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VedicMathematics/Techniques/Multiplication
Introduction
Thereareawiderangeofmultiplication
techniques,theoneperhapsmostfamiliartothe
majorityofpeopleistheclassiclong Contents
multiplicationalgorithm,e.g.
1 Introduction
23958233 2 SpecialCasesofMultiplication
5830 2.1 Multiplyingby11

00000000(=23,958,2330) 2.2 Multiplyingby7x14
71874699(=23,958,23330) 3 Multiplyingtwosingledigitnumbers
191665864(=23,958,233800)
119791165(=23,958,2335,000)
4 Multiplyingtwonumbersbetween89to100
4.1 Combiningtechniques
139676498390(=139,676,498,390) 4.2 ExtendingtheMultiplicationTechnique
5 MultiplyingTwoNumbersthatare'CloselyRelated'
Whilethisalgorithmworksforanypairof
numbers,itislongwinded,requiresmany
intermediatestages,andrequiresyoutorecordtheresultsofeachoftheintermediatestagessoyoucansumthem
attheendtoproducethefinalanswer.However,whenthenumberstobemultipliedfallintocertaincategories,
shortcutscanbeusedtoavoidmuchoftheworkinvolvedinlongmultiplication.Therearemanyofthese'special
cases'someofthemallowseeminglydifficultmultiplicationstobecompletedmentally,literallyallowingyouto
justwritedowntheanswer.

SpecialCasesofMultiplication
Thereareanumberofsimpletechniquesthatcanbeusedwhenmultiplyingbycertainnumbers.Theyarevery
usefulintheirownrightbutcanbeevenmoreusefulwhencombinedwithothertechniqueswheretheycan
facilitatethesolutionofmoredifficultproblems.

Multiplyingby11

Tomultiplyanynumberby11dothefollowing:
Workingfromrighttoleft

1.Writetherightmostdigitofthestartingnumberdown.
2.Addeachpairofdigitsandwritetheresultsdown,(carryingdigitswherenecessaryrighttoleft).
3.Finallywritedowntheleftmostdigit(addinganyfinalcarryifnecessary).

It'sassimpleasthat,e.g.

Multiply712x11

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712x11=7832

Thereasonforworkingfromrighttoleftinsteadofthemoreusuallefttorightissoanycarriescanbeaddedin.
e.g.

Multiply8738x11

8738x11=96118

Multiplyingby7x14

Multiplyingby15canbebrokendownintoamultiplicationby10plusamultiplicationby5.Multiplyingby10is
justamatterofaddinga0ontheendofanumber,multiplyingby5ishalfofamultiplicationby10asabovee.g.

15x33=[10x33]+[5x33]=330+[(10x33)/2]=330+[330/2]=330+165=495

Thisiseasiertodoinyourmindthanitistowritedown!e.g.tomultiply15x27youfirstmultiply27x10giving
270,then'addhalfagain',i.e.halfof270is135,addthisto270toget405andthat'syouranswer.

Multiplyingtwosingledigitnumbers
Althoughmostpeoplehavememorisedmultiplicationtablesfrom1x1to10x10,oneoftheVedicSutras,
(VerticallyandCrosswise),allowsyoutomultiplyanypairofsingledigitnumberswithoutusinganythinghigher
thanthe5xmultiplicationtable.Whilethismaynotbeparticularlyuseful,thealgorithmisagoodintroductionto
someoftheideasbehindtheVedictechniquesandsoisworthtakingthetimetolearnandunderstandasthebasic
ideaisexpandeduponlater.BecauseofthisIwillgothroughtheprocedureinmoredetailthanitprobably
deserves.Thetechniqueisasfollows:

1.Ifeitherofthenumbersarebelow6thenjustrecalltheanswerfrommemory(youneedtoknowyour
multiplicationtablesupto5x,hopefullythisshouldn'tbetoomuchofaproblem!).Ifinsteadbothnumbers
areabove5thencontinue.
2.Write,(orimagine),thetwosingledigitnumbersoneabovetheotherwithananswerlinebelow.
3.Subtracteachnumberfrom10andplacetheresulttotherightoftheoriginalnumber.
4.Vertically:Multiplythetwonumbersontheright(theanswerstothesubtractionsinthepreviousstep)and
placetheanswerunderneaththemontheanswerline,(thisisthefirstpartoftheanswer).Sincetheoriginal
numberswereabove5,thesenumberswillalwaysbebelow5(becausetheoriginalnumbersweresubtracted
from10)soyouwon'tneedanythingabovethe4xmultiplicationtable.Iftheanswertothemultiplicationis
10ormore,justplacetherightmostdigitontheanswerlineandremembertocarrytheotherdigittothe
nextstep.
5.Crosswise:Selectoneoftheoriginalnumbers,(itdoesn'tmatterwhichone,theanswerwillbethesame),
andsubtractthenumberdiagonallyoppositeit.Iftherewasnocarryfromthepreviousstepjustplacethe
resultontheanswerlinebelowtheoriginalnumbers,iftherewasacarryaddthistotheresultbeforeyou
placeitontheanswerline.

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That'sit,thenumberontheanswerlineisthefinalanswer.Thetechniqueisverysimplebutlooksmore
complicatedthanitactuallyiswhenwrittendownstepbystep.Thefollowingexamplesshouldclarifythe
procedure.

Multiply8x6

Followingsteps1to3above,writethenumbersdownoneabovetheother,subtracteachfrom10,andwrite
theanswertotherightofeachnumber:

Now,followingstep4(Vertically)multiplythetwonumbersontherightandwritedowntheanswer.

Finally,followingstep5(Crosswise)Subtractalonganydiagonal(theanswerwillbethesameeitherway)
andwritedowntheanswer.

So8x6is48asexpected,butasyoucanseefromtheabovesequence,toworkthisoutyouonlyneededtoknow
howtosubtractsmallnumbersandmultiply2x4.

Multiply7x8

Givingananswerof56asexpected.
Thenextexampleinvolvesacarrybetweenthelasttwostages.

Multiply7x6

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Asyoucanseethemultiplicationinthesecond(Vertically)stage(3x4)resultsin12,the2iswrittendownandthe
1iscarried.ThesubtractionintheCrosswisestage(63)resultsin3,butyouhavetoaddthecarried1fromthe
previousstepresultingin4.Thefinalansweris42.

Thismayallseemlikealotofworkfordoingsimplemultiplicationsthatyoucanjustrecallfrommemory,butthe
importantthinghereistolearnthetechniqueasitisexpandeduponlater.Ifyouareinterestedinimprovingyour
mentalarithmeticskills,learntodothisprocedureinyourheadbyvisualisingthenumberslaidoutasabove.
Beforegoingontothenexttechnique,tryitnowcloseyoureyesandmultiply6x6usingtheprocedureabove...
Youshouldhaveimaginedthefollowing:

Multiply6x6

Multiplyingtwonumbersbetween89to100
Theabovetechniqueactuallyworksforanytwonumbersbutitisonlyusefulifitresultsinaneasierprocessthan
traditionallongmultiplication.Thekeythingtorememberisthatwiththistechniqueyouendupmultiplyingthe
subtractednumbersinsteadoftheoriginalnumbers,i.e.itisonlyeasierthannormalmultiplicationifthese
subtractednumbersaresmallerthantheoriginalnumbers,hencethereasonwhyweonlyusedtheabovetechnique
fornumbersgreaterthan5,(sincethesubtractednumberswillthenbe4orsmaller).

Whenthetechniqueisextendedtodoubledigitnumbers,yousubtracteachfrom100duringthe'Vertically'stage
insteadofsubtractingthemfrom10sothetechniqueisonlyeasieriftheresultofthissubtractionissmallforone
orbothofthenumbers,thisisobviouslythecasewhenoneorbothofthenumbersarecloseto100.Takealookat
thefollowingexample:

Multiply89x97

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So89x97=8633.
Nowthepowerofthetechniquebecomesclear.IntheintroductionIaskedwhetheryouwantedtobeableto
multiply89x97quicklyinyourhead,youshouldnowbeabletoseethatthisisactuallyquiteeasy.Youfirst
visualisebothnumbersoneontopoftheother,youthensubtracteachfrom100giving11and3,mentallyplacing
eachresulttotherightoftheoriginalnumbers.Nextyoumultiply11and3togethergiving33.(Notethatsincewe
arenowdealingwithdoubledigitnumbers,wedon'tcarryunlesstheanswertothismultiplicationis100ormore).
Wenowhavethelasttwodigitsoftheanswer(33),allwehavetodonowissubtractalongeitherofthediagonals
togetthefirstdigits.Wecanpickanydiagonalastheywillalwaysgivethesameanswerbut893=86isperhaps
easierthan9711=86.Thefinalansweristheconcatenationofthetwopartsgiving8633
Ifyoupracticethistechniqueyouwillfindyoucandotwodigitmultiplicationswithoutwritinganythingdown.
Tryitnow,multiply95x93inyourhead,trytovisualisetheprocedureabove.
Youshouldhavecomeupwiththefollowing:

Multiply95x93

95x93=8835

Rememberthatthereasonwhythisiseasierthannormalmultiplicationisbecauseyouonlyhavetomultiplythe
resultsofthesubtractions.Thismeansthatyoucanusuallyuseitinsituationswhereonlyoneofthenumbersis
closeto100becausethemultiplicationwillstillbeeasyinthiscase.e.g.

Multiply97x69

97x69=6693

Multiply96x88

96x88=8448

Thesametechniqueworksfornumbersslightlyover100exceptyounowhavetoaddduringtheCrosswisestep.
e.g.

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Multiply105x107

105x107=11235

Thereareanumberofwaystoremembertheextensionofthetechniquetonumberslargerthan100.Ifyouare
familiarwiththesignmultiplicationrules(i.e.x=+,x+=,etc.)thenyoudon'thavetoalterthetechniqueatallas
youwillunderstandthat100105=5and100107=7,then(7)x(5)=35,and107(5)=107+5=112.
Ifyouarenotcomfortablewiththisthenyoucaninsteadjustreversetheinitialsubtractionswhentheoriginal
numbersaregreaterthan100(orjustrememberthatyouneedthedifferencebetweentheoriginalnumbersand
100,i.e.105100=5insteadof100105=5),andthenalsorememberthatyouhavetochangetheCrosswise
subtractiontoanadditionifthenumberyouwanttosubtractcamefromanoriginalnumbergreaterthan100.
Trytodothefollowingexamplesinyourhead.

Multiply109x108

109x108=11772

Multiply115x106

115x106=12190

Multiply123x103

123x103=12669

AsbeforeyouneedtocarrythefirstdigitoftheVerticallymultiplicationifitismorethan2digitslong.e.g.
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Multiply133x120

133x120=15960

Combiningtechniques

OneofthekeyideasoftheVedicsystemisthatyoucancombinetechniquestosolveproblems.Youshouldlookat
problemsinaflexiblewayandusethecombinationoftechniquesthatbestsuitsaparticularproblem,(andtheway
yourownbrainworks!).Itisperhapsalittleearlytobediscussingthissincewehaveonlycoveredonemajor
techniquesofar,butevenatthisstageitispossibletocombinetheVerticallyandCrosswisemultiplication
techniquewiththespecialcasemultiplicationtechniquesalreadydescribedtohandlethesituationwhenboth
numbersarefurtherawayfrom100,1000,etc.

Forexample,usingthe'by10andhalfagain'ruletomultiplyby15letsyoueasilydealwithnumbersfurtheraway
from10,100,1000,etc.,ifoneofthenumbersis15awayfromyour'base'numbere.g.

Multiply66x85

66x85=5610
YoucanseeherethattheVerticallymultiplicationresultsin510(34x15=340'andhalfagain'=340+170=510).
510has3digitssowewritedownthelasttwodigits(10)andcarrytheleading5.WethendotheCrosswise
subtractionalongtheeasiestdiagonal(6615=51)andaddthecarry(5)beforewritingdownthefinalanswer(56).

ExtendingtheMultiplicationTechnique

ThesameVerticallywisetechniquedescribedaboveworksforanynumbersbutitisparticularlyusefulfor
numbersnearapowerof10,i.e.10,100,1000,10000,100000,etc.Aslongastheinitialsubtractionresultsin
numbersthatare'easier'tomultiplyitisausefultechnique.e.g.

Multiply1232x1003

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1232x1003=1235696
Sincewearedealingwithnumbersnear1000herewefindtheinitialdifferencesfrom1000insteadof100andwe
onlycarryiftheVerticallymultiplicationis1000orgreater.

Multiply9960x9850

9960x9850=98106000
Inthiscasethenumbersareslightlybelow10000soweinitiallysubtractfrom10000,wealsosubtractinthe
Crosswisestage,andweonlycarryiftheVerticallymultiplicationis10000ormore.(Inthisparticularcaseit
wouldhaveperhapsbeensimplertodo996x985usingtheVerticallyandCrosswisetechniqueandthenaddtwo
zeroestotheendoftheanswer.)

Multiply89684x99989

89684x99989=8967413476
Notethecombinationoftechniquesintheaboveexample,i.e.thedifferencebetween89684and100000iseasily
derivedusingthespecialcasetechniqueforsubtractingfromapowerof10,(i.e.usingthesutraAllfrom9and
thelastfrom10).Thespecialcasetechniqueformultiplicationby11isalsoused.

Multiply98688x99997

98688x99997=9868503936
Inthisexamplethenumbersareslightlylessthan100000sotheinitialsubtractionisfrom100000.Thethingto
watchoutforhereisthattheresultoftheVerticallymultiplicationmustbepaddedoutto5digitsbyaddingan
extrazeroontheleft(03936insteadof3936).Thisisalsotruegenerally,i.e.thenumberofdigitsintheresultof
theVerticallymultiplicationmustalwaysbethesameasthenumberofzeroesinthe'base'number(i.e.100,1000,
100000,etc.).

Itisworthrememberinghowfarwehavecomeevenatthisearlystage.Evenifyouarewritingthecalculations
down,itisstillmuchmoreefficienttodothemultiplicationabovetheVedicwaythanusingtraditionallong
multiplication.e.g.

Multiply98688x99997usinglongmultiplication
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98688
99997

690816(=986887)
8881920(=9868890)
88819200(=98688900)
888192000(=986889000)
8881920000(=9868890000)

9868503936

Thismultiplicationtechniquecanbeextendedfurthertocovercaseswhereonenumberisslightlyaboveapower
of10andoneslightlybelowthesamepowerof10.Inthiscaseitisadvantageoustonotewhethertheoriginal
numbersaregreaterorsmallerthanthe'base'powerof10using+orsymbolsaccordingly.e.g.:

Multiply111x88

NotethattheresultoftheVerticallymultiplicationisnownegativebecausethesignsofthetwonumbersyouare
multiplyingaredifferent.Additionally,sinceour'base'is100,wecanonlywrite2digitsdownintheanswer
sectionsotheleading1ofthe132mustbecarriedthus:

Nowwehave32intheanswersection.Wemustconvertthisnegativenumberbyreplacingitwithit's
'compliment',i.e.thatnumberwhichwhenaddedwouldresultin100.Inthiscase32+68=100sowereplacethe
32with68.Wheneverwedoareplacementofthissortwemustalsosubtractonefromthecarry(i.e.inthiscase
thecarrychangesfrom1to2).Oncethisisdonewecontinueasbeforethus:

111x88=9768
Notethatinthisexamplewehaveaddedthe11to88duringtheCrosswisestepbecausethe11waswrittendown
as+11.Itisimportanttonotethissign.Ifwehadinsteadusedtheotherdiagonalthecalculationwouldhavebeen
11112,(resultinginthesameanswer99),becausethe12iswrittenas12.Nowallofthismayseemabit
convoluted,butyouwouldnotexplicitlywritedowneachofthestepsabove,Ihaveonlydonethistoclearly
illustratewhatisgoingon.Inpracticethe'complimentandcarry'stepswouldbewrittendowndirectly,e.g.

Multiply97x104

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97x104=10088
Intheabovecase,aftertheinitialdifferencesarefound,(3and+4),theyaremultipliedtogive12butthenyou
rememberthatanegativenumbercannotbewrittendownsoitiscomplementedgiving88(12+88=100)andthe
carryisreducedbyone,(sincethereisnocarryinthisexample,thecarrybecomes1).FinallytheCrosswisestep
isperformed,(inthiscase97+4=101),andthecarrysubtracted(1011=100),restultingin100.Thefinalanswer
beingtheconcatenationofthetwopartsasusual,i.e.10088.
Somefurtherexamplesshouldmaketheprocessclear.Trydoingthemmentallybeforereadingthroughthe
working.

Multiply103x87

103x87=8961

Multiply998x1004

998x1004=1001992
Intheaboveexamplethebaseisnow1000,theresultoftheverticallymultiplicationis8resultingina
complimentof992.

Multiply1234x989

1234x989=1220426
Theaboveexampledeservessomeexplanationasitshowstheuseofmultipletechniques.Firsttheinitialresiduals
arewrittendown,i.e.+234and11.Wethenusethespecialcasetechniquetomultiply234by11whichresultsin
2574.Thisgivesacarryof2andaremainderof574.Theremainderiscomplementedbysubtractingitfrom
1000,thisisdoneusingthespecialcasemethodforsubtractingfromapowerof10,(i.e.usingthesutraAllfrom9
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andthelastfrom10),resultingin426andthecarryisreducedbyonechangingitfrom2to3.Finallythe
Crosswisesubtractionisperformedtakingaccountofthecarry,(1234113)resultingin1220givingafinalanswer
of1220426.

MultiplyingTwoNumbersthatare'CloselyRelated'
Wearenowreadytoextendthemultiplicationtechniquedescribedabovetothemostgeneralcase,i.e.the
multiplicationofanytwonumbersthatare'closelyrelated'.Theprecisedefinitionof'closelyrelated'is:

"Numbersthatareasmalldistanceawayfroma'proportionalpowerof10'suchthatthedifferencesbetween
theoriginalnumbersandthisproportionalpowerof10aresimpletomultiply".

Thismaysoundverycomplicated,butitisactuallyquitesimple.Firstlythe'proportionalpowerof10'isjusta
simplemultipleordivisionofapowerof10,powersof10being10,100,1000,10000,etc.So,proportional
powersof10are10,20,25,30,40,...80,90,100,200,250,300,...800,900,etc.etc.(Notethat25,250,etc.are
proportionalpowersof10inthisdefinitionbecausetheyareasimpledivisionofapowerof10,e.g.100/4=25).
SoIfbothofthenumbersyouwanttomultiplyare'close'tooneofthesenumbers(i.e.theresidualsaresmall
enoughsothatyoucanmultiplythemeasily),thentheextendedtechniquecanbeused.Thisextendedtechniqueis
simplytheadditionofthesubsutraAnurupyenaorProportionatelytothetechniquealreadydescribedabove.The
completedescriptionoftheextendedVerticallyandCrosswisetechniqueis:

1.Placethetwonumbersyouwishtomultiplyoneontopoftheother,leaveananswerlinebelow.
2.Choosea'workingbase'thatisclosetobothnumbers,thismustbea'proportionalpowerof10'.The
'theoreticalbase'istheactualpowerof10beforeyouhavemultipliedordividedittogetyour'working
base'.e.g.Ifthe'workingbase'is25thenthe'theoreticalbase'wouldbe100(the'theoreticalbase'of100
wouldhavebeendividedby4inthiscasetogetthe'workingbase'of25).Rememberthe'proportionality'
ofwhatyouhavedone,(e.g.ifyouhavedividedby4ormultipliedby3etc.),youwillusethis
'proportionality'correctthelefthandsideoftheanswer.
3.Subtractthe'workingbase'fromeachoftheoriginalnumbersandplacetheresultstotherightofeach,
(remembertoincludethesignoftheresult,e.g.2125=4,2825=+3).Wewillcalltheseresultsthe
'residuals'.
4.Verticallymultiplythe'residuals'obtainedabovenotingthesignoftheresult,(i.e.ifthesignsofthe
'residuals'aredifferentthenthesignofthemultiplicationresultwillbenegative,ifthesignsofthe
'residuals'arethesamethentheresultwillbepositive.Wewillcallthisthe'VerticallyResult'.
5.AddorSubtractCrosswisefollowingthesignpresentontheparticulardiagonalchosen,(youwillgetthe
sameanswernomatterwhichdiagonalisselectedsopicktheeasiestcalculationtocreatethe'Crosswise
Result'.
6.'Correct'the'CrosswiseResult'byrepeatingthe'proportionality'usedtocreatethe'workingbase',(e.g.if
youdividedby4togetyour'workingbase'thendividethe'CrosswiseResult'by4also).Notethatifthe
proportionalitywasadivision,andifthisresultedinaresultwithafractionalpart,thenthisfractionalpart
mustbetransferredtotherighthandsideoftheanswerbyaddingthesamefractionalproportionofthe
theoreticalbasetothepreviouslycalculated'Verticallyresult'.
7.Iftherearenowtoomanydigitsin'VerticallyResult'(i.e.morethanthenumberofzeroesinthe
'theoreticalbase'),thenyouhavetocarrytheleadingdigit(s)tothenextstagerememberingtopreservethe
signs.WewillcalltheresultoftheVerticallymultiplicationafteranycarryhasbeenremovedthe
'remainder'.
8.Ifthe'remainder'ispositiveyoucanjustplaceitontheanswerline,ifitisnegative,itmustbereplaced
withit'scomplimentbeforeplacingitontheanswerline,(rememberthecomplimentofanumberisthe
resultofsubtractingthenumberfromthe'theoreticalbase').Ifyouhavetocomplimentthe'remainder'to
makeitpositivethenyoumustalsoreducethecarryby1,(ifthereisnocarryyetthenthecarrybecomes1)
9.AddorSubtractanycarry(accordingtoit'ssign)tothecorrectedCrosswiseresultabove,placethisresultin
theanswerlinetotheleftofthe'remainder'partoftheanswer.
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10.That'sit,thedigitsontheanswerlinearetheresultsoftheoriginalmultiplication.

Now,thatallsoundsterriblycomplicated,butitreallyismuchhardertowrite(andread)thestepsthantoactually
followthem!Infactyouhavealreadyfollowedallthestepsinthemanypreviousexamples,theonlyadditional
stepsarethe'proportionatelycalculations.Someexampleswillclarify.

Multiply489x512

Asyoucanseeabove,firsta'workingbase'of500ischosenasitisclosetobothnumbers,inthiscaseweusea
'theoreticalbase'of100anda'proportionality'ofx5,(wecouldalsohaveused1000and2aswillbeseenin
thenextexample).The'residuals'arethenfoundi.e.11and+12andthesearethenmultipliedgiving132(the
multiplyby11ruleisusedheregiving132butastheresidualsignsaredifferenttheansweris132).Wenow
subtractCrosswise51211resultingin501(wecouldhavechosentheotherdiagonalifwewantedi.e.
489+12=501,bothgivethesameanswer).Thenwe'correct'theCrosswisesubtractionbyrepeatingtheoriginal
proportionatelystep,i.e.501x5=2505.

Wecanonlyhave2digitsinthe'remainder'resultbecauseour'theoreticalbase'is100sowemustcarrythe1
leaving32ontheanswerline,howeverwecan'tputanegativenumberontheanswerlineeithersowe
compliment32resultingin68(andthenreducethecarryby1to2).Finallywesubtractthecarrygiving2503.
Thusthefinalansweristhecontactinationofbothparts,i.e.250368
Thiscalculationisascomplicatedasitgetsandeverystephasbeensplitoutintoit'sconstituentpartsintentionally
soyoucanmoreeasilyseeandunderstandeachstep,butrememberthatyouwouldnotwriteeachstepdownlike
this,youwouldusuallyeitherdoitallmentallyorjustwritedownthepartanswersdirectly.
Youcanseebelowthatchoosingthealternativeproportionality(i.e.10002)resultsinthesameanswer:

Multiply489x512

Youcanseeabovethatweareperformingthesamemultiplication(489x512)andwearestillusinga'working
base'of500butthistimethe'theoreticalbase'is1000andthe'proportionality'is2.Thecalculationproceeds
asbefore,withthethediagonallysubtractionresultingin501,butthistimethe'proportionality'is2sowehave
todivide501by2resultingin250.

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Wecan'twriteintheanswersowetransferitbacktotheremaindercolumnashalfofthe'theoreticalbase',i.e.
10002=500addedtothe132alreadypresentgiving368.
ThemanyvariedwaysyoucantackleanumericalproblemwiththeVedictechniquesisakeyadvantagetothe
system.Withpracticeyouwillbecomemoreconfidentwhenworkingwithnumbersandachieveadeeper
understandingofarithmetic.However,oneessentialpointintheabovetechniquemustberemembered,thatis:

YoumustNOTprocessanycarriesuntilyouhave'corrected'theCrosswisecalculationforanyinitial
proportionalityyouappliedatthebeginningoftheprocess.

Itisacommonmistaketotrytodealwiththecarriesbefore'correcting'thelefthandsideoftheanswerfor
proportionality.Ifyoudothistheanswerwillbewrong.

VedicMathematics
Previous:AdditionAnd
Multiplication Next:Division
Subtraction

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