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    1999, Instructional Design

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    22 views13 pages

    Instructional Design Theories

    Uploaded by

    Garrison Doreck
    1999, Instructional Design

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 13
    a INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES. AND MODELS Volume It ‘New Paradigm of Instructional Theory Edited by Charles M. Reigeluth Indiana University TEA ovnance snusncn associams, pususiers 1999 Maw, New fey don What Is Instructional-Design Theory and How Is It Changing? Charles M, Reigeluth nore Urey ‘The purpose ofthis hap ito provide some iss tht wl lp you analyze an. derstand the incon design theories preset in his book. Fs, we will ‘plore whataninsuucuona-desiga theory i Tas wilinlade adiseusion ofthe ‘ol tha values ply instrctional- design thors anadscston of what nn Structionl-desig theory isnot Inthe second half of he chap, we willexplore the ed fra new praign of intrutional-Sxign Ut. toprol, e wil look a the eed fora paradigm of traning and education in which te learneris a the top ofthe rganicatonal cart rahe than te btm, Then we wil look tthe implication that sot paradigm hs for insoconal-Sesgn ther, inclaing he {exten which some othe design dein shoal perhaps be made bythe learn swe they ae leaving WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORY? ‘An isrctonal design theory i theory ht offers explicit guidance on how 0 ‘ete help peopl ear ad develop. The Kinds of ering ad development may ‘clude copaite, mona, sacl physia and sptual For example Smart Scoot, Peckine describes an instructional design theory, called “Theory One” “which fers the following guance for what he nstction soul inte fs ‘er cognitive learning. The nstacton shuld provie: + Clear information. Dseigions and exples ofthe gos, Knowledge esd andthe performance expected Seno gt ae rel cad ome C M08) Ate pone 130" Ban! etogs SN. npr ae © Reem *+ Though practice. Opprnity for lanes o engage actively and sete: tively whatever ist be Teaned~adng nabs, solving word problems, wing esay. + Informative feedback. Cle, through counsel to lsrer abou tc perfor: ‘mance, helping them fo proceed mare effecvly, *+ Sto inns or exrisie motivation. Actes tat re amply rewarded, citer Because ty ae ery interesting and engaging in teaver oe Ye ‘ase they feed into other achievements that concem te lear (Pekin 1992, p45). ‘This isan nstrtions design hor. Of course, Perkins laborates on each of these guidelines iis bok, but this overview provides fod example of what Jnsructonl desig theory is ike. So what are the major characteris atl struction-dsign hore hve common? First, ulie moe fama kids of theories, instretionl design theory i de ‘igroriened ((ocasing on meas to atin poen goals fr lering of develop. ‘mead aes tan description enated (ocuring on he sult of given event) he the case of Tacory One, the gal iso enancelening ony perforate we wanto tect” (p 45) Being design oriented makes atheary oe Slysoft docatos, brcase it provides diet guiance on how to achive the fel Second istetonal design theory identifies metho of instruction (a 0 support and facilitate learning) and the stains which those met should and should not bc used Inte case of Theory One, the methods this general eve descrip) ae: clea information, ougtfel practic, informative feitar, and song motivators Perkins goes ont say, "Good teaching demancdifern, methods fr iferent occasions” (p53), andle dsr how Theory On ann ete ach of Adler's (1982) thee dieret ways of eching: dda nstcm, caching and Soca teaching ‘hid, nalnstvtional-design theories, the methods of instruction canbe eo en nto mor deed component methods which provide more pane oe ators Inthe case of Theory One, Pekin provides conedeable formation boat ‘omponens fr each ofthe for base methods, For example, within te diets framewors,Peskns dseribes some of thecompnentsforclea information, basa (on Letohard's (1989) reseah ‘dentition of goal forthe states, ‘monitoring and signaling processes toward the gous: ving abundant examples of the concepts eae, Aemoetation, linkage of new concepts to old ones though Menifcation of fail, ex anded nd wow lemeats * lepimizing ew conept or procedure by means of rncpes the dents slready know, eros-checks among represen, and compeling logis (Peskin, 1992, pp 53-58), 1. WHATIS INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY 7 And fou, the methods re proabitc rater than deterministic, whic ‘meats hey increase the chances of tang the ols aber tha esing in ‘ment ofthe goals Inthe cs of Teay One, “iviag abundant examples ofthe ‘concepts treated” wil tener thal he pol orth det willbe tained! at, ‘twill incease the probably hat they wil beatae So, insmtions-esgn theres are design rented, they desrbe methods of Inston andthe stuatons in which hore met oul be wed the metbods ‘anbe broke in simpler component mtd, nd he tod are probs Eich ofthese characterises of stuconldsipn toe ested in more eal ext Design- Oriented Theories An important character of instructional dein teas is tht they are design ‘int (or goal oriented). Thismakes thom Yr dilleet from what most people sally think of as theeces: Theories can be thought of ar dling with ‘aus and-ffeceaionships or wi ows ets insu proceses keeping inmind that thos ffecteorevene te hoot lay probable he cae increases the chances of theta eet eroring) rather tha eters Ges {he cause aay ests in the std effet). Most peopl ink of theories de. scxipive in nature, meaning hat he theny dese the effet th car when 8 sven clas of causal evens occurs, or meaning a i desribes the sequence hich certain evens oscar Farexmpe information prosesing tory i deseip- ve. Among other things, sys hat ne iafamation enters shor erm emary teforitetrs log erm mem idol youbow tof learning De- Scriptve theres an be we fer prodicioe (gen causal een edit what f= fective given one event ina roces pedi wis event wl kly occur next fr explanation gen an fet ata oscred, explain wa ut have ‘Cased st or posed i). ‘Bui desgn-orene tevies a very diferent fom descriptive too (se eg Crobach &Soppes, 1969; Simon, 969, Seeker, 174 Reigelath, 19838, \whichischaptr lin Vole | ft book), Desigathere are presrpive inna ‘ure he sensethat they oe suidlines ato wi mets) seo estan given oa, (They are ot sly prescriptive inthe sens of pling ot in reat sta exacty what mst be done and allowing mo variton Prescription in at seme only applies to determinsic—orpoitatic—theone, which ae alt onexistent inthe soil scenes Far exemple i908 want elp longterm ‘eno of sme new information cur (an astuconal ga), you shold help ‘he leaerfrelate that information 1 relevant pre knowledge (an instant ‘meod. ‘Sion (196) refered the dtinction between descriptive teas and design heise natural scenes” and "te since of thai” spectively (Contac and Soppes (1969) reed tas “cncusioeietd ingury” amd a 8 ReIGeLuTH “decision oriented ing" Whatever you choose teal them, hey te very i= ferent kings of theories that hae very itferent purposes nd euie very fren ‘ins of eserh. Design theres intended provide Gres puiance to practi ‘ines abou wit methods oust ain diferent pals whereas deni the vies attempt to provide a deeper understanding of elects that Teal om Phenomena, Therefor, descriptive theses are also wsful to practioner, Be, ‘aus they provide an understanding of why a design tewy werks and bec {hey cane practitioners to enerattrir own desig incre fore any ‘uations for which no adequate ones exist The mar sneer for people developing andteaingdescrpive tenis i vail, whereas for design theoreti pets bili (does this method stain your goal for your situation bec than an ‘ther known mod? This is why design ores eu different research mts dolgies from deserve theories Ge chap. 26s volume, for adeserptionaa methodology for advancing design theories). Methods and Situations Inston design theory requires at east wo omponents: meds for fc Ing usar learning ad development (which re lo called methods of iste ‘ioe, and indications ast when and when neo use se metho (which eal suatins). Although the tern comer” hea snilr meaning ina language an is often wed in education, not ll rpect ofthe content infaence what ethos shouldbe ued. Therefore us th tm situation” refer to those apc of the ones tht do influence selection of metho. An esental feature of ist iona-design theories thatthe meth they fer aresitustonsl rata on ‘eral. Inter words, one meth may work best in ne stanton, wile ances may work best ina different stuation “There atetwomajor aspects of an inition sition ce Fig. 1.1) thecon- Aiton under which the insrction wll ake pce and th desiedcecomes of the instruction, nstractonal conditions, wich shuld nat be confsed with Gages ‘condos of leaning include; + the nar of what i to be leaned (e, nderstanings ae learned ec: cent frm he way sil ae lara ~ ne ote rows ing sp and ma * the mature ofthe fearing environment (independently athe, in a up of 26 students at choo, ina mall am nausea * thease cof theinstrctionl development constrains eg how much ine and money you hive fr passing and developing the into) Al ofthese conditions may influence which meth wll work best atin your desired outomes. Gage’ nteral condition of earning al wits tesec 1. WHATIS INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY I-11, Thecogomn of ene i es. ond tem sbove (ibe nature of the lear), they ae instructional conditions; ut his extemal conditons of earning are tually ntuctonl methods, nt nats ‘onal eondions The second major aspect of any instcton! situation i the deste instru ‘ional outcomes "Tes re diferent rom ering goals Thy do nt nce he ‘pect eamings tht ar desired. Remember, he fit item fer condition (ee he Previous elle is) was "the nature of what ito be lesred Instead, ered ‘irjctonal outcomes include he evel ffetivenes icin, an pp you ‘want ened frm the instcton, * Level of efetvenest is mater of how wel he instcton works, a indi ate by how wel what degree of proficiency) the learning gost ce at tuned. The desired instructional outcomes sr 9t concerned with what he learning goals ar, but with how welltey ae achieve. The term "cteron” ‘soflen used refer othe level of effectneness, An etampe is comely solving Boutof 10 real-world problems that requir the we of 48 = Sina Tie ung + Level of eficieney is the level of effectiveness ofthe instruction vided by "he time andlor cost of he nstuton. An enaple sho on it take “Agana ade in We ee sn ea oped ie tReet AS es ome Caen ee ee 10 REGeLUTH caso reach the eierion mentioned above: cart solving 8 out of 10 ‘real-world problems that require he use of #8 cin a nght angle + ere of ape isthe extent to which the lerers oo) the nsrvcon- AB ‘tampleis stents asking where they coud fear more abot a Op ‘Some aes re often necessary among the ee desired outcomes (es rene ficiency. and appeal). The more effective you wane instant be, ‘Be mortine and expense itmay equ, making it lest ecient And sometimes ‘emore appealing (toivations) you wanttheinstuton tobe theless elicit t ills book, the instructional design theories (see Units 2 and) epic state the stations for whch their methods re ecormended. ‘Component Methods Sovnsrcional-design hore are desig rented hey hve metho, which are sitstional: and they speify dhe stations Gtuctional codons and desired _gacomes) for which te metiods are appropri cr nappropite. Their ethos ‘seal componeatisl meaning thateachcanbe done indiferet ways anda ite, fore mae up of diferent components reste) Fit example, problem-based easing (PBL can be viewed ws a method of intcton, But PL is mae wp of ‘many smaller methods, sch as presenting the peblem andthe seni in whichit occurs forming tans, providing support forthe team’ effets reting ene sul of hindi and teams eos, and eo fet These ae to hes enc method In aditon, er arusaly many diferent ways in wich a method canbe pee: formes. The problem canbe preseatedin diferent ways, he cenariocan hav fereat kinds of characterises, pds fet, Theses ids of tes repeat ‘method. Sometines on of those Kinds isbeter than theaters (beter fora genset conditions and desized outcome), but sometimes they ae equally efeacios ‘fen, it depends 8 the sivatioe, aly. more detail canbe provided for a method by offering eiteria that the ‘method shouldmeet. These are nether patna Kinds ofthe more eenealcthod rater thy indicate specications that the thou should mest ot eagle el ism might be pei as a criterion fer designing the scenario in proton baad Teasing. shouldbe appara lof these componests? (whee they ae pts, kinds, itr) can sualy be broken down ito more detailed guieie; ne wea they ually have subcomponent, which inti sta have ubmibeamponcnts ad ea oe 1. WHATISINSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY 11 forth, downto wathave ben called “elementary components (components thal for racial purposes have insignificant variation snd there eo aly ae lyzed int ther componcats ee the Landa sn Scan cares fr ele Reig 19850) Of cous, those components are ghiy interes ey tight situational in heir effects on ating the desved aucomes, An iets, ‘ional design hor isch simpler andeaer to undrstand it ensibes megs ‘relatively geca level In eher wore in a diagram tht beaks te mets «down into components an then breaks thse componeas into heir componcets te general methods arto higher up in the diagram. But sucha simple tawy isl ‘es useful etcatrs, erase re so ary diferent ways tat thse pees ‘anbeperfomed and doctors hve guidance boa which way or ways)n "key to work best forte stations. Therefore, an intutonl design hey ‘wir o apply fit describes methods ona lavely dtd love So,instyctons design theories ca vary realy in term ofthe eel of pid ace they povie ranging from very general tenis highly deed esos otjustbecausateary is dtl Joes not mean is not eb nthe se of being adapable to diferent sitstons. Inthe present book the utors hve aly enough pace to summarize thet especie erie, sth level padenceree ied herein maybe much over tan what he sane auborshave phen ches insch case, the authors providerefereee ths ore hoteugh wrk stead ‘7 can ind addtional idence for using tice meth. Probabilstic Methods. Anoier characteristic of methods of insricton sth they ae probabilistic. This ‘means hat methods do not guarance the dsr incon an lating oot ‘comes. Mey only ints the robabiy thatthe desired esl wl Sosa fas ‘case there are so many factors (situation, varibles) tha inflcnce how well ‘cod of instruction wes. I i probably imposible to develop an monet ‘method that wil work bet tha ny oter meth 100% of tite inte sa tion for which tisintende. But the polo an instuctons-Ssgn tees toon, tsi the highest posible probability ofthe desired resus (which afte nce ‘costeflecivenes)eccuring would be nice if nstoctional-dsin hares could specify probabilities fr each meths component tathose probable kel ier for ferent sta su fer depending on what oer method components as being seed site (an imeracton effet), This makes t ficult to specity robabiis foreach ‘method in anything les than an econ performance soporte Ue {theorist woul havethe formidable problem of empirically deteraing ale ing al the probsbilies fr al he qualitatively ferent stains, So eaforas tly, probabiities ae rarely inclade in inerctionl- design cron, 12 ReIGEWTH Values Aor implication of design theony’s pal (or design orientation an emphasis on ‘eterbilityofmetins fr taining ts oasis hat aloes play an portant for sign heres, whereas an tu of ale fr descriptive theres i ral cons eunscienif, Valves (orpillsophy.f you pete) ar especialy impo to de- sign theory in two ways Far they pla an important race decing what goals uruc. Taina, insuction-design poceas models (ee the "late Yional-Despn Process section below) hae ai solely on metals tech gues (a dtbasd approach) dei what o tech, We nee greater cognition ‘fhe imporant le that ates ay in rch decisions, nd insuchonal sgn pr czssmadels eed fle gunance on ow to elpalleape who hve ask inthe ‘nsrction each consensus on such values Secon, fo ay given goa thea ‘most always mor than one methad at canbe we ala. Trion tue ‘ional-dsign recess mods have eed primarily on research data abst whch ‘ds work best Bul which methods wor est depenson whats yous ing he methods. Those ere rec your vals, In is bok, ll de inst ‘onal-dsign thors (sce Unis 2-4 ate explicitly what ales gi hi sels tion of goals and wat values guide tr sles of methods So, instractonal-design theories are design oriented, and they offer methods which ae sittionl component an probabil, Thy eri the stations for which the methods shuld be wed. Tey aloe the vues tht were te goalthey pave andthe methods thc fet stain hase goals So what nds things donot constitu insructonal-dsitheais, bata fen confsed With ‘sch Beare? WHAT IS NOT AN INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY? To understand what insructona sign theory i, itis help to contrast with hat itis not Cafes in important ways from leaning theory. instruc "ona-design process, aad euticalum ery. BU istrctonl- design teary is 20 closely related fo cach of tee, and ie important for teachers td nse Sonal designers to know abot thea. ach of them edad in what olows Leaming Theory “sarning theories are often conse wth nstonal design theories But een fg thcoris are descriptive. Tey describe wlan ours or example one nd of leaning hor, calle schema theory, poposes that no knowledge sw wire by aceretion info anenisting bem, by toning tha schema when mine in ‘onsstencies emerge, and by resuucoring that schema whem major coosstecies aie (Rmmethart & Norman, 1978) But how does hat under “andi belp met teach, 3, Engh grammar? I'm creative and veo of 1. WHATIS NSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY 13 time, Lm te able to develop nstrctina mets that facilitate accretion, tun Ing, and esoucturing of schemata. Buti ery dificu, nd T my completely iss the mark. IT'm successful indenting uot methods fr parla sas, ‘os. e created an nstuctions-desig thor. Kay only apply toa ery nr {ow slice of situations, but those methods and situations comprise ay ‘nsrctonl design theory Iisconras to leaming theories, nsuctiona design theories are mote diet and exily applic t edcational problems, for they describe specif events ou sie ofthe are that aii learig (Le, methads ofnsrcton), ae han describing what goes on inside a exe's lead whet leaning ours. The sme ‘ind of analysis applies theories ofhuman development. They aredescipve and ‘ply only indirect to teaching fsering leaning and Svelopmen ofall sons), "Neverteles tht doesnot mean tha theories of eng td human develop: ‘mentarnawefltoeducators. As Wins (1997 pti “anysocestl prctivonee octesecher needs ob thoroughly versed na est the immediatly udetyng Aiscipline wo his or er vn. goed instructional designer kaos [theo of eae ingandboman development” (p37 Indeed esningand developmental eels ae wf for understanding why anncrctoal design hery waka, and, nes ‘as whee noinstctiona- desig hare exist thy can help at cea inert ‘ew methods ce select known sro mths tht might werk So inavetona design theories nd theories of learning a human develo ‘men are oth important, and, ike «hove adits foundation, they ae lossy ve Ine. In fat. hey te often so closely elated that several ofthe is Ute 2-4 provide some discussion oflaring thor as wells insttiona design the, (eee. chp Tin which Mayerhasasectonon the ‘SOT Model of Learning swell as on the “Instrtional Methods Suggested by the SOI Most") But hese Kinds of theories also dite ftomeach other in itsportnt ways. and tide !dequtly understand how to facilitate leaning without understanding the ile ences between thet nsrvetional design theory the instuctions design po- theory concers what he insrction should be ike, ‘what methods of instrton should be wed) not wha proce each insu ‘onal designer souls use to plan and prepare forthe nstaction. Oe common terms that characterize this distinction are instutonal ery nsrtonal made, ‘nd instrotonlsrstepes to represent nstuctonal design theory and inate ‘ional development 1D) model orinstctonl systems developmen (SD) poses to represeatinstrartona-dsign process eves, nsrctional-design feos and istrctonl-esign process ae sls closey rested Different theories require difrences inthe proces ap Plythore theories to particular station. Thetfore, some of chaps Une 14 REIGELUTH 2-4 ofthis book conain brief summaries ofthe new sapects of he design process that are necessary tows tee theory: fo example, n chapter 73 Karras ad Karat alk abot “tudinal nds analysis: Curriculum Theory In Volume ofthis book (Reigelth, 1983), I discussed the distinction between ‘what tach and how to teach; and Tindiatd tha eson abot what each tne been viewed as the proviace of curl theories, where decison bout how teach have bet the province of nstuctonal-design theo, However, the interelationshipe betwen these two kinds of decisions aes song that ten ales sense to combine te two. Abd, int, many curl tees have of fered guidance for methods of irsrction, while many isirctionl design teo- "ies have fered guidance for what each. Teefre,aloveh i bp to "ognize the dfeence between deciding what oteach nd how t tach tse ‘ofthe theres present in Units 2 and 3 appopeitly adress both for example, ‘hap in which Gardner tals about “Topics Worth Understanding” wel Shout ways of fonerng understanding 'A fandamental question conce bes for making decisions aboot what to ‘each and ow totath Regarding what each (gels) the ISD proces as ah. ‘ional ooked only at wha works, roughthe process of neds analysis et men ‘onde section on "Values" carier But many curiculum theories abt philosophy (eset valves). fat bathempic (ataabut what need and ‘values (opinions about whats important) ar elvan and should be ares in {the ISD proces fo deciding what each, pers with different degrees of x ‘phasis fr diferent stations. init, repading decisions about how to teach (rat methods tue), instutonal design theories haven relcdexcix ‘Svlyon data obtained rough research, smmative evssins, ad formative _rluations. typically assuming that he crea wed judge "what work” eu. ‘versal Ginispoable). But they aren Citra often ifr from oe station to a ter, Becase people ifr in heir ales about wht outcomes ae important ‘Thus, both values and empires re important for making decisions about ow to ‘each at wellaswhato teach, so clement of cuir har ade ISD process shouldbe combined. Inthis chap, we have aay explored what ninco design thor i lis design oieated (or oa rented) ting guideline shou wha method to ‘se in what stations. Is methods ae component, offering varying levels of ‘guidance fr educates. Themethods rv robbie, tala fostering the esd resus And we have see hat vals pay an importa olen on str ‘donal-esgn theory tha they under both the gol pursas ad the mets ‘offers to ati hse goals. We have sso explored whats nstoctional design 1. WHATIS INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN THEORY 15, ‘theory isn't Isnt same a earning theory, ap ISD process mel. oracuc- slam theory bt itis losel related wal thee and ear shoud supplement ther knowledge ofisructonal-design theory witha hee nat itis fen ae, {lt combi insrectonal design theory and cane hey. Given this understanding of what an nrsctonal desea theoy is and it, we an move on tothe question of why i important, Why is instructonalDesign Theory Important? grow (1996 pois out that “Te history of edacational ref soe of consit- ten filure of major refoms 1 survive and become lnstiutonalied Cuban {11993 refrs tothe historia success fattened curiclum ref a itl (©. 651. Pogrow pos onto say hat "The tnge biggest in promoting reform ns ben advocacy”. 658), which originates pinay fom the "Resear Aca.

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