MECH 215 Instrumentation and

Measurement
Week 6, Lecture 2
Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 1

 Resistance Strain Gauges

For an electrical conductor,

eL
R=
Ac

R = resistance
e = electrical resistivity
L = Length of conductor
Ac = Cross-sectional area of conductor

January 16, 2009 Page 2

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Normal stress along the axis of a conductor will

increase the length and decrease the cross-
sectional area.
This will change the resistance of the conductor.
We can represent the change in resistance in
terms of Poissons ratio (which relates axial strain
to lateral strain and therefore incorporates the
effect of the cross-sectional area) using

January 16, 2009 Page 3

 Resistance Strain Gauges

d e
dR dL
= (1 + 2 p ) +
R L e

This equation shows that changes in conductor

resistance are due to
1. The change in conductor geometry (length and
cross-sectional area).
2. The change in the value of the resistivity.

January 16, 2009 Page 4

 Resistance Strain Gauges

The change in resistivity of a conductor under

strain is called the piezoresistance effect.
1 d e / e
1 =
E m dL / L
1 = piezoresistance coefficient

Therefore, the change in resistance can be

expressed as,

January 16, 2009 Page 5

 Resistance Strain Gauges

(1 + 2 p + 1 E m )
dR dL
=
R L
Single straight conductors will not normally provide
meaningful resolution.
Several lengths of conductor arranged in parallel
along the axis of the strain and connected in series
are a better solution.

January 16, 2009 Page 6

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Sensitive to strains in Axial direction

Much less sensitive to

strains in lateral
direction

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 Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 8

 Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 9

 Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 10

 Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 11

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Single Plane Type

Stacked Type

January 16, 2009 Page 12

 Resistance Strain Gauges
Metallic resistance strain gauges are made using a
photo-etching process and mounted on a plastic
backing.
Gauge length is important.
Strain is usually measured where stress is a
maximum and stress gradients are high.
A gauge length that is too long will introduce errors.

January 16, 2009 Page 13

 Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding
Plastic backing provides electrical isolation from the
test specimen.
The adhesive bond must serve as a mechanical
coupling between the gauge and the specimen.
If the adhesive shrinks during curing it will induce
an apparent strain.
Gauges are designed to have maximum sensitivity
in the axial direction and minimum sensitivity in the
transverse direction.

January 16, 2009 Page 14

 Gauge Factor - GF
The gauge factor is empirically determined and
relates change in resistance to strain (total change
in resistance under a given calibration loading).
R / R R / R
GF = =
L / L a
Gauge factor is dependent on the Poissons ratio
for the gauge material and its piezoresistivity.
Most strain gauge material has a Poissons ratio of
approximately 0.3 and the resulting gauge factor is
about 2.
January 16, 2009 Page 15
 Strain Sensitivity
Because calibration loading generally creates a
biaxial strain field, the lateral sensitivity of the
gauge influences the final result.
Therefore, it should be noted that the sensitivity to
normal strain for a given material used in a gauge is
not the same as the gauge factor.
The % error in strain sensitivity of a strain gauge
mounted on any material is.
t ( L / a + p 0 )
eL = 100
1 p 0 t
January 16, 2009 Page 16
 Strain Sensitivity

t ( L / a + p 0 )
eL = 100
1 p 0 t

a , L = axial and lateral strain

p 0 = Poissons ratio of material where the gauge
factor was measured (usually steel, = 0.285)
e L = error as a percentage of axial strain
t = lateral (transverse) sensitivity of the gauge
January 16, 2009 Page 17
 Resistance Strain Gauges
Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
A Wheatstone bridge is normally needed to detect
the small changes in resistance that are output from
the strain gauge.
A typical strain gauge on steel will have a sensitivity
of 10-6 /(kN/m2).
Commercially available equipment can measure
changes in gauge resistance of less than 0.0005
(0.000001).

January 16, 2009 Page 18

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Typical Wheatstone
bridge

Bridge output:
(R1 + R )R 4 R 3 R 2
E 0 + E 0 = E i
(R1 + R + R 2 )(R 3 + R 4 )

January 16, 2009 Page 19

 Resistance Strain Gauges

(R1 + R )R 4 R 3 R 2
E 0 + E 0 = E i
(
1 R + R + R 2 )( R 3 + R )
4

E 0 = bridge output at initial conditions

E 0 = bridge output after deflection
R = change in strain gauge resistance

January 16, 2009 Page 20

 Resistance Strain Gauges

If initially, all the fixed resistors and the strain gauge

resistance are equal, and the bridge is balanced
such that E0 = 0,
then the gauge is subjected to a state of strain,
The output voltage, E0, can be represented as,

E 0 R / R R / R
=
Ei 4 + 2 ( R / R ) 4

January 16, 2009 Page 21

 Resistance Strain Gauges

If R / R << 1
R / R
and knowing GF =

GF = R / R

E 0 GF GF
=
Ei 4 + 2 GF 4

E 0 R / R GF

Ei 4 4

January 16, 2009 Page 22

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Shunt balancing is best for strain gauge applications.

January 16, 2009 Page 23
 Resistance Strain Gauges
Practical Considerations in Strain Measurement
Strategic placement of multiple gauges in a
Wheatstone bridge can increase bridge output and
cancel some ambient effects and unwanted
components of strain.
Consider the case when all four resistors in a
bridge circuit are active strain gauges.

January 16, 2009 Page 24

 Resistance Strain Gauges

If R1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4
and there is zero initial strain, then,
E 0
= ( 1GF1 2 GF 2 + 4 GF 4 3 GF 3 )
1
Ei 4

See page 437 in text for details.

If a matched set of gauges are purchased such that

GF1 = GF 2 = GF 3 = GF 4

January 16, 2009 Page 25

 Resistance Strain Gauges
E 0
Then =
GF
( 1 2 + 4 3 )
Ei 4

This is the basic working equation for a strain

gauge bridge circuits using multiple gauges.
Equal strains on opposite bridge arms sum
together and equal strains on adjacent bridge arms
cancel.
This characteristic can be used to increase gauge
output, provide temperature compensation, and/or
cancel unwanted components of strain.

January 16, 2009 Page 26

 Resistance Strain Gauges
Bridge Constants
The bridge constant is defined as the ratio of actual
bridge output to the output of a single gauge
sensing the maximum strain (assuming all other
bridge resistances remain fixed).

GF
( 1 2 + 4 3 ) E 0 GF
4 or
max GF Ei 4
4

January 16, 2009 Page 27

 Resistance Strain Gauges
Apparent Strain
Any change in strain gauge resistance that is not
due to the component of strain being measured.
To remove the effects due to bending, gauges can
be mounted on the top and bottom of a beam and
connected to any two opposite bridge arms.

January 16, 2009 Page 28

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Both bridges will experience the same axial

strains, but opposite strains due to bending.
Because of the bridge arrangement the axial
strains will sum and the bending strains will cancel.

E 0 1 = a 1 + b1
=
GF
( 1 + 4 )
Ei 4 4 = a4 + b4

a = axial strain
b = bending strain

January 16, 2009 Page 29

 Resistance Strain Gauges

Therefore, E 0 GF GF
= 2 a = a
Ei 4 2

E 0 GF
Maximum strain is, = a
Ei 4

Therefore, the bridge constant (actual output /

maximum output) in this case is 2.

January 16, 2009 Page 30

 Resistance Strain Gauges

January 16, 2009 Page 31

 Temperature Compensation

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January 16, 2009 Page 33
 Next Time

Displacement, Velocity, Vibration and Acceleration

Measurement

January 16, 2009 Page 34