Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930

Radioactive waste management practices in India

K. Raj , K.K. Prasad, N.K. Bansal
Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India
Received 11 March 2004; received in revised form 26 September 2005; accepted 28 September 2005

Abstract
Concern for the environment and establishment of radiation protection goals have been among the major priorities in planning of Indias nuclear
energy programme. In the Indian nuclear fuel cycle, right from inception, a closed loop option has been adopted where spent fuel is reprocessed
to recover plutonium and unused uranium. The emphasis has been to recover actinides, individual fission products and recycle them back to the
fuel cycle or use them for various industrial applications. The development of innovative treatment processes for low and intermediate level wastes
in recent times has focused on volume reduction as one of the main objectives. In the case of high-level liquid waste, vitrification in borosilicate
matrix is being practiced using induction heated metallic melters at industrial scale plants at Tarapur and Trombay.
Currently, there are seven operating near surface disposal facilities co-located with power/research reactors in various parts of the country for
disposal of low and intermediate level solid wastes. These are routinely subjected to monitoring and safety/performance assessment. An interim
storage facility is operational for the storage of vitrified high-level waste overpacks for 30 years or more. Nation wide screening of potential
regions and evaluation of rock mass characteristics is in progress for ongoing geological repository programme. Preliminary design and layout of
an underground research laboratory/repository has also been initiated.
A research programme is underway for long-term evaluation of vitrified waste product under simulated repository conditions. Research is
also directed towards development of advanced technologies for waste processing as well as conditioning in vitreous and ceramic matrices. The
Department of Atomic Energy with participation of the Indian industry has developed all essential remote-handling gadgets required for operation
and maintenance of waste management system and assemblies including decommissioning.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The safe and effective management of radioactive waste has
been given utmost importance from the very inception of nuclear
industry in India and it covers the entire range of activities from
handling, treatment, conditioning, transport, storage and finally
disposal. Radioactive waste is generated at various stages of the
nuclear fuel cycle, which includes the mining and milling of
uranium ore, fuel fabrication, reactor operation and spent fuel
reprocessing. Besides these sources, radioactive waste is pro-
duced as a result of the ever-increasing use of radioisotopes in
medicine, industry and agriculture. Radioactive waste manage-
ment is also associated with decontamination and decommis-
sioning activities since some of the facilities in India like power
plants, fuel fabrication plants and reprocessing plants are now
in operation for more than three decades.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kraj@magnum.barc.ernet.in (K. Raj).
While sources and varieties of radioactive waste are many, the
underlying objective that governs the management of all such
waste is protection of man and environment, now as well as in
the future. In India, the necessary codes and safety guidelines
for achieving this objective are provided by the Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board (AERB) in conformity with the principles of
radiation protection as formulated by the International Commis-
sion on Radiation Protection (ICRP). Indian waste management
facilities are co-located with waste generating facilities, i.e.,
nuclear reactor, reprocessing plant and fuel fabrication facility,
so as to avoid any undue radiation exposure during transporta-
tion of waste from one place to another.
As a waste management philosophy, utmost emphasis is given
to waste minimization at all stages of design, operation and main-
tenance. For effective confinement, volume reduction is a key
factor in the choice of technologies for use in radioactive waste
management plants. The development of innovative treatment
processes for low and intermediate level wastes in recent times
has focused on volume reduction as one of the main objec-
tives. The concentrates obtained from the primary treatment

0029-5493/$ see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.09.036
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
processes are conditioned prior to disposal. The technology for
conditioning in suitable matrices is now quite mature and well
established.
In the case of high-level liquid waste (HLW), direct immo-
bilization in a vitreous matrix like borosilicate glass is being
practiced using induction heated metallic melters. Adoption
of joule heated ceramic melters for enhanced throughput is
in the advanced stage. These vitrification facilities are housed
and operated in indigenously designed and built hot cells with
adequate remote viewing and handling arrangement. The devel-
opment work of improved crystalline matrix is also continuing.
Considerable research and development is being carried out for
partitioning of minor actinides with the objective of recycle and
transmutation. Research is also directed towards development
of advanced technologies for vitrification and improved waste
forms.
Extensive experience is available in the design, construction
and operation of near surface disposal facilities for low and inter-
mediate level solid waste as well as for interim storage facilities
for vitrified high-level waste. A programme for ultimate disposal
of HLW in deep geological repository is also being pursued.
In parallel, a research programme for long term evaluation of
vitrified waste product under simulated geological disposal con-
ditions is underway.
2. National framework for radioactive waste
management
The national policy for radioactive waste management is
based upon universally adopted philosophy of: (i) delay and
decay of short lived radionuclides, (ii) concentration and con-
tainment of radioactivity as much as practicable, and (iii) dilu-
tion and dispersion of low-level activity to the environment well
below the nationally accepted levels which are in line with inter-
national practices (AERB, in press).
2.1. Policy
The national policy for radioactive waste management is
broadly as follows:
(a) Discharge through gaseous, liquid and terrestrial routes are
as low as reasonably achievabletechnical, economic and
social factors taken into account.
(b) Low and intermediate level solid/solidified waste are
emplaced in near surface shallow land repository, specially
engineered for this purpose.
(c) High-level and alpha contaminated liquid waste from spent
fuel processing and other radio metallurgical operations are
immobilized in a suitable matrix and stored in an interim
storage facility with appropriate cooling and surveillance
for a period as necessary. Thereafter, these solidified waste
products will be emplaced in a suitably engineered deep
geological repository.
(d) Alpha contaminated waste not qualifying for near surface
disposal is provided suitable interim storage pending its dis-
posal in a deep geological repository.
915
(e) Spent radiation sources are either returned to the original
supplier or handed over to a radioactive waste management
agency identified by the regulatory body.
(f) Co-location of near surface disposal facility with the nuclear
installations.
(g) In the Indian context, spent fuel is a resource material
and needs to be processed for recovery and recycle of
fissile material. Each reprocessing plant has, therefore, a
co-located vitrification plant.
(h) The regulatory body determines the period for which active
control of the shallow land repository (like monitoring,
surveillance, remedial work) of the repository should be
maintained by the waste management agency. Thereafter,
the passive control (like permanent markers and land use
restrictions) will be passed on to the Central Government,
the agency for institutional control. Institutional control may
span a period of 300 years comprising, typically, 100 years
of active control and 200 years of passive control so as to
allow decay of most of the radionuclides present in the waste
rendering them innocuous.
3. Classication of waste
Classification of waste is very important from safety as well
as process consideration point of view. Important parameters,
which are taken into account include physical, chemical, radio-
logical and biological properties as well as criticality aspects and
origin of waste. Classification of waste into different categories
is useful in their segregation, selection of appropriate treatment
process, storage and disposal.
Radioactive wastes are generated in various forms like solid,
liquid or gaseous. The concentration of radioactivity also varies
depending upon the source of generation. Accordingly, radioac-
tive liquid waste streams are commonly classified as exempt
waste, low-level waste (373.7 106 Bq/L), intermediate-level
waste (3.7 106 3.7 1011 Bq/L) and high-level waste (above
3.7 1011 Bq/L). The concentrations of long-lived radionu-
clides and tritium are also taken into account while classifying
the liquid wastes. Solid radioactive wastes are also classified
as compressible or non-compressible and combustible or
non-combustible depending upon the corresponding physical
nature. They are further divided based on type and content of
radioactivity.
4. Basic steps in radioactive waste management
Various stages of management of radioactive waste as
adopted in India are shown in Fig. 1. These include waste char-
acterization, treatment, conditioning, storage, disposal, surveil-
lance/monitoring, etc. Various options available for treatment,
conditioning, storage and disposal of these wastes depending on
their physical forms are also indicated.
The descriptions presented herein are intended to be general
and apply to the management of radioactive waste from mining
and milling, fuel-fabrication, nuclear power generation, medical
and industrial application of radioactive materials and environ-
mental restoration. They apply to radioactive waste generated
916 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 1. Management of radioactive waste.
during the operational period as well as during the decommis-
sioning of a facility. The applicability of these steps will vary
depending on the type of radioactive waste.
4.1. Characterization
The waste is first characterized in order to determine its
physical, chemical and radiological properties, and to facilitate
documentation, record keeping and acceptance of radioactive
waste from one step to another. Characterization may be applied
in order to segregate radioactive materials for exemption, reuse,
and disposal methods or to assure compliance of waste packages
with requirements for storage and disposal.
4.2. Storage
Storage of radioactive waste involves maintaining the
radioactive waste such that: (i) isolation, environmental protec-
tion and monitoring are provided, and (ii) actions involving treat-
ment, conditioning and disposal are facilitated. In some cases,
storage may be practiced for primarily technical considerations,
such as storage of radioactive waste containing mainly short-
lived radionuclides for decay and subsequent release within
authorized limits, or storage of high-level radioactive waste for
thermal considerations prior to geological disposal. In other
cases, storage may be practiced for reasons of economics or
policy.
4.3. Treatment
Pre-treatment of waste is the initial step in waste management
that occurs after waste generation. It consists of, for example,
collection, segregation, chemical adjustment and decontamina-
tion and may include a period of interim storage. This initial
step is extremely important because it provides in many cases
the best opportunity to segregate waste streams, for example,
for recycling within the process or for disposal as ordinary non-
radioactive waste when the quantities of radioactive materials
contained are exempt from regulatory controls. It also provides
the opportunity to segregate radioactive waste, for example, for
near surface or geological disposal.
4.4. Conditioning
Conditioning of radioactive waste involves those operations
that transform radioactive waste into a solid form suitable for
handling, transportation, storage and disposal. The operation
includes immobilization of radioactive waste, placing the waste
into containers and providing additional packaging. Common
immobilization methods include solidification of low and
intermediate level radioactive waste in cement or polymer, and
vitrification of high-level liquid waste in a glass matrix. Immo-
bilized waste, in turn, may be packed in containers ranging
from common 200 L steel drum to high integrity thick-walled
containers, depending on the nature of radionuclides and their
concentrations.
4.5. Disposal
Disposal is the final step in the radioactive waste management
system. It consists mainly of the emplacement of radioactive
waste in a disposal facility with reasonable assurance for safety,
without the intention of retrieval and without reliance on long-
term surveillance and maintenance. The safety, mainly achieved
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930 917

by isolation, is attained by placing barriers around the radioac- Table 1

tive waste in order to restrict the release of radionuclides into the Waste management facilities in India
environment. The barriers can be either natural or engineered and Site Year of commissioning Nuclear facility
an isolation system can consist of one or more barriers. A system Coastal
of multiple barriers gives greater assurance of isolation and helps Trombay 1956 Research reactors, fuel
in minimizing release of radionuclides to the environment. Barri- fabrication plant, fuel
ers can either provide absolute containment for a period of time, reprocessing plant, research
such as the metal wall of a container, or may retard the release laboratories, isotope production,
waste immobilization plant
of radioactive materials to the environment, such as a backfill or (WIP)
host rock with high sorption capability. During the period when Tarapur 1969 BWR (2 160 MWe), fuel
the radioactive waste is contained by the system of barriers, the reprocessing plant, fuel
radionuclides in the waste are undergoing decay thereby reduc- fabrication plant, WIP
ing hazard with time. The barrier system is designed according Kalpakkam 1984 PHWR (1 170 MWe;
1 220 MWe), fuel reprocessing
to the disposal option chosen and the radioactive waste forms plant, research laboratories,
involved. research reactor (FBTR), WIP
Although it is planned to dispose of most types of radioactive under construction
waste by concentration and containment, disposal may also com- Inland
prise the discharge of effluents (for example, liquid and gaseous Rajasthan 1972 PHWR (1 100; 1 200;
waste) into the environment within authorized limits, with sub- 2 220 MWe), isotope facility
sequent dispersion. The authorized limits are site specific and Narora 1989 PHWR (2 220 MWe)
Kakrapar 1993 PHWR (2 220 MWe)
vary from coastal to inland sites. Typically, discharge limits of
Kaiga 2000 PHWR (2 220 MWe)
concentration of radioactivity in liquid effluent for coastal site
are; 36 Bq/mL for gross beta and 0.36 Bq/mL for gross alpha.
For all practical purposes this is an irreversible action and is con-
sidered suitable only for limited amounts of specific radioactive
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters to practically retain
waste.
most of the particulate radionuclides.
Expertise and facilities have been developed for designing,
5. Process and technology
production, testing and supply of combined particulate and
iodine filters used extensively in emergency air clean-up sys-
In view of a large variety of radioactive wastes being gen-
tem of nuclear power plants. In addition, ruthenium adsorber
erated, processes used for their treatment are also diverse.
employing perchloric acid treated siliceous brick (PERCOSIB),
Work on development of these processes and relevant technolo-
particulate respirator, charcoal impregnated sampling filter and
gies were started in early sixties in the laboratories and pilot
stack-sampling cartridges are also in use. Indigenously devel-
plants in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay. This
oped filter banks have been in service in almost all nuclear
pioneering work has resulted in the development of various pro-
installations of the country. Facilities for in situ testing of dif-
cesses and matrices for treatment and conditioning of radioactive
ferent filters at nuclear power plants have been established and
waste.
are in routine use.
Based on the indigenous development of process, technol-
ogy, equipment and assemblies, radioactive waste management
facilities have been set up at various sites, as detailed in Table 1. 5.2. Treatment of low and intermediate level liquid waste
Some of these facilities are in operation for more than 40 years.
Valuable experience has been gained in the design, construction, Low-level waste is generated from reactor operations, off-gas
operation and maintenance of such facilities. scrubbers of nuclear facilities, active floor drains, decontamina-
A birds eye view of the process and technologies in use for tion centre, laboratories, drain from change room and showers
radioactive waste management is presented in Fig. 1. as well as during management of high and intermediate level
waste. These waste streams require treatment to reduce their
5.1. Treatment of gaseous waste activity concentration to a level at which they are allowed to
be discharged according to national regulations. The processes
In order to control and minimise discharge of activity through that are employed for treatment of this type of waste are filtra-
air route in conformity with the principle of ALARA, all nuclear tion, chemical treatment, ion-exchange, steam evaporation, solar
installations need to have an elaborate off-gas cleaning system. evaporation and membrane processes (IAEA, 1983a). Some of
Choice of system depends on specific activity, type of radioactiv- the processes presently under operation at various sites are sum-
ity, particulate density and its size distribution, specific volatile marized below.
radioisotopes and their concentration, etc. India has developed
very efficient gas cleaning techniques employing different types 5.2.1. Chemical treatment
of wet scrubbers like venturi, dust, packed bed, cyclone sepa- Liquid wastes with low levels (373.7 106 Bq/L) of
raters, high-efficiency low-pressure drop demisters, chillers and activity containing 90 Sr and 137 Cs as the major radionuclides
918 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 2. Chemical treatment of low-level radioactive waste at Kalpakkam.
are treated by co-precipitation using chemicals like barium
chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium ferrocyanide, copper
sulphate, etc. Subsequent to precipitation, the resultant sludge
from clarifloculator is further concentrated by decantation,
filtration and centrifugation. The resulting solids containing
bulk of the radioactivity originally present in the liquid waste
are immobilized in cement matrix before disposal. Chemical
treatment facility at Kalpakkam site is shown in Fig. 2.
5.2.2. Ion exchange
A variety of sorbents and ion exchangers are used in India
for the treatment of diverse types of radioactive aqueous waste
streams. Conventional synthetic organic ion exchange resins are
used for clean-up of spent fuel storage pool and for polishing of
effluents from chemical treatment of low-level waste. Amongst
inorganic materials, synthetic zeolites, the clay mineral vermi-
culite and ammonium molybdophosphate (AMP) have found
industrial application. While vermiculite is used for decontam-
ination of low-level effluents, a synthetic zeolite is used for
reduction of 137 Cs activity in spent fuel storage pool water
(Samanta et al., 1997). Granulated AMP is used for consoli-
dating 137 Cs in acidic effluents.
A treatment process based on radionuclide separation by
selective ion exchange is used for the effective management
of alkaline intermediate level reprocessing waste streams. As
a result of this treatment, the intermediate level waste is split
into two streams, viz., a small volume of high-level waste and
a large volume of low-level waste, which is treated and dis-
charged to the environment. An ion exchange plant is in regular
operation at Tarapur (Kulkarni et al., 1996). The successful use
of a unique transportable shielded ion exchange facility was
also recently demonstrated at Trombay (Ozarde et al., 2002).
In this process, an indigenously developed resorcinol formalde-
hyde polycondensate resin (RFPR) is used in repeated loading-
elution-regeneration cycles for efficient removal of 137 Cs which
is the major radionuclide present. Waste processing throughput
of 400 L/h is achieved using 100 L columns. A chelating imin-
odiacetic acid resin is used for the removal of 90 Sr traces. Typical
waste characteristics and a summary of the results obtained at
Tarapur and Trombay are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Treatment of alkaline intermediate level reprocessing waste by ion exchange
Characteristics of alkaline intermediate level waste
Activity (137 Cs, 90 Sr, 106 Ru, etc.) 550 Ci/m3
Total dissolved solids (NaNO3 , NaOH, Na2 CO3 , 100300 g/L
NaAlO2 , etc.)
pH 913
Performance of ion exchange treatment process
Decontamination factor 10010000
Total volume treated 1200 m3
Total activity removed 30 kCi
5.2.3. Evaporation
Evaporation is widely used for concentrating the liquid waste
as it gives very high volume reduction factor as well as high
decontamination factor. Both steam and solar evaporation meth-
ods are employed. Evaporation based on steam heating is used
for waste of low volume and high activity. Design is normally
based on thermo-siphon principle to minimize maintenance
problem.
Solar evaporation, sometimes referred to as zero release oper-
ation, is a preferred mode of evaporation for larger volumes of
waste with low activity (373.7 106 Bq/L) at sites, which have
favourable climatic conditions such as high ambient tempera-
ture, low humidity and high wind velocity. The north Indian state
of Rajasthan has such favourable conditions and solar evapora-
tion pond for low-level liquid waste generated by nuclear power
plant is in operation there (Fig. 3).
5.2.4. Membrane processes
Membrane based processes like reverse osmosis and ultra
filtration are used essentially for treatment of low-level liquid
waste. These are generally employed in combination with other
treatment methods like chemical treatment or ion-exchange pro-
cess to further improve the decontamination. A reverse osmosis
plant of capacity 100 m3 /day using polyamide membrane in spi-
ral wound configuration is in operation for treatment of low-level
(373.7 106 Bq/L) waste at Trombay (Fig. 4). The volume of
waste is normally reduced by a factor of 10 and decontamination
factor of 810 is achieved in this process.
Fig. 3. Solar evaporation facility at Rajasthan.
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930 919

Fig. 4. Reverse osmosis plant at Trombay.

5.3. Conditioning of intermediate level liquid waste and

spent ion exchange resin

Intermediate level radioactive liquid waste is conditioned

depending on the compatibility of the matrix with waste, chem-
ical and mechanical durability of solidified product, cost of pro-
cessing, throughput and disposal options. Cementation and poly-
merization methods are normally adopted in India for manage-
ment of this type of waste (IAEA, 1983b). Spent ion exchange
resins are immobilized in polymer matrix.
Fig. 5. A view of cone mixer deployed at WIP, Trombay.

5.3.1. Cementation
Cement and cement composites are extensively used for In resin fixation plant, radioactive spent resins are hydro
immobilization of low-level radioactive concentrates, chemical pneumatically transferred to resin storage tank. A batch of 90 kg
sludge etc. Cementation process offers advantage due to low resin is transferred to a specially designed product drum kept on
cost and operational simplicity, higher throughput and product load cell. Excess water is removed by vacuum de-watering sys-
of acceptable quality. Special cement formulations have been tem. Mixing assembly is then mounted on this product drum.
developed indigenously by blending cement with suitable addi- Requisite amount of polyester styrene polymer is premixed
tives to improve product characteristics (Varghese et al., 1995). with optimized concentration of accelerator (dimethyl aniline)
Cementation facilities having in-drum mixing system using re- and catalyst (benzoyl peroxide). This polymer is then gradually
usable agitator for conditioning of radioactive waste are installed poured into a product drum with constant stirring. These resin
at various sites. Cementation process has also been used for fixation facilities exist at nuclear power plant sites in Narora
in situ immobilization of intermediate level waste in specific (Uttar Pradesh), Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Tarapur (Maharashtra).
cases. In situ cementation results in large waste processing rate Salient features of cement and polymer waste product are
with extremely low exposure to the radiation workers. At WIP, presented in Table 3.
Trombay cone mixers located in hot cells with easy remotized
operational amenability have been installed for conditioning of Table 3
intermediate level waste in cement matrix. A view of cone mixer Salient properties of cement and polymer waste products
deployed at WIP, Trombay is shown in Fig. 5. A transportable Properties Cement waste product Polymer waste product
cementation unit assembled inside a specially designed, fully Waste loading (%) 6070 5560
enclosed standard freight container and complete with facilities Compatibility With alkaline waste With alkaline waste
for mixing and handling of cement, control console, ventilation Density (g/mL) 1.82.0 1.2
system, etc., is also used. Compressive strength 100150 270
(kg/cm2 )
Porosity (mL/g), (total 0.180.27 Non-continuous pores
5.3.2. Polymerization pore volume)
Polyester styrene been selected and is in use in India for Setting time (min) 100300 NA
immobilization of ILW concentrates and spent ion exchange Leach rate (g/cm2 /day) 104 105 105
resin from nuclear power stations and other facilities. This matrix Radiation stability Up to 108 rads Up to 108 rads
Homogeneity Good Very good
has also been used for in situ solidification of low-heat generat- Thermal stability Very good up to 100 C Good up to 100 C
ing liquid waste from reprocessing plant (Raj et al., 1982).
920 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 6. Process for vitrification of high-level radioactive liquid waste.
5.4. Management of high-level liquid waste
High-level liquid waste (HLW) generated during reprocess-
ing of spent nuclear fuels is concentrated by evaporation and
stored in stainless steel tanks. These storage tanks require cool-
ing and continuous surveillance. Liquid storage in stainless steel
tanks is at best an interim step and a three-step strategy for man-
agement of HLW has been adopted in India. This involves:
(i) Immobilization of waste oxides in stable and inert solid
matrices;
(ii) Interim retrievable storage of the conditioned waste under
continuous cooling;
(iii) Disposal in deep geological formations.
HLW management facility is co-located near reprocessing
plant so as to avoid any radiation hazard/exposure to public dur-
ing transportation. Pumping of HLW from reprocessing plant to
vitrification plant is an involved job. Main waste transfer stain-
less steel pipe is enclosed in a secondary stainless steel pipe
and this outer pipe is isolated from surrounding by a stainless
steel box. The annulus between two pipes is continuously mon-
itored during waste transfer operation. The stainless steel box
is enclosed in a high integrity underground RCC trench, which
connects the two facilities.
In order to meet the challenging task of vitrification of HLW,
research and development work was started in India in the late
sixties encompassing various areas of HLW conditioning includ-
ing formulation of matrices for immobilization of HLW and their
characterization. This was followed by research and develop-
ment of process, equipment and assemblies to condition HLW
into an inert and stable waste form of acceptable quality. These
efforts have finally culminated in the design and construction
of the first Indian vitrification facility at WIP, Tarapur (Raj and
Samuel, 1986) and interim storage facility at Solid Storage and
Surveillance Facility (SSSF), Tarapur.
The second vitrification facility has been commissioned at
BARC, Trombay to manage HLW generated during reprocess-
ing of spent nuclear fuel from research reactors at site. Pro-
cess schematic employed for vitrification of HLW is shown in
Fig. 6.
5.4.1. Matrix development
In India, borosilicate glass matrix has been adopted for vitrifi-
cation of HLW (Vaswani et al., 1979). Suitable modifications to
this basic matrix have been developed in order to take care of spe-
cific chemical species like sulphate and sodium (Jahagirdar and
Wattal, 1998). Detailed evaluation of the conditioned product
is carried out during inactive vitrification runs with simulated
waste. Based on the desired product quality, various process
parameters are standardized. Conditioned products are evalu-
ated for various properties like product melt temperature, waste
loading, homogeneity, thermal stability, radiation stability and
chemical durability using advanced analytical instruments, e.g.,
scanning electron microscope, electron microprobe analyzer,
X-ray diffractometer, inductively coupled plasma spectrome-
ter and thermal analysis system. Compositional details of the
glass formulations adopted for vitrification and the salient prop-
erties of vitrified waste product are presented in Tables 4 and 5,
respectively.
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930 921

Table 4
Compositional details of various glass formulations used for vitrification of
high-level liquid waste
Components Weight percentage

Sodium borosilicate Lead borosilicate

glass (IR-111) glass (WTR-62)

Waste oxide 43.8 20

SiO2 34.1 30
B2 O 3 6.4 20
Na2 O 0.2 5
TiO2 6.2
MnO 9.3
PbO 25

5.4.2. Process description

Vitrification process essentially consists of metering of pre-
concentrated waste and glass forming additives in the form of
slurry into the process vessel located in a multi-zone furnace.
A typical sketch of multi-zone induction furnace is presented in
the Fig. 7. The susceptor temperature is initially maintained at
600 C. The process vessel is made of high NiCr alloy (Inconel
690) so as to withstand high temperature, oxidizing and corro-
sive conditions. There is a freeze valve section at the bottom
operable by an independent induction coil. With simultaneous
concentration and calcination of waste, solidliquid interface
moves upwards.
The level of liquid waste is indicated by the temperatures
sensed by the thermocouples located at different heights. The
Table 5
Salient features of vitrified waste product
Properties Glass formulations
Sodium borosilicate Lead borosilicate
glass (IR-111) glass (WTR-62)
Fig. 7. A typical sketch of induction furnace.
calcinated mass is fused into glass at about 950 C and is soaked
at 9501000 C for 8 h to achieve homogenization. The molten
mass is then drained into stainless steel AISI 304L canisters
by operating the freeze valve. The canister filled with vitrified
waste product (VWP) is allowed to cool slowly in an insulated
assembly. This is then welded remotely by the Pulse Tungsten
Inert Gas method. A photograph of welding of lid of the canister
containing vitrified waste product by remote welding machine
is shown in Fig. 8.
Multi-cell multi-compartment concept has been adopted at
Waste Immobilization Plant, Trombay, so as to facilitate seg-
regation of equipment and ease of maintenance. The process
cells are equipped with state-of-the-art remote handling systems.

Mechanical
Density (g/mL) 2.99 3.5
Impact strength (RIAJa ) 1.06
Thermal
Thermal conductivity, 1.045
100 C (Wm1 K1 )
Co-efficient of thermal 102 107 83 107
expansion ( C1 )
Viscosity, 900 C (Poise) 40 135
Fusion temperature ( C) 850 875
Pouring temperature ( C) 1000 950
Softening temperature ( C) 540 505
Chemical
Average stabilized leach 1.5 105 7.8 106
rateb (g cm2 day1 )
Waste oxides (wt.%) 43.8 20
Homogeneity
Optical microscopic Homogenous very Homogenous by
examination few crystals observed and large, little
phase separation
is observed
a RIAJ, relative increase in area per joule of impacted energy.
b The leach rate determined at 100 C in conventional boiling water leaching
unit on weight loss basis. Fig. 8. Remote welding machine.
922 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 9. Servo-manipulator workstation.
Some of the main remotisation gadgets are servo-manipulators,
close circuit television cameras and remote welding machine. A
photograph of servo-manipulator station from where all remo-
tisation gadgets are operated is presented in Fig. 9.
An elaborate off-gas cleaning system consisting of condenser,
scrubber, chiller, demister and absolute HEPA filter is used to
treat the gas before discharge through a 100 m tall stack to the
atmosphere. The plant has a central data acquisition and control
system to monitor and control the critical process parameters
during vitrification operation.
Fig. 10. Compact ceramic melter installed at AVS, Tarapur.
Vitrified waste canisters are further enclosed in secondary
stainless steel containers called overpacks. The overpacks may
contain radioactivity up to 106 Ci generating about 34 kW of
decay heat and they need to be cooled continuously to main-
tain centerline glass temperature below softening temperature
to minimize devitrification.
A third Waste Immobilization Plant is being set up at
Kalpakkam. It has been designed for the treatment and condi-
tioning of high-level liquid waste generated during reprocessing
of irradiated fuel from Pressurise Heavy Water Reactors and Fast
Breeder Reactors.
5.4.3. Ceramic melters
Use of ceramic melter has distinct advantage of higher
throughput on account of continuous operation and better prod-
uct durability due to higher achievable processing temperature.
In view of the above, testing of small-scale ceramic melter has
been successfully completed and a schematic of demonstration
facility for vitrification of waste by joule heated ceramic melter
based technology is presented in Fig. 10. An industrial scale
ceramic melter based facility is being set up at Advanced Vitri-
fication System (AVS), Tarapur. A similar facility is planned to
be set up at WIP, Trombay.
5.5. Management of organic liquid waste
Organic liquid waste is generated from reprocessing plants
in the form of spent PUREX solvent (30% tri-butyl-phosphate
in diluent), which has undergone chemical and radiolytic degra-
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 11. Alkaline hydrolysis plant.
dation with repeated use. A plant (Fig. 11) based on indigenous
technology is used to treat the spent solvent by the alka-
line hydrolysis process (Manohar et al., 1999). The treatment
leads to the recovery of diluent virtually free of activity and
tri-butyl-phosphate. The aqueous bottom arising from alkaline
hydrolysis process is immobilized in cement. An incineration
facility (Fig. 12) is also available for thermal destruction of non-
recyclable diluents.
5.6. Management of solid waste
Radioactive solid wastes produced at different stages of
nuclear fuel cycle cover a wider range of materials, sizes,
shapes and degrees of contamination. These wastes are cat-
egorized depending on the radiation field, concentration and
type of radioactivity. They are segregated as compressible or
non-compressible and combustible or non-combustible. Major
portion of the total solid waste has low activity and is either
combustible or compressible. Specially designed incinerators
Fig. 12. Organic liquid waste incinerator.
923
Fig. 13. Incineration of solid radioactive waste at Kalpakkam.
are employed for burning the combustible wastes achieving a
volume reduction of about 50. Hydraulically operated baling
press is used to compress low active non-combustible waste to
obtain volume reduction of five. An incinerator operational at
Kalpakkam is shown in Fig. 13.
As a typical example, various research reactors and nuclear
laboratories at BARC, Trombay generate approximately 600 m3
of radioactive solid waste annually. The major portion of this
waste is received in standard 200 L carbon steel drums. The
waste is categorized with the help of an assaying system,
based on radioactivity content and radionuclides present. A real
time digital imaging system is used to segregate compactable
and non-compactable low-level waste. The compactable waste
packed in drums is pelletized using 200 tonnes hydraulic press
(Fig. 14). The pelletization system comprises facilities for con-
veying, indexing and compacting. All operations are controlled
by programmable logic controller based control system. Apart
from drum pelletization, the system is also equipped for the
compaction of used HEPA filters.
5.7. Management of spent radiation sources
Radiation sources of various types and strengths, containing
60 Co, 90 Sr, 99 Tc, 99 Mo, 125 I, 131 I, 137 Cs, 192 Ir
and 226 Ra, are
Fig. 14. Compaction unit for drum/filters.
924 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930

used in hospitals, industries and research institutes all over the

country. The strength of spent sources varies from millicuries
to thousands of curies depending upon the area of application.
After their utility period is over, the spent sources are immo-
bilized in cement grout to make them suitable for disposal in
engineered near surface disposal facilities. Waste management
facilities located at Trombay and Kalpakkam are the nodal cen-
ters for storage/disposal of spent radiation sources.

5.8. Remote handling technology

Remote handling, robotics and automation are essential for

operation and routine maintenance of waste management plants
handling high radioactivity. The Department of Atomic Energy
in India with the participation of Indian industry has devel-
oped all essential equipments for such applications and is self-
sufficient at present in this regard. Development efforts are
underway to improve the technology and to make available suit- Fig. 15. Remote inspection device.
able technologies for decommissioning of such plants whenever
need will arise. capability to exchange up to five dismantling tools in any pro-
Chemical processing operation in waste management plants grammed sequence in a work volume of 2 m 2 m 1.80 m. A
are carried out in hot cells with heavy shielding (approxi- radio controlled remote inspection device has been developed
mately 1.5 m of concrete) around the equipment. General philos- for in-service surveillance of storage tanks for high and inter-
ophy of remote handling is to employ a work station concept mediate level waste tank farms with facility for visual video
consisting of a radiation shielding window (RSW), master slave feed back and for collecting swab samples (Fig. 15). This is
manipulator (MSM) and a cell crane. All the equipment required a mobile vehicle with remote traction and steering capability.
for these duties are manufactured and available on a regular This radio-controlled vehicle is being designed as a platform for
basis in India and have been standardized for such applications. many future remote intervention operations.
Models of MSMs of capacities ranging from 9 to 45 kg have
been indigenized with electrical indexing capabilities to improve 5.9. Decommissioning of nuclear installations
volume coverage. Master slave manipulators are available in sin-
gle and modular models with partial and full internal shielding. The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board in India has made
Articulated master slave manipulators required for lead/steel hot it mandatory for all nuclear installations to incorporate provi-
cells have been developed and are available with 5 kg capac- sions for in situ decontamination and de-commissioning pro-
ity. Indigenous capability has also been developed and tested visions from design stage until end of operational phase. India
for a 15 kg capacity bi-lateral force reflecting electrical servo has considerable experience in this field and has successfully
manipulator for employment in high active cells with corrosive decommissioned/refurbished research reactors, major systems
environment. Customized cell cranes are available indigenously of power reactors and also radiochemical installations including
in stainless steel material of construction with remote mainte- reprocessing plant. A major activity as a part of refurbishment
nance features and provisions for emergency operations. Tech- of operating power reactors at Rajasthan and Madras covers the
nology of power manipulator also has been developed and is replacement of coolant channels. The replaced channels, end fit-
in use. Bridge mounted power manipulator of 100 kg capacity tings and other components are volume reduced and disposed
with seven degrees of freedom namely X, Y, Z, azimuthal, roll,
pitch and gripping configuration and telescopic boom has been
designed and manufactured for reprocessing and waste vitrifi-
cation plants.
Viewing in hot cells is accomplished either with the help
of direct viewing systems such as radiation shielding windows
(RSW) or radiation resistant CCTV systems. On both these
fronts indigenous capability has been developed. Technology
for design/manufacture of oil filled and dry type RSWs is estab-
lished. Indigenous radiation tested CCTV systems are being
employed for in-service inspection of reactor components.
Major developmental works are currently undertaken for any
future decommissioning activity. A six -axis gantry servo robot
has been developed for decommissioning of glove boxes or sim-
ilar equipment. This robot has a pay load capacity of 25 kg with Fig. 16. A view of the coolant channel cutting machine.
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930 925

of after conditioning. A view of the channel cutting machine gen peroxide in the presence of UV/visible light and suitable
is shown in Fig. 16. As a part of the programme for condi- catalyst at room temperature. Pilot trials using tubular photo
tioning of decommissioning waste, development activities are reactor with UV/visible light sources on a recirculation mode has
underway for cutting and size reduction of metallic components resulted in destruction of more than 95% of the organics. Fur-
using techniques like under-water plasma and lasers. In order to ther trials are underway to study the feasibility of its adoption on
achieve further volume reduction, technologies for melting and plant scale. Photochemical routes in presence of catalysts have
super compaction are being developed. also yielded promising results for the destruction of other organic
wastes such as oxalate waste from the reprocessing plants, citrate
6. Research and development in waste processing waste from decontamination operations, etc. Thermal oxidation
technology of the resins up to 300 C resulting in a product amenable to
direct cementation is also being pursued.
India has decades of experience and expertise in the safe
management of radioactive waste. It is recognized that the tech- 6.2. High-level waste
nologies currently adopted are adequate, but sufficient scope
exists for improving these technologies so as to enhance pro- Globally emerging vitrification technology based on the cold
cess performance and meet the future challenges. Development crucible induction melting is under study to address various
and induction of cross-cutting technology have to be adopted requirements such as high temperature availability, high waste
not only to meet the challenges posed by approach to near-zero loading, high specific capacity, compatibility with new matrices
discharges but also to address recycle and recovery of valuable such as glass-ceramics, etc. A bench-scale cold crucible induc-
resource from these wastes leading to a positive impact on the tion melter has been developed to demonstrate glass melting and
environment. Besides, waste management in India has to meet pouring (Fig. 17). Based on this feedback, a pilot scale melter is
the requirements of advanced fuel cycles for fast breeder reactors under design and development to establish melter start-up pro-
and advanced heavy water reactors. cedure, simulated liquid waste feeding and melter operational
stability.
6.1. Low and intermediate level waste Studies on long-term evaluation of vitrified waste product
under simulated conditions have been conducted in especially
High volumes and low activity levels characterize low and designed hot cells at Solid Storage and Surveillance Facility,
intermediate level wastes. Hence, attention is focused on tech- Tarapur. The studies involve (a) core-drilling of high-level waste
nology development that can lead to downsizing of equip- product from statistically selected canisters, (b) sample prepa-
ment, effective decontamination and minimization of secondary ration from core-drilled pencils, (c) studies for properties like
wastes. In this direction, technologies finding a vital role include homogeneity, thermal stability and chemical durability and (d)
synthesis and use of specific sorbents, ultra filtration, manage- effect of components of repository like granite and back-fill
ment of spent solvents by alkaline hydrolysis, development of
advanced oxidative techniques for destruction of organic ion
exchange resins, etc.
As already indicated, the effective treatment of alkaline inter-
mediate level-reprocessing waste is now possible because of the
development of cesium-selective resorcinol formaldehyde poly-
condensate resin (RFPR) (Samanta et al., 1992, 1995). The resin
is manufactured using in-house facilities. Adoption of this treat-
ment scheme also enables the recovery of 137 Cs in kilocurie
quantities. In a plant being set up at the Waste Immobilization
Plant, Trombay, the recovered 137 Cs will be further processed
and immobilized in a vitreous matrix for use as the radiation
source in blood irradiators.
The removal of nitrates present in reprocessing effluents is
essential before such effluents can be discharged to the envi-
ronment after treatment for removal of radioactivity. Laboratory
and bench scale studies have shown that biological denitrifica-
tion under anoxic conditions in the presence of an added carbon
source is an effective process for the destruction of nitrates.
Efforts are presently underway to set up a flow-through biore-
actor as a demonstration facility for this purpose.
There is a definite incentive for destroying spent ion-
exchange resins employing advanced oxidation techniques.
Bench scale experiments up to kilogram quantities have estab-
lished near-complete mineralization of these resins using hydro- Fig. 17. Glass pouring from cold crucible melter.
926 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
material as well as corrosion products on leach rate of vitri-
fied product. Some of the leach rate experiments are continued
for more than 700 days. Presence of secondary phases on the
waste product and their effect on chemical durability has also
been studied.
As a first step towards realization of the partitioning and
transmutation option, demonstration of partitioning of actinides
from HLW using TRUEX solvent is being taken up on a plant
scale. Laboratory runs carried out with actual high-level waste
using modified TRUEX process has led to partitioning of more
than 99.99% of actinides. Plant scale studies involve equipment
selection, indigenous synthesis of CMPOan active constituent
of TRUEX solvent and development of process for the separa-
tion of lanthanides from actinidelanthanide mixture generated
from the partitioning step. Use of ejector type mixer settler units,
which are compact in design has been found efficient.
Partitioning of HLW permits the use of ceramic waste forms
as a special matrix for conditioning of selected waste streams
in parallel with the established vitreous matrices. Stage wise
programme for ceramic matrix development is being pursued
in our laboratories. Precursors have been synthesized in-house,
blended with simulated high-level waste and subjected to iso-
static pressing at 12001300 C. Results of SEM and X-ray
diffraction studies have shown the presence of phases like zir-
conolite, perovskite, hollandite, rutile, etc. Further characteriza-
tion work is continued.
7. Storage and disposal of radioactive waste
The present practices in India for the storage and disposal
of various categories of solid waste are briefly described below.
Methodologies adopted for safety and performance assessment
are also discussed.
7.1. Near surface disposal facilities (NSDF)
As a national policy, each nuclear facility in India has its own
near surface disposal facility co-located. There are seven NSDFs
currently operational within the country. These are located at
Trombay, Tarapur, Kalpakkam, Kota, Narora, Kakrapar and
Kaiga. These NSDFs in India have to address widely varied
geological and climatological conditions. The various disposal
modules currently adopted in NSDFs are:
Table 6
Solid waste categories and disposal options
Category Surface dose/activity
I <2 mGy/h
II 220 mGy/h
III 20500 mGy/h
>500 mGy/h
IV Waste bearing alpha activity (<4000 Bq/g)
(>4000 Bq/g)
(i) stone-lined earth trenches (SLT),
(ii) reinforced concrete trenches (RCT) and
(iii) tile holes (TH).
The different types and categories of wastes disposed of in
these modules are listed in Table 6.
These modules are generally below ground. However,
depending upon the local geo-hydrological conditions, these
could be partly or completely above ground. Over the years,
considerable experience and expertise has gone in refining and
improving the design and construction of these disposal mod-
ules. Salient features of the disposal modules are given below.
7.1.1. Stone-lined earth trenches
These are employed for potentially active waste (Cat. I pack-
ages having surface dose rate less than 2 mGy/h). These are
shallow excavations in soil, 14 m deep and provided with stone
lining for stability and integrity. On completion of the disposal
operation, these trenches are backfilled and closed by providing
a soil cover of nearly one meter thick. Vermiculite, bentonite and
native soil having good sorption properties are used as backfill
materials.
7.1.2. Reinforced concrete trenches
These are employed for Cat. II and III wastes having surface
dose rate less than 220 mGy/h and 20500 mGy/h, respectively.
These trenches are planned zone-wise and are modular in con-
struction. A typical trench is 4.8 m deep, 2.5 m wide and 15 m
long as depicted in Fig. 18. The outer containment wall thick-
ness varies from 350 mm at the top to 750 mm at the bottom.
Each zone of trenches is serviced by either a gantry or a mobile
crane. Adequate waterproofing is provided all around to pre-
vent ingress of groundwater. During the rains, partially filled
trenches are protected using mobile covers. On completion of the
filling operation, these trenches are closed by pre-cast concrete
slabs, which also provide necessary shielding. Adequate seal-
ing and water proofing is provided subsequent to closure of the
battery.
7.1.3. Tile holes
Tile holes are used for disposal of Cat. IV wastes and also
for waste packages of Cat. III, which do not qualify for dis-
posal in RC trenches. Waste packages in 200 L standard pack-
Disposal options Nature of waste
Stone lined earth trenches Paper trash, concrete chips, cotton mops, rubber items etc.
RC trenches Contaminated equipment, hardware and filters
RC trenches Conditioned/processed concentrates, sludges, spent resins
Tile holes Hardware from reactors, highly contaminated equipment,
conditioned spent resins etc.
RC trench and tile holes Solidified alpha waste with activity
Tile holes
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930 927

Fig. 18. A typical schematic diagram of reinforced concrete trench.

ing containing conditioned waste with more than 4000 Bq/g of
alpha activity and surface contact dose above 500 mGy/h due to
beta, gamma activity are retrievably stored in these tile holes.
These are circular vaults, nearly 4 m below ground level hav-
ing an average inside diameter of 710 mm. These are made of
6 mm thick carbon steel shell with 25 mm thick concrete lin-
ing on both sides and provided with adequate waterproofing
(Bansal et al., 1991). Typical construction details are given in
Fig. 19.
7.1.4. Surveillance
Provisions for monitoring and surveillance are incorporated
in the design of the disposal facility. Boreholes of 47 m deep
are provided at appropriate locations and the groundwater sam-
ples are monitored periodically. Soil and vegetation samples
from the site are also periodically investigated for any uptake
of radioactivity. Radiation survey of the entire site is carried out
at predetermined intervals. The RC trenches are provided with
inspection pipes to monitor the inside condition after closure of

Fig. 19. A typical construction details of tile hole and shielding plug.
928 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
the trench. The entire disposal site is totally closed by a physical
security wall to avoid unauthorized access.
7.1.5. Performance assessment
Performance assessment of NSDFs is systematically under-
taken through field investigations and predictive modeling. This
assessment is based on a good physical understanding of the
waste forms, waste packages, backfill materials and the engi-
neered barriers. Models have been developed to predict the
probability of failure as a function of target lives for various
safety indices such as concrete cover thicknesses, climatic fac-
tors, maintenance period for the structure, water to cement ratio,
water proofing etc. The modeling studies for a typical RC trench
under limiting conditions have predicted a minimum service life
of nearly 240 years (Jaisingh, 2002). This period is sufficient for
the decay of major radionuclides like 90 Sr, 137 Cs to 99% of their
original contribution. Thus, the source term itself reduces sub-
stantially.
7.1.6. Safety assessment
Safety assessments have been carried out for each of the
NSDFs. These take into account the nature of the facility, the
radioactive inventory, geological, the hydro-geological and geo-
chemical behaviour of the site, pathways and possible scenarios
for release and transport of radioactivity. Based on these inputs
mathematical models were generated. Release and transport cal-
culations through various barriers were determined leading to
the radiological dose estimates.
Estimates of radioactive inventory for a typical costal NSDF
catering to an operating power reactor, a reprocessing plant
and a fuel fabrication facility are of the order of 30,000 TBq
(Narayan and Rakesh, 2002). The major radionuclides of con-
cern are 137 Cs, 90 Sr and 60 Co. Based on this inventory, maximum
possible radiological dose at a distance of 500 m is almost negli-
gible after a period of 730 years from the closure of the disposal
facility. This dose is contributed mainly by 90 Sr through ground-
water drinking pathway. Maximum possible radiological dose
by human intrusion scenario is of the order of 106 Sv/annum
Fig. 20. Schematic view of air-cooled Solid Storage and Surveillance Facility, Tarapur.
by excavationinhalation pathway (Narayan and Rakesh,
2002).
7.2. Interim storage of vitried waste
High-level vitrified wastes are characterized by decay heat
and need to be cooled to a level where transportation and dis-
posal in geological repository become viable and economical.
This period of cooling is also used to generate data on the prod-
uct behaviour under constant surveillance and monitoring. These
data are essential for prediction of long-term behaviour of the
vitrified products. These requirements necessitate interim stor-
age of over packs spanning over 30 years and more.
In India, one such storage and surveillance facility co-located
with a vitrification plant is already operational at Tarapur. This
facility has a capacity for storing nearly 1700 overpacks with an
inventory of nearly 80,000,000 TBq of radioactivity. The facility
consists of an underground outer vault (hydraulic) of dimensions
74.5 m 31.5 m 5.2 m and houses two inner vaults (thermal)
of sizes 34.0 m 25.2 m 2.5 m each. The over packs are sus-
pended vertically from the top slab. A concrete roof of 1.2 m
thickness provides adequate radiation shielding. The wall tem-
perature in the thermal vault is expected to be 90110 C when
the vault is full.
Removal of decay heat (design value of 3.8 kW/overpack)
from the overpack is achieved by natural convective ventilation
induced by a 100 m high stack. Air-cooling system has been
designed on the basis of storage unit geometry, array design,
filling pattern and stack dimension. This is an inherently self-
regulating system and takes care of the changes in decay heat.
The cooling system ensures that the temperature within the vit-
rified waste product, under no circumstances, exceeds softening
point of the vitrified mass. A schematic of the air-cooled Solid
Storage and Surveillance Facility, Tarapur is shown in Fig. 20.
7.3. Geological disposal
Disposal of high-level waste in deep geological reposi-
tory envisages emplacement of vitrified wastes at depths of
 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
Fig. 21. Thermo-mechanical experiment in an underground chamber at KGF.
about 500600 m in appropriate host rocks, e.g., granite, granite
gneisses, charnockite, basalt and other geological set ups.
The Indian programme on geological repository commenced
in the early eighties with underground experiments in an aban-
doned section of a gold mine at a depth of 1000 m. The investi-
gations were mainly directed towards development of method-
ology for in situ assessment of thermo mechanical behaviour
of the host rock (amphibolite) and to develop and validate the
mathematical models (Mathur et al., 1998). It also addressed
the development of associated instrumentation for the measure-
ments and monitoring. A set up of the multi heater experiment
conducted in the mine is shown in Fig. 21.
Selection of a few suitable sites for development of site-
specific Underground Research Laboratory (URL) possibly
leading to setting up of a pilot repository is being pursued.
The investigations involve extensive geo-scientific investiga-
tions and other state of the art methods and technologies. Major
attributes of significance considered at each site for selection
include lithological formation, seismicity, rainfall, economic
minerals occurrences, geohydrology, vegetation cover, popula-
tion, archaeological monuments etc. The above methodologies
have led to screening of an area of nearly 0.6 million km2
mainly occupied by granites. The above approach has yielded a
few zones admeasuring 525 km2 lying in different geographic
domains for further characterization.
A layout for an underground research laboratory has been
conceived based on the site-specific investigations. The URL
design being considered has multiple chambers for in situ experi-
ments to generate design data for geological repository in future.
The layout considered, extends over an area of about 4 km2 and
considers emplacement of around 10,000 high-level waste over-
packs on a pit mode. It is proposed to have four main tunnels
branching from the central shaft. Each main tunnel will have
disposal tunnels on either side with boreholes to emplace the
radioactive waste overpacks. A typical cross section of one such
disposal tunnel with a disposal pit is shown in Fig. 22 (Goel et
al., 2003).
929
Fig. 22. Cross section of a disposal tunnel with the vertical emplacement of
waste overpacks in the disposal hole.
8. Summary
Waste management facilities at various nuclear installation
sites are operating safely and successfully for more than four
decades. Indian experience in management of nuclear waste
from power plants, fuel reprocessing and allied installations is
rich and comparable with international practices. By suitable
treatment and conditioning of waste it has been demonstrated
that prime objective of safety of environment is fully achieved.
Elaborate surveillance ensures safe performances of the systems.
Among the many possible forms, borosilicate glass has been
adopted for immobilization of HLW. India has developed suf-
ficient expertise in this advanced technology with respect to
matrix development, process design, construction, commission-
ing, operation and remotized maintenance. As far as the tech-
nology for waste conditioning is concerned, metallic melter
technology has been established and demonstrated. However,
the continuous ceramic melter based process technology is being
pursued for management of HLW. In this regard testing of
ceramic melter technology has given us valuable experience and
accordingly a ceramic melter based vitrification facility is being
set up at Tarapur.
A valuable base of human resources has been built up which
consists of scientific and technical personnel well versed in
design, construction, operation and maintenance aspects of the
vitrification facilities and related R&D systems. Expertise has
been provided to national and international institutions.
Extensive experience is available in the handling, storage
and disposal of low and intermediate level solid waste in near
surface disposal facilities (NSDFs). Besides, expertise exists in
site selection, characterization and safety analysis for NSDFs.
Technology has been developed for the design, construction and
operation of interim storage facility for vitrified waste products
under surveillance. A large-scale site selection programme has
930 K. Raj et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 236 (2006) 914930
been initiated to identify a few suitable geological domains for
locating a repository for high and long-lived radioactive wastes.
Presently, granites have been studied extensively as a natural
barrier. Long-term evaluation of vitrified high-level waste under
geological conditions is being pursued in India. This will go a
long way in demonstrating safe containment of waste in deep
geological repositories, with no impact on the environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution and
valuable help received from Mr. P.K. Dey, Mr. P.K. Wattal,
Mr. P.D. Ozarde, Mr. K.N.S. Nair, Mr. P.K. Narayan, Dr. S.K.
Samanta, Mr. C.P. Kaushik, Dr. Amar Kumar, Mr. R.K. Bajpai,
Mr. R.R. Rakesh, Mr. R.K. Mishra and Mr. A.G. Remesh in the
preparation of this paper.
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