Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr.
1/201 2
CERCETAREA-ACIUNE
METOD FOLOSIT N DIFERITE
DOMENII DE ACTIVITATE
Andreea-Mihaela Vduva83
Abstract: Cercetarea-aciune a devenit un termen
de notorietate astzi, ntr-o societate centrat pe
cunoatere i schimbare, reprezentnd o form de
cercetare care se bazeaz pe efectele produse de
participarea direct a cercettorilor mpreun cu o
societate participativ, n vederea mbuntirii calitii
comunitii studiate.
Muli cercettori-aciune sunt optimiti n ceea ce
privete cercetarea-aciune, dat fiind faptul c aceasta
este utilizat astzi mult mai mult dect a fost n urm
cu cteva generaii, iar domeniile n care acesta a
nceput s aib o din ce n ce mai mare influena sunt tot
mai diversificate, scopul suprem al utilizrii acesteia
rmnnd mbuntirea vieii sociale.
1. Introducere
Cercetarea-aciune a devenit un termen de
notorietate astzi, ntr-o societate centrat pe
cunoatere i schimbare.
Reprezint o form de cercetare care se
bazeaz pe efectele produse de participarea
direct a cercettorilor mpreun cu o societate
participativ, n vederea mbuntirii calitii
comunitii studiate. Aadar, obiectivul
principal al cercetrii-aciune este schimbarea
social pozitiv, fiind una dintre puinele
metode care are la baz participarea, reflecia
i emanciparea grupurilor care caut s-i
mbunteasc situaia social.
Printele acestei metode este considerat
Kurt Lewin, n anii 40, termenul de cercetare-
aciune aprnd n studiul su Action Research
and Minority Problems (1946), dei unii
teoreticieni consider c originea acestuia este
nc neclar (Masters, J.,1995). n acest sens,
James McKernan n Curriculum Action
Research. A Handbook of Methods and
83
Andreea Mihaela Vduva, Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu, domiciliu: Str. 1 Decembrie 1918, bl 108, sc.3,ap1,Trgu-Jiu,
Tel: 0040767771140, andreeamihaela.vaduva@yahoo.com.
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
ACTION RESEARCH- METHOD
USED IN DIFFERENT AREAS OF
ACTIVITY
Andreea-Mihaela Vduva
Abstract: Action research has become a well
known term today in a changing and knowledge-centered
society, representing a form of research that is based on
the effects of direct participation of researchers with a
participative society in order to improve the quality of
the studied community.
Many action researchers are optimistic about the
action research, since it is used today more than it was
used a few generations ago, and the areas in which it
has begun to have an increasingly higher influence are
more and more diverse, its ultimate goal remaining the
improving of social life.
1. Introduction
Action research has become a well known
term today in a changing and knowledge-
centered society. It represents a form of
research that is based on the effects of direct
participation of researchers with a participative
society in order to improve the quality of the
studied community. Therefore, the main
objective of the action research is positive
social change, being one of the few methods
that is based on participation, reflection and
empowerment of the groups which are seeking
to improve their social situation.
The father of this method is considered
to be Kurt Lewin, in the 40s, the term action
research appearing in his study: Action
Research and Minority Problems (1946),
although some scholars consider that its origin
is still unclear (Masters, J., 1995).
In this direction, James McKernan in
Curriculum Action Research. A Handbook of
Methods and Resources for the Reflective
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Resources for the Reflective Practitioner
susine existena unor dovezi cu privire la
folosirea cercetrii-aciune naintea lui Lewin,
de ctre reformiti precum Collier (1945),
Lippitt i Radke (1946) sau Corey (1953)
(McKernan,J., 1991). De asemenea,
McTaggert (McTaggert, R., 1992) amintete
numele unui fizician Moreno care a utilizat
participarea n grup n cadrul unei iniiative de
dezvoltare comunitar, n 1913 (citndu-i pe
Gstettner i Altricher), iar Freideres
(Freideres,J.S.,1992) susine c noiunea de
cercetare participativ a aprut n 1970 ca
urmare a muncii de dezvoltare a rilor cu
venituri mici i aduce n discuie nume precum
Fals-Borda (apud Masters, J.,1995).
Totui, Kurt Lewin este cel care a pus
bazele unei teorii a cercetrii-aciune, fcnd
din metoda cercetrii-aciune o metod de
cercetare acceptabil, pornind de la premisa c
pentru a nelege i schimba anumite practici
sociale, oamenii de tiin social trebuie s
includ practicieni din lumea social real n
toate fazele de anchet. (McKernan,J., 1991,
p.10). n opinia lui Kemmis i McTaggert,
acesta descria cercetarea-aciune ca procedur
ntr-o spiral de etape, fiecare dintre acestea
constnd n planificare, aciune i evaluare a
rezultatului aciunii (Kemmis,S., McTaggert,
R., 1990, p.8) .
2. Conceptul de cercetare-aciune
O definiie destul de cuprinztoare a
conceptului de cercetare-aciune aparine lui
Kemmis i McTaggert care o considerau a fi
cercetarea colectiv, autoreflexiv, ntreprins
de ctre participanii ntr-o situaie social, n
vederea mbuntirii raionalitii i justiiei
propriilor practici sociale. (Kemmis,S.,
McTaggert, R., 1988). Pornind de la ideea
iniiat de Lewin, acetia vorbeau de existena
a patru momente ale cercetrii-aciune, aflate
n interdependen, momente care se succed
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
Practitioner supports the existence of evidence
regarding the use of action research before
Lewin, by reformists such as Collier (1945),
Lippitt and Radke (1946) or Corey (1953)
(McKernan, J. , 1991). Also, McTaggert
(McTaggert, R., 1992) recalls the name of a
physicist Moreno who used the group
participation within a community development
initiative in 1913 (citing Gstettner and
Altricher), and Freideres (Freideres, JS 1992)
argues that the concept of participatory
research emerged in 1970 as a result of
development work in low-income countries and
brings into discussion names like False-Borda
(as cited in Masters, J., 1995).
However, Kurt Lewin is the one who set
up an action research theory, turning the action
research method into an acceptable research
method, based on the premise that in order to
"understand and change social practices, social
scientists must include practitioners from real
social world in all phases of investigation"
(McKernan, J., 1991, p.10). According to
Kemmis and McTaggert's, he described action
research as "proceeding in a spiral of steps,
each consisting of planning, action and
evaluation of the outcome of the action"
(Kemmis, S., McTaggert, R., 1990, p 8).
2. The concept of action research
A fairly comprehensive definition of the
concept of action research belongs to Kemmis
and McTaggert who considered it to be
"collective, self-reflexive, undertaken by
participants in a social situation, in order to
improve the rationality and justice of their own
social practices." (Kemmis , S., McTaggert, R.,
1988). Starting from the idea initiated by
Lewin, they spoke about the existence of four
action research moments, interdependent
moments which succeed as a spiral (Fig. No.
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sub forma unei spirale (Fig. nr.1): reflecia, 1): reflection, planning, action and observation.
planificarea, aciunea i observaia.

Fig.no.1Action research as a spiral

Fig.nr.1Cercetarea-aciune ca spiral Source: Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, Participatory
Sursa: Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, Action Research : Getting the Job Done, Action Research Electronic
Participatory Action Research : Getting the Job Done,Action Research Reader, 1995;
Electronic Reader, 1995;
Reflection in action research refers to that
Reflecia n cercetarea-aciune se refer la
moment when the research participants
acel moment n care participanii la cercetare
examine and construct, then evaluate and
examineaz i construiesc, apoi evalueaz i
reconstruct their concerns (Grundy, S., 1986),
reconstruiesc preocuprile lor (Grundy,
starting with the identification of common
S.,1986), pornind de la identificarea unei
concerns or problems.
preocupri sau probleme comune.
Planning is that constructive moment
Planificarea este acel moment constructiv
which appears during the discussions between
care apare n timpul discuiilor ntre
the research participants (Kemmis, S.,
participanii la cercetare (Kemmis,S.,
McTaggert, R., 1988), when the action plan is
McTaggert, R., 1988), n care planul de aciune
critically examined by each participant and
este analizat critic de fiecare participant i care
includes an assessment of change which is to
cuprinde o evaluare a schimbrii ce urmeaz a
be produced (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
fi produs (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Hughes, 1995).
Hughes,1995).
Action involves implementation of the
Aciunea presupune punerea n aplicare a
action plan, that moment when the desire to
planului de aciune, moment n care se
improve the social analyzed situation infiltrates
infiltreaz i dorina mbuntirii situaiei
(Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, 1995).
sociale analizate (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Action will be deliberate and strategic (Grundy,
Hughes,1995). Aciunea va fi deliberat i
S., 1986). Through this moment, action
strategic (Grundy, S.,1986). Prin acest
research is fundamentally different from other
moment al cercetrii-aciune, aceasta apare
research methods because "action or change is
fundamental diferit de alte metode de
happening in reality and does not appear as an
cercetare, ntruct aciunea sau schimbarea se
experiment like: "just to see if it works" (Kaye
ntmpl n realitate i nu apare ca un
Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, 1995).
experiment de genul: doar s vedem dac
Observation is in fact the "research" part
funcioneaz [just to see if it works] (Kaye

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Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes,1995).
Observaia este de fapt partea de
cercetare a cercetrii-aciune cnd schimbrile
aa cum erau subliniate i n planul de aciune
sunt observate din punctul de vedere al
efectelor lor i al contextului situaiei analizate
(Kemmis,S., McTaggert, R., 1988). Acesta este
momentul aplicrii instrumentelor de cercetare
cum ar fi chestionarele, pentru a asigura cadrul
tiinific adecvat. Observarea i aciunea
adesea au loc simultan (Kaye Seymour-Rolls
& Ian Hughes,1995).
Pe lng aceste momente ale cercetrii-
aciune, mai exist i aa-numitele principii ale
acesteia, principii care fac diferene ntre
cercetarea-aciune i alte metode de cercetare
tradiionale. Acestea sunt: participare i
colaborare, responsabilizare, cunotine i
schimbare social (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Hughes,1995).
3. Cercetarea-aciune vs. Metoda
tiinific
Privind dintr-o alt perspectiv, se poate
spune c cercetarea-aciune nu este o metod
destul de des utilizat, ntruct nu este pe
deplin neleas.
Dou dintre motivele pentru care se poate
afirma acest lucru este, pe de o parte, faptul c
cercetarea-aciune este o metod diferit de
metoda tiinific cu care este n mod inevitabil
comparat, iar, pe de alt parte, faptul c unii
practicieni consider c fac cercetare-aciune,
cnd ei de fapt ntreprind simple aciuni
neevaluate (Swepson, Pam,1995).
n acest sens, abordarea este cercetare-
aciune numai cnd se bazeaz pe colaborare,
dei este important s realizm c cercetarea-
aciune ntreprins de un grup este dus la bun
sfrit prin aciunea de examinare critic de
fiecare membru al grupului (Kemmis,S.,
McTaggert, R., 1990,p.5).
McKernan considera c cercetarea-aciune
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of action research when the changes which
were outlined in the action plan are observed in
terms of their effects and the context of the
analyzed situation (Kemmis, S., McTaggert, R.,
1988).
This is the moment of research tools
application such as questionnaires, to ensure
the appropriate scientific framework.
Observation and action often occur
simultaneously (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Hughes, 1995).
Besides these action research moments,
there are so-called principles, principles that
differentiate between action research and other
traditional research methods.
These principles are: participation and
collaboration, empowerment, knowledge and
social change (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Hughes, 1995).
3. Action research vs. Scientific method
Looking from another perspective, one can
say that action research is not a method often
used because it is not fully understood.
Two of the reasons why we can affirm
this are, on the one hand, that action research
"is very different from scientific method, with
which it is inevitably compared", and, on the
other hand, some practitioners consider that
they are doing action research, when they
actually take simple unevaluated actions
(Swepson, Pam, 1995).
In this respect, "approach is action
research only when it is based on collaboration,
although it is important to realize that action
research undertaken by a group is carried out
through the critical examination action by each
member of the group" (Kemmis, S .,
McTaggert, R., 1990, p.5).
McKernan considers that action research
as a method of research is "clearly and
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/201 2

ca metod de cercetare are n mod clar i convincingly" originated in the scientific

convingtor originea n metoda tiinific
(McKernan,J., 1991).
Prin cercetare-aciunea, dar i prin metoda
tiinific se abordeaz probleme similare,
reale, n scopul mbuntirii condiiei umane,
dar se pornete de la premise diferite despre
natura acestor probleme, ceea ce conduce la
utilizarea unor metode diferite de cercetare
(Swepson, P.,1995).
O mai bun nelegere a metodei
cercetrii-aciune se poate realiza dac se
pornete de la o comparaie din punct de
vedere filosofic i conceptual ntre metoda
tiinific i cercetarea-aciune (Vezi tabelul de
mai jos) (Swepson, P.,1995).
method (McKernan, J., 1991).
Through action research, but also through
the scientific method, similar and real problems
are approached in order to improve the human
condition, but the approaches start from
different assumptions about the nature of these
problems, which lead to the necessity of using
different research methods (Swepson, P.,
1995).
A better understanding of action research
method can be achieved if one starts with a
comparison between the scientific method and
action research from philosophical and
conceptual point of view (See table below)
(Swepson, P., 1995).

Tabelul nr. 1. Table no. 1.

Cercetarea-aciune vs Metoda tiinific Action research vs. scientific method
Cercetarea-aciune Metoda tiinific Action Research Scientific Method

Problema nr. 1: Cine decide dac sau care este Problem 1. Who decides if or what is the problem?
problema? A community The research
O comunitate Colectivul de identifies that it has a community identifies a
identific faptul c are o cercetare identific o problem, a "want". community "need" that
problem, o dorin/ nevoie a comunitii de The logical the community is
cerere. care aceasta nu este consequences for action unaware of.
Consecinele logice contient. research method of this Research driven by
pentru cercetarea-aciune Cercetarea se produce assumptions are: the research
n cadrul acestei ipoteze ca urmare a curiozitii i - Consult and follow the community's curiosity
sunt: nevoii de cunoatere a standards set by the and need to know.
- se consult i se respect colectivului de cercetare. research community. The logical
standardele stabilite de Consecinele logice - Consult and follow consequences for
colectivul de cercetare; pentru metoda tiinific n community standards. The scientific method of
- se consult i se respect cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: community is integral in these assumptions are:
standardele comunitii. - se consult i se respect planning, implementing - Consult and follow the
Comunitatea este parte standardele stabilite de and evaluating. standards set by the
integrant n planificare, colectivul de cercetare. research community.
implementare i evaluare. Problem 2. What is the aim of the inquiry?
Problema nr. 2: Care este scopul anchetei? To improve the human To improve the
mbuntirea condiiei mbuntirea condition by changing the human condition by
umane prin schimbarea condiiei umane prin situation. This is further adding to the body of
situaiei. adugarea la totalitatea under pinned by the knowledge. This is
Aceasta este susinut de cunotinelor. assumption that truth is underpinned by the
premisa: adevrul este tot ceea Aceasta este what works. further assumption that
ce funcioneaz. susinut de premisa: Logical consequences knowledge is truth.
Consecinele logice cunoaterea este for action research Logical
pentru cercetarea-aciune n adevrul. methods of this consequences for
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: Consecinele assumption: scientific method of this
- testarea continu a situaiei- logice pentru metoda - Continual testing in the assumption:
problem pentru a afla ceea ce tiinific n cadrul problem situation to find - Gain a thorough
poate fi transpus n practic; acestei ipoteze sunt: what works in practice. understanding of the
- implementarea este parte -nelegerea - Implementation is an body on knowledge
integrant a proiectului de aprofundat a tuturor integral part of the research before starting further
cercetare. cunotinelor nainte de design. research.

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a continua cercetarea; - Separate research

- separarea cercetrii from implementation.
de implementare.
Problema nr. 3: Care este natura situaiei-problem?
Situaia este parte a Situaia este parte Problem 3. What is the nature of the problem
lumii ideilor i convingerilor a lumii fizice cu situation?
umane. proprietile sale The situation is part The situation is
Aceasta include caracteristice: material, of the human world of part of the physical
comportamentul uman determinat i cu ideas and beliefs. This world with the assumed
contient, reflexiv. mecanisme cauz-efect. includes conscious, properties of being
Consecinele logice Aceasta include reflective human material, determined,
pentru cercetarea-aciune n comportamentul uman behaviour. and with cause and effect
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: incontient i reactiv. Logical mechanisms. This
- cercettorul este Consecinele consequences for action includes unconscious,
parte a lumii; logice pentru metoda research methods to this reactive human
- toi oamenii din acea tiinific n cadrul assumption: behaviour.
situaie sunt subiecte, acestei ipoteze sunt: - The researcher is part of Logical
determinani, co-cercettori - se trateaz the world. All humans in consequences for
ai cercetrii; lumea ca fiind separat the situation are subjects, scientific method of this
- comportamentul de cercettor, adic determiners, co-researchers assumption:
uman orientat spre devine un obiect de of the research. - Treat the world as
schimbarea situaiei este anchet i include - Purposeful human separate to the
scopul anchetei, aadar oamenii care pot fi behaviour to change the researcher, i.e. it
determinarea obiectivului numii n mod eronat situation is the aim of the becomes an OBJECT of
prin multiple strategii; subiecte; inquiry so overdetermine inquiry and includes
- indicatorii calitativi - se determin this outcome with multiple humans who may be
sunt cei valabili pentru datele mecanismele cauz-efect strategies. erroneously called
referitoare la convingeri i prin controlul - Qualitative indicators "subjects".
idei. variabilelor externe; most valid for data on - Determine the cause
- msurtorile beliefs and ideas. and effect mechanisms
cantitative indic cel mai by controlling for
bine cauza-efect. extraneous variables.
Problema nr. 4: Care este relaia cercettorului cu - Quantitative
lumea? measurements best
Nu avem acces Lumea real indicate cause and effect.
direct la lumea real, ci este aa cum o percepem Problem 4. What is the relationship of the researcher
numai la percepiile noastre Sau to the world?
asupra ei, aadar se urmrete Nu avem acces We do not have The "real" world
atingerea obiectivitii prin direct la lumea real, direct access to the "real" is as we perceive it.
includerea percepiilor ci numai la percepiile world, only our or
tuturor cercettorilor. noastre asupra ei, aadar perceptions of it, therefore We do not have
Consecinele logice se urmrete atingerea aim to achieve objectivity direct access to the "real"
pentru cercetarea-aciune n obiectivitii prin by including the world, only our
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: excluderea percepiilor perceptions of all perceptions of it,
- sunt incluse toate cercettorului. researchers. therefore aim to achieve
percepiile relevante ale Consecinele Logical objectivity by excluding
tuturor co-cercettorilor logice pentru metoda consequences for action the perceptions of the
importani; tiinific n cadrul research methods of this researcher.
- se utilizeaz acestei ipoteze sunt: assumption. Logical
tehnici pentru a gsi percepii - cercettorul - Include ALL relevant consequences for
comune i ideosincratice. reduce propriile percepii perceptions of ALL scientific method of
exterioare prin asumarea relevant co-researchers. these assumptions:
unei poziii dezinteresate - Use techniques to find - The researcher reduces
i folosind statistici common and idiosyncratic their own extraneous
pentru analiz perceptions. perceptions by assuming
- controlul a disinterested position
percepiilor irelevante and using statistics for
ale obiectelor umane. analysis.
Sursa: Swepson, Pam (1995), Action research: understanding - Control for the
its philosophy can improve your practice [On line]. irrelevant perceptions of
http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html; human "objects".
Observm, aadar, din tabelul de mai sus, Source: Swepson, Pam (1995), Action research:
understanding its philosophy can improve your practice [On line].
n cazul cercetrii-aciune, o implicare direct a http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html;

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comunitii parte integrant n planificarea, Therefore, regarding action research,

implementarea i evaluarea proiectului de we can observe from the table above a direct
cercetare n rezolvarea problemei involvement of the community an integral
identificate, bazndu-se pe un comportament part in planning, implementation and
contient, reflexiv, scopul final fiind ncercarea evaluation of research in solving the
de mbuntire a condiiei umane printr-o identified problem, based on a conscious
atitudine activ schimbarea orientat spre reflective behavior, the ultimate goal being an
aciune. attempt to improve the human condition
through a proactive approach: action-oriented
4. Cercetarea-aciune metod folosit change.
n diferite domenii de activitate
n acest sens, cercetarea-aciune ar putea fi 4. Action research - a method used in
definit ca un proces participativ, democratic, different areas of activity
preocupat de dezvoltarea cunoaterii practice In this respect, action research could be
n cutarea atingerii scopurilor umane defined as "() a participatory, democratic
valoroase, fundamentat ntr-o viziune process concerned with developing practical
participativ. Acest proces caut s aduc knowing in the pursuit of worthwhile human
laolalt aciunea i reflecia, teoria i practica, purposes, grounded in a participatory
n colaborare cu alii, n urmrirea soluiilor worldview ()." This process "seeks to bring
practice la problemele presante de interes together action and reflection, theory and
pentru oameni, iar la modul general practice, in participation with others, in the
prosperitatea individual a persoanelor i a pursuit of practical solutions to issues of
comunitii lor (Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. pressing concern to people, and more generally
(Eds.), 2001,p.1). the flourishing of individual persons and their
Cercetarea-aciune reprezint o abordare a communities" (Reason, P. , & Bradbury, H.
cercetrii utilizat de-a lungul timpului n (Eds.), 2001, p.1).
foarte multe domenii. Action research represents a research
Astfel, nc de la sfritul secolului XIX i approach used over time in many areas.
nceputul secolului XX, are loc momentul Therefore, since the late nineteenth and
numit tiina n Micarea Educaional, early twentieth century, the moment called The
moment care influeneaz n mod decisiv Science in Education Movement takes place, a
evoluia cercetrii-aciune. Metoda tiinific moment that decisively influence the
era aplicat n educaie, remarcndu-se development of action research. The scientific
ndeosebi lucrrile lui Bain (1979), Boone method was applied in educational field,
(1904) i Buckingham (1926) (McKernan,J., excelling in the works of Bain (1979), Boone
1991,p.8). (1904) and Buckingham (1926) (McKernan, J.,
John Dewey a aplicat metoda inductiv 1991, p.8).
tiinific de rezolvare a problemelor ca o John Dewey " applied the inductive
logic pentru rezolvarea problemelor n scientific method of problem solving as a logic
domenii precum estetic, filosofie, psihologie for the solution of problems is such fields as
i educaie (McKernan,J., 1991,p.8). aesthetics, philosophy, psychology and
Aspecte ale cercetrii-aciune pot fi education " (McKernan, J., 1991, p.8).
identificate i n tradiiile timpurii de Aspects of action research can be

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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/201 2
organizare a muncii n Statele Unite i Europa
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire,2003).
n domeniul social, o viziune asupra
cercetrii-aciune a fost introdus de Kurt
Lewin. El a vzut cercetarea-aciune ca o
form de cercetare experimental avnd la
baz grupurile care se confrunt cu probleme,
ntruct, n opinia acestuia, cercetarea n tiina
social trebuie s aib ca punct de pornire
problemele sociale existente. Modelul de
Lewin are la baz o abordare a cercetrii
format din cicluri de aciune, incluznd
analiza, constatarea faptelor, conceptualizarea,
planificarea, implementarea i evaluarea
aciunii (McKernan,J., 1991,p.9).
Sol Tax a conceput termenul de
antropologia-aciune pentru a promova
colaborarea dintre prile locale interesate, dar
i fenomenul democratizrii (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire,2003, p.11).
n anii 50 i nceputul anilor 60,
cercetarea-aciune a fost folosit n studiul
industriei n institute precum Institutul
Tehnologic din Massachusetts (n SUA) i
Institutul Tavistock (n Marea Britanie)
(McKernan,J., 1991,p.10). Institutul Tavistock
a ntreprins cercetri-aciune, combinnd
munca britanicilor, norvegienilor
australienilor n Marea Britanie i Scandinavia,
apoi extinzndu-se n Suedia, Danemarca i
Germania (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11).
Corey (1953), Taba (1949), Brady i
Robinson (1952) au utilizat cercetarea-aciune
n domeniul educaiei. Aceasta a luat forma
unei strategii generale pentru proiectarea
programelor de studii, atacnd probleme
complexe cum ar fi relaiile intergrup i
prejudiciul creat de proiectele de mare
dezvoltare a curriculum-ului. n general,
cercetarea-aciune a fost realizat de cercettori
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
identified in early labor-organizing traditions in
the United States and Europe (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003).
In the social field, a vision of action
research was introduced by Kurt Lewin. He
saw action research as a form of experimental
research based on groups facing problems
because, in his opinion, social science research
must have as its starting point the existing
social problems. Lewins model is based on an
approach consisting of action cycles, including
analysis, fact finding, conceptualization,
planning, implementation and evaluation of
action (McKernan, J., 1991, p.9).
Sol Tax has developed the term "action
anthropology" to promote collaboration
between local stakeholders, but also the
phenomenon of democratization (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p.11).
In the 50's and early 60's, action research
was used in the study of industry in institutes
such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(U.S.) and Tavistock Institute (UK)
(McKernan, J., 1991, p.10). Tavistock Institute
has conducted action research combining the
work of British, Norwegians and Australians in
the UK and Scandinavia, then extending in
i Sweden, Denmark and Germany (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Corey (1953), Taba (1949), Brady and
Robinson (1952) used action research in
education. This took the form of a "general
strategy for designing curricula, attacking
complex issues such as intergroup relations and
the damage created by large development
projects of the curriculum." In general, action
research was conducted by researchers from
outside the area, but it relied on the
collaboration of schools and teachers too
(McKernan, J., 1991, p.9).
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din afara domeniului, dar s-a bazat i pe
colaborarea colilor i a profesorilor
(McKernan,J., 1991,p.9).
De asemenea, Myles Horton i
colaboratorii si au fondat Highlander n
Tennesse n scopul promovrii justiiei sociale,
drepturilor civile i democraiei, n timp ce
Paulo Freire, Budd Hall, Marja-Liisa Swantz,
Orlando Fals-Borda i alii au ntreprins
cercetri-aciune abordnd opresiunea i
dezvoltarea instituional (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire,2003, p.11).
Pe de alt parte, metoda cercetrii-aciune
a fost utilizat de Chris Argyris, Donald Schn,
Reg Revans, William Torbert, Peter Reason i
John Heron n cadrul unor largi varieti de
organizaii, de la companii din sectorul privat
pn la autoriti publice (Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003,
p.11).
i astzi, cercetarea-aciune a nceput s
aib influen din ce n ce mai mare n domenii
precum psihologia, sociologia, economia,
antropologia, educaia, managementul,
dezvoltare organizaional.
Observm, aadar, paleta larg de domenii
de activitate n care a fost i este utilizat
cercetarea-aciune, metod ce s-a fundamentat
pe problema-cheie comun tuturor domeniilor:
furnizarea cunoaterii este att valabil, ct i
vital pentru bunstarea indivizilor,
comunitilor, precum i pentru promovarea la
scar larg a schimbrii sociale democratice
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11).
Astzi, cercettorii sunt de prere c
ntreaga cercetare este inclus ntr-un sistem de
valori i promoveaz un model de interaciune
uman, contestnd practicile i sistemele
economice, sociale, politice injuste i
nedemocratice (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11).
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145
Also, Myles Horton and his collaborators
founded Highlander in Tennessee to promote
social justice, civil rights and democracy, while
Paulo Freire, Budd Hall, Marja-Liisa Swantz,
Orlando Fals-Borda and others have developed
action research regarding oppression and
institutional development (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003, p.11).
On the other hand, action research method
was used by Chris Argyris, Donald Schn, Reg
Revans, William Torbert, Peter Reason and
John Heron in a wide variety of organizations,
from private sector companies to public
authorities (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Nowadays, action research has begun to
have an increasing influence in areas such as
psychology, sociology, economics,
anthropology, education, management,
organizational development.
Therefore, we can observe the wide range
of activity fields where the action research was
or is used, a method that was based on the key
problem common to all fields: "generating
knowledge is both valid and vital to the
wellbeing of individuals, communities, and for
the promotion of larger-scale democratic social
change" (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Today, researchers believe that the whole
research is included in a system of values and
promotes a model of human interaction,
challenging unjust and undemocratic economic,
social, political systems and practices (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Action research rejects the notion of
objective and valueless approach of knowledge
in favour of an explicitly political, socially
engaged and democratic practice, because "
research into our ways of life cannot be
conducted in the same, value-free way as in the
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Aceasta respinge noiunea de abordare
obiectiv, lipsit de valoare a cunotinelor n
favoarea unei practici explicit politic, social
implicat i democratic, ntruct cercetarea
asupra modurilor noastre de via nu poate fi
ntreprins n acelai fel lipsit de valoare ca n
cazul tiinelor naturale (John Shotter apud
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 13).
Un principiu de baz al cercetrii-aciune
este descris de David Coghlan care sublinia
faptul c sistemele sociale ar putea fi nelese
i schimbate numai prin implicarea membrilor
sistemului n nsui procesul de anchet
(David Coghlan apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
13-14).
Cercetarea-aciune, n opinia lui Werner
Fricke, nseamn empatie i ascultare n
timpul ntlnirii cu alii, este un angajament
asupra valorilor de baz precum creativitatea
uman i participarea democratic, se bazeaz
pe percepia realitii sociale ca pe un proces
continuu cu indivizii devenii subiecte ale
propriilor istorii i ale contextelor sociale de
care acetia depind. Nu putem (i nu trebuie) s
evitm valorile i angajamentele personale
(Werner Fricke apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003.,
p. 14).
Pornind de la premisa c a ti prin
intermediul lui a face [cunoaterea prin
aciune] este mai mbucurtor dect a ti prin a
conceptualiza [cunoaterea prin teorie] (Hilary
Bradbury apud Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 14),
Robin McTaggart subliniaz acest angajament
ctre aciune n descrierea diferenelor dintre
cercetare-aciune i alte forme de anchet:
diferena crucial st n angajamentul
cercettorilor-aciune de a aduce schimbarea ca
parte a actului de cercetare. Fundamental n
cercetarea-aciune st ideea c lumea social
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146
natural sciences" (John Shotter apud Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 13).
A basic principle of action research is
described by David Coghlan who emphasized
that "human systems could only be understood
and changed if one involved the members of
the system in the inquiry process itself" (as
cited in David Coghlan Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
13-14).
Action research, according to Werner
Fricke, means "empathy and listening while
meeting the other, it is a commitment to basic
values like human creativity and democratic
participation, it is based on the perception of
social reality as a continuing process with
individuals being subjects of their history and
the social contexts they are dependent on".
[We] "cannot (and must not) avoid values and
personal commitment" (Werner Fricke apud
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003., P. 14).
Starting from the assumption that knowing
through doing [knowledge through action], is
more gratifying than knowing through
conceptualization [knowledge through theory]
(Hilary Bradbury apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
14), Robin McTaggart accentuates this
commitment to action in describing the
differences between action research and other
forms of inquiry: "the crucial difference lies in
the commitment of action researchers to bring
about change as part of the research act.
Fundamental to action research is the idea that
the social world can only be understood by
trying to change it" (Robin McTaggart apud
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
The values that underlie the common
practice of action researchers could be
summarized in few words: respect for people
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/201 2
poate fi neleas numai prin ncercarea de a o
schimba (Robin McTaggart apud Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
Valorile care stau la baza practicii comune
a cercettorilor-aciune ar putea fi rezumate n
cteva cuvinte: respect pentru oamenii i
pentru cunoaterea i experiena pe care le
aduc n procesul de cercetare, ncrederea n
abilitatea fenomenului democratic de a aduce
schimbare social pozitiv i angajamentul de
a aciona (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
Astfel, ajungem la concluzia c teoria ar
trebui determinat prin practic i devine ntr-
adevr folositoare n momentul n care este
pus n serviciul unei practici axate pe
realizarea schimbrii sociale pozitive. Dar
teoria, n concepia cercettorilor-aciune, este
i o modalitate la care recurge cercettorul-
aciune cu scopul de a justifica corectitudinea
cunotinelor sale de la care a pornit n
cercetarea sa, dar i n vederea legitimrii
cunotinelor dobndite prin experien (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
Astzi, contextul utilizrii cercetrii-
aciune este similar cu cel despre care amintea
Marja-Liisa Swantz cnd vorbea despre un
proiect tanzanian desfurat cu muli ani n
urm: Ministerele i departamentele zonale nu
au fost pregtite s se foloseasc de beneficiile
studiului. A devenit clar pentru mine c trebuie
s existe o pregtire instituional pentru a se
aciona n baza rezultatelor obinute la nivelul
comunitii. Sunt surprins c, dup toat
munca ntreprins prin intermediul cercetrii-
aciune participative i succesul evident obinut
prin utilizarea acesteia, principalii oameni de
tiin sociali nc o ignor ntr-o mare
msur (Marja-Liisa Swantz apud Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, op.cit., p. 19).
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
and for the knowledge and experience they
bring to the research process, a confidence in
democratic phenomenon and its ability to bring
positive social change and a commitment to
action (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
Thus, we conclude that "theory should be
determined by practice and it becomes really
useful when it is put in the service of a practice
focused on achieving positive social change."
But, theory, in action researchers opinion, is a
way operated by the action researcher in order
to justify the correctness of the knowledge
which started his research, but also to
legitimize knowledge acquired through
experience (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
Today, the context of using action research
is similar to the one that Marja-Liisa Swantz
reminded when she was talking about a
Tanzanian project conducted many years ago:
"Ministries and the district offices were not
ready to make use of the benefits of the study.
It became clear to me that there must be
institutional preparedness to act on the basis of
the results gained at the community level. I am
perplexed that after all the work done with
PAR [participatory action research] and the
evident successes in using it, the main-line
social scientists still largely ignore it" (Marja-
Liisa Swantz apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood Patricia Maguire, op., p.
19).
Moreover, Werner Fricke, trying to
promote action research among German trade
unions, found himself on the verge of isolation.
In this regard, he observed: "We all know the
great difficulties action researchers face to
bridge the two worlds of theory and praxis, but
if they try to avoid these difficulties, they will
be reduced to either consultants or academic
scientists. In both roles they are missing the
social function of action research: to enhance
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Mai mult, Werner Fricke, ncercnd s
promoveze cercetarea-aciune n rndul
sindicatelor germane, s-a trezit n pragul
izolrii. n acest sens, acesta observa: tim cu
toii marile dificulti pe care trebuie s le
nfrunte cercettorii-aciune, acelea de a
construi o punte peste cele dou lumi ale
teoriei i practicii, dar dac ncearc s evite
aceste dificulti, acetia vor fi redui la simpli
consultani sau oameni de tiin academici. n
ambele roluri, ei pierd din vedere funcia
social a cercetrii-aciune: intensificarea
participrii democratice i crearea de spaii
publice n economie (Werner Fricke apud
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 19).
Pe de alt parte, cercetarea-aciune
reprezint un proiect pe termen lung, ntruct
consolidarea ncrederii n comuniti care au
toate motivele s fie precaute cu strinii i n
special cu teoreticieni care desfoar munc
de cercetare necesit timp i rbdare. Spre
exemplu, cercettorul Jim Kelly i studenii si
(Kelly, Azelton, Lardon, Mock i Tandon) i-
au dedicat 10 ani din via, colabornd cu
liderii comunitii afro-americane din Chicago,
n Proiectul Comuniti n curs de dezvoltare
(Developing Communities Project), iar
impactul pe care acesta l-a avut asupra
comunitii i bogia intuiiilor desprinse din
munca acestora mpreun stau mrturie a
rbdrii de care au dat dovad (Marja-Liisa
Swantz apud Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 20).
Rspunsul la ntrebarea lui Robin
McTaggart Care este de fapt scopul
cercetrii sociale? este, n opinia acestuia,
foarte simplu: mbuntirea unei practici
sociale (Robin McTaggart apud Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 22). Cercettorii-aciune
caut mereu s-i optimizeze practicile de
cercetare-aciune, avnd drept scop final
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
democratic participation and to create public
spaces in [the] economy" (Werner Fricke apud
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 19).
On the other hand, action research is a
long term project whereas "building trust in
communities that have every reason to be wary
of outsiders and especially of academic
outsiders doing research" requires time and
patience. For example, the researcher Jim Kelly
and his students (Kelly, Azelton, Lardon, Mock
and Tandon) have dedicated 10 years of life,
working with African-American community
leaders in Chicago on the Developing
Communities Project and "the impact of the
project on the community and the richness of
the insights generated in their work together are
testament to the value of such patience"
(Marja-Liisa Swantz apud Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003, p. 20).
Robin McTaggart's answer to the question
- "What really is the purpose of social
research?" - is, from his point of view, very
simply: "the improvement of a social practice"
(Robin McTaggart apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003 p.
22). Action researchers are always looking to
optimize their action research practice, aiming
at the end to "modify the near environment"
where they are undertaking action research,
teach, train and assess their efforts (Jill
Morawski apud M. Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 22).
Some action researchers are not affiliated
to any university, but many of them join
universities or research institutes. "There can
be no question that universities are a key
institution for teaching about, conducting, and
publishing action research." (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003, p. 22). But the fact that inside them
action research has difficulties in the way of its
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modificarea mediului nconjurtor apropiat
n care ntreprindem cercetarea-aciune,
nvm, instruim sau ne evalum eforturile
(Jill Morawski apud M. Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
22).
Unii cercettori-aciune nu sunt afiliai
vreunei universiti, dar muli dintre acetia se
altur acestora sau institutelor de cercetare.
Nu ncape ndoial c universitile sunt
instituii-cheie pentru predarea, realizarea sau
publicarea cercetrii-aciune(Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003, p. 22). Dar faptul c n interiorul
acestora, cercetarea-aciune ntmpin
dificulti n calea progresului ei este un fapt
ngrijortor. n acest sens, cercettorii-aciune
ar trebui s accepte provocarea de a dezvolta
i contura o analiz asupra dinamicii
universitilor care le face pe acestea s se
comporte n felul n care o fac. Abia apoi,
putem dezvolta strategii practice i mecanisme
pentru transformarea universitilor n development agencies, in which the former
adevrate instituii de nvare, aflate n slujba
comunitilor n care acestea sunt situate
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 23).
Cercetarea-aciune, datorit
multidisciplinaritii sale, poate oferi astzi
posibilitatea restabilirii i consolidrii relaiei
dintre universitate i societate.
Exist legturi strnse ntre munca
cercettorilor-aciune din cadrul universitilor
i cea prestat n cadrul ageniilor de
dezvoltare i organizaiilor non-
guvernamentale la nivel local, naional sau
internaional. Ca exemplu n acest sens stau
parteneriatele ncheiate ntre universiti i
diferite agenii de dezvoltare locale sau
mondiale, n care cele dinti ofer expertiz n
abordarea unor probleme precum consolidarea
capacitii pentru dezvoltarea durabil i
reducerea srciei (Mary Brydon-Miller,
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
progress is a worrying fact. In this regard,
action researchers should "take up the
challenge to develop and articulate an analysis
of the dynamics that make universities as
institutions behave as they do. Only then can
we develop practical strategies and
mechanisms for transforming universities into
real learning institutions at the service of the
communities in which they are situated" (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 23).
Action research because of its
multidisciplinarity may provide today the
opportunity to restore and strengthen the
relationship between university and society.
There are close relations between action
researchers work within universities and the
work within development agencies and non-
governmental organizations at local, national or
international levels. As an example in this
direction, there are partnerships between
universities and various local and global
provides expertise in addressing issues such as
capacity building for sustainable development
and poverty reduction (Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire 2003, p.
24).
Action research is now recognized as a
useful strategic tool to involve community
members in critical aspects of their lives.
"From the World Bank to United Nations
agencies to a range of NGOs, increasingly,
participation has become a required
component of evaluation, assessment,
appraisals, training, and research projects."
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 24).
Action researchers argue that - if we
consider the challenges of increased
participation - action-oriented methods for
social justice and meaningful change are the
same, whether working through development
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/201 2
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
24).
Cercetarea-aciune este astzi recunoscut
ca instrument strategic util de implicare a
membrilor comunitii n aspectele critice ale
vieii lor. De la Banca Mondial la agenii ale
Naiunilor Unite i pn la un numr din ce n
ce mai mare de ONG-uri, <<participarea>> a
devenit o component indispensabil a
proiectelor de evaluare, estimare, apreciere,
pregtire i de cercetare (Mary Brydon-
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
2003, p. 24).
Cercettorii-aciune susin c dac lum
n considerare provocrile participrii sporite
, metodele orientate spre aciune pentru justiie
social i schimbare semnificativ sunt
aceleai, indiferent dac lucreaz prin
intermediul universitilor sau prin agenii de
dezvoltare. Se pare, totui, c promovarea
participrii i a cercetrii-aciune n cadrul
ageniilor de dezvoltare a avut mai mult
succes. Dar, pe de alt parte, nevoia de
intervenie i de modificare a mediului
nconjurtor al acestor agenii i al ONG-urilor
este la fel de acut ca i n cazul universitilor
(relaii de putere i de interese care se opun
democratizrii) (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 24).
Aceste instituii s-au specializat, n concepia
lui Geoff Mead, n activarea rspunsurilor
imune la valorile i practicile cercetrii-
aciune (Geoff Mead (2002) apud Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 24).
De cele mai multe ori, cercetarea-aciune
are efecte pozitive vizibile la nivel local, dar nu
reuete s depeasc aceste granie. Acesta
este unul dintre punctele slabe identificate de
cercettorii-aciune. n lipsa unor strategii i
angajamente de schimbare social mai
cuprinztoare, cercetarea-aciune este
susceptibil de a ctiga ciocniri locale, i nu
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
agencies or universities. However, it appears
that promoting participation and action
research within development agencies have
been more successful. But on the other hand,
the need for intervention and change the
environment of these agencies and NGOs is as
acute as in the universities (power relations and
interests that oppose democratization) (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 24). These institutions in
Geoff Meads opinion have specialized in
"activating their immune responses" to the
values and practices of action research (Geoff
Mead (2002) apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
24).
In most cases, action research has positive
effects visible at the local level, but fails to
exceed those boundaries. This is one of the
weaknesses identified by the action researchers.
"Absent such broader social change strategies
and commitments, action research is likely to
win local skirmishes but not the bigger social
battles that face us all." (Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
25).
5. Conclusions
Action research is more likely to lead to
valid results than other conventional research
methods, since it involves local stakeholders,
so combining knowledge resulted from
research with knowledge of the directly
involved parties.
Thus, if "conventional researchers are
concerned with objectivity, distance and
control", "action researchers worry about
relevance, social change and validity tested in
action by the most at-risk stakeholders" (Mary
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood Patricia
Maguire, 2003, p. 25).
Many action researchers are optimistic
about the action research, since it is used today
more than it was used a few generations ago,
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marile btlii sociale cu care ne confruntm and the areas in which it has begun to have an
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, increasingly higher influence are more and
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 25). more diverse, its ultimate goal remaining the
improving of social life.
5. Concluzii
Cercetarea-aciune este mai n msur s REFERENCES
conduc la rezultate valide dect alte metode 1. Brydon-Miller, Mary; Greenwood, Davydd;
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Research, Volume 1(1), SAGE Publications London,
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schimbare social i validitate testat prin Human Interests, apud Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
aciunea prilor interesate care sunt cele mai Hughes (1995);
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http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html.

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