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403 ME Lab II
ME 22.403
Mechanical Lab II
Basics of
Spectrum Analysis/Measurements
and
the FFT Analyzer
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 1 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 2 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
ANALOG
SIGNAL
The FFT Analyzer can be broken down
into several pieces which involve the
digitization, filtering, transformation
ANALOG and processing of a signal.
FILTER
Several items are important here:
Digitization and Sampling
ADC DISPLAY
Quantization of Signal
Aliasing Effects
Leakage Distortion
DIGITAL
Windows Weighting Functions
FILTER FFT The Fourier Transform
Measurement Formulation
DISCRETE
DATA
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 3 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
INPUT OUTPUT
ANTIALIASING FILTERS
INPUT OUTPUT
Digitized time signals
APPLY WINDOWS
INPUT
OUTPUT
Windowed time signals
COMPUTE FFT
LINEAR LINEAR
INPUT OUTPUT
SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
AVERAGING OF SAMPLES
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGED
INPUT/OUTPUT/CROSS POWER SPECTRA
INPUT
POWER
SPECTRUM
CROSS
POWER
SPECTRUM
OUTPUT
POWER
SPECTRUM Average auto/cross spectra
COMPUTATION OF FRF AND COHERENCE
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 4 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
OBSERVED ACTUAL
ALIASED SIGNAL
f max
Aliasing results when the sampling does not occur fast enough.
Sampling must occur faster than twice the highest frequency to be
measured in the data - sampling of 10 to 20 times the signal is
sufficient for most time representations of varying signals
However, in order to accurately represent a signal in the
frequency domain, sampling need only occur at greater than twice
the frequency of interest
Anti-aliasing filters are used to prevent aliasing
These are typically Low Pass Analog Filters
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 5 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Anti-Aliasing Filters
Anti-aliasing filters are typically specified with a cut-off
frequency. The roll-off of the filter will determine how quickly
the signal will be attenuated and is specified in dB/octave
FILTER ROLLOFF
Vout
G dB = 20 log10 G = 20 log10
Vin
fc
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 6 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Digitization of a Signal
Sampling rate of the ADC is specified as a maximum that is
possible. Basically, the digitizer is taking a series of snapshots
at a very fast rate as time progresses
Digital
Analog Signal
Representation
ADC
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 7 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Sampling
Each sample is spaced delta t seconds apart. Sufficient sampling
is needed in order to assure that the entire event is captured.
The maximum observable frequency is inversely proportional to the
delta time step used
t spacing
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 8 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Sampling Theory
In order to extract valid frequency information, digitization of the
analog signal must occur at a certain rate.
That is, the sampling rate must be at least twice the desired
frequency to be measured.
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 9 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Sampling Parameters
Due to the Rayleigh Criteria and Shannons Sampling Theorum, the
following sampling parameters must be observed.
T=N t
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 10 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Sampling Parameters
Due to the Rayleigh Criteria and Shannons Sampling Theorum, the
following sampling parameters must be observed.
t fmax = 1 / (2 t) T = N t
f T = 1 / f t = T / N
T f =1 / T fmax = N f / 2
Sampling Relationship
An inverse relationship between time and frequency exists
T BW
Given delta t = .0019531 and N = 1024 time points,
then T = 2 sec and BW= 256 Hz and delta f = 0.5 Hz
T BW
Given delta t = .000976563 and N = 1024 time points,
then T = 1sec sec and BW = 512 Hz and delta f = 1 Hz
T BW
Given delta t = .0019531 and N = 512 time points,
then T = 1 sec and BW = 256 Hz and delta f = 1 Hz
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 12 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Quantization Error
Sampling refers to the rate at which the signal is collected.
Quantization refers to the amplitude description of the signal.
A 4 bit ADC has 24 or 16 possible values
A 6 bit ADC has 26 or 64 possible values
A 12 bit ADC has 212 or 4096 possible values
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 13 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Quantization Error
Quantization errors refer to the accuracy of the amplitude
measured. The 6 bit ADC represents the signal shown much
better than a 4 bit ADC
A A
D D
C C
M M
A A
X X
R R
A A
N N
G G
E E
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 14 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Quantization Error
Underloading of the ADC causes amplitude errors in the signal
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 15 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
AC Coupling
A large DC bias can cause amplitude errors in the alternating part
of the signal. AC coupling uses a high pass filter to remove the
DC component from the signal
All of the available
dynamic range of the
analog to digital
converter is dominated
by the DC signal
10 volt
range
The alternating part of
on
the signal suffers from
ADC
quantization error
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 16 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
1 volt
D
C
range M
on
X
ADC
A
N
G
E
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 17 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 18 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
N 1
Sx (mf )t x(nt )e j2mf nt
n =0
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 19 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Signal DATA
Captured Time
Signal
CAPTURED
DATA
Reconstructed
Time Signal
RECONTRUCTED
DATA
Frequency
Spectrum
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 20 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Signal DATA
Captured Time
Signal
CAPTURED
DATA
Reconstructed
Time Signal
RECONTRUCTED
DATA
Frequency
Spectrum
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 21 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Leakage
F
ACTUAL
DATA
CAPTURED
Periodic Signal R
E
DATA
T
T
RECONTRUCTED
Q
I
DATA
Non-Periodic Signal U
M
E
ACTUAL
E
DATA
CAPTURED
N
C
DATA
Y
T
RECONTRUCTED
DATA
Leakage due to
signal distortion
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 22 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Leakage
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 23 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
F
ACTUAL
DATA
CAPTURED
Periodic Signal R
E
DATA
T
T
RECONTRUCTED
Q
I
DATA
Non-Periodic Signal U
M
E
ACTUAL
E
DATA
CAPTURED N
C
DATA
Y
T
RECONTRUCTED
DATA
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 24 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Windows - Rectangular/Hanning/Flattop
In order to better satisfy the periodicity requirement of the FFT
process, time weighting functions, called windows, are used.
Essentially, these weighting functions attempt to heavily weight the
beginning and end of the sample record to zero - the middle of the
sample is heavilty weighted towards unity
Rectangular - Unity gain applied to entire sample interval; this
window can have up to 36% amplitude error if the signal is not
periodic in the sample interval; good for signals that inherently
satisfy the periodicity requirement of the FFT process
Hanning - Cosine bell shaped weighting which heavily weights the
beginning and end of the sample interval to zero; this window can
have up to 16% amplitude error; the main frequency will show
some adjacent side band frequencies but then quickly attenuates;
good for general purpose signal applications
Flat Top - Multi-sine weighting function; this window has excellent
amplitude characteristics (0.1% error) but very poor frequency
resolution; very good for calibration purposes with discrete sine
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 25 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Windows - Rectangular/Hanning/Flattop
Rectangular
Hanning
WIDTH
General window
frequency characteristics Flat Top
and many others
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 26 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Windows - Rectangular
The rectangular window function is shown below. The main lobe is narrow, but the side lobes are very large
and roll off quite slowly. The main lobe is quite rounded and can introduce large measurement errors. The
rectangular window can have amplitude errors as large as 36%.
-10
-20
Amplitude
-30
-40
-50
-60
dB
-70
- 80
- 90
-100
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15.9375 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 27 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Windows - Hanning
The hanning window function is shown below. The first few side lobes are rather large, but a 60 dB/octave
roll-off rate is helpful. This window is most useful for searching operations where good frequency
resolution is needed, but amplitude accuracy is not important; the hanning window will have amplitude errors
of as much as 16%.
-10
-20
Amplitude
-30
-40
-50
-60
dB
-70
- 80
- 90
-100
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15.9375 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 28 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
-10
-20
Amplitude
-30
-40
-50
-60
dB
-70
- 80
- 90
-100
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15.9375 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 29 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Windows
Rectangular Hanning Flat Top
0 0 0
dB dB dB
- 80 - 80 - 80
- 90 - 90 - 90
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 30 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Force
window
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 31 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Exponential
window
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 32 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Real Real
dB Mag dB Mag
Real Real
dB Mag dB Mag
0Hz 6.4kHz
0Hz
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM 6.4kHz
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 33 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
t=0
NO PRETRIGGER -976.5625us
TIME PULSE 998.53516ms
USED
dB Mag
t=0
DOUBLE IMPACT
0Hz 800Hz
FREQUENCYRealSPECTRUM
PRETRIGGER
SPECIFIED
-976.5625us 998.53516ms
TIME PULSE
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 34 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Exponential Window
If the signal does not
naturally decay within the
sample interval, then an T = N t
exponentially decaying window
may be necessary.
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 35 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 36 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
h ( t )= H (f )e j2 ft
df H(f )= h ( t )e j2 ft dt
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 37 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 38 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
+
G xx (f )= R xx ()e j2 ft d=Sx (f )S*x (f )
lim 1
R yy ()=E[ y( t ), y( t + )]=
T T T
y( t )y( t + )dt
+
G yy (f )= R yy ()e j2 ft d=S y (f )S*y (f )
lim 1
R yx ()=E[ y( t ), x ( t + )]=
T TT y( t )x ( t + )dt
+
G yx (f )= R yx ()e j2 ft d=S y (f )S*x (f )
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 39 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
S y =HSx
H1 formulation Other
- susceptible to noise on the input formulations
- underestimates the actual H of the system for H exist
Sy S*x G yx
S y S*x =HSx S*x H= =
Sx Sx G xx
*
COHERENCE
(S y S*x )(Sx S*y )
G yx / G xx H1
2
= = =
(Sx Sx )(S y S y ) G yy / G xy H 2
xy * *
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 40 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Typical Measurements
Measurements - Auto Power Spectrum Measurements - Cross Power Spectrum
x(t) y(t)
AVERAGED INPUT
POWER SPECTRUM
AVERAGED OUTPUT
POWER SPECTRUM
G xx(f) G yy (f)
AVERAGED INPUT AVERAGED OUTPUT
AVERAGED CROSS
POWER SPECTRUM POWER SPECTRUM POWER SPECTRUM
G yx (f)
Measurement Definitions 12 Dr. Peter Avitabile Dr. Peter Avitabile
Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory Measurement Definitions 13
Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory
Coherence
1
Real
dB Mag
-60
H(f)
Measurement Definitions 14 Dr. Peter Avitabile Measurement Definitions 15 Dr. Peter Avitabile
Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 41 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
dB Mag
FRF
-60
0Hz 800Hz
40 COHERENCE
FRF
dB Mag
INPUT POWER SPECTRUM
-60
0Hz 200Hz
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 42 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
SAMPLED SIGNAL
WINDOW WEIGHTING
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 43 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
RESPONSE
increasing rate of oscillation
time
frequency
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 44 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
MODE3
MODE 1
MODE 2
MODE 4
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Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
MODE # 2
MODE # 3
DOF # 1
DOF #2
DOF # 3
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Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
MODE 2
1 4
3 6
MODE 1
5
4
1
3
6
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 47 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
FFT IFT
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 48 Copyright 2001
Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
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Mechanical Engineering - 22.403 ME Lab II
Dr. Peter Avitabile University of Massachusetts Lowell Spectrum Analysis 082702 - 50 Copyright 2001