UNIT II

INTERNAL COMBUTION ENGINES

INTRODUCTION:
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel Into
thermal energy; utilize this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal
energy is converted to mechanical energy. Heat engines can be broadly classified into
two categories:
Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
In external combustion engines the combustion takes place external to the
cylinder, e.g., steam engines.
In internal combustion engines the combustion takes place inside the cylinder,
e.g., petrol, diesel, gas engines.
The main advantages of internal combustion engines over external combustion
engines are greater mechanical simplicity, lower ratio of weight. A bulk output due to
absence of auxiliary apparatus like boiler and condenser. The cost is lower, higher
overall efficiency and lesser requirement of water for dissipation of energy through
cooling system.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES

Internal combustion engines are classified as follows:
1. Number of stroke per cycle
Four stroke engine
Two stroke engine
2. Type of Ignition used
Spark ignition (SI) engine
Compression ignition (CI) engine
3. Types of fuel used
Petrol or Gasoline engine
Diesel engine
Gas engine
4. Type of cooling system
Air cooled engine
Water cooled engine
5. Arrangement of cylinder
Vertical engine
Horizontal engine
Radial engine
V-engine
Opposed cylinder engine
Opposed piston engine
6. Applications
Stationary engine
Automotive engine
Marine engine
Aircraft engine
Locomotive engine

1.2 Components Of an I.C Engines

An engine is a device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work. The
thermal energy is produced by the combustion of air fuel mixture inside the cylinder
by means of a spark produced by the spark plug. Since it uses thermal energy it is
called as thermal engines. It is a source of power for many applications.
Cylinder:
It is the part of the engine in which the conversion of thermal energy to
mechanical work takes place. The piston reciprocates inside the cylinder.
Since energy conversion takes place inside the cylinder it must withstand high
pressure and temperature.
It must be able to resist wear and tear and must dissipate heat. So material
selection is an import ant consideration. Ordinary cast iron is used in light duty
engines but in heavy duty engines alloy steels are used.
 The cylinders are provided with liners so that they can be replaced when worn
out. Liners are made of nickel chrome iron.
Cylinder head:
The cylinder head closes one side of the cylinder. They are usually cast as a
single piece and are bolted to the top of the cylinder.
Between the cylinder and the cylinder head, gasket is provided Gasket is
provided in order to act as sealing (to prevent gases escaping during the
expansion stroke) and also to reduce shock.
Piston and piston rings:
Piston is the main part of the engine. The main function of the piston is to
compress the charge and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod during
the power stroke.
Piston rings are circumferential rings that are provided in the piston grooves.
The piston rings are not fully circular; there is a clearance (Ring gap) between
the two
ends.
This is provided because during the expansion stroke piston rings expand.

There are two types of piston rings

Compression rings
Oil scraper rings
 The upper rings are the compression rings.
They help in sealing and preventing the gas from leaking past the piston into
the casing.
The lower rings are the oil scraper rings.
They are provided to remove the oil film from the cylinder walls
Connecting rod:
The connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft.
The piston is connected to the connecting rod by means of gudgeon pin.
It converts the reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
The upper end of the connecting rod is called small head that is connected to
the piston and the lower end is called big end.

Crankshaft:
It is steel forged and smooth finished. Both the ends of the crankshaft are
supported in the bearings.
One end is provided with the flywheel. The crankshaft is provided with
counter weights for balancing.
Cam and camshaft:
The main function of the camshaft is to open and close the valves at the
appropriate time.
The cam is operated by means of gear arrangement driven by the flywheel.
The cam converts rotary motion into linear motion that operates the rocker
arm. The motion of the rocker arm operates the valves.
Sometimes two camshafts are provided to operate inlet valve and exhaust
valve
separately.

Valves:
Valves play a major role in allowing the air fuel mixture into the cylinder (inlet
valve) for combustion and also releasing the exhaust gases from the cylinder
after combustion (outlet valve).
Manifolds:
There are two types of manifolds
Inlet manifold:
It is a pipe like structure that connects the carburetor with the inlet
valves. The air fuel mixture from the carburettor passes through the inlet manifold to
the inlet valves.

Fig shows A typical six-cylinder manifold

Exhaust manifold:
This pipe like structure connects the outlet valve to the atmosphere. The
exhaust gas from the cylinder passes through the exhaust manifold into the
atmosphere.

Valve And Port Timing Diagrams

Valve timing Diagram
A valve timing diagram is a representation of the positions of the crank when
the various operations as inlet valve opening, closing, exhaust valve opening
and closing and also the beginning and end of various strokes
 . The valves cannot open and close abruptly; it requires a finite period of time
for its operation so a time advance is given for proper functioning. The timing
of the valves is controlled by cam settings.
Valve timing for 4 stroke petrol (Spark Ignition) engine:
Now let us see the various position of the crank when the inlet and exhaust
valves during the various processes. Inlet valve opening: The valve timing is
different for low speed and high speed.
The inlet valve opens before the piston reaches the TDC during the exhaust
stroke. This is to ensure that the fresh charge enters the cylinder as soon the
piston as soon as the piston starts to move down.
Actual valve timing diagram for actual valve timing diagram for lowhigh
speed 4 stroke SI engine speed 4 stroke SI engine
Inlet valve closing:
The closing of the inlet valve takes place during the start of compression
stroke (i.e. when the piston move from BDC to TDC after finishing suction
stroke and the starting of compression stroke).
I f the inlet valve is allowed to close exactly at BDC then less charge than the
capacity enters during the suction stroke so the inlet valve closing is delayed
to 20-25degrees after the crank reaches the BDC position during slow speed
and 40-50degrees after the crank reaches the BDC position during high speed.
Exhaust valve opening:
The exhaust valve opens at the end of expansion stroke. The exhaust valve
opening is done before the piston reaches the BDC so as to provide more time
for all the burnt gases to escape.
The opening of the exhaust valve is necessary because if there are some burnt
up gases left in the cylinder it may affect the cylinder walls and the spark plug.
So the exhaust valve is opened 30-35degrees before BDC for slow speed and
45-50degrees before BDC for high speed.
Exhaust valve closing:
The exhaust valve closing is also important to let out all the burnt gases. The
time between the exhaust valve opening and the exhaust valve closing
determines the amount of burnt gases that escapes.
 Usually the exhaust valve is closed 8-10after the piston reaches the TDC
position. An important phenomenon in the valve timing diagram is the angle
of overlap.
The angle of overlap is the angle for which both the inlet valve and the
exhaust valves remains opened. Thus it can be seen that from the diagram the
angle of overlap during slow speed is 5+8=13.
The crank position at which ignition occurs is also indicated in the valve
timing diagram. The ignition is provided 38-40before TDC during
compression.
Valve timing for 4 stroke diesel engines (CI engines):
The working of a 4 stroke diesel engine is the same as petrol engine but
instead of ignition the supply of fuel will be indicated with reference to the
crank position.
Inlet valve opening:
25before TDC for medium speed and 5before TDC for high speed.

Inlet valve closing:

35after BDC (i.e. during compression stroke) for medium
speed and 50after BDC for high speed.
Exhaust valve opening:
 35before BDC (i.e. during expansion stroke) for medium speed and
50before BDC for high speed.
Exhaust valve closing:
20after TDC for medium speed and 10after TDC (i.e. during suction
stroke) for high speed.

Angle of overlap:
The angle of overlap is more for diesel engines when compared with petrol
engines. It can be seen from the figure that 20+25=45of overlap is provided
for medium speed.
The angle of overlap should not be high in the case of petrol engines because
the fresh charge may combine with the exhaust gases and escapes out through
the exhaust valve and is uneconomical whereas in diesel engines only air is
taken in during the suction stroke.
Fuel valve opening (FVO):
Fuel is supplied through the fuel valve at the end of compression 12-
14before the piston reaches the TDC. Fuel is injected through the fuel valve
and because of high temperature and pressure the mixture starts burning.
Fuel valve closing (FVC):
Since the fuel is supplied for a short period of time the fuel valve closes 15-
17after the piston reaches TDC.
Port timing diagram for 2 stroke petrol engine (SI):
The diagram is as shown in the figure. Here instead of the input ports, transfer
ports operate because fuel passes from the input through the transfer ports in
the combustion chamber.
Transfer port opening (TPO):
Transfer port opens at the end of expansion stroke before the piston reaches
TDC. The crank position will be35-38before BDC
Transfer port closing (TPC):
It can be seen from the figure that the inlet ports closes during the start of
compression. The crank position will be 35after BDC.
Exhaust port opening (EPO):
 Since the exhaust port and the transfer ports are located in the same horizontal
line the opening and the closing of the exhaust valves will be almost the same
as the transfer ports.
The exhaust valve opening will be 45degrees before the piston reaches the
BDC.

Exhaust port closing (EPC):

The exhaust port closes 45after the BDC during the compression stroke.

7
Comparison of four stroke and two stroke engines
Four stroke Engine
The thermodynamic cycle is completed
in four strokes.
The crank rotates an angle of 360i.e.
two revolutions to complete one cycle.
Turning moment is not so uniform
because a single power stroke is
produced in two revolutions and hence
requires a heavier flywheel.
Lesser cooling and lubricating
requirements.
3.6 Fuel supply:
Two stroke Engine
The Thermodynamic cycle is completedin
two strokes.
The crank rotates an angle of 180i.e.
one revolution to complete one cycle.
Turning moment is more uniform and
hence requires a lighter flywheel
Because power is produced during each
revolution cooling and lubrication
requirements are more.
 The function of the fuel supply system is to supply fuel to the Carburettor (in
case of SI engines) or to the injection system (in case of CI engines) from the
fuel tank.
The fuel supply is important because it has to be varied at different situations.
For ex. When the load is increased the fuel supply has to be increased and vice
versa. The fuel supply has to be minimum during idling condition. More over it
has to supply the fuel at sufficient pressure.

The fuel supply system consists of

Storage tank, Fuel filter, Fuel pump, Indicating device to indicate the
Level of fuel in the tank,
Storage system:
The storage system is the place where the fuel is stored. An Indicating
device is provided to indicate the level of the fuel.
Fuel filter:
Fuel filter is used to filter the fuel from dust particles
Fuel pump:
As the name indicates it pumps the fuel from the tank to the
Carburetor:
It is mounted on the cylinder block or head of the engine. There are two
types of fuel pump. They are Mechanical type pump, Electrical type pump
Mechanical fuel pump:
The basic arrangement of the mechanical fuel pump is shown in the figure. It
consists of a rocker arm arrangement. The rocker arm is operated by means of a
cam. One end of the rocker arm is attached to a diaphragm.
 A spring is attached beneath the diaphragm. Two valves are provided in the
mechanical fuel pump, an inlet valve and an outlet valve. As the rocker arm
moves it pulls the diaphragm down compressing the spring.
As the diaphragm is pulled down a suction force (vacuum) is created due to
which the fuel is sucked in through the fuel filter. The suction force opens the
inlet valve and closes the outlet valve.
As the rocker arm is released the spring retains its original position thus pushing
the diaphragm upward. This action of the spring causes the outlet valve to close
and the inlet valve to open. Thus fuel is pumped to the carburettor.

Electrical fuel pump:

The operation of the fuel pump is similar to the operation of mechanical pump
but instead of mechanical force (to create a vacuum) an electric power is used.
 The arrangement is as shown in the figure. It consists of an armature that Is
attached to an armature rod and it passes through the solenoid. One end of the
armature rod is attached to the bellow (bellow is used instead of diaphragm)
through a spring and the other end is connected to a rocker arm. Battery current
passes through solenoid from ignition switch.
When the ignition switch is switched on battery current flows through the solenoid
winding. This creates a magnetic flux that attracts the armature rod pulling the
bellow upwards. As a result of this a vacuum is created due to which the fuel
flows in through inlet valve. Also when the armature rod is pushed it breaks the
breaker points thus opening the circuit breaking the magnetic flux.
This makes the diaphragm to move causing a pressure rise in the chamber due to
which the fuel flows through the outlet valve into the carburettor.The downward
movement of the armature rod closes the circuit and once again magnetic field is
created. This process is repeated thus pumping the fuel. Thus these are the basic
components of the fuel supply system.
Ignition system
Ignition in an IC engine is an important one. The electric discharge that is
produced between the two electrodes of a spark plug starts the combustion process
in a SI engine. The function of the ignition system is to initiate the flame
propagation. It must be noted that spark must be produced repeatedly.
Requirements of an ignition system:
Important requirements of an ignition system are as follows
The voltage produced must be high enough so as to initiate the spark. The voltage
required is around 10000 20000 volts. There should not be any misfiring i.e. the
spark must be produced at the correct time (i.e. at the end of compression stroke).
The spark intensity must be optimum for too high intensity may burn the
electrodes and low intensity may not ignite the mixture. The ignition system must
be light in weight and must be reliable over the entire range of speed.
There are two types of ignition system:
Battery ignition system, Magneto ignition system
Battery ignition system:
 In the battery ignition system the source of energy is the battery. Most of the
modern spark ignition engines use battery ignition system. The battery does not
produce enough voltage that is required for ignition. It produces only 6 or 12 volt.
Components of ignition system:
The components of an IC engines are Battery, Ignition switch, Ballast resistor,
Ignition coil, Contact breaker Capacitor, Distributor, Spark plug

Battery:
It is used to supply the voltage that is required for ignition. The voltage produced
by the battery is 6-12 v. The voltage produced by the battery is not sufficient for
ignition. Each cell is has a potential of 2 volts.
There are six cells connected as shown to produce 12 volts. It should be noted that
the positive end of one cell is connected to the negative end of the adjacent cell.

Cell connections of a 12 volt battery

Lead acid batteries and alkaline batteries are widely used in SI engines
Ignition switch:
Ignition switch is the switch by which ignition is initiated. When the ignition
switch is turned on the circuit is closed and thus current flows the circuit.

Ballast resistor:
It is provided in series with the primary winding. It prevents the coil ignition
circuit from melting due to over heating. Normally when the engine is running
slow or is stationery with the contact breakers in closed position, the ignition coil
system gets heated.
This is because of the fact that the current remains in the circuit for a longer
duration when the engine is running at slow speed than at high speed. This results
in heating up of the coil system.
 Ballast resistor is made up of iron. Iron has the property that when it is heated
above a certain temperature its resistance increases rapidly. Thus when the coil is
heated above the temperature of iron (the temperature at which the resistance
increases rapidly) the resistance increases and the current in the circuit decreases
down to safe value.

Ignition coil:
It is the source of energy for the ignition system. It acts as a step up transformer.
The 6 or 12 volts produced by the battery is not enough for the spark to occur. It is
stepped up in the ignition coil.

It consists of two windings primary winding and the secondary winding. The
primary winding has usually 100-200turns and is thicker in cross section.
One end of the primary coil is connected to the battery through ignition switch and
the other end is grounded through contact breaker. Since the primary winding has
a thicker cross section more heat will be produced (resistance increases as cross
sectional area is increased and hence more heat will be produced).
The primary winding is wound over the secondary winding so that it is easier to
dissipate the heat. The secondary winding has around 10000 turns and is thinner in
cross section. One end of the secondary winding is connected to the primary and
the other to the distributor.
Both windings made of copper wire are wound on a soft iron core and the whole
assembly is enclosed in a metallic container forming a compact unit.
Contact breaker:
 The main function of the contact breaker is to open and close the primary
circuit. There are two metal plates one of which is fixed and the other is
movable.
The fixed metal plate is earthed and the arm to which the movable plate is
fixed is insulated. The metal plate is a circular flat face with 3mm diameter.
One end of the arm to which the movable metal is attached is fixed.
The pivoted arm is spring loaded. There is a heel fixed to the arm that moves
along the face of the cam. Since the metal plate contact each other frequently
there is a tendency to wear. So one of the hardest metal tungsten is used as
metal plates. When the cam is in peak position the contact breakers are open
and when the cam rotates the arm moves keeping the heel in contact with the
cam because of the spring pressure.
Capacitor or condenser:
A capacitor is used to store charges. It consists of two metal plates separated
by means of an insulating material. Usually the insulating material used is
air but in most cases special insulating material is used.

Usually the metal plates are replaced by the metal foil or by metallic layers
deposited by evaporation on the insulating material itself. In order to save
space, these thin strips, for example consisting of two strips of aluminum foil
and several layers of special capacitor papers, are rolled up in a solid roll.
Contacts are attached to the two metal strips and the entire roll is first
impregnated in an oily or waxy material to improve the insulating properties
of the paper, and then the roll is inserted into a metal shell for protection
against moisture, external physical contact and damage.
Distributor:
An engine may have 4, 6 or 8 cylinders so it is impossible to have so many
number of ignition systems. The function of the distributor is to distribute the
ignition pulses (surges) that are produced in the circuit to the individual spark
plug in the correct sequence (firing order) and in the correct order.
There are two types of distributor. They are Brush type, Gap type In the brush
type the distributor arm carries carbon brushes and it slides over the metallic
segments embedded in the distributor cap of moulded insulating material thus
 establishing electrical connection between the secondary winding of the coil
and the spark plug.
In the gap type the distributor arm passes close to the metallic segments but
does not actually contact them. This type has the advantage that there will not
be any wear on the electrodes.
The distributor unit has a speed sensing device whose function is to adjust the
spark timing by adjusting the speed of the distributor arm with that of the
engine speed.

Spark plug:
The function of the spark plug is to provide the spark in the cylinder at the end
of compression stroke. The spark plug is provided with two electrodes the
central electrode is connected to the high tension supply from the ignition coil
and the other electrode is welded to a steel shell and is grounded.
The central electrode that carries high voltage is insulated with porcelain of
ceramic material. The electrodes are made of nickel alloy to resist corrosion
and wear. Since a part of the electrode is exposed to the cylinder they are
heated during to the combustion process in the cylinder.
So there is a tendency to crack from high thermal stresses. Because the
electrode is welded to steel shell and the steel shell is in contact with the
cylinder walls, which is relatively cool, the heat can be dissipated.
There are two types of spark plug
Hot plugs:
In the hot plug type spark plug the heat transfer path is lengthier and more
area of the spark plug is exposed to the combustion gases.
Cold plugs:
In the cold plug type spark plug the heat transfer path is small and less area of
the spark plug is exposed to the combustion gases.

Operation of ignition coil system:

When the ignition switch is closed the primary circuit is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the current flows through the breaker
 circuit if the contact points are closed or it flows through the condenser if the
contact points are opened.
The contact breaker is operated by means of a cam, which rotates at half the
speed of crankshaft.

Number of sparks:
In a single cylinder engine number of sparks produced must be equal to the
number of working strokes.
Let NS = Number of sparks required
n = number of working strokes
NC = Number of cylinders
Then NS = n.NC
In case of 2 stroke, power is produced for every revolution of the crankshaft so spark
is to be produced for every revolution of the crank shaft.
Therefore N=n.NC.
Here n = N (number of working strokes =number of revolution of crank shaft)
Hence NS = N.NC for 2 stroke.
For 4 stroke engine the power stroke is produced for every 2 revolution of the crank
shaft.
W.k.t NS = n.NC (Here n =N/2)
Therefore NS = N.NC/2 (for a 4 stroke engine.)
Advantage of battery ignition system:
Initial cost is low. This is the main reason for it being adopted in many
vehicles. Better sparks at low speed, starting and idling.
Disadvantages:
The engine cannot be started if the battery runs down. The weight of the
battery ignition system is greater.
Magneto ignition system:
In this type the source of energy is by a magnetic system. The circuit is the
same as the ignition coil circuit but a magnet replaces the battery.
There are three types
Rotating magnet type
Rotating armature type
Polar induction type
In the rotating magnet type the magnet is rotated while the armature
Containing primary and secondary winding is stationary. When the magnet
rotates across the armature magnetic flux is created. This magnetic flux
produces a voltage in the primary circuit.
Then the process is similar to ignition coil system producing high voltage in
the secondary winding. Rotating armature type is similar to rotating magnet
type but here the armature rotates between the poles of stationary magnet.
 The third type of magneto called polar inductor type is also in use. In the polar
induction type both the magnet and the armature remains stationary, the
voltage is produced by reversing the flux field with the help of inductors (sift
iron polar projection).
Comparison of battery and magneto ignition system
Sl.no Battery ignition system Magneto ignition system
1 Battery is necessary to produce the Magneto system is required to produce
voltage in the primary circuit. the voltage in the primary circuit.

2 Maintenance problems are more due Maintenance problems are less.

to battery.
3 Even at low speeds good spark is The quality of the spark is poor during
available. starting.

4 The unit occupies more space The unit occupies less space.

5 Application: cars and light commercial Application: racing cars and two
vehicle. wheelers.

Performance testing of IC engines

 Some basic relationships and the parameters commonly used to characterize
engine operation are developed. The factors important to an engine user are:
The engines performance over its operating range
The engines fuel consumption within this operating range and the cost of the
required fuel.
The engines noise and air pollutant emissions within this operating range
The initial cost of the engine and its installation
The reliability and durability of the engine, its maintenance requirements, and
how these affect engine availability and operating costs.
These factors control total engine operating costs usually the primary
consideration of the user and whether the engine in operation can satisfy
environmental regulations.
Engine performance is more precisely defined by:
The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within
the useful engine operating range
The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
The following performance definitions are commonly used:
Maximum rated power:
The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short periods of
operation.
Normal rated power:
The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in continuous operation.
Rated speed:
The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed.
The basic task in the design and development of IC engines is to reduce the
cost and improve the efficiency and power output. To achieve this testing of
IC engines becomes necessary.

The important measurements and tests are considered.

Frictional power
Indicated power
Brake power
 Fuel consumption
Air fuel ratio
Speed
Exhaust and coolant temperature
Emission
Noise
Morse test:
In Morse test, frictional power is calculated by making one by one in turn each
cylinder inoperative and making a note of the reduction of the brake power
developed.
The cylinder is made inoperative by shortening of the spark plug cylinder in
case of SI engines and by cutting the fuel supply in case of diesel engine.
Assumption: It is assumed that the frictional loss and the pumping loss is the
same for all the cylinders whether it is operative or it is inoperative.
Application: this test is applicable to SI engines as well as CI engines but for
multi cylinder engines only.
Net indicated power per cylinder = gross power pumping power.

Detonation in IC engine
Detonation in the internal combustion engine is studied as a physical process.
It is shown that detonation is accompanied by pressure waves within the
cylinder charge.
Due to detonation two effects naturally follow up. They are A series of sound
waves is set up by the sudden local increase in pressure at the explosion and
The general pressure within the cylinder rise because of the energy liberated.
The first stage of the phenomenon presents two aspects A chemical process
characterised by the very rapid reaction of a portion of the burning mixture
A sudden local rise in pressure, which is the physical counterpart of the
chemical process.
Detonation:
 It is a violent chemical reaction within a chemical compound or mechanical
mixture evolving heat and pressure.
It is a reaction that proceeds through the reacted material toward the unreacted
material at a supersonic velocity.
The result of the chemical reaction is the exertion of extremely high pressure
on the surrounding medium, forming a propagating shock wave of supersonic
velocity.

knocking in IC engines
Knocking in SI engines:
If the mixture is brought to and held at a temperature higher than auto ignition
 temperature, there is a period of delay before spontaneous ignition or auto
ignition. This time interval is called ignition delay, or ignition lag.
The ignition delay depends on the characteristics of the fuel and the equivalence
ratio and usually decreases with increasing temperature. In SI engines,
compression ratios and therefore the temperature at the end of compression are
low enough that the air fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug before
spontaneous ignition can occur.
Combustion is completed as planned when the front smoothly passes
completely through the end gas without auto ignition. However if the end gas auto
ignites, a pinging or low pitched sound called knock is heard.

Pressure-Time Diagram showing knocking in SI engine

Knocking in CI engines:
In actual CI engines the fuel is ignited over a definite period of time. When the
first few droplets injected are passing through the ignition delay period additional
droplets are being injected into the chamber.
If the ignition delay of the first few droplets is small then they start the
burning process and the amount of fuel accumulated will be small (additional
droplets injected in to cylinder being less).
As a result of this small quantity of fuel the pressure rise will be smooth. On
the other hand if the ignition delay period is longer, more time will be taken for
the first few droplets to start burning.
 This will allow more fuel to enter the combustion chamber (additional
droplets injected into the cylinder being more). Due to this the pressure rise is
more resulting in turbulent forces acting on the piston.
If the ignition delay is even longer the pressure rise is almost instantaneous
that it
produces unwanted noise (due to vibration) called knocking.
In SI engines knocking occurs at the end of compression whereas in CI engines
knocking occurs at the beginning of compression.

Lubrication Of IC Engines
The Lubrication System
The main purposes of the lubrication system are to:
Reduce friction to prevent power loss and engine damage;
Help cool the engine by absorbing heat from internal engine parts;
Help clean the engine by flushing away dirt and debris inside the engine;
Seal the piston rings by filling imperfections between the rings and cylinder;
Provide a cushion between parts to prevent damage from shocks or impacts
caused by normal use.
Properties of lubrication:
 The properties of a lubricant are as follows
Viscosity:
The lubricant used must have a value within a certain range for a lower value
of viscosity will cause seizing of rubbing surfaces and higher value of
viscosity will increase the coefficient of friction and hence greater power loss.
Flash point:
Flash point of the lubrication is the temperature at which it forms vapour and
produces combustible mixture with air. Flash point must be higher because
low flash point will allow the lubrication to burn and deposit carbon on
moving parts. The minimum value of the flash point of the lubrication varies
between 200-250C.
Pour point:
Pour point of the lubricating oil is the temperature below which oil will
cease to flow in the pipeline under controlled test condition. Low pour point is
always recommended, as its flow will start even when the engine is started in cold
weather.
Carbon residue: The carbon percentage of the lubrication must be low because its
burning forms the carbon deposits on the piston head, piston rings and combustion
chamber walls.
Neutralization:
The lubricating oil should be neutral. It should not be acidic nor
alkaline otherwise it would corrode the material.
Types of Lubrication system:
The various lubrication system used in IC engines are as follows. Mist
lubrication system, Wet sump lubrication system, Dry sump lubrication system
Cooling Of IC Engines
During the process of combustion the temperature reaches a high value. In the
IC engines peak temperature reached is around 2000-2500C.
 The cylinder walls, piston, cylinder heads and engine valves absorb this large
amount of heat produced during combustion. The temperature distribution of a piston
is shown in the figure.
If the heat is not dissipated then the engine parts would melt and engine would
ultimately seize. In addition if the spark plug becomes overheated then pre
ignition occurs. Hence cooling becomes necessary for the engine.
There are two types of cooling of IC engine
Air-cooling
Liquid-cooling
Air-cooling:
In an air cooling system air is allowed to flow through the outside of the
cylinder surface thereby cooling it. Fins are provided on the outer cylinder
walls so as to increase the area of contact with the air.
The use of fins increases the heat transfer surface by 5-10 times of its original
value. The fins are more in number at regions where maximum temperature
occurs especially at cylinders heads and the valves. The fins are made integral
with the cylinder or cylinder heads or they can be fixed with the cylinder
heads separately.
Application:
This method is applicable to engines in motors cycles, small cars, airplanes
and combat tanks where the motion of the vehicle gives a good velocity to
cool the engine.
Liquid cooling system:
It is also called as indirect cooling system. In this type cooling system liquid
(water) is used to carry the heat that is produced in the combustion chamber.
Water is circulated through the jackets provided around the cylinder, piston
and the cylinder heads. There are water transfer ports for transferring water
into and out of the jacket.
There are five methods of water cooling system. They are
Direct or non-return system
Thermosyphon system
Forced circulation cooling system
Evaporative cooling system
Pressure cooling system