Injury, Int. J.

Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Injury
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/injury

How was the Turin Shroud Man crucied?

M. Bevilacqua a,*, G. Fanti b, M. DArienzo c, A. Porzionato d, V. Macchi d, R. De Caro d
a
Hospital-University of Padua, Italy
b
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padua, Italy
c
Orthopaedic Clinic, University of Palermo, Italy
d
Institute of Anatomy, University of Padua, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As the literature is not exhaustive with reference to the way the Turin Shroud (TS) Man was crucied, and
Turin Shroud Man it is not easy to draw signicant information from only a photograph of a man on a linen sheet, this
Crucixion technique study tries to add some detail on this issue based on both image processing of high resolution photos of
Nailing the TS and on experimental tests on arms and legs of human cadavers.
Causalgia
With regard to the TS Man hands, a rst hypothesis states that the left hand of the TS Man was nailed
Cause of death
twice at two different anatomical sites: the midcarpal joint medially to the pisiform between the lunate/
pyramidal and capitate/uncinate bones (Destots space) and the radiocarpal joint between the radio,
lunate and scaphoid; also the right hand would have been nailed twice. A second hypothesis, preferred
by the authors, states that the hands were nailed only once in the Destots space with partial lesion of the
ulnar nerve and exion of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumbs.
With regard to the TS Man feet, the imprint of the sole of the right foot leads to the conclusion that TS
Man suffered a dislocation at the ankle just before the nailing. The entrance hole of the nail on the right
foot is a few inches from the ankle, and excludes a double nailing. The nail has been driven between the
tarsal bones.
The TS Man suffered the following tortures during crucixion: a very serious and widespread
causalgia due to total paralysis of the upper right limb (paradoxical causalgia); a nailing of the left wrist
with damage to the ulnar nerve; a similar nailing of the right wrist; and a nailing to both feet using one
only nail that injured the plantaris medialis nerves.
The respiratory limitation was probably not sufcient to cause death by asphyxiation. Also
considering the hypovolemia produced by scourging and the many other tortures detectable on the TS,
the principal cause of death can be attributed to a myocardial infarction.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
For more than a century the mode of crucixion of the Turin
Shroud (TS) Man has been studied [1], but no reliable conclusions
have yet been reached because it is not easy to draw signicant
information from only one photograph of a man on a linen sheet,
with many peculiar bloodstains coherent with a human body. Little
historical information is available about the means of crucixion in
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 049 827 6804.
E-mail addresses: matteo.bevilacqua@alice.it (M. Bevilacqua),
giulio.fanti@unipd.it (G. Fanti), michele.darienzo@unipa.it (M. DArienzo),
andrea.porzionato@unipd.it (A. Porzionato), veronica.macchi@unipd.it (V. Macchi),
raffaele.decaro@unipd.it (R. De Caro).
the Roman period and limited studies involved direct experiments
on cadavers [2,3]. Barbet made studies on crucied cadavers more
than half a century ago [2]. More recently, many researchers have
investigated aspects of the TS; for example, the forensic patholo-
gist, Zugibe [3] studied many cadavers. Nevertheless, none of the
researchers has conducted direct experiments on cadavers or parts
of them to study nailing procedures.
The Archbishop of Bologna, Paleotto, who accompanied St.
Charles Borromeo over the Alps to Turin in 1598, was the rst to note
that wounds appeared to be in the wrists and not in the middle of the
hand [4]. The iron nails were then mainly considered to have been
driven between the radius and the carpus or between the two rows
of carpal bones [5,6] either proximal to or through the strong band-
like exor retinaculum and the various intercarpal ligaments
[7]. Barbet performed some experiments on amputated limbs and

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 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148
argued that nailing took place through the so-called Destots space,
between the lunate/pyramidal and capitate/uncinate bones on the
ulnar side of the wrist. He also reported movement in opposition and
slight exion of the thumb, after nailing, and ascribed this
phenomenon to injury of the median nerve [5].
However, it was contested that a lesion of the median nerve at
the wrist is not compatible with the nailing in the Destots space,
because its course is away from the radial side [3]. So, in the
authors opinion, the absence of ngerprint of the thumb needs
another explanation.
According to the preferred nailing practice by the Romans [8],
the TS Man had his feet touching each other, the left on the right,
fastened with a single nail on the cross, without suppedaneum,
passing between the metatarsal bones [2,9].
Caselli [10] identied two nail wounds on the right foot, one in its
true place on the metatarsal bones, the other on the heel, and
attributed the second wound to displacement of the TS Man caused
by arrangement of the body on the anointing stone, which is the
bench for burial preparation. In the authors opinion, the bloodstain
on the heel is due to a blood leakage from the nail imprint on the
metatarsal bones. The heel is not completely visible on the TS
because the TS was not in contact with the entire foot.
Specic analyses have been conducted on the trickles of blood on
the upper limbs. Fasola [11] attributed the divergence of the blood
ow from the wrist wound to a slight rotation of the arm. Ricci [12]
suggested that the divergence of the blood ow was due to the
variable position of the arms on the cross that allowed the TS Man to
breathe. Massey [13] determined the position of the arms on the
cross deriving it from the corner of the trickles of blood on his
forearms with the axis of the respective arms. In the authors opinion,
these trickles formed when the arms were moved after unnailing.
Zugibe [3] proposed that the body of the TS Man was washed
before it was buried to remove the mask of blood, which he would
have had after the cruel scourging (more than 370 wounds by the
scourge [14]). Conversely, the postmortem blood on the TS Man
(spilled from the chest after the spear, from the head after removal
of the crown of thorns, and from the wrist and feet after unnailing)
was not supposed to be removed because according to Jewish
custom it was forbidden to touch postmortem blood as it would
make the person impure [3]. The authors share this opinion.
In a recent publication [15] the authors proposed that the TS
Man could have suffered a violent trauma to the right side of the
neck, chest and shoulder, causing an underglenoidal dislocation of
the humerus, with injury of the entire brachial plexus, right
attened hand and enophthalmos. The blunt chest trauma, which
resulted in the body falling forward, was also a direct cause of a
lung contusion and haemothorax. A sign of this chest trauma,
which was probably caused by the cross falling on the body, can
perhaps be seen on the dorsal TS body image as the two darker
areas beneath the shoulders.
The aim of the present study was to provide further hypotheses
about the possible anatomical sites of nailing of the TS Man,
through a renewed analysis of the TS bloodstains and experimental
procedures of nailing on cadavers. The following questions were
considered: How many nails were used on the hands and feet, and
where? What is the meaning of the trickles of blood on the
forearms and feet? What is the most likely posture of the TS Man?
What are the possible clinical consequences of such a nailing?
Materials and methods
TS analysis
Various high-resolution images of the TS, taken by G. Enrie, G.B.
Judica Cordiglia, G. Durante and Haltadenizione, were analysed
after proper image processing with reference to posture of the four
S143
limbs and their segments, and particular consideration given to feet,
hands and ngers. Another evaluation specically involved the
bloodstains, assessing their orientation with respect to the upper
limb axis.
Experimental procedures on limbs
Analyses were performed on three right upper limbs
resected from cadavers at the shoulder, and on another anatomic
specimen consisting of the trunk and both inferior limbs. The
donors gave specic consent. Cadavers were managed by the Body
Donation Programme of the Section of Human Anatomy of the
Department of Molecular Medicine of the University of Padua. In
2011, the Body Donation Programme achieved certication by an
accredited third-party registrar (Certiquality Srl , Quality Certi-
cation Body, Milan, Italy), which audited the quality manage-
ment system and certied that the Body Donation Programme of
the University of Padova met EN ISO 9001:2008 criteria [16]. The
use of cadavers for medical training and scientic research is
performed according to European, National and Regional norma-
tive references [17,18].
The experimental procedures performed were as follows.
The upper limbs were nailed in the following points:
- radiocarpic joint between the radio, lunate and scaphoid;
- midcarpal joint line between the scaphoid/lunate and trapezoid/
capitate;
- midcarpal joint medially to the pisiform between the lunate/
pyramidal and capitate/uncinate (Destots space).
With regard to the inferior limbs, the following procedures
were performed:
- dislocation of the right ankle joint, through increasing weights
applied with a rope to the ankle (this tension technique of the
limbs with ropes was usual in the crucixion [19]);
- nailing of the right foot between the 1st and 2nd metatarsal bone,
with a 10 cm-long nail;
- nailing of the left foot between the scaphoid and cuboid,
proximally, and third cuneiform, distally, with a 25 cm-long nail;
- further nailing of the right foot, with the long nail passing
through the left one, at the level of the right tibiotarsal joint.
The points of entrance were identied under radioscopic
control (OEC C-Arms, 9600; GE medical system) with the help of
small lead semi-spheres. Nailing of feet was performed on a
wooden plank. CT axial scans (Philips Brilliance iCT, Philips Medical
Systems; Best, The Netherlands) of the specimens were acquired.
Analysis and post-processing of the CT scans were carried out on an
Aquarius Workstation (version 3.6.2.3; TeraRecon, San Mateo,
California). Source images and 2D-3D reconstructions were
reviewed at the workstation. Specic anatomical dissections were
then performed to conrm the CT ndings and to verify the
condition of vessels and nerves.
Results
TS analysis
Right hand
The posture of the right hand is compatible with a at paralytic
hand.
- The hand is slightly exed towards the ulna, as normal, not
contracted (the angle between a line drawn between the 3rd and
4th metacarpus and a line coaxial to the forearm is 158  38) (Fig. 1).
S144 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148
Fig. 1. Left arm: the trickles on the wrist and forearm have the same angle (388  28)
with a line drawn between the 3rd and 4th metacarpus. The hand is slightly exed
radially (the angle between a line drawn between the 3rd and 4th metacarpus and a
line coaxial to forearm is 68  38) and dorsally exed, which is suggestive of a claw
hand. Right arm: the trickles are almost unidirectional, coaxial to the arm. The hand is
slightly exed towards the ulna (the angle between a line drawn between the 3rd and
4th metacarpus and a line coaxial to forearm is 158  38, which is normal).
- The exion is not due to the recomposition of the body in the
sheet with support of the outstretched hand on his thigh, because
rigor mortis would have prevented a change in posture at this
point.
- The exion is not due to distortion related to the superimposition
because there are clear ngerprints of the metacarpophalangeal
joints and the proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges of the
ngers IIV; phalanges are normal and in proportion to each
other and they are not exed as in his left hand;
- The almost uniform colour intensity of the thigh below conrms
the attening of the hand.
Left hand
The posture of the left hand is suggestive of a claw hand [15],
in a slight radial abduction (the angle between a line drawn
between the 3rd and 4th metacarpus and a line coaxial to the
forearm is 68  38, Fig. 1). The two last phalanges are exed, which is
characteristic of damage to the lower brachial plexus with proximal
ulnar nerve palsy; this was probably due to stretching of the limb
with ropes during nailing until the arm dislocated. However, a claw
hand is also characterised by abduction and extension of the thumb,
which is lacking in the TS image.
The lack of thumb imprint
The lack of a thumb imprint is compatible with a tendon
retraction.
- There is an area around the left hand where the imprint is almost
absent. It reects the distance of the body from the TS; this
distance is about 2 cm between the ulnar margin of the left hand
and the 2nd and 3rd nger of the right hand below, and about
6 cm between the left radial margin of the hand and right distal
forearm below. A hand in dorsal exion, documented by the more
developed imprints of the rst metacarpal phalangeal joint,
explains this difference.
- Even with a just exed left hand resting on the right hand, the
thumb would be more on the side of the index and would imprint
somehow on the TS.
- The thumb is also absent in the right hand that is stretched out on
the thigh.
Bloodstains on the left wrist
- A proper contrast enhancement of a square-like area of different
luminance on the TS image (probably the exit hole of the nail;
Roman nails were typically square), enables the visualisation of
the lower trickle, which is possibly in the intercarpal Destots
space identied by Barbet. The drain of blood to the wrist
originates from this point located on the extension of a line
drawn between the 3rd and 4th metacarpus.
- An additional contrast enhancement of a second quadrangular
area enables visualisation of what is perhaps the upper trickle,
slightly shifted towards the radial side, in the radiocarpal
articulation between the radio, lunate and scaphoid.
- The two trickles are directed towards the ulnar side spreading
apart at an angle of 388  28 with reference to the above mentioned
line (Fig. 1).
Bloodstains on the left forearm
- Trickles of blood have a diagonal course from the wrist to the
medial part of the elbow, with an angle of 388  28 (like that of the
wrist) with small streams slanting towards the outside of the
forearm, due to the radial exion of the hand (Fig. 1).
On the right forearm
- The bloodstain is almost unidirectional, coaxial to the arm (Fig. 1).
The authors believe that the course of the trickles on the left
wrist and on the forearms does not reect the position of the arms
on the cross, but it is simply due to the movements undergone by
the arms after the wrists were unnailed. The blood was not
removed because this would be impure, as mentioned above.
On the sole of the right foot
Two areas of greater extravasation of blood are recognisable.
The rst of these areas is in the middle of the central bloodstain,
where there appears to be a square hole that is the probable
location of nailing; the second area, which is 10.5  0.5 cm
from the rst, is at the height of the heel on the medial side
and can be due to a blood accumulation coming from the nail hole
(Fig. 2). The lack of continuity of the blood ow is due to the arch of
the foot, which caused a local detachment from the cloth. This
interpretation is conrmed by the blood rivulets outside the image of
the foot.
On the back of the right foot
A detailed study of the TS frontal and dorsal body image, also
supported by an anthropometrical analysis [20], shows that the
bloodstain on the front right foot is located in a position 5  3 cm
distant from the ankle. This implies that TS Man had a single nailing in
the centre of the foot.
As already suspected in the past [20,21], the right ankle
joint appears dislocated and tilted forward; if this was not
the case, it would be difcult to explain the plantar foot imprint
on the TS. Like the hands, the bloodstain on the foot is due to
the unnailing.
 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148
Fig. 2. Left image: legs and feet of the TS frontal image where the right bloodstain on the foot is 5  3 cm from the ankle. Central image: legs and feet of the TS dorsal image. Right
image: the most probable position of the nail piercing the right foot.
On the sole of the left foot
The trickles of blood along the medial border of the foot assume
the shape (Fig. 2). At the centre of this shape there is a vaguely
recognisable area of increased blood. This is probably the exit hole
of the nail and it is placed on the front of the heel. The branches of
blood from this core are probably due to movements during
unnailing, transportation to the tomb, or TS overlapping.
Experimental procedures on limbs
Radiocarpic joint between the radio, lunate and scaphoid
The identication of this spot was quite simple on the volar
surface of the wrist. It is at the level of the superior skin fold of the
wrist, between the two tendons of the exor carpi radialis and
palmaris longus, near the scaphoid tubercle.
Nailing did not cause bone fractures, but there was dislocation
of the lunate and scaphoid from the radial articular surface. The
nail produced a deviation of the tendon of the exor pollicis longus.
As a consequence of the action of the nail on this tendon, the thumb
was slightly adducted during nailing, with partial exion of the
distal phalanx (Fig. 3). The nail also partially deviated and
minimally injured the median nerve.
The acquired position of the thumb is consistent with the TS,
where the left thumb is not visible probably due to adduction and
exion.
Midcarpal joint between the scaphoid/lunate and trapezoid/capitate
Nailing in this spot did not cause bone fractures, but the lunate
was dislocated. The median nerve was not injured. The thumb was
partially adducted and the distal phalanx was exed during
nailing. These ndings are consistent with the lack of thumb
imprint on the TS.
Midcarpal joint medially to the pisiform (Destots space)
This point is located at the level of the inferior skin fold of
the wrist medially to the tubercle of the pisiform bone. On the
basis of the above references, the Destots space was quite easy to
identify. The nailing procedure did not cause bone fractures;
however, the ulnar nerve and artery and the exor digitorum
supercialis were completely injured. No adduction of the thumb
was noted (Fig. 4).
S145
Dislocation of the right ankle joint
This dislocation was achieved with a force of 2000 N applied to
the ankle using a rope. This is consistent with the possible
dislocation of such a joint before nailing.
Nailing of the right foot
This procedure was possible with a 10 cm-long nail passing at
the bases between the 1st and 2nd metatarsal bones. After nailing,
with repeated hammering, the right foot leaned on the plank with
the calcaneus, while a distance of about 2 cm was measured
between the plank surface and the plantar surface at the nail exit
point.
Nailing of the left foot
Under radioscopic control, the 25 cm-long nail entered between
the scaphoid and cuboid, proximally, and the third cuneiform,
distally. The exit point was located on the medial of the calcaneus,
at the posterior extremity of the plantar arc. This nding is
consistent with the TS body image.
Discussion
The data from our experimental tests on arms and legs of
human cadavers and evaluation of the TS body image with its
various bloodstains enable us to propose the nailing method of
hands and feet used for the TS Man.
Two different nailing procedures for the wrists were hypothe-
sised by the authors at the beginning of the present study: the rst
procedure involved two double nailings per wrist in coherence
with the apparently double bloodstains coming out from the
left wrist; the second procedure comprised a single nailing per
wrist assuming that these bloodstains came out from a single
larger hole.
The relative experiments on parts of cadavers, although limited
for obvious reasons, covered both hypotheses and also investigated
the possibility of a double nailing of the right foot.
The very recently discovered position of the entrance hole of
the nail 5  3 cm distant from the ankle (Fig. 2) is against the
hypothesis of a double nailing in the right foot. The single nailing is
instead located between the tarsal bones, perhaps just in the position
where the nail was put in the left foot, that is, between the scaphoid
and cuboid, proximally, and the third cuneiform, distally. Therefore,
S146 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148

Fig. 3. Nailing in the radiocarpal space between the radio, scaphoid and lunate. (A) Hand before nailing: the thumb is in the abducted position. The two points of nailing are
highlighted: the higher supercial fold (radiocarpic space) and the lower fold (Destots space). (B) The exit hole is visible of the plastic facsimile nail driven in the radiocarpic
space (replaces the iron nail). (C) Radiological control. (D) The nailing in the radiocarpic space induces retraction of the thumb. (E) Dissection of the wrist: deviation of the
tendon of the exor pollicis longus and slight lesion of the median nerve. (F) Three-dimensional reconstructions of CT exam of a hand specimen. The nail deviates the tendon
of the exor pollicis longus.

the authors prefer the hypothesis of the single wrist nailing, because
it is also not easy to explain why the cruciers should have made two
holes in the same wrist at a distance apart of only a very few
centimetres, and a single nail was used to pierce the feet.
According to the authors, the respiratory limitation, plus the
presence of a haemothorax, which pressed down the right lung
[14], was not sufcient to cause death by asphyxiation (i.e. by
ventilatory failure characterised in the terminal phase by loss of
consciousness and coma). A probable cause of death, also
considering the hypovolemia produced by scourging, bleeding
and the many other tortures, is myocardial infarction.
A more detailed description follows, but it should be
emphasised that all these tortures are coherent with the Passion
of Jesus Christ described in the Gospels.
Hands
On the basis of the analysis of the left hand in the TS, the exit
hole of the nail seems to be located in the Destots space, as
previously proposed by Barbet [2]. However, this anatomical site is
quite far away from both the median nerve and the tendon of the
exor pollicis longus to explain the retraction of this nger.
Our single experiment showed that nailing through the Destots
space completely injured both the ulnar artery and nerve, and this
fact seems in contrast with the assumption of a thumb retraction.
According to our experimental data, the retraction of the
thumbs seems to be due to the stretching of the tendon of the
exor pollicis longus by nailing the radiocarpal joint. Damage of
the median nerve could also have contributed to retraction of this
nger, causing decit of the abductor pollicis brevis and opponent
muscles, with adduction of the rst metacarpus and thumb.
The rst hypothesis analysed at the beginning by the authors
states that it is possible that the left hand of the TS Man was nailed
twice at two different anatomical sites: the Destots space, where
a quadrangular area of the nail appears after image contrast-
enhancement, and the radiocarpal joint between the radio, lunate
and scaphoid, about 1.5 cm proximally with respect to the
Destots space.
 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148
Fig. 4. The nailing in the Destots space (between the lunate/pyramidal and capitate/uncinate) does not cause the thumb retraction in a cadaver, but a partial injury of the
ulnar nerve produced by this nailing can cause thumb retraction in a living person.
The second hypothesis, preferred by the authors, states that a
unique hole was made in the wrists by the nail put in the Destots
space. If we suppose a possible partial tear of the ulnar nerve that
saves its deep branch, we can explain the contracture of the deep
head of the exor pollicis brevis and a exion of the metacarpo-
phalangeal joint, coherent with the lack of thumbs in the TS image.
Therefore, we think that probably Barbet confused the ulnar nerve
with the median nerve.
The signicant drain of blood on the forearms may be explained
by the injury to the ulnar artery; intravascular bleeding and
haematoma gathered around the nail, and followed recomposition
of the limbs. The people who were arranging the burial could have
raised his arms to prevent the blood spilling from the holes to the
ground.
The different arrangement of blood on both forearms is
explained by the different posture of the limbs and the different
angle of the hands with the forearms: the right upper limb
paralysed with the hand and forearm in axis; the left arm with the
wrist abducted and exed dorsally, not in line with the forearm
(Fig. 1).
Feet
The footprint of the entire sole of the right foot (Fig. 2) seen on
the TS and the partial absence of a left footprint shows that the TS
was not wrapped around the feet, but simply left lying on the
mattress of resin powders of myrrh and aloe. This indicates that
the TS Man suffered an ankle dislocation during nailing.
Otherwise, the foot would have been raised thus avoiding its
imprint on the TS.
The suspicion that the bloodstain on the heel of the right foot
may have been caused by a second nailing led the authors to
undertake a test of nailing through the ankle to obtain the exit hole
corresponding to the sole of the right foot at the heel (and not
outside just near to its tuberosity). Nevertheless, image processing
showed the bloodstain to be just under the ankle, thereby
excluding a double nailing, so the authors accept the hypothesis
of a single nail in the right foot and then the two feet were nailed
together, in agreement with the Latin Church.
S147
Posture of the limbs
The nailing procedure conrms the posture of TS Man in
accordance with a computerised anthropometric analysis [21].
The TS Man on the cross did not collapse with the body on his
knees, but he was stretched once he was pulled and dislocated with
ropes [4]. His arms were moderately lowered by about 158 (Fig. 5)
compared with the patibulum and not by 658 as supposed by
Barbet [2]. His head was bent forward and his knees were slightly
bent due to the human body dejection after death, with feet rotated
after ankle dislocation.
The left foot was nailed over the right dislocated foot and
was exed forward, thereby generating a distance greater
than 10 cm between the body and the enveloping TS, which
explains the partial absence of frontal body image in the area of
the ankles.
Clinical implications
The TS Man certainly suffered a very serious and widespread
causalgia (burning pain and shock to the tiniest movements of the
limbs) due to: total paralysis of the upper right limb (paradoxical
causalgia); nailing of the left hand with damage to the ulnar nerve;
and nailing of both feet with injury to the plantaris medialis nerves,
which pass on the site where there is a bloodstain due to the
nailing.
The nailing of the TS Man on the cross could have affected his
breathing in two ways:
a) with arms raised above the shoulders by about 158, and
therefore with a more expanded rib cage, the lungs were more
lled with air and there was less ability to exhale, but they were
not hindered so much to seriously reduce their ventilation
capacity;
b) every deep inspiration obtained by leveraging on the arms and/
or legs, even with the slightest movement that the TS Man was
trying to do, reduces the alveolar hypoventilation and brings
oxygen to a body already exhausted by the endless torture,
caused him stabbing pain.
S148 M. Bevilacqua et al. / Injury, Int. J. Care Injured 45S (2014) S142S148

Fig. 5. Scheme of force distributions in the arms of crucied TS Man; FTSM is the vertical force divided between the arms; Farm is the tensile force of each arm needed to bear the
vertical force; a is the angle between the arm and the patibulum. As it is not conceivable to obtain an additional lengthening greater than about 2 cm of the arm about 60 cm
long previously stretched, an elongation of 3.6% (2 cm/60 cm  3.6%) seems the allowable limit to match an angle of about 158.

Conicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Dr. Lorenzo Tavera and Maurizio
Franceschi of GE Medical System Italia; Dr Tommy Siviero for
skillful radiological assistance; Dr Gloria Sarasin, Dr. Anna
Rambaldo, Dr Maria Martina Sfriso and Dr Edgardo E. Picardi,
for management of anatomical material; Salvatore Serra for the
dimensional analysis of hands.
References
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1963. p. 1767.
[3] Zugibe FT. The crucixion of Jesus, a forensic inquiry. New York: M. Evans & Co;
2005.
[4] Paleotto A. Esplicazione del Sacro Lenzuolo ove fu avvolto il Signore (Cap. 26).
Bologna: Rossi Ed.; 1598.
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