MECH 215 Instrumentation and

Measurement
Week 7, Lectures 1&2
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

February 5, 2009 Page 1

 Vibration Transducers

Three main classes:

Displacement transducers (contact and non-
contact)
Velocity transducer (electro mechanical,
piezoelectric)
Accelerometers (piezoelectric)
Force and frequency considerations usually
dictate the type of measurements and applications
that are best suited for each transducer

February 5, 2009 Page 2

 Vibration Transducers

The following graphs show the relationship

between different transducer types in terms of
response amplitude and frequency.

While it may appear as if the velocity transducer is

the best compromise, transducers are usually
selected to optimize sensitivity over a given
frequency range.

February 5, 2009 Page 3

 Vibration Transducers

Displacement - more sensitive at lower frequencies

Relative Amplitude Response

10

1.0

0.1

0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000

Frequency
February 5, 2009 Page 4
 Vibration Transducers

Accelerometers - more sensitive at higher frequencies

Relative Amplitude Response

10

1.0

0.1

0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000

Frequency
February 5, 2009 Page 5
 Vibration Transducers

Velocity - not always the best compromise

Relative Amplitude Response

10

1.0

0.1

0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000

Frequency
February 5, 2009 Page 6
 Vibration Transducers
Relative Amplitude Response

10 Acceleration

Velocity
1.0

Displacement

0.1

0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000

Frequency

February 5, 2009 Page 7

 Vibration Transducers
Relative Amplitude Response

10 Acceleration

Velocity
1.0

Displacement

0.1

0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000

Frequency

February 5, 2009 Page 8

 Vibration Transducers

Frequency Ranges of Application

General guidelines for transducer selection.
displacement < 1000 Hz (1500 Hz)
velocity
(electromechanical) 10 - 1000 Hz
(piezolectric) 10 - 2000 Hz
accelerometer > 1.0 Hz

February 5, 2009 Page 9

 Vibration Transducers

Type of motion sensed:

displacement transducers
- relative motion
velocity transducers and accelerometers
- absolute motion

February 5, 2009 Page 10

 Displacement
Potentiometers

Measure linear or rotary displacement/position.

Wire-wound or variable electrical resistance
transducer relies on an increase in electrical
resistance with displacement.
Resolution is limited by the number of turns of
conductor per unit distance
Conductive plastic potentiometers eliminate the
stepwise output.

February 5, 2009 Page 11

 Displacement

February 5, 2009 Page 12

 Displacement
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)

AC output with amplitude proportional to

displacement of movable core.
Core movement causes a mutual inductance in
the secondary coils of the transformer with an AC
voltage applied to the primary coil.

February 5, 2009 Page 13

 Displacement

February 5, 2009 Page 14

 Displacement

Due to harmonic distortion in the supply voltage

and the two secondary coils not being exactly
identical, the output voltage with the coil centred is
not zero.
It reaches a minimum.

February 5, 2009 Page 15

 Displacement

Sensitivity (within the linear range) depends on

the number of turns in the primary and secondary
coils, the root-mean-square current in the primary
coil and the physical size of the LVDT.

February 5, 2009 Page 16

 Displacement

The dynamic response of an LVDT is related to

the frequency of the applied AC voltage.
The excitation voltage should have a frequency of
at least 10 times the maximum frequency of the
measured input.
Typical errors can be as low as 0.05 % (0.0001
mm).
Angular displacement (40) can also be made
using a RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer).
February 5, 2009 Page 17
 Displacement

February 5, 2009 Page 18

 Displacement
Eddy Current Based Non-Contact Displacement
Transducers
operate on eddy current principles
usually consist of probe, cable, oscillator signal
demodulator
probe tip emits a magnetic field
conductive material brought close
eddy current induced at the surface of the material
energy extracted from excitation circuitry
excitation amplitude varies linearly over short range
February 5, 2009 Page 19
 Eddy Current Transducers

Modulated Carrier
Output
Vibration Direction

Time

Vibration Amplitude
Demodulator

Time
Eddy Current Probe Operation
February 5, 2009 Page 20
 Eddy Current Transducers

Applications
fluid film radial or thrust bearings
indicate shaft motion and position relative to
the bearing.
radial shaft displacement
seal clearances
used in pairs 90 apart to show shaft dynamic
motion (orbit) within its bearing.

February 5, 2009 Page 21

 Eddy Current Transducers
Output

Vibration Amplitude
Vibration Direction

Time
Y Direction Displacement

Y Output

Vibration

Direction X Output

X Direction Displacement

February 5, 2009 Page 22

 Eddy Current Transducers

Construction and Operation

probe excited at a frequency of 1.5 kHz
excitation produces magnetic field radiating from
probe tip
eddy currents are induced into conductive
material close to the tip
energy extracted from probe is proportional to
the distance to the conductive material

February 5, 2009 Page 23

 Eddy Current Transducers

Construction and Operation (Contd)

as the distance from tip to conductive material
is varied, a proportional DC voltage is produced
linear range is limited
proper calibration is essential
conductive material essential

February 5, 2009 Page 24

 Eddy Current Transducers

Calibration (Contd)
The calibration curve has three regions:
1 - probe in contact with, or very near the shaft
(0 volts DC output).
2 - linear region, change in gap distance produces
a proportional change in DC output.
(Typical linear gap - 0.25 mm to 2.25 mm)
(industry standard - 8 volts/mm output)
3 - as supply voltage is reached the system looses
constant proportionality.
February 5, 2009 Page 25
 Eddy Current Transducers

Supply Voltage
Output (Volts)

e
ang
r R
e a
Lin

Gap Distance

Calibration
February 5, 2009 Page 26
 Eddy Current Transducers

Calibration (Contd)
System Sensitivity = Slope of Linear Part of Curve
= Change in Output
Change in Gap
probe linearity depends on target
- conductivity
- porosity.
- surface condition (cracks, rust, pits, etc)
temperature and pressure influences
capable of both static and dynamic measurements

February 5, 2009 Page 27

 Eddy Current Transducers

Installation
secure, rigid mounting essential
adaptors useful
minimum tip clearance of two times the
diameter from any surface
check resonant frequency of probe extensions
do not locate probes too close together
take care when handling cables

February 5, 2009 Page 28

 Eddy Current Transducers

Installation - Clearance
February 5, 2009 Page 29
 Eddy Current Transducers

Installation - Adapter
February 5, 2009 Page 30
 Eddy Current Transducers

A Bently Nevada proximity probe

February 5, 2009 Page 31

 Velocity Transducers

Two types:
electro mechanical
piezoelectric

February 5, 2009 Page 32

 Velocity Transducers
Electromechanical:
a permanent magnet supported by springs
moves within a coil of wire
movement is proportional to force on sensor
voltage is proportional to force

Piezoelectric:
acceleration sensing element is integrated to
produce output proportional to velocity

February 5, 2009 Page 33

 Velocity Transducers

Construction and Operation (Electromechanical)

magnet, spring, damping fluid, coil
designed to have a very low natural frequency
good sensitivity typically above 10 Hz.
high frequency response is limited by the inertia
of the system (1,500 Hz)
self generating device, produces a low
impedance signal, no need for additional signal
conditioning.

February 5, 2009 Page 34

 Velocity Transducers

Electromechanical Probe
February 5, 2009 Page 35
 Velocity Transducers

Amplitude Response

Natural 10 Hz Frequency
Frequency

Electromechanical Probe - Sensitivity

February 5, 2009 Page 36
 Velocity Transducers

Limitations
Temperature
- damping fluid may boil at high temperature
Mechanical reliability
- the moving parts become worn over time
Orientation
- limited to only vertical or horizontal mounting
Narrow frequency range limit
- 10 Hz to 1.5 kHz.
Phase shift at low frequencies
- shift in phase relationship may occur below
50 Hz. (will affect analysis work)
February 5, 2009 Page 37
 Acceleration
Accelerometers
most commonly used acceleration
transducers
contain one or more piezoelectric crystal
elements (natural quartz or man made
ceramics)
produce voltage when stressed (tension,
compression or shear)
voltage generated is proportional to the
applied force.
February 5, 2009 Page 38
 Vibration Transducers
Accelerometers, modal hammer and power
supply

Hammer and force

Accelerometers and power supply
gauge
February 5, 2009 Page 39
 Accelerometers

Shear

Electrical
Output

Tension / Compression

Accelerometer Operation
February 5, 2009 Page 40
 Accelerometers

Application
linear response over a wide frequency range
(0.5 Hz to 20 kHz) (up to 50 kHz)
broad dynamic amplitude range
signal can be electronically integrated to
velocity and displacement
resistant to temperature changes
reliable - no moving parts
self generating output signal
February 5, 2009 Page 41
 Accelerometers

Application (Contd)
variety of sizes
insensitive to non-axial vibration (< 3% of main
axis of sensitivity)
all orientations allowed

Note: Signals contain many frequency components.

lots of information available but it may be
difficult to extract this information.

February 5, 2009 Page 42

 Accelerometers

Operation
piezoelectric crystal mechanically stressed as a
result of force (acceleration) applied to sensor
mass - crystal - sensor base - structure
crystal produces an electrical output proportional
to force (acceleration)
absolute acceleration of sensor is output

February 5, 2009 Page 43

 Accelerometers

Compression Mode Accelerometer

February 5, 2009 Page 44
 Accelerometers

Shear Mode Accelerometer

February 5, 2009 Page 45
 Accelerometers

Delta Shear Type Accelerometer

February 5, 2009 Page 46
 Accelerometers

Flexure Mode Accelerometer

February 5, 2009 Page 47
 Accelerometers
Analogue integrator and power supply

February 5, 2009 Page 48

 Accelerometers

Performance Characteristics
Dynamic Range:
affects low and high limits of acceleration levels
measurable
lower limit set by noise from cables, connections,
amplifiers, etc. (0.01 m/sec2)
upper limit set by accelerometers structural
strength (50K to 100 K m/sec2)

February 5, 2009 Page 49

 Accelerometers

Sensitivity
high output requires large piezoelectric assembly
amplifiers can boost the signal
mass will affect light or flexible structures
accelerometer mass should be < 1/10 the mass
of the vibrating part being sampled.
accelerometers operate below their first natural
frequency

February 5, 2009 Page 50

 Accelerometers

Sensitivity (contd)
relatively flat linear range below natural frequency
linear to 1/5 or 1/3 of the natural frequency
not capable of true DC measurements
frequencies down to 0.003 Hz with special
equipment

February 5, 2009 Page 51

 Accelerometers
Amplitude Response

Natural Frequency
3

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Forcing Frequency
Natural Frequency

Accelerometer Sensitivity
February 5, 2009 Page 52
 Accelerometers

Accelerometer Sensitivity vs. Natural Frequency

February 5, 2009 Page 53
 Accelerometers

Installation
Rigid mounts (studs or bolts)
permanent placement (usually)
best for high frequency measurements
Magnetic mounts
movable
lower frequency response
Hand held measurements
possible variation between measurements
general vibration surveys

February 5, 2009 Page 54

 Accelerometers

Frequency Range vs. Installation Type

February 5, 2009 Page 55
 Accelerometers

Frequency Range vs. Installation Type

February 5, 2009 Page 56
 Vibration Transducer Mounting

Mounting affects the frequency response curve

Common mounting methods and frequency limits
for a 100 mV/g accelerometer:
Hand-held (500 Hz)
Magnetic (2,000 Hz)
Adhesive (2,500 4,000 Hz)
Bee wax (5,000 Hz)
Threaded stud (6,000 10,000 Hz)

February 5, 2009 Page 57

 Vibration Transducer Mounting
Natural frequencies of mounted accelerometers
stud
bees wax
adhesive
magnet
amplitude

hand held

100 Frequency, Hz 10 000

February 5, 2009 Page 58

 Accelerometers
Limitations
Temperature (Ambient and Fluctuations)
good up to 250C (400C)
piezoelectric material depolarizes
sensitivity is permanently altered
recalibration necessary
temperature transients also affect output
shear type least sensitive
use a heat sink or mica washer
February 5, 2009 Page 59
 Accelerometers

Accelerometer Sensitivity vs. Ambient Temperature

Fluctuations
February 5, 2009 Page 60
 Accelerometers

Accelerometer Sensitivity vs. Transient Temperature

Changes
February 5, 2009 Page 61
 Accelerometers

Limitations (contd)
Humidity
sensitive to humidity but usually well sealed
cables and connections are weak links
Cable Noise
Ground loops - current flows in the cable
shield because the accelerometer and the
analyzer are grounded at different potentials
electrically isolate sensor
February 5, 2009 Page 62
 Accelerometers

Sensor
Analyzer

Machine

Ground Loop

Machine and Analyzer grounded at different potentials

February 5, 2009 Page 63

 Accelerometers

Limitations (contd)
Tribo-electric Noise
induced by mechanical motion of cable
use graphited accelerometer cable
be sure cables are held in place

February 5, 2009 Page 64

 Accelerometers
Limitations (contd)
Electromagnetic Noise
large magnetic fields can induce noise in cables
double shielding will help
Base Strains
if mounting surface is strained the output will be
altered
thick accelerometer bases minimize this effect
shear type are less sensitive
February 5, 2009 Page 65
 Accelerometers

Limitations (contd)
Nuclear Radiation
Gamma radiation up to 10,000 Rad/hr
(2,000,000 Rads total)
Magnetic Fields
very low sensitivities
<0.01 m/s2 per 1,000 Guass

February 5, 2009 Page 66

 Accelerometers
Limitations (contd)
Corrosive Substances
resistant casings
Acoustic Noise
relatively insensitive
flexible structures affected
Transverse Vibrations
< 3 or 4% of main axis sensitivity
transverse resonant frequency 1/3 of main
axis resonant frequency
February 5, 2009 Page 67
 Accelerometers

Limitations (contd)
Calibration
remain constant for long periods
after dropping or high temperature
exposure recalibration should be done
use a known amplitude & frequency source
or an accelerometer which has a
known calibration (new)

February 5, 2009 Page 68

 Next Time

Force Measurement, Load Cells and

Dynamometers

February 5, 2009 Page 69