NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Assoc. Prof. Ali Abdul Aziz

1
Current status of nuclear power around the world.
Currently the 426 operating reactors (in 31 countries) supply one sixth of the
world's total electrical capacity. France has been the leader in the use of
nuclear power and currently generates three quarters of its electricity from 54
nuclear plants. The U.S. has 112 nuclear plants, the largest number of any
country in the world.

Regional Distribution of
Nuclear Power Plants

2
Available Reactor Technology
Available reactor of the commercial reactors in operation,
approximately 82% are light water moderated and cooled reactors;
11% are heavy water moderated heavy water cooled reactors; 3% are
gas cooled reactors; and 3% are water cooled and graphite moderated
reactors. Two reactors are liquid metal moderated and cooled.

Table 1 indicates the numbers, types and net electrical power of

currently operating nuclear power plants.

Many of the earliest reactors, which started commercial operation in the

1950s, were 50 MW(e) or smaller. Currently operating reactors range in
size from less than 100 MW(e) up to 1500 MW(e). The average reactor
size in operation on 30 June 2012 was 851 MW(e).

3
Table 1: Current distribution of reactor types

As of 30 June 2012. Source: IAEA (PRIS). 4

5
This course presents the practical applications of nuclear energy, that
is the energy, in one form or another originates in and emanates from
the atomic nucleus.

The natural gas trapped in underground formations and oil from oil
bearing shale can be released by the detonation of a nuclear explosive.
It should even be possible to alter unfavorable weather patterns in
many parts of the world by removing mountain ranges which obstruct
the flow of air by the peaceful applications of nuclear explosives with
some complete safety.

6
The Fuel Cycle, Waste and Decommissioning
The fuel cycle is normally divided into front-end activities (mining,
conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication) to produce fuel assemblies
for reactors and back-end activities to manage the spent nuclear fuel and
the nuclear waste (including storage, reprocessing and waste disposal).

Decommissioning
Once power reactors reach the end of their lifecycle, they are
decommissioned. Decommissioning involves dismantling them in a
controlled way and then managing and disposing of the resultant
radioactive waste.
7
The key factors that have driven rising interest
in nuclear power:
Growing energy demand, especially for
electricity; volatile fossil fuel prices;
environmental pressures and energy security
concerns.
All studies agree that most demand growth will
occur in the developing countries.
A doubling or tripling of uranium prices translates to only a 46%
increase in generating costs. In contrast, for fossil fuelled generation, a
doubling of fuel costs raises total generating costs by 4070%. Thus
price volatility is a greater concern for fossil fuelled electricity
generation. 8
Environment
On a life cycle basis, nuclear power emits only a
few grams of GHGs per kWh.
1000 MW Coal burning plant may emit in one year about:
100,000 tons of Sulphur dioxide.
75,000 tons of Nitrogen oxides
500 tons of fly ash.

Nuclear power plant produce none of these air pollutants and emit only trace
amounts of radioactive gases.

Nuclear power plant do not consume oxygen and then it is adoption for under-
seas fleet.

A 1kg of mass converted to heat energy is enough to run a large

turbine generator (A 1 GW unit) for a year at 35% thermal efficiency.
This would require about 2.5 million tons of coal.
9
Today nuclear energy is used to generate the electricity in a
stationary power plant. Nuclear power is proving to be cheaper than
conventional sources of power (fossil fuel, coal, oil, and natural gas)
in many parts of the world. The environmental impact of nuclear
power plants is also smaller than that of conventional power plants.

A typical 1000 MW coal-burning plant may emit in one year as much

as 100,000 tons of sulphur dioxide 75,000 tons of nitrogen oxides,
and 500 tons of fly ash. A typical 1000 MW plant burning low-
sulphur oil produces about 16,000 tons of sulphur dioxide and 20,000
tons of nitrogen oxides. Nuclear power plants produce none of these
air pollutants, and emit only trace amounts of radioactive gases.

10
 Furthermore, ships powered by nuclear plants need to be refueled
only after long periods of operation.
Nuclear power has also been developed for the propulsion of aircraft
and rockets. It appears that nuclear powered rockets will be
necessary when manned missions to other planets in the solar system
are undertaken. The nuclear powered airplane was no longer
required and the project was terminated.

Advantages of Nuclear Power :

1- It is cheaber than conventional sources (fossile fuel; coal, oil, natural gas).
2- It have a small environmental impact than that of conventional power plant.
3- Mobile system need to be refueled only after long periods of operation.

11
Applications of Radioactive Isotopes:
1. Tracing
- One of the atoms in a molecule is replaced by a radioactive atom of
the same element that may be incorporated at the time of
fabrication into moving parts of machinery (piston and tool bits).

- Lubrication fluid is radioactive.

2. Radioisotope Generators:
- Radiation emitted by radioactive isotopes is absorbed in the
form of heat that can be converted into electrical energy by
thermocouple.
- Such radioisotope generators have been used for satellites,
remote locations, lighted aids to marine navigation, heart
pacers.
12
3. Food Preservation
- Placing various medical supplies after packing in radiation fields
from radioactive isotopes.

4. Chemical Processing
- Radiation interacts with matter, a variety of ions and nanscent
molecules are formed that are capable of catalyzing chemical
reaction.

13
Fuel Shares of World Electricity Generation, 2002-2005

14
Introduction To Nuclear Power Reactors

15
16
1
17
 Structure of the Atom
All matter is composed of unit particles called atom.

An atom consist of a relatively heavy, positively

charged nucleus and a number of much lighter
negatively charged, electrons orbiting around the
nucleus.

The atom as a whole is electrically neutral, since the

number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in
orbit.

18
Atomic structure of some simple atoms.

Nucleus
Size 510-15 m

Mn=1.67x10-27 kg = 1.008665 amu

Mp = Mn= 1.008665 amu
Me= 9.11x10-31 kg = 1/1840 Mn
19
The nucleus consists of sub-particles called nucleons.

Neutron (neutral electrically)

Nucleons

Proton (Positively charged)

Atom is electrically neutral because number of protons equals the

number of electrons in orbit.

Mass of atom is concentrate in nucleus.

20
Atomic structure of some simple atoms.

The number of protons in the nucleus is called

the atomic number, Z

The total number of protons and neutrons in

the nucleus is called the mass number, A.
Nuclear symbols are written as :

A A
Z X or nX Z

21
 Atomic structure of some simple atoms.
Hydrogen (1H1) has a nucleus composed of
one proton, no neutron, and one orbital
electrons (Z=1, A=1).

Deutereium 1 H 2 has a nucleus composed of one

proton, one neutron, and one orbital electron
(Z=1, A=2).
Helium 2 He4 has two protons, two neutrons,
and two orbital electrons (Z=2, A=4).

22
Natural Uranium is composed of 99.282 % U 238 ,
0.712 % U235 and 0.006 % U234 , the atomic number
being 92 in all cases.

Many isotopes do not appear in nature and are

synthesized in the laboratory or in nuclear reactors.

Isotopes :
Atoms and nuclei that have the same number of protons have similar
chemical and physical characteristics and differ mainly in their
masses.
235 238 239
92 U ,92 U ,92 U
23
 Isotopes

1H
1 1+1H
1
1+2H
1
For example,11C , 12C , 13C , and14C are four isotopes of carbon. The
natural abundance of the isotope 12C is about 98.9%, whereas that
of the isotope 13C is only about 1.1% 24
Actual Nuclear Masses and Sizes:
Molar volume = volume of a gas containing 1 mole.
Mass in pounds or grams = molecular mass.

Avogadros hypthesis stipulates that, at same temperature and

pressure, equal volumes of ideal gases contain the same number of
molecules.

The size and mass of any molecule can be obtained if the Avogadros
number is known.

Avogadros number = 0.602472 1024 molecules/gm mole.

25
Example :
Find the size of a water molecule if the molecular mass and density
of water at the melting point are approximately 18 and 1 gm/cm3,
respectively.

Solution
18
One gram mole of water (H2O) is 18 gm. It occupies a volume of 1 18cm
3

Since at melting point, the molecules are closely packed, the volume
of each molecule (assume cubical) would be:-
18 18 23
3 10 cm 3

Avogadro' snumber 0.6 10 24

Avogadros number also enable us to calculate the actual mass of

atom and molecules

26
 molecular .mass( gm / gm.mole)
Atomic.mass.unit amu
Avogadro' s.number
24
amu 1.65983 10 gm

Measured atomic masses are tabulated for the chemical elements and
also for isotopes.

mass of hydrogen = 1.0080 amu

mass of helium = 4.003 amu

27
The size of the nucleus is :-
rc ro A1 / 3
rc radius.of .nucleus
ro cons tan t 1.4 10 13 cm
A mass.number.of .nucleus

4 3 4 3
For a spherical nucleus , its volume Vc rc ro A
3 3
A 3
Density of a nucleus ( c ) 3
amu / cm
4 3 4ro3
ro A
3

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Energy from nuclear reactions :
In order to break a nucleus into its individual nucleous, a minimum
amount of energy that is equivalent to the mass defect would have to be
added to the nucleus.

29
Mass defect occurred because the mass of an atomic nucleus is less
than the mass of the individual particles or nucleons that comprise it.

mass.defect Zm p ( A Z )mn nuclear .mass

It is difficult to measure the nuclear mass but the atomic mass could
be measured accurately.
atomic.mass nuclear .mass orbiting .electrons

mass.defect ZmH ( A Z )mn atomic.mass

mH mass.of .hydrogen.atom.H 11

Mass defect increases as the mass number increases.

30
31
 The average binding energy per nucleon is theoretically the
minimum energy required to remove the average proton or
neutron from a nucleus.
It is also the average excitation energy of a nucleus often it
absorbs a proton or a neutron.

Excess binding energy is released

in any nuclear reaction in which a
heavy-mass nucleus is broken into
intermediate-mass nuclei (as in
fission reaction).
Excess binding energy is released
in any nuclear reaction in which
two light-mass nucleus are
combined to form a heavier
nucleus.
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Types of Neutron Reactions
There are numerous nuclear reactions but here we list only,
whats relevant to nuclear energy conversion for power
production.
Elastic Scattering
Inelastic Scattering
Neutron Capture
Fission

33
Elastic Collision
Neutron & Nucleus collide with no change in the structure of
either
But the neutron changes direction and speed (upon transferring
some of its energy to the target nucleus)
and the nucleus recoils.
The total kinetic energy of the system is unchanged. e.g.

Elastic neutron scattering is very important in nuclear reactors

when the nucleus is relatively light. Under such conditions, its
relatively easier for the neutron to move the nucleus, hence the
loss of neutron kinetic energy is relatively large. This is called
moderation.
34
Inelastic Collision
Neutron & Nucleus collide leaving the target nucleus in an excited
state, as it decays back to the ground state, it emits rays, e.g.

Inelastic scattering is possible only if the incident neutron energy

is greater than the excitation energy of the lowest excited state of
the target nucleus. Heavy nuclei such as uranium isotopes, have m
any

35
Neutron Capture
Neutron combines with the target nucleus to form an excited
compound nucleus, as it decays back to the stable compound
nucleus, it emits rays, e.g.

Neutron capture consumes neutrons that may otherwise cause

Fission Neutron capture transforms nuclei to different nuclei
(U238 to U239).

36
Nuclear Fission
Fission is the means of energy conversion in a nuclear reactor. In a
fission reaction, the excited nucleus divides into two main fragmen
ts and several neutrons. The fission fragments have kinetic energy
which is soon converted to heat.

Fission is only possible for a very few target nuclei, the most
important are isotopes of Uranium and Plutonium.

37
To balance Eq.(4-1)

A1 A2 A3 A4
Z1 Z 2 Z3 Z 4
38
39
40
Nuclear Fusion and Fisssion
Nuclear reactions of importance in energy
production are fusion, fission and radio-
activity.

In fusion, two or more light nuclei fuse to

form a heavier nucleus.

In fission, a heavy nucleus is split into two

or more lighter nuclei.

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 Fusion
Energy is produced in the sun and stars by
continuous fusion reactions in which four
nuclei of hydrogen fuse in a series of
reactions involving other particles that
continually appear and disappear in the
course of the reactions, such as He,
nitrogen, carbon, and other nuclei.

42
 41 H 2 He 21 e
1 4 0

Resulting in a decrease in mass of about 0.0276

amu, corresponding to 25.7 Mev.

To cause fusion, it is necessary to accelerate the

positively charged nuclei to high kinetic energies.

Many problems have to be solved before an

artificially made fusion reactor becomes a reality.

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Fission
Fission can be caused by the neutron, which being
electrically neutral, can strike and fission the
positively charged nucleus at high, moderate, or
low speeds without being repulsed.

There are only a few fissionable isotopes.

U235 , Pu239 , and U233 are fissionable by neutrons

of all energies.

92U 235
0 n 54 Xe 38Sr 20 n
1 140 94 1

44
A typical fission reaction

45
 Step 1: A neutron strikes the nucleus of a heavy and unstable isotope, like U-235.
Step 2: The nucleus becomes unstable.
Step 3: The nucleus vibrates and splits.
This split is fission!
Fission produces
Two or three neutrons
Two lighter-weight atoms of new elements called fission products
Energy! (mainly as heat).

46
 Chain Reactions
A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission
produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus
in turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. The process may be
controlled (nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).
U235 + n fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV
Energy Released From Each Fission
165 MeV ~ kinetic energy of fission products
7 MeV ~ gamma rays
6 MeV ~ kinetic energy of the neutrons
7 MeV ~ energy from fission products
6 MeV ~ gamma rays from fission products
9 MeV ~ anti-neutrinos from fission products
200

1 MeV (million electron volts) = 1.609 x 10 -13 joules 47

 Penetration of Matter
Though the most massive and most energetic of radioactive emissions, the
particle is the shortest in range because of its strong interaction with
matter. The electromagnetic ray is extremely penetrating, even
penetrating considerable thicknesses of concrete. The electron of
radioactivity strongly interacts with matter and has a short range.

48
Fast and Thermal Neutrons
The difference between fast and slow neutrons is in the amount of energy
they possess.
Fast neutrons tend to "blow through" the nucleus of some isotopes. This
causes a disruption but, because they don't stay around, the nucleus
restabilizes.
Slow, or thermal, neutrons, however, may get absorbed by the same
nucleus, which then destabilizes, causing fission.

Fertile material
It is a material that, while not itself fissionable by thermal neutrons, can be
converted into a fissile material by neutron absorption and subsequent nuclei
conversions. Naturally-occurring fertile materials that can be converted into a
fissile material by irradiation in a reactor include:
thorium-232 which converts into uranium-233
uranium-234 which converts into uranium-235
uranium-238 which converts into plutonium-239 49
 Half Life
The time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of a
radioactive isotope to decay is the half-life of that isotope

For example, the half-life of 238U is 4.5 billion years. That is, in 4.5 billion
years, half of the 238U on Earth will have decayed into other elements

Mean Life
It is an average lifetime of all the nuclei of a particular unstable atomic
species. The mean life of a particular species of unstable nucleus is always
1.443 times longer than its half-life (time interval required for half the
unstable nuclei to decay).
For example, Lead-209, decays to bismuth-209 with a mean life of 4.69 hours
and a half-life of 3.25 hours.

50
Fertile material
It is a material that, while not itself fissionable by thermal neutrons, can be
converted into a fissile material by neutron absorption and subsequent nuclei
conversions. Naturally-occurring fertile materials that can be converted into a
fissile material by irradiation in a reactor include:
thorium-232 which converts into uranium-233
uranium-234 which converts into uranium-235
uranium-238 which converts into plutonium-239

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Nuclear Reactors
www.world-nuclear.org

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53
 Nuclear fission Reactor
Reactors may be classified according to their function, materials of
construction, and arrangement:-
Energy of neutron that produce fission: [fast, intermediate (or
epithermal), and thermal.
Nuclear fuel : [natural U, slightly enriched, highly enriched, Pu-239, U-
233].
Method of heat removal by circulation of: [coolant only, fuel mixed
with coolant, moderator-coolant; fuel, moderator, and coolant.
Purpose: [research, prototype, propulsion, heat source, electric power
generation, isotope production (fissionable or for industrial use)].
Arrangement of fuel and moderator: [heterogeous and homogenous]
Materials used in the following reactor components: [moderator,
coolant, structure, reflector, shield]. 54
If the number of neutrons in an assembly of fissionable
materials can be maintained constant, a self-sustaining chain
reaction exists. This is possible only because more than one
neutron is produced for each neutron that sets off

The reactor will be assumed to contain U-235 as fuel and to

operate with low-energy neutrons. The fission of a nucleus of
U-235 gives rise to around 2.5 neutrons on the average and
190 Mev of useful energy.

55
Reactor charge
face 3m thick concrete biological shield

Hot gas out

Steam out to
turbines

Reactor core

Cold water in

Heat exchanger

Uranium Boron
control rods Steel pressure Cold gas in
fuel rods
vessel

Graphite
moderator

56
 charge face

boron control rod

hot gas
graphite moderator

reactor core
fuel element channel
heat exchanger

concrete

steel

cold gas

57
THE NUCLEAR FISSION REACTOR
The neutrons produced in a chain reaction are moving too fast to
cause further fission in U235 nuclei and they have to be slowed down.
This is done by graphite or heavy water and these materials are called
moderators.

Moderator containing a light element such as hydrogen or carbon is

intermixed with the fuel.

As the neutrons collide with atoms of the moderator they slow down
from 106 ms-1 to 104 ms-1 and at this speed they are known as thermal
neutrons. In the case of slowing down, many neutrons escape through
the boundaries of the central portion of the reactor (or the core); a
leakage process.

58
 A surrounding reflector has the function of reducing the number lost
in this manner, while contributing additional moderation.

control rods of boron steel or Cadmium are used to control the rate of
the reaction since they gobble up neutrons without fissioning. Lowering
them into the reactor core will slow down the reaction. They are held on
electromagnetic clamps so that if there is a dangerous increase in core
temperature they can be dropped into the reactor and so shut down the
chain reaction.

A nuclear reactor, in fact any device using a nuclear chain reaction

needs a minimum amount of fuel called the critical mass (about 15 kg
for pure U 235). Anything less than this and the loss of neutrons from the
surface will be too great and the chain reaction will stop. Masses below
this are called subcritical while those greater than this are known as
supercritical.
59
 Nuclear fission and types of
nuclear reactor
In BWRs (Boiling Water Reactors) and PWRs (Pressurised Water
Reactors), collectively known as LWRs (Light Water Reactors), the light
water (H2O) coolant is also the moderator.

PHWRs (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors) use heavy water

(deuterium oxide) as moderator. Unlike LWRs, they have separate
coolant and moderator circuits. Coolant may be light or heavy water.
A PWR generates steam indirectly: heat is transferred from the primary
reactor coolant, which is kept liquid at high pressure, into a secondary
circuit where steam is generated for the turbines.
A BWR generates steam directly by boiling the primary coolant. The
steam is separated from the remaining water in steam separators
positioned above the core, and passed to the turbines, then condensed and
recycled. 60
 In GCRs (Gas Cooled Reactors) and AGRs (Advanced Gas-cooled
Reactors) carbon dioxide is used as the coolant and graphite as the
moderator. Like heavy water, a graphite moderator allows natural uranium
(in GCRs) or low-enriched uranium (in AGRs) fuel to be used.

The LWGR (Light Water Graphite Reactor) has enriched fuel in

pressure tubes with the light water coolant. These are surrounded by the
graphite moderator. More often referred to as the RBMK, this is the reactor
type involved in the Chernobyl accident in 1986.

In FBR (Fast Breeder Reactor) types, the fuel is a mix of oxides of

plutonium and uranium; no moderator is used. The core is usually
surrounded by a fertile blanket of uranium-238. Neutrons escaping the
core are absorbed by the blanket, producing further plutonium, which is
separated out during subsequent reprocessing for use as fuel. FBRs
normally use liquid metal, such as sodium, as the coolant at low pressure. 61
 High temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTRs) - not yet in
commercial operation - offer an alternative to conventional designs.
They use graphite as the moderator and helium as the coolant. HTRs
feature a high degree of safety through reliance on passive safety
features. They have ceramic-coated fuel capable of handling
temperatures exceeding 1600C and gain their efficiency by operating at
temperatures of 700-950C. The helium can drive a gas turbine directly
or be used to make steam.

62
 NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR
CHARACTERISTICS

www.world-nuclear.org 63
64
Pressure water reactor
In a pressure water reactor, high pressure is created to keep the water in
the reactor tank from boiling, even though it reaches a temperature of
about 320 C at full force. This water is conducted to a steam generator
and passes through thousands of small pipes. The heat in the pipes causes
the water in the steam generator to turn to steam which then drives the
turbine. The turbine powers the generator, which in turn produces
electricity. The reactor water is pumped back into the reactor tank and
heated again. The steam from the turbine is cooled in a condenser, and the
resulting water sent back into the steam generator and heated again.

The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 150160 bar, which
is notably higher than in other nuclear reactors, and nearly twice that of a
Boiling water reactor (BWR).

65
Nuclear power plant-pressurized water reactor-PWR
PWR Power Plant Schematic

Original Image Used with Permission of the Uranium Institute 67

68
The shipping port cycle has been modified by the
inclusion of an oil-fired superheater between the
main heat exchangers and the turbines.
1. The reactor
Uranium atoms are split inside the reactor, which heats the water.
However, high pressure keeps the water from boiling even though it
reaches a temperature of nearly 320 C.

2. The pressure vessel

A pressure vessel is used to control the pressure inside the reactor.
Electric heat is applied to raise the pressure, and cold water to lower it.

3. The steam generator

The steam generator works as a heat exchanger, in which the very hot
water from the reactor releases its heat and causes the water in the steam
generator to boil and turn to steam.

4. The turbine
Steam is conducted into the turbine, causing the blades to rotate at speeds
up to 3,000 rpm. 70
5. Coolant:
Light water is used as the primary coolant, it enters the bottom of the
reactor core at about 275 C and it flows upwards through the reactor
core to a temperature of about 320 C .
Pressure in the primary circuit is maintained by a Pressuriser, a
separate vessel that is connected to the primary circuit and partially
filled with water which is heated to the saturation temperature
(boiling point) for the desired pressure by submerged electrical
heaters.

The coolant is pumped around the primary circuit by powerful

pumps, which can consume up to 6 MW each.

Evaporating the secondary coolant to saturated steam (60 bar,

275 C) for use in the steam turbine. The cooled primary coolant is
then pumped back to the reactor to be heated again.
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6. The transformer
A transformer converts the electricity into a high-voltage current. This is
then sent to the power grid via high-tension wires.

7. The generator
The turbine powers a generator, which produces electricity.

8. The condenser
In the condenser, cold sea water running through a network of pipes cools
the steam into water. This water is then pumped back into the steam
generator.

9. Sea water
To cool the steam back into water, a huge amount of sea water is pumped
into the condenser via pipes about the same diameter as a finger. When
this water is pumped back into the sea, it is about ten degrees warmer than
it was before it entered the condenser. The sea water circulates through a
closed system, and never comes in contact with the reactor water. 72
 Pressurizer

Because water is ~ incompressible, a

small temperature change would lead
to very large pressure changes, if the
primary loop were totally filled with
liquid water.
To prevent such dangerous pressure
surges, one primary loop of a PWR
contains a pressureregulating surge
tank called a pressurizer.

24
PWR Advantage
PWR reactors are very stable
due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures increase
; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint.

PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in
secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials. This makes
maintenance also easier and much safer.

74
PWR Disadvantages
The high operating pressure
high strength piping, heavy pressure vessel & increases construction costs.
increase the consequences of reactor accident.
has to be refueled offlinedecreasing the availability of the reactor.

Light water as coolant and moderator

enriched uranium must be used, i.e. increases the costs of fuel production.

The reactor pressure vessel is manufactured from ductile steel but, as the plant
is operated, neutron flux from the reactor causes this steel to become less
ductile, and must be repaired or replaced.
The high temperature water coolant with boric acid dissolved in it is corrosive
to carbon steel (but not stainless steel); this can cause radioactive corrosion
products to circulate in the primary coolant loop.
75
Reactor Vessel
A typical PWR pressure vessel is
about 13 m tall with a diameter of abo
ut 46 m.
The vessel is built from lowalloy
carbon steel with a wall thickness of
about 23 cm to withstand the high
pressure (~160 bar).
Weights ~ 500 tonnes.
The inner cladding is stainless steel
for corrosion resistance.

76
The primary coolant enters the vessel
through two or more inlet nozzles
(depending on reactor capacity), flows
downward between the vessel and core
barrel.

Then flows upward through the reactor

core removing heat from the fuel pins
and then leaves the vessel through the
outlet nozzles.

77
 Nuclear Fuel
Most uranium is mined by a process is called in situ mining. First, a
well is drilled, and water and oxygen are injected into the ore deposit.
This causes the uranium in the ore to oxidize (rust) and wash out in
the water.
The water is then pumped back to the surface and the uranium is
filtered out. Whats left is a dry, yellow powder called yellowcake.

78
 Nuclear Fuel
Slightly enriched (35%) UO2 pellets about 9 mm in
diameter are stacked inside Zircaloy tube 3.8 m long with a small
thickness of about 0.64 mm.

The small diameter is needed to allow fission thermal energy produced

in the UO2 pellets to transfer rapidly to water surrounding the fuel
pins.

79
A typical PWR has fuel assemblies of 200 to 300 rods each, and a large
reactor would have about 150250 such assemblies with 80
100 tones of uranium in all. Refueling for most commercial PWRs
is on an 1824 month cycle.
Fuel for western PWRs is built with a
square lattice arrangement and assemblies
are characterized by the number of rods
they contain, typically, 1717 in current
designs. A PWR fuel assembly stands
between four and five metres high, is
about 20 cm across and weighs about half
a tonne.

80
81
82
83
84
 The Pressurizer
A Pressurizer is a component of a pressurized water reactor. The
basic design of the pressurized water reactor includes a requirement
that the coolant (water) in the reactor coolant system must not boil.

Pressure in the pressurizer is controlled by varying the temperature

of the coolant in the pressurizer

To increase the pressure in the reactor coolant system, large electric

heaters in the pressurizer are turned on, raising the coolant
temperature in the pressurizer and thereby raising the pressure. To
decrease pressure in the reactor coolant system, sprays of relatively
cool water are turned on inside the pressurizer, lowering the coolant
temperature in the pressurizer and thereby lowering the pressure.
85
A surge chamber is required
to accommodate the changes in cool
ant volume as s result of these
pressure oscillations:
Vapor pressurizer
Gas pressurizer

Pressure transients in the primary coolant system manifest as Temp.

transients in the pressurizer and are controlled through the use of
automatic heaters and water spray, which raise and lower pressurizer
temperature, respectively. 86
 Power Control
In PWRs reactor power can be viewed as following steam (turbine)
demand due to the reactivity feedback of the temperature change caused
by increased or decreased steam flow.
Boron and control rods are used to maintain primary system
temperature at the desired point. In order to decrease power, the
operator throttles shut turbine inlet valves. This would result in less
steam being drawn from the steam generators. This results in the
primary loop increasing in temperature. The higher temperature causes
less fission and decreases power. This decrease of power will eventually
result in primary system temperature returning to its previous steady
state value. The operator can control the steady state operating
temperature by addition of boric acid and/or movement of control rods.

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 Power Control
Boron readily absorbs neutrons and increasing or decreasing its
concentration in the reactor coolant will therefore affect the neutron
activity correspondingly.

The reactor control rods, inserted through the reactor vessel head directly
into the fuel bundles, are moved for the following reasons:
1- To start up the reactor.
2- To shut down the primary nuclear reactions in the reactor.
3- To accommodate short term transients such as changes to load on the
turbine.

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Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
A BWR differs from the PWR in that the steam flowing to
the turbine is produced directly in the reactor.
Jet pumps
This pump that we are going to consider does not use a
mechanical piston or plunger, etc. to increase or decrease
the pressure, but uses a fast moving jet of liquid or gas to do
the same job. This jet is called a PROPELLANT.
Jet pumps
Add to the inherent safety features of BWR design, since they can refold
the core (no less than twothirds of the core height) even under severe
conditions.
The primary fluid is passed through a nozzle where the pressure energy
is converted into kinetic energy. The high-velocity jet entrains the
secondary fluid. The two streams mix in the mixing tube, leading to
pressure recovery. Further static pressure is recovered in a narrow-angle
diffuser downstream of the mixing tube.

The jet pump design has the advantage of fewer moving parts, lower
probability of major line ruptures, capability to reflod the vessel in case
of such rupture (as a result of an accident scenario)
Improved natural circulation in the event of a power loss to the
circulation pumps.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
A slightly subcooled liquid enters the core bottom at a rate
of m, and rises through the core and chimney, if any.
Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)
The first Gas-Cooled Reactors with CO2 gas as coolant
and graphite as moderator were developed in 1956-1969
Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)
The very low neutron capture cross-section
of heavy water makes it an excellent
moderator and coolant, and permits the
use of natural Uranium (0.7% U235).
Calandria, Heat Exchangers and Simplified
Steam Cycle
The student should be able to :
1- Describe the fission process.

2- Identify the various kinds of nuclear power

plants.
3- Discuss the process of energy generation
with nuclear power plants