measure of correlation of amplitudes

and phase angles at different frequencies.

Loss of coherence is strongly frequency-dependent.

Coherency tends to decrease with increasing distance and increasing frequency

of motion.

Dispersion and incoherence of earthquake ground motions do not generally affect

short span structures but they may significantly influence the dynamic (and static)
response of long span structures.

Significant spatial variability may often occur whenever the large plan dimensions
are combined with irregularities in the soil profile along the travel path.

For long distances and rather stiff structures totally uncorrelated ground motions
with appropriate frequency content should be considered.
 0.8 - - - - s : :}o'd:a:m=plng I
Coherency
c 0.6 ..
0 Treasure
Island
Q)
Q)
( )
(.)
<tl
<U
t5
C) 0.2 ""ECn"n"'""
Q. . , ( \I Yerba Buena
(J)
J
i- \\ _ Island
, , - , , .,..,_,.,

0
0 1 2 3 4
Period (sec) Cl

T re a su re i.sla n d
0. 15 - - - : : : : = _ : _ 1

0. 1

Q_Q5

i 0.9

0.8
0

1 . 0.0 5 0.7

. Q _1 5 11----c--- JL - - ;----; -- -- - 4
0
10 15

5 n m eCs e c )

0.3

0.2
0
--------------- Yeb 3 ------------------ I
0 . 15 1
0.1
0.1

l
0.00--------
S.0 0
------ 10.00 -== = = l-
.OO --------
S
Fr.queDC)'(bz)
---------2255.00

1989 Lorna Prieta Earthquake

.o. l
.Q . 1 5 l----
0
------:1,0:;-- - 15 - - 20;;-- - -25;;:- ----;30- - 35- :a
5 T im e (se-c )
 73
Coherency (continued)
1.2 . . . - - - - - - - - - . , . . - - - - - - - - ,
(a) Somenille(1988) (b)Abrahatnson ( 1992)

'1 '0 .8 -
'-"
;>..
0 .6

0.4

0 .2

oL ::::::::=::::., ------=::a-- . --
1.2 . . - - - - - - - - . . - - - - - - - - ,
(c) Abrahamson (1991)

0 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10 100 IOOO}o 100 1000
Distance (m) Distance (n1)
Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 74
Problem 1.4

What is the natural period of a layered soil with medium gravel of depth
40m? Is it safe to build a multi-storey building with fundamental period
of vibration equal to 1.5 seconds, as that displayed in the figure below,
on a site with the above soil type? Is this site more suitable for a
particular type of structure shown below?

Assignment 1.4
 75
Effects of Earthquakes
Comprehensive regional earthquake impact assessment requires an
interdisciplinary framework that encompasses the definition of the hazard event,
physical damage and social and economic consequences.

Such an integrated framework may provide the most credible estimates with
associated uncertainty that can stand scientific and political scrutiny.

Physical damage should be evaluated for the building stocks, lifeline systems,
transportation networks and critical facilities.

Short and long term effects should be considered in quantifying social and
economic consequences.
 Effects of Earthquakes (continued) 76

Hazard Physical Assessment Social and Economic

E ve n t Damage of I mp act Consequences
S h o rt Te r m L o n g Te r m
Emergenc y Shelt er, Housing
Tem p orary Hou sing

Direct Dam age, Price F iscal I m pact s ,

Transportation Inc reases, B us iness Economic B usiness Failure,
Interruption, Loss J ob Los s,
Systems Supply D is ruption Reconstruction

.->.a
.a-
..
f!
Infrastructure
Systems
->
c
:I Casualties, Fatalit ies,
Healt h Care Disrup t io n
Health

u-
"ii

e0n
Critical Social
Facilities Emergency Supp lies, Disru ptio n
Fam ily Separat ion

+
Integrated view of Hazard, Physical, Social and Economic Consequences
Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 77
Effects of Earthquakes (continued)

The fundamental components of earthquake loss assessment are:

i. Hazard or exposure;
ii. Inventory or assets;
iii. Vulnerability or fragility.

Hazard or exposure is the description of the earthquake ground motion.

Inventory comprises the assets that are subjected to the hazard.

Vulnerability or fragility is the sensitivity of the assets to damage from shaking.

Seismic risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability for a unit value of assets.
 78
Effects of Earthquakes (continued)

Seismic hazard (exposure)

Inventory (systems & value)

Vulnerability (sensitivity)

Fundamental components for earthquake loss estimations

Fundamentals of
Amr S. Elnashai EARTHQUAKE
Luigi Di Sarno ENGINEERING
 79
Effects of Earthquakes (continued)

Earthquake Effects

Direct Effects Indirect Effects

Ground Shaking Landslides

Ground Effects
Ground Cracking Tsunamis
Ground Effects

Ground Lurching Seiches

Avalanches
Rockfalls
Lateral Spreading
Landslides
Floods

Other Effects
Rockfalls
Structural Effects

Vibrations of Structures
Falling Objects
Contamination
Structural Damage
Structural Collapse

Direct and indirect earthquake effects

 80
Damage to Buildings and Lifelines
Typical damage to building structures
Masonry & RC Steel & Composite
Structural Observed damage Structural Observed damage
element/system element/system
Beams Shear failure, concrete cover Beams Flange and/or web yielding, local
spalling, rebar buckling buckling, brittle fracture
Columns Cracking, crushing, concrete cover Columns Flange yielding, local buckling, brittle
spalling, rebar buckling and pull-out, fracture, splice failure, member
flexural and shear failure, short buckling
column effect
Connections Cracking, crushing, rebar buckling Braces Local and member buckling, brittle
and pull-out, shear failure fracture
Structural Walls X-shaped cracks, crushing, rebar Connections Yielding, local buckling, brittle
and Infills buckling, overturning, rocking, fracture, weld cracks, excessive panel
sliding deformations, bolt rupture
Foundations Settlement, rebar pull-out, rocking, Foundations Bolt anchorage rupture, weld cracks
sliding, uplifting and fracture, pull-out, excessive base
plate deformations
Frames Soft and weak storeys, excessive Frames Soft and weak storeys, excessive
residual deformations, distress in residual deformations, distress in
diaphragms and connectors, diaphragms and connectors,
pounding, rocking, uplifting, fall of pounding, uplifting
parapets and brick chimneys
Some reconnaissance reports of damage are available at
https://www.ideals.uiuc.edu/handle/2142/8798
 81
Damage to Buildings and Lifelines (continued)

Typical types of damage to lifelines

Highways & Railways Gas & Electric Power Water & Waste Systems Communication Systems
Bending and shear failure Cracks and ruptures in Breakage of pipelines and Damage to electronic
of RC piers the network leakages in the network switching systems
Local and overall buckling Brittle fracture to Sloshing and suction damage Damage to phone lines
of steel and composite porcelain components in in metal storage tanks
piers. Brittle fracture of high-voltage transmission
welded components stations and substations
Pounding and unseating Damage to switching Elephant foot and shell Damage to telephone
at hinge seats and deck systems, cranes and buckling in metal tanks system buildings
supports tanks in power plants
Cracks, large gaps and/or Disruptions of electric Cracks and leaks in concrete Malfunctioning of computer
settlements in pavements power supply basins networks
of highways
Rails bending or rupture Fires and explosions due Malfunctioning of process Malfunctioning and/or
and train derails to gas leaks equipments associated with collapse of transmission
ground settlement or rocking towers

Reconnaissance reports of damage to lifelines are published by the Earthquake

Engineering Research Institute (http:\\www.eeri.org)
 82
Effects on the Ground
Surface rupture
Rupture of the ground surface may be induced by intense and long shaking as
well as direct fault ruptures. These may generate deep cracks and large gaps in
the ground.

The effects of major fault ruptures can be extreme on structures; buildings can be
ripped into parts. Cracks and gaps in the ground may also cause serious damage
to transportation systems and underground utility networks.

Earthquake-induced ground shaking may cause cracking of the ground surface in

soft, saturated soil.

Movements of soil or rock masses at right angles to cliffs and steep slopes occur.
Structures founded either in part or whole on such masses may experience
significant lateral and vertical deformations.

http://www.besafenet.org/main/default.aspx?it=1&tabid=49&itemid=1233

http://www.ce.washington.edu/~liquefaction/
selectpiclique/rivers/motagua.jpg
 83
Effects on the Ground (continued)

Surface rupture - Example (Nojima fault on Awaji Island)

Nine kilometres of surface rupture along the Noijma fault on Awaji Island was
observed in the 1995 earthquake in Japan.

Fault rupture observed in northern Awaji Island during the 1995 Kobe (Japan) earthquake: aerial
view with the fault rupture that cuts across the middle of the picture (left) and close-up showing
both vertical and horizontal offset of the Nojima fault (right)
 84
Effects on the Ground (continued)

Settlement and uplift

Fault ruptures may cause large vertical movements of the ground.

Granular soils are compacted by the ground shaking induced by earthquakes,

leading to subsidence. This type of ground movement affects dry, partially
saturated and saturated soils with high permeability.

Effects of ground settlements and uplift during the 1999 Kocaeli (Turkey) earthquake: flooding
(left) and artificial water falls (right)
 85
Effects on the Ground (continued)
Liquefaction
Excessive build-up of pore water pressure during earthquakes may lead to the
loss of stiffness and strength of soils. The excessive pore water pressure cause
ejection of the soil through holes in the ground, thus creating sand boils.
The ejection of soil causes loss of support of foundations and thus structures
tilt or sink into the ground.

Sand boils during the 1998 Adana-Ceyhan (Turkey) earthquake (left) and the
2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake (right)
 86
Effects on the Ground (continued)

Retaining walls may tilt or break from the fluid-like pressure of the liquefied zone.
Heavy building structures may tilt due to the loss of bearing strength by underlying
soil.

Soil liquefaction may cause the floating to the ground surface of pile foundations
with low axial loads and underground light-weight storage tanks.

Collapse due to soil liquefaction: settlement and tilting of buildings in the 1964 Niigata (Japan)
earthquake (left); soil boils and cracks at pier foundations of Nishinomiya-ko bridge in the 1995 Kobe
(Japan) earthquake (right)
 87
Effects on the Ground (continued)
Landslides

Landslides include several types of ground failure and movement which are
generated by the loss of shear strength in the soil.

The scale of such landslides on natural slopes can be large enough to devastate
entire villages or towns, such as the Huascaran Avalanche triggered by the Per
earthquake (1970, Mw = 7.8).

Most of the more than 1,000 landslides and rockfalls occurred in the epicentral zone
in the Santa Cruz Mountains during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.

In the 1994 Northridge earthquake landslides that occurred in Santa Monica, along
the Pacific Coast Highway, caused damage to several family houses built on the
cliffs overlooking the ocean.

Relatively few landslides were triggered by the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake in

Japan. This is partly due to the fact that the earthquake occurred during the dry
season and the affected area is mainly flat.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8517378.stm
 88
Effects on the Ground (continued)

In the Kashmir earthquake of October 8, 2005, land-sliding and critical slope

stability was a widespread problem that ranged from limited slumping of a
superficial nature to complete failure of entire mountain sides.

Effects of a large landslide in Santa Monica in the 1994 Northridge (California) earthquake (left) and
satellite view of extensive land-sliding during the 2005 Kashmir (Pakistan) earthquake in the Neela
Dandi Mountain (right)
 89
Effects on the Ground (continued)

Landslide after the M7.7 El

Salvador Earthquake on
January 13, 2001.

944 people lost their lives,

about 585 of deaths occurred
in Santa Tecla where the
landslide occurred.

http://robz92.wordpress.com/2011/01/13/10-years-later/
 90
Problem 1.5
The 17 August 1999 Kocaeli (Mw=7.4) and 12 November 1999 Dzce (Mw=7.2)
earthquakes were the largest natural disasters of the twentieth century in
Turkey after the 1939 Erzincan earthquake. These earthquakes caused severe
damage and collapse especially of building structures. The figure below
shows damage observed in the cities of Adapazari and Izmit (Kocaeli
earthquake). Comment on the relationship between the observed damage and
the earthquake-induced ground effects illustrated earlier.

Damage observed during the 17 August 1999 Kocaeli in Adapazari (left) and Izmit in Turkey (right)
 91
Indirect Effects (Tsunamis)

Long-period sea waves caused by rapid vertical seafloor movements by fault

rupture during earthquakes are called tsunamis.

2011 Tohoku, Japan Earthquake

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12725646
 92
Human and Financial Losses

During the twentieth century, over 1,200 destructive earthquakes occurred world-
wide and caused damage estimated at more than $1.0 trillion.

Monetary losses from earthquakes are increasing rapidly.

Between 1990 and 1999 annual earthquake losses were estimated at $20 billion.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) released a study estimating

annualized earthquake losses in the USA to be $4.4 billion, with California, Oregon
and Washington accounting for $3.3 billion of the total estimated amount.

In the USA, 39 out of 50 states (nearly 80%) are at high risk from devastating
earthquakes. The Central and Eastern States in the USA now recognise earthquakes
as a major threat.
 93
Human and Financial Losses (continued)

It is estimated that on average 10,000 people per year were killed by earthquakes
between 1900 and 1999.

Between 1900 and 2007, deaths due to earthquakes totalled about 1.8 million,
caused by 1,250 earthquakes.

300,000 10 300,000 10
Kansu, China (M S=8.5) Tangshan, China (MS=7.8)

250,000 250,000
8 8

Magnitude (MS)
200,000 200,000
Deaths (No.)

Magnitude (MS)

Deaths (No.)
6 6
150,000 150,000
4 4
` Deaths Magnitude
100,000 Deaths Magnitude 100,000

2 2
50,000 50,000

0 0 0 0

1978

1989
1990

1998
1971
1976

1980
1983
1987

1992
1994

2001
2005
1906

1923

1939

1950
1915

1948

1960

1963

1970
1964

Year Year

Death toll due to earthquakes: 1900-1970 (left) and 1971-2005 (right)

 94
Human and Financial Losses (continued)

Several reconnaissance reports have shown that building collapses caused 75%
of earthquake fatalities during the last century.

Earthquake damage resulting in the collapse of monuments, historical places of

worship and stately buildings represents an irreplaceable loss in terms of cultural
heritage, while their restoration costs exceed by far the gross national product
(GNP) of many affected nations.

One of the most severe consequences of earthquakes is the cost of recovery and
reconstruction.

It is instructive to note, however, that the absolute financial loss is less critical to
an economy than the loss as a percentage of the GNP.
 95
Human and Financial Losses (continued)

The business interruption issue has emerged lately as a major concern to

industry and hence to communities.

Another aspect of the economic impact is the loss of market share which results
from interruption to production in industrial facilities and difficulties in re-claiming
the share of the market that the affected business previously held.

Country Earthquake Year Loss ($ bn) GNP ($ bn) Loss (% GNP)

Nicaragua Managua 1972 2.0 5.0 40.0
Guatemala Guatemala City 1976 1.1 6.1 18.0
Romania Bucharest 1977 0.8 26.7 3.0
Yugoslavia Montenegro 1979 2.2 22.0 10.0
Italy Campania 1980 45.0 661.8 6.8
Mexico Mexico City 1985 5.0 166.7 3.0
Greece Kalamata 1986 0.8 40.0 2.0
El Salvador San Salvador 1986 1.5 4.8 31.0
USSR Armenia 1988 17.0 566.7 3.0
Iran Manjil 1990 7.2 100.0 7.2

Earthquake financial losses