Here are the important microscope parts...

Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen. The
eyepiece usually contains a 10X or 15X power lens.

Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change focus on one eyepiece

so as to correct for any difference in vision between your two eyes.

Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective
lenses.

Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.

Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.

Fine adjustment: Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the
specimen.

Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer
spins the nosepiece to select different objective lenses.

Objective lenses: One of the most important parts of a compound

microscope, as they are the lenses closest to the specimen.

A standard microscope has three, four, or five objective lenses that range in
power from 4X to 100X. When focusing the microscope, be careful that the
objective lens doesnt touch the slide, as it could break the slide and destroy
the specimen.
Specimen or slide: The specimen is the object being examined. Most
specimens are mounted on slides, flat rectangles of thin glass.

The specimen is placed on the glass and a cover slip is placed over the
specimen. This allows the slide to be easily inserted or removed from the
microscope. It also allows the specimen to be labeled, transported, and
stored without damage.

Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.

Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.

Stage height adjustment (Stage Control): These knobs move the stage
left and right or up and down.

Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the
illuminator to reach the specimen.

On/off switch: This switch on the base of the microscope turns the
illuminator off and on.

Illumination: The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used

mirrors to reflect light from an external source up through the bottom of the
stage; however, most microscopes now use a low-voltage bulb.

Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.

Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the
specimen being viewed.

Base: The base supports the microscope and its where illuminator is
located.

All cells have a cell membrane on the outside of them that acts like a skin.
Plant cells go one step further and have a cell wall - a protective outside that
provides support and other functions.

What Is a Cell Wall?

All living things are composed of cells. They are the building blocks of all life.
Cells come in many different shapes and have different functions. Plant and
animal cells are different, too. The main difference between plant and animal
cells is that plant cells have a cell wall on the outer layer, whereas animal
cells only have a cell membrane. The cell wall is a protective layer outside
the cell membrane that also provides support for the cell's structure.

Function of a Cell Wall

The cell wall gives the plant its actual shape. It acts as a gatekeeper,
because it determines what can come in and out of the cell in order to keep
the cell protected. It is kind of like the outside bricks of a castle, only, as you
will learn as you read on, there are holes throughout this castle. Those holes
do make the cell vulnerable, but they are important to the function of the
cell.

A plant cell has a cell wall, whereas an

animal cell only has a cell membrane.

A redwood tree and a dandelion both have cell walls on the outside of all of
their cells. The cell walls are there to give the plants their shape and support;
however, the cell walls act and are constructed a little different to meet the
needs of the particular plant. For instance, a 100-foot redwood tree needs a
very strong and rigid plant cell wall so that it can grow to its great height and
not fall over in the wind. On the other hand, a little yellow dandelion out in
the field needs to have more plasticity so that it can bend, not break, as the
wind blows through the field.
A dandelion needs to have plasticity
to be able to bend in the wind.

Have you ever forgotten to water the flowers? They may not be able to talk,
but they will let you know when they're thirsty, as they begin to droop over.
Their shape is still being maintained by the cell wall so that, as soon as you
water the plant, it can pick itself back up again. On the other hand, if you
water too much, the cell wall also makes sure that the cell does not burst. It
protects the cell from overexpansion.

The cell wall protects the plant and cells from the many insects and
pathogens that could harm the plant, but the cell wall still has its vulnerable
areas. There are holes all over the cell wall called plasmodesmata. These
are holes that allow for nutrients to enter the cell as well as waste to exit the
cell. These small holes can cause the cell to lose water, and this is when the
plant will start to droop. But as soon as the plant can get a drink, it will
bounce right back up to its proper shape.

Here is a list of the basic plant cell wall functions:

Provide support and limited plasticity

Prevent loss of water

Protection from insects and pathogens

Filter

Prevent overexpansion caused by too much water

 Keep the shape of the plant

Allow plants to grow to great heights

Structure and Composition

The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a structural

carbohydrate and is considered a complex sugar because it is used in both
protection and structure. The plant cell wall consists of three layers. Each
layer has its own unique structure and function. The layers may vary
depending on the type of plant and its needs.

Cell walls are composed of three

layers.

Animal Cell

All animal cells are multicellular. They are eukaryotic cells. Animal cells are
surrounded by plasma membrane and it contains the nucleus and organelles
that are membrane bound.

Animal cells are of various sizes and have irregular shapes. Most of the cells
size range between 1 and 100 micrometers and are visible only with help of
microscope. Trillions of cells are found in the human body. There are many
different types of cells, approximately 210 distinct cell types in adult human
body.

Animal Cell Definition

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Animal cells are eukarytoic. Animal cells are have outer boundary known as
the plasma membrane. The nucleus and the organelles of the cell are bound
by a membrane. The genetic material (DNA) in animal cells is within
the nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. The cell organelles have a
vast range of functions to perform like hormone and enzyme production to
providing energy for the cells.

The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules,
mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma membrane and ribosomes.

Parts of Animal Cell

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Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other

membrane bound cellular organelles. These cellular organelles carry out
specific functions that are necessary for the normal functioning of the
cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack
of the cell wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are
mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are structures
like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.
Parts of the animal cell are as follows:

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-
permeable.

Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are
suspended inside the cell.

Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of
the cell.

Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough

and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.

Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.

Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to

the cell.

Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.

Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein
synthesis.

Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of

ribosomes.

Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the

movement of nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell.
Animal Cell Structure
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Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, the nucleus and other organelles of the cell
are bound by membrane.

Cell membrane

It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move

across it.

Electron microscopic studies of cell membrane shows the lipid bi-layer

model of the plasma membrane, it also known as the fluid mosaic
model.
 The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has
polar(hydrophillic) heads and non-polar (hydrophobic) tails.

Cytoplasm

The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm.

The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm.

This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't
shrink or burst.

Nucleus

Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA
and RNA.

The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the

nuclear membrane.

The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.

Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.

The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.

The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control
center.

The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for
ribosome formation.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the
RNA takes place.

As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found

in large number in all cells.

Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic reticulum

ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need

certain changes and also molecules to their destination.

ER is of two types, rough and smooth.

ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic

reticulum; while the smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.
Lysosomes

It is the digestive system of the cell.

They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules

and also help in detoxification of the cell.

If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have
used the destructive enzymes.

Centrosomes

It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the

'microtubule organizing center' of the cell.

Microtubules are made in the centrosome.

During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving
of the chromosome to the opposite sides of the cell.

Vacuoles

They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.

In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.

Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.

Golgi bodies

Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.

The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing
them into smaller units with membrane known as vesicles.

They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.

They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is
created here.

Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.

It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.

It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary

material.

Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain
oxidative enzymes that are digestive in function.

They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and
help in synthesis of cholesterol.

Cytoskeleton

It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.

They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.

They are different based on the function they perform and their
length.

Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer
and are fewer in number.

They are organelles of movement.

The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary

movement is power stroke and recovery stroke.

Function of Animal Cell

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All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant
cells and animal cells. Structurally there are a few differences in plant and
animal cells though their functionality is almost the same.
All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane
however plant cells have an extra addition the cell wall. The cells have
certain organelles that are membrane bound within them, these structures
are called cellular organelles. These organelles are specified to perform
certain activities that are important for the survival of the cell. All the cells
function together in coordination with each other and help the organism to
survive. The functions of animal cell is carried out by the different cell
organelles. The organelles of the cell function as a unit and regulate the
activities of the cell. The different cell organelles and their functions are as
follows:

Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell.
The genetic material of the organism is present in the cell. The replication of
DNA, and synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the cell. It also regulates
the activities of the other cellular organelles.

Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the

cell. Its main function if to produce energy for cell by the process of cellular
respiration. The energy produced is ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain

substances in and out of the nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the

molecules that are synthesized by the cells. The crude proteins that are
passed on by the ER to the apparatus are developed by the golgi apparatus
into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins.

Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.

Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have
digestive enzymes and are involved in clearing the in wanted waste
materials from the cell. They also engulf damaged materials like the
damaged cells,and invading microorganisms and digest food particles.

Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or
water.

Functions of The Animal Cell

The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular
organelles. These cells function as a unit and the cells together form tissues.
A group go tissues with similar function form an organ and a group of organ
of specific function to perform becomes and organ system. Thus, the
microscopic cells form the basic unit for the activities and coordination and
help survival of the organism.

Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with membrane bound

nucleus. Generally, plant cells are larger than animal cells and are mostly
similar in size and are rectangular or cube shaped. Plant cells are similar to
animal cells in being eukaryotic and they have similar cell organelles.

What is a Plant Cell?

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Plant cells are eukaryotic cells i.e., the DNA in a plant cell is enclosed within
the nucleus. The most important distinctive structure of plant cell is the
presence of the cell wall outside the cell membrane. It forms the outer lining
of the cell. The cell wall mostly constitutes of cellulose and its main function
is providing support and rigidity. Plants cells also contain many membrane
bound cellular structures. These organelles carry out specific functions
necessary for survival and normal operation of the cells. There are a wide
range of operations like producing hormones, enzymes, and all metabolic
activities of the cell.
Diagram of Plant Cell

Distinctive Features of Plant Cell

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The features that are distinctive in plant cells are as follows:

Plant cells contain cell structures like cell wall, plastids, and large vacuoles.

Cell wall provide plant cells rigidity and structural support and cell to cell
interaction.

Plastids help in storage of plant products.

Chloroplasts aid in carrying out the process of photosynthesis to produce

food for the plants.

Vacuoles are water-filled, membrane bound organelles which stores useful

materials.

Plants have specialized cells in order to perform certain functions for the
survival of plants. Some cells manufacture and store organic molecules,
others transport nutrients throughout the plant.

Some specialized plant cells include: parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells,

sclerenchyma cells, water conducting cells and food conducting cells.
Parts of Plant Cell
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Plants cell constitute of membrane bound nucleus and many cellular

structures. These organelles carry out functions that are necessary for the
proper functioning and survival of the cell. The cell organelles of the plant
are enclosed by a cell wall and cell membrane. The constituents of the cell
are suspended in the cytoplasm or cytosol.

The parts of the plant cell are as follows:

Cell wall is the outermost rigid covering of the plant cell. It is a salient
feature of plant cell.

Cell membrane or the plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell
inside the cell wall.

Cytosol or cytoplasm is the gel-like matrix inside the cell membrane which
constitutes all other cell organelles.

Nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is a membrane bound

structure which contains the hereditary material of the cell - the DNA

Chloroplast is a plastid with green pigment chlorophyll. It traps light energy

and converts it to chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.

Mitochondria carries out cellular respiration and provides energy to the

cells.

Vacuoles are the temporary storage center of the cell.

Golgi body is the unit where proteins are sorted and packed.

Ribosomes are structures that assemble proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum are membrane covered organelles that transport
materials.

Plant Cell Structure and Function

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All parts of the plant play a significant role in the proper functioning of the
cell. Unlike animals, plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. It is
made up of cellulose. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to cells of plants.
Plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose. Plant cell wall consists of
three layers: the primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and the middle
lamella. It is located outside the cell membrane whose main function is to
provide rigidity, strength, protection against mechanical stress and infection.
Cell wall is made up of cellulose, pectins,glycoproteins, hemicellulose and
lignin.

Cell membrane: It is the outer boundary of the cell, it encloses the

cytoplasm and the organelles of the cells. In plants cells it is inside the cell
wall. The cell membrane is semi permeable, allowing only specific
substances to pass through and blocking others.

Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing

chlorophyll. They have two membranes and have structures that look like
stack of coins. They are flattened structures which contain chemical
chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis occurs in this region of the plant
cell. The chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight to
make food for the plants by converting light energy into chemical energy.

Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubule and micro-

filament. They maintain the shape and gives support to the cell.

Microtubules: They are hollow cylinder like structures found in the

cytoplasm of the cells. Its function is transport and structural support.

Microfilaments: Microfialments are solid rod like structures whose primary

function is structural support.
Plasmodesmata: They are microscopic channels which traverse the cell
walls of plant cells and enables transport and communication between them.

Vacuole: Vacuoles are known as cells storage center. Plant cells have large
membrane bound chamber called vacuole. Its main function is storage.
Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells. They are membrane
bound organelles, they perform functions of secretion, excretion and
storage.

Tonoplast: A vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane is called tonoplast.

Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for
synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes.

Leucoplast: They are a type of plastid which are non-pigmented.

Chromoplast: They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and

storage. They are found in photosynthetic eukaryotic species. They are found
in colored organs of plants like fruits and flowers.

Golgi complex: The Golgi bodies look like the endoplasmic reticulum and
are situated near the nucleus. They are found in almost all eukaryotic cells.
Their main function is to process and package macromolecules synthesized
from other parts of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is referred to as the cell's
packaging center.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelle.
It comprises of RNA and protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis.
They are found in all cells because protein are necessary for the survival of
the cell. The ribososomes are known as the protein factories of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane bound

compartment, which look like flattened sacs lined side by side. It is a large
network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is composed of both rough
endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
They are responsible for protein translation, and protein transport to be used
in the cell membrane. They also aid in sequestration of calcium, and
production and storage of glycogen and other macromolecules.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes. They are

described as the 'power plants' of the cell as they convert glucose to energy
molecules (ATP). They possess their own hereditary material which help in
self duplication and multiplication.

Lysosome: Lysosome contain digestive enzymes. They digest excess or

worn out organelles, food particles and any foreign bodies.

Microbody: It is a single membrane bound organelle that comprises of

degradative enzymes

Cytoplasm: It is a gel-like matrix inside enclosed by the cell membrane. The

cytoplasm supports cell organelles and also prevents the cell from bursting
or shrinking.

Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell. It is bound by a double

membrane known as the nuclear envelope. It is a porous membrane, it
allows passage of substances and is a distinctive characteristic of the
eukaryotic cell. Most of the genetic material is organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules. The nucleus directs all the activities of the cell and
also help in protein formation.

Plastids in Plant Cell

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Plastids are cell organelles that store specific things found only in plant cell
but absent in animal cells.In plant cell they are found in the cytoplasm.
Plastids are spherical or ovoid in shape. They are involved in manufacture
and storage of certain important chemical compounds.

The term plastids was coined by Schimper in 1885 and was derived from
a Greek word 'plastikas' which means formed or moulded.

Plastids in plants include chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts, amyloplast,

elaioplast and proteinoplast/aleuronoplast depending on the function they
play.
Chloroplasts
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros meaning green
and plast meaning form or entity. It is the most important plastid as they are
involved in photosynthesis. The chloroplasts are situated near the surface of
the cell and in parts where there is sufficient reception of sunlight. The shape
of the cholorplast varies, it may be spheroid or ovoid or discoid.

For a given cell type the size of plastid is constant but it differs from species
to species.It is about 4-5 microns in length and 1-3 microns in thickness. The
number of chloroplast may be 20 to 40 per cell may be upto 1000, the
number varies from species to species but is constant for a plant.

Structure
Chloroplasts are disc-shaped and are enclosed by a double membrane.

Within the inner membrane is a protein-rich substance known as stroma, it is

embedded in a membrane system. This membrane system forms membrane
bound vesicles called thylakoids.

The thylakoids lie in stacks called grana. This contains the photosynthetic
pigments - chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids. Lamellae are tubular
membranes which interconnect the grana.

Functions
Photosynthesis is carried out in the chloroplast.

The enzymes and co-enzymes necessary for photosynthesis is present.

Chromoplast
Chromo means color; plast means living. Chromoplasts are colored plastids
and they contain various pigments like yellow,orange and red.
They are found commonly in flowers and fruits. The color is due ot pigement,
carotenes and xanthophylls.

Functions
In flowers the main function is attract agents for pollination.

In fruits it is to attract agents for dispersal.

Leucoplasts
These are colorless plastids and occur in parts of plants that are not exposed
to light like roots and seeds.

The absence of color is due to the lack of pigments.

Functions
Starch grain formations are seen in leucoplast.

Oils and proteins are synthesized here.

Plastids are found in plants and some algae. They are necessary for essential
life processes, like photosynthesis and food storage. Read this lesson to learn
about major types of plastids and what they do to sustain life.

What Are Plastids?

Did you ever wonder how plants breathe, drink, eat, and grow? They carry
out these functions just like us yet in different ways. One category of
specialized organelles that plants use in order to survive is plastids.

Plastids are double membrane bound organelles found inside plants and
some algae, which are primarily responsible for activities related to making
and storing food. Many plastids are photosynthetic but some are not.

Some of the most common plastids include:

Chloroplasts

Chromoplasts

Gerontoplasts

and Leucoplasts
 Some of the major types of plastids

Types and Functions of Plastids

The chloroplasts are probably the most known of the plastids. These are
responsible for photosynthesis. The chloroplast is filled with thylakoids,
which is where photosynthesis occurs, and chlorophyll.

The basic structure of the chloroplast

Chromoplasts are what the name describes, a place for the pigments to be
stored and synthesized in the plant. These are found in flowering plants,
fruits, and aging leaves. The chloroplasts actually convert over to
chromoplasts. There are carotenoid pigments here that allow for the different
colors you see in fruits and the fall leaves. One of the main reasons for these
structures and the colors is to attract pollinators.
Gerontoplasts are basically chloroplasts that are going through the aging
process. These are chloroplasts of the leaves that are beginning to convert
into different organelles or are being repurposed, since the leaf is no longer
utilizing photosynthesis (such as in the fall months).

Leucoplasts are the non-pigmented organelles. Unlike the others we have

talked about, leucoplasts have no color at all. They are found in the non-
photosynthetic parts of the plant, such as the roots. Depending on what the
plant needs, they may become essentially just storage sheds for starches,
lipids, and proteins. They are more readily used for synthesizing amino acids
and fatty acids.

Leucoplasts are further subdivided into three different plastids:

Amyloplasts

Proteinoplasts

and Elaioplasts

Amyloplasts are the largest of the three and are charged with storing
starch. Then there are the proteinoplasts that help to store the proteins
that a plant needs and are typically found in seeds. Finally,
the elaioplasts are used to store fats and oils that are needed by the plant,
specifically in seeds.

Evolution of Plastids

Plastids arose from what scientists believe were small prokaryotic organisms
living inside of other prokaryotic organisms. They believe that these
organelles, along with mitochondria, started a symbiotic, or mutually
beneficial relationship, with the larger prokaryotic cell before eventually
becoming part of the cell.

Scientists were even able to determine that mitochondria and chloroplasts

were the approximate size of some ancient bacteria and even had
membranes that were similar to those bacteria. These organelles replicate in
similar ways to ancient bacteria and carry some of the same enzymes in
their membranes as well.