International Journal of Coal Geology 40 1999.

91101

The types of data needed for assessing the

environmental and human health impacts of coal
Robert B. Finkelman ) , Peggy M.K. Gross
US Geological Surey, National Center MS 956, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drie, Reston, VA 20192, USA
Received 7 July 1998; accepted 2 November 1998

Abstract

Coal is one of the most important sources of energy. Its worldwide use will continue to expand
during the next several decades, particularly in rapidly developing countries such as China and
India. Unfortunately, coal use may bring with it environmental and human health costs. Many of
the environmental and health problems attributed to coal combustion are due to mobilization of
potentially toxic elements. Some of these problems could be minimized or even avoided if
comprehensive databases containing appropriate coal quality information were available to
decision makers so that informed decisions could be made regarding coal use. Among the coal
quality parameters that should be included in these databases are: C, H, N, O, pyritic sulfur,
organic sulfur, major, minor, and trace element concentrations, modes of occurrence of environ-
mentally sensitive elements, cleanability, mineralogy, organic chemistry, petrography, and leacha-
bility. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: coal quality; databases; environmental impact; human health

1. Introduction

For more than 150 years, coal has been an important source of energy for both
developing and industrial societies. Projections for the next several decades call for
sustained use of coal in most industrial countries and for increased coal use in many
developing countries such as China and India EIA, 1997.. This relatively inexpensive
fuel will enable developing countries to strengthen their economies and improve the
standard of living of their citizens. Unfortunately, coal use has associated environmental
and human health costs Wilson et al., 1980.. Many of the environmental and health

)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q1-703-648-6412; Fax: q1-703-648-6419; E-mail: rbf@usgs.gov

0166-5162r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 6 - 5 1 6 2 9 8 . 0 0 0 6 1 - 5
92 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101

problems attributed to coal combustion are due to mobilization of potentially toxic

organic and inorganic components Swaine and Goodarzi, 1995..
Some of these problems could be minimized or even avoided if the appropriate
information were available to help decision makers address questions such as: would it
be cost effective to remove potentially toxic elements or switch to a coal with lower

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of procedures used after December 1994 for the analysis of coal samples collected.
Wherever possible, ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials. standard procedures are used.
 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101 93

trace element concentrations? Would physical coal cleaning be effective in reducing the
emissions of potentially toxic trace elements? How would the arsenic in a specific coal
behave during coal cleaning, or coal combustion, or during the disposal of coal cleaning
byproducts?
Comprehensive databases containing appropriate coal quality information on repre-
sentative samples could assist decision-makers in addressing these problems. For
example, the US Geological Surveys USGS. COALQUAL database, containing com-
prehensive information on the quality of US coals Bragg et al., 1994., was used by
regulatory agencies, industry, environmentalists, and others to address aspects of the
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments US Statutes at Large, 1990.. Specifically, these data
were used to estimate emissions of hazardous air pollutants HAP. from each coal-burn-
ing electric utility power plant in the US and to assess the benefits or penalties in HAP
emissions for switching from high-sulfur to low-sulfur coals EPA, 1996.. Fig. 1 depicts
the various coal quality parameters included in the USGS database.
Coal quality parameters that should be included in these databases are: proximate and
ultimate analyses, sulfur form information, major, minor, trace element concentrations,
modes of occurrence information, cleanability, mineralogy, organic chemistry, petrogra-
phy, and leachability. Finkelman 1995a. discusses the values of these parameters in
addressing environmental impacts, technologic behavior, byproduct recovery, political
and economic issues, and geochemical significance. This paper will briefly describe how
these coal quality parameters could help in evaluating the potential environmental and
human health impacts of coal.

2. Coal quality parameters

2.1. Traditional coal quality parameters

Most compilations of coal quality data contain information such as proximate

analyses ash, moisture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon by difference., ultimate
analyses C, H, N, S, ash, and O by difference., calorific values, and sulfur forms
ASTM, 1997.. These data were designed to provide information on the technological
performance of coal. This information may also have value in estimating atmospheric
emissions of sulfur, carbon and nitrogen and the contribution of these elements to such
environmental problems as acid rain and global climate change.
Sulfur is oxidized during coal combustion and forms various sulfur oxide compounds.
These sulfur oxides can cause respiratory distress, alteration in the lungs defenses and
aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease EPA, 1997b.. Nitrogen is also oxidized
during coal combustion to form various nitrogen oxide compounds. Most of the nitrogen
reacting to form these compounds is nitrogen from the air Finkelman, 1997.. Nitrogen
oxides can irritate the lungs and eyes and lower the bodys resistance to respiratory
infection EPA, 1997b.. Also, nitric oxide NO. can hinder the transport of oxygen by
hemoglobin in the bloodstream Schobert, 1987.. Nitrogen oxide is a contributing factor
in smog production. Both nitrogen and sulfur emissions can react in the atmosphere to
form acid rain which can then acidify lakes and streams, corrode buildings and
94 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101

monuments made of limestone, marble, and sandstone Schobert, 1987., and adversely
impact plants. Carbon in coal reacts with oxygen during combustion to form carbon
dioxide, a very effective Greenhouse Gas that may contribute to global climate change
Finkelman, 1997..
Acid mine drainage, a widespread environmental concern, is produced by the
oxidation of pyrite in the coal or in the strata overlying the coal. Reaction of sulfur in
pyrite with water and air forms sulfuric acid. Information on pyritic sulfur content of the
coal may be a crude but useful estimator of acid generating potential.

2.2. Major, minor, and trace elements

Virtually any element in the periodic table can present an environmental or human
health problem if present in high enough concentrations. Deficiencies of elements, such
as selenium and iodine, that are essential for certain metabolic processes, can also
present human health problems.
The US National Academy of Sciences NRC, 1980. cited 34 elements that are of
some concern with respect to environmental quality and health Fig. 2.. Their list did not
include elements such as aluminum, antimony, bismuth, iron, silver, tin, titanium, and
tellurium, that can have some environmental or health impacts. Finkelman 1995b.

Fig. 2. Potentially hazardous elements in coal resource development modified from NRC, 1980..
 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101 95

discusses 25 environmentally sensitive elements that are found in coal Table 1.,
including all of the elements cited in the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act as
potential hazardous air pollutants US Statutes at Large, 1990..
Clearly, a comprehensive assessment of the environmental and human health impacts
of coal would require information on a very substantial portion of the periodic table.
Fortunately, several highly reliable techniques are available for multi-element analysis of
coal or coal ash. These include inductively coupled atomic emission spectroscopy,
inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy, instrumental neutron activation analysis,
and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Several important elements, such as mercury,
selenium, fluorine, and chlorine are usually determined by element specific procedures.
Palmer 1997. and Swaine 1990. present comprehensive discussions of techniques used
for analyses of trace elements in coal.
The concentration of an element in geologic materials such as coal is commonly used
as a gauge of the materials potential environmental and human health impacts. For
potentially toxic elements such as arsenic, mercury, lead, and uranium, it may seem
logical that the higher their concentration, the greater the deleterious environmental and
human health impacts. However, the concentration of an element provides just a partial

Table 1
Likely modes of occurrence of 25 environmentally-sensitive elements found in coal
Element Modes of occurrence
Antimony Organic association, pyrite and accessory sulfides
Arsenic Pyrite
Barium Barite and other Ba-bearing minerals
Beryllium Organic association
Boron Organic association
Cadmium Sphalerite
Chlorine Chloride ions in pore water or adsorbed onto macerals
Chromium Organic association, illites, chromites
Cobalt Multiple associations
Copper Chalcopyrite, pyrite
Fluorine Various minerals
Lead Galena
Mercury Pyrite
Manganese Carbonates: siderite, and ankerite
Molybdenum Accessory sulfides, organic association
Nickel Multiple associations
Phosphorus Phosphates
Selenium Organic association, pyrite, accessory selenides
Silver Sulfides
Thallium Pyrite
Thorium Monazite, xenotime, zircon, clay
Tin Oxides and sulfides
Vanadium Clays and organic association
Uranium Organic association, zircon, silicates
Zinc Sphalerite

Elements in bold type are included in the EPAs list of hazardous air pollutants. Modified from Finkelman
1995b..
96 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101

measure of that elements potential impact. We shall see that to properly assess the
potential environmental and human health impacts of an element mobilized by coal
utilization, we need to have information such as the climatic and hydrologic regime at
the utilization site and the elements modes of occurrence and textural relationships.

2.3. Modes of occurrence

The mode of occurrence of an element is a description of the manner in which an

element is chemically bound in the host material. In coal, elements can be associated
with the inorganic constituents minerals. occurring as or in silicates, sulfides, oxides,
carbonates, phosphates, sulfates, etc., or with the organic constituents in a variety of less
well defined ways. The elements modes of occurrence can strongly influence its
behavior during coal cleaning, weathering, leaching, combustion, and conversion. Some
elements such as arsenic, chromium, and nickel are present in coal in both organic and
inorganic forms. These different modes of occurrence will cause the element to behave
differently during coal cleaning and coal combustion and thus will have different
environmental and human health impacts. For example, combustion of a coal in which
arsenic was inferred to be organically bound Dale et al., 1995. resulted in volatilization
of a substantial portion 65%. of the arsenic and probable emission into the atmosphere.
In contrast, in other coals much of the arsenic associated with pyrite could be removed
by coal-cleaning procedures Akers, 1995., and most of the remaining pyrite-associated
arsenic would be retained in the bottom ash and fly ash Crowley et al., 1996..
The environmental and human health significance of mode of occurrence information
needs to be carefully considered. In looking for the cause of high levels of selenium in
the back-fill ground water in a Powder River Basin coal mine, Dreher and Finkelman
1992. found seven different forms of selenium in the coal and overburden.
Organically-bound selenium was the dominant mode of occurrence, accounting for about
75% of the total selenium. However, Dreher and Finkelman 1992. concluded that the
high selenium levels in the ground water resulted from the oxidation of pyrite, which
contained only 10% of the selenium.
Domestic combustion of As-bearing coal has caused several thousand cases of severe
arsenic poisoning in Guizhou Province, China Zheng et al., 1996.. It is believed that
during combustion of the coal, arsenic is volatilized and adsorbed by foods being dried
over unvented coal fires. Chili peppers seem to be especially prone to adsorbing arsenic.
Fresh chili peppers have less than 1 ppm arsenic, whereas dried chili peppers average
more than 500 ppm. Belkin et al. 1997. found seven different forms of arsenic e.g.,
organically-bound arsenate, As-bearing pyrite, arsenopyrite, As-sulfide, and an FeAs
oxide. in the coals. The chili peppers form a staple in the diet and appear to be the
primary vector for arsenic intake.
The modes of occurrence of the arsenic may be a critical factor in this health
problem. Among the questions we seek to answer are: do these different forms of
arsenic behave similarly during coal combustion or are one or more forms preferentially
volatilized? Do the different forms of arsenic lead to different compounds in the effluent
and, if so, how do they react with the chili peppers?
 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101 97

A comprehensive discussion of the modes of occurrence of elements in coal and their

technological, economic, and environmental significance can be found in Finkelman
1994a..

2.4. Cleanability and textural relationships

Clearly, the ability to reduce the concentration of an element in coal prior to

combustion would minimize its potential environmental and human health impacts.
Information on the cleanability or removability of an element during laboratory,
bench-scale, or commercial coal cleaning tests would be useful to include in any coal
quality database Finkelman, 1994b.. Until there is wide acceptance of a protocol for
determining the removability of trace elements during coal beneficiation, the cleanability
information in the database should be internally consistent.
Among the more important properties that influence an elements cleanability are its
mode of occurrence and textural relations. Elements associated with mineral phases offer
the potential for removal by physical coal cleaning procedures. Elements primarily
associated with the organic constituents will not be effectively reduced by physical coal
cleaning, and they may even be enriched in the cleaned coal Finkelman, 1981..
Knowing the mode of occurrence of an element may not be sufficient to anticipate its
removability because of differences in textural relations. For example, lead in coal
occurs almost exclusively as galena PbS; Finkelman, 1994a., however, galena can have
several different textural relations. It can occur as macroscopic cleat or fracture fillings,
as micrometer-sized grains attached to larger pyrite particles, or as 110 mm particles
dispersed throughout the organic matrix. Each of these different textural relations will
cause galena and the lead it contains to behave differently during coal cleaning,
weathering, and leaching. Therefore, lead derived from galena with different textural
relations will have different environmental impacts.

2.5. Mineralogy

The mineral composition of coal has several technological applications. The relative
amounts of pyrite, carbonates, quartz, and clays can influence boiler fouling, slagging,
abrasion, erosion, and agglomeration. The abundance and properties particularly grain
size, crystallinity. of the iron sulfides pyrite and marcasite. will also influence the acid
generating potential of the coal and adjacent clastic rocks..
Huang et al. in press. suggest that acid-soluble ferrous iron probably derived from
pyrite. may be the principal lung irritant leading to Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis
black lung disease.. The presence of calcite in the coal dust may help to neutralize the
acid and reduce or prevent the respiratory problem.
To more accurately assess the environmental and health problems created by the
minerals in coal, we should incorporate into our databases semi-quantitative mineralogi-
cal information as well as information on the reactivity of the iron sulfides, such as their
available surface area. Finkelman 1992. pointed out that although chemical reactivity
increases with decreasing particle size, the finer-grained sulfides are commonly encapsu-
98 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101

lated in the organic matrix. Because of the encapsulation, the fine-grained sulfides are
not available to react. Thus, aailable surface area of the sulfides may be a useful
parameter to assess potential reactivity. An accepted procedure for quantifying available
surface area will have to be developed.

2.6. Petrography and organic chemistry

The petrographic characterization and organic geochemistry of coal are generally not
considered when discussing environmental problems. However, the petrographic compo-
sition of coal may be useful in forecasting the leaching of potentially harmful organic
compounds. An example is Balkan Endemic Nephropathy BEN., a fatal kidney disease
known from Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Bosnia, and Croatia. The disease is believed to
have caused more than 100,000 deaths from the mid-1950s to the mid-1980s Zimmer-
man, 1983.. Recent studies have cited a link between the occurrence of BEN and the
distribution of Pliocene lignites Feder et al., 1991.. Ground water may be leaching
harmful organic compounds polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aromatic amines.
from the lignites, which are important aquifers in the region. Drinking well water that
had been in contact with the lignite may cause the disease Orem et al., 1993..
Petrographic or organic geochemical characterization of coal may provide insights into
the potential for ground water leaching of hazardous organic substances.
During combustion, unburned carbon can react to form polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons PAH.. Some of these PAH compounds are known carcinogens and are believed to
be a primary contributing factor for the exceptionally high incidence of lung and
esophageal cancer in parts of China Mumford et al., 1995.. Crowley et al. 1998. are
trying to determine if certain macerals may have a propensity to form PAHs.
Petrographic characterization of coal may provide insights into the level of dust
generation from coal mining and handling. Certain coal components macerals, or
microlithotypes. may be prone to generate dust-sized particles under these circum-
stances. Particulates released during coal combustion and dust generated during coal
mining and handling contribute to smog and reduced visibility. The particles can also act
as eye irritants and affect the respiratory system of humans by decreasing lung function
and altering the lung tissue Finkelman, 1997.. The Clean Air Act amendments of 1996
added new standards for particulates less than or equal to 2.5 mm PM 2.5 . as these
particles are now known to lodge deeply in the lungs EPA, 1997a.. These have been
added to existing standards for particulates less than or equal to 10 mm PM 10 .. There is
a need for an ASTM testing method for determining the amount of particulates that will
be given off during coal combustion.

2.7. Leachability

The leachability of potentially toxic elements such as As, Hg, Se, Ag, etc., from coal
and coal combustion products could influence the use of coal or procedures for using or
disposing of coal combustion products Carlson and Adriano, 1993.. Coal quality
databases should include results of leachability tests for these elements under realistic
conditions see for example, Hassett, 1994..
 R.B. Finkelman, P.M.K. Gross r International Journal of Coal Geology 40 (1999) 91101 99

3. Climate information

In the United States, samples of coal collected from the Gulf Coast coal province and
the Appalachian coal province have the highest mean concentrations of selenium, 4.9
and 2.9 ppm, respectively Coleman et al., 1993.. Coal samples from the Northern Great
Plains coal province have the lowest mean selenium content, less than 1 ppm Coleman
et al., 1993.. However, the potential for environmental problems caused by selenium
mobilized by coal mining is far greater in the Northern Great Plains province Beath,
1982. than it is in the Gulf Coast or Appalachian provinces. The reason for this
difference in potential environmental impact is because the amount of rainfall in the
Gulf Coast: 40 to 60 in. a year and Appalachian: 40 to 50 in. a year USGS, 1970.
provinces is sufficient to wash the selenium from the root zone. However, rainfall in the
northern Great Plains is less than 20 in. a year, which allows selenium to accumulate in
the root zone. It is here that selenium can be taken up by Se-accumulating plants and
passed on through the food chain from grazing animals to humans Beath, 1982..

4. Conclusions

Coal is a valuable source of energy throughout the world. However, its use may cause
environmental and human health problems. Some of these problems could be reduced if
those people making decisions on coal use had access to databases containing accurate
and comprehensive coal quality information. These databases should include information
on C, H, N, O, pyritic and organic sulfur, major, minor, and trace element concentra-
tions, modes of occurrence of environmentally sensitive elements, cleanability, mineral-
ogy, organic chemistry, petrography, and leachability. Such data compilations are
essential for informed decisions addressing local, regional, and global environmental and
health impacts of coal use.

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