| eee SYSTEM OPERATION Ol |Copyright © 2010 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and above-mentioned publisher of this book. ISBN 978-81-317-2662-4 First Impression Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8(A), Sector - 62, Noida, India. Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110017, India. ‘Typeset by Mukesh Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry. Printed in India by Surya Print Process Pvt. LutBrief Contents CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER ee nda hehe Pe ir Economic Aspects Economic Load Dispatch-I Economic Load Dispatch-II Optimal Unit Commitment Optimal Power-Flow Problem—Solution Technique Hydro-Thermal Scheduling Load Frequency Control-I Load Frequency Control-II Reactive Power Compensation Voltage Control Modeling of Prime Movers and Generators Modeling of Speed Governing and Excitation Systems Power System Security and State Estimation 145 191 255 313 421Contents CHAPTER 1 Economic Aspects. 1 L1_Introduction L2_Load Curve 13_Load-DurationCuve 14 _ Integrated Load—Duration Curve 3 14] Uses of integrated load-duration curve 3 45.3 Demandfactor |S 154 Averageload SS 13.6 Diversityfactor SS 15.7 Plant capacity 6 15.8 Plant capacity factor 6 1.5.9 Utilisation factor (or plant-use factor) 6 1.5.10 Firm power 6 15.11 Prime power 6 15.12 Dump power 6 15.13 _ Spill power 6 L814 Cold reserve LSS Hot reserve 15.16 Spinning reserve 7 L6___Base Load and Peak Load on a Power Station _7 Load Forecasting AS 121 Purpose of load forecast is 1.7.2 __ Classification of load forecasting 16 17.3 Forecasting procedure i7 Key Notes 18 Short Questions and Answers 18 Multiple-Choice Questions. 19 Review Questions 22 Problems ‘CHAPTER 2 _ Economic Load Dispatch-I_ 5 2.2 _ Characteristics of Power Generation (Steam) Unit 25 2.3 System Variables 26 23.1 Control variables (P,and Q,) 26 23.2 Disturbance variables (P,and Qj 26 233 State variables (V and §) Z 26 Copyrighted material2.4 _ Problem of Optimum Dispateh—Formulation 26 2.5 Input-Output Characteristics 26 251 Units of turbine input 2 (26 CostCurves 2.7 Incremental Fuel Cost Curve at 28 Heat Rate Curve 29 2.9 _ Incremental Efficiene 30 2.11 _Non-Smooth Cost Functions with Multiple Fuels 31 2.12 Characteristics of a Hydro-Power Unit 31 ‘2127 Effect of the water head on discharge of : water jor a hydro-unit_ 33 2.12.2 Incremental water rate characteristics of hydro-units 33 2.12.3 Incremental cost characteristic of a hydro-unit 33 2.124 Constraints of hvdro-power plants 33 2.13_Incremental Production Costs ____34 2.14 Classical Methods for Economic Operation of stem Plants 34 2.15 Optimization Problem—Mathematical Formulation leglecting the Transmission Losses) 34 2151 Objective function 35 2.15.2 Constraint equations 35 2.16 Mathematical Determination of Optimal Allocation of “Total Load Among Different Units 38 2.17_Computational Methods 40 2171 Analytical method 40 2.17.2 Graphical method 41 217.5 — Solution by using adigital computer a 2.18 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and Including Generator Limits ds 2.19 Flowchart for Obtaining Optimal Scheduling of Generating Units by Neglecting the ‘meadieniseien Dowies 50 2.20 Economical Load Dispatch—In Other Units 30 aa Wiel ad 2.20.2 Pumped storage hydro-units 50. 2.203 Hydro-plants 50 2.20.4 Including reaciive power flows 2 Key Notes 8 Short Questions and Answers 84 Muttiple-Choice Questions 86, Review Questions 89 Problems 89 Copyrighted materialCHAPTER 3 Economic Load Dispatch-II 91 B_Introduction 3.2__ Optimal Generation Scheduling Problem: Consideration re 3.21 Mathematical modeling 91 3.3 _ Transmission Loss Expression in Terms of Real-Power aa 3.4 Mathematical Determination of Optimum Allocation of Total Load when Transmission Losses are Taken into Consideration 7 1 Determination of ITL formula 9 3.4.2 Penalty factor 100 3.5__ Flowchart for the Solution of an Optimization Problem when Transmission Losses arc Considered ‘101 Key Notes 136 ‘Short Questions and Answers 136 Multiple-Choice Questions 139 Review Questions 143 Problems 1493 CHAPTER 4 Optima! Unit Commitment 145 4.1 Introduction ns 4.2 Comparison with Economic Load Dispatch 146 43 NeedforUC 44 Constaints in UC 8 441 inning reserve 146, 442 Thermal unit conseaints 17. 4.43 Hydro-constraints 148 444 Mustrun a 445 Fuel conswaine ga 4.5 Cost Function Formulation 149 4.5.1 Start-up cost consideration 149 ‘4.5.2 Slaitadown cast consideratio 0 4.6 Constraints for Plant Commitment Schedules __150 4.7 Unit Commitment—Solution Methods 151 4.7.1 Enumeration scheme 151 4.22 Priority-list method 155 473 mmamic programming 156 48 Consideration of Reliability in Optimal UC Problem 166 4.8.) Patton's security function 169, 4.9 Optimal UC with Security Constraint 169 49.1 Mlustration of security constraint with Example 4.2170 4.10. Start-Up Consideration Inxii Contents Key Notes 183 Multiple-Choice Questions 183 Short Questions and Answers 187 Review Questions 189 Problems, 190 CHAPTER 5 Optimal Power-Flow Problem—Solution Technique 191 5.1 Introduction 191 5.2. Optimal Power-Flow Problem without Inequality Constraints 192 Algorithm for computational procecure 195 5.3 Optimal Power-Flow Problem with Inequality Constraints 196 $.3.1 Inequality constraints on control variables 196 5.3.2 Inequality constraints on dependent variables—penaliy function method 198 Key Notes 200 Short Questions and Answers 200 Multiple-Choice Questions 201 Review Questions 204 CHAPTER 6 __Hydro-Thermal Scheduling 205 61_Introduction 208 6.2__Hydro-Thermal Co-ordination 205 6.3 Scheduling of Hydro-Units in a Hydro-Thermal System _206 6.5 Long-Term Co-ordination 207 Siva aA 6.6.1 Constant hydro-generation method 208 6.6.2 Constant thermal generation method 208 6.6.3 Maximum hydro-efficiency method 209 6.7 General Mathematical Formulation of Long-Term Hydro-Thermal Scheduling 209 6.7.1 Solution of problem-discretization principle 210 6.7.2 Solution technique 22 6.7.3 Algorithm 23 68 Solution of Short-Term Hydro-Thermal Scheduling Problems—Kirchmayer’s Method 218 6.9 Advantages of Operation of Hydro-Thermal Combinations 237 6.9.1 — Flexibility 237 6.9.2 Greater economy 237 6.9.3 Security of supply 238 6.94 Better energy conservation 238Contents: xiii 69.5 Reserve capacity maintenance 238 Key Notes 245 Short Questions and Answers 246 Multiple-Choice Questions 249 Review Questions 253 Problems 83 CHAPTER 7 Load Frequency Control-I 255 a é 72 _ Necessity of Maintaining Frequency Constant 255 73 Load Frequency Control 256 74 Governor Characteristics of a Single Generator 256 7.5 Adjustment of Governor Characteristic of Parallel Operating Units 258 1.6 _ LEC: (P-f Control 259 2.7 Q-V Control 259 7.8 _ Generator Controllers (P=fand Q-V Controllers 259 7.9 _ P-fControl versus Q-V Control 260 7.10 Dynamic Interaction between P-f'and Q-V Loops 260 7.11_Speed-Governing System 261 71LT— Speed-governing sysiem model 262 ie 7.12.1 Non-reheat-twpe steam turbines 26 7.12.2 Incremental or small signal for a turbine-governor spistemt 268 7.12.3 Reheat type of steam turbines 268 2 id Model 714 Control Area Concept 273 L1S_Incremental Power Balance of Control Area 273 7.16 Single Ares Identification 274 7.16.1 Block diagram representation of a single area 274 7.17 Single Area—Steady-State Analysis 274 7.17.1 — Speed-changer position is constant (wicortrolled case) 275 PRD i bad an eeteat (-alihltael ase) 2173 changer and load demand are variables 279 7.18 Static Load Frequency Curves 279 7.19 Dynamic Analysis 280 7.20. Requirements of the Control Strategy 288 7.20.1 Integral control 288 7.21 Analysis of the Integral Control 289 7.22. Role of Integral Controller Gain (K,) Setting 293 7.23 Control of Generator Unit Power Output 293xiv Contents Key Notes 303 Shor Questions and Answers 304 Multiple-Choice Questions 306 Review Questions 310 Problems a CHAPTER 8 Load Frequency Control-I 313 8.1__Introduetion J 8.2. Composite Block Diagram of a Two-Area Case 317 8.3. Response ofa Two-Area System—Uncontrolled Case 317 83.1 Static response 3I7 832 Dynamic response 321 84 Area Control Error—Two-Area Case 327 8.5 Composite Block Diagram of a Two-Area System (Controlled Case) 328 85.1 Te-line bias control 328 85.2 Steady-state response 328 8.53 Dynamic response 330 8.6 Optimum Parameter Adjustment 330 8.7 Load Frequency and Economic Dispatch Controls 333 8&8 _ Design of Automatic Generation Control Using the Kalman Method 335 8.9 Dynamic-State-Variable Model 335 $9.1 Model of single-area dynamic system ina state-variable form 335 892 Optimum control index (1) 336 8.93 Optimum control problem and strategy 337 8.94 Dynamic equations of a two-area system 338 8935 State-variable model for a three-area power system 341 8.96 Advantages of state-variable model 346 Key Notes 358 Short Questions and Answers 359 Multiple-Choice Questions 360, Review Questions 361 Problems CHAPTER 9 Reactive Power Compensation 363 0 inietaestan 363 9.2 _ Objectives of Load Compensation 363 9.27 Pf correction 364 9.22 Voltage regulation improvement 364 923 Loadbalancing ____i364 9.3 Ideal Compensator 364Contents 9.4 _ Specifications of Load Compensation 365 95 of Load Comy sation 365 Pf. correction 365 95.2 Voltage regulation 367 9.6 Load Balancing and pf. Improvement of ‘Unsymmetrical Three-Phase Loads 370 9.6.1 Pf. correction 370 96.2 Load balancing 371 9.7 Uncompensated Transmission Lines. 372 971 Fundamental transmission line equation 372 9.7.2 Characteristic impedance 375 9.7.3 Surge impedance or natural loading 375 98 Uncompensated Line with Open-Circuit 377 9.8.1 Voltage and current profiles 377 98.2 The symmetrical line at no-load 377 98.3 Underexcited operation of generators due to line-charging 378 9.9 The Uncompensated Line Under Load 379 99.1 — Radial line with fixed sending-end voltage 379. 99.2 Reactive power requirements 379 99.3 Theuncompensated line under load with consideration of maximum power and stability 381 9.10 Compensated Transmission Lines 382 9.11 Sub-Synchronous Resonance 383 9.11.1 — Effects of series and shunt compensation of lines 383 9.11.2 Concept of SSR in lines 384 9.12. Shunt Compensator 386 9.12.1 Thyristor-controlled reactor 387 9.12.2 Thyristor- switched capacitor 388 9.13 Series Compensator 389 914 Unified Power-Flow Controller 39 9.15 Basic Relationship for Power-Flow Control 392 9.15.1 Without line compensation 393 9.15.2 With series capacitive compensation 394 9.15.3 With shunt compensation 394 9.15.4 With phase angle control 395 9.16 Comparison of Different Types of Compensating Equipment for Transmission Systems 395 9.17 Voltage Stability —What is it? 396 9.17.1 Voltage stability 396 9.17.2 Voltage collapse 396 9.18 Voltage-Stability Analysis 397 Q18.T P-Veurves 307 9.18.2 _ Concept of voltage collapse proximate indicator 400 918.3 Voltage-stability analysis: Q-V curves 402 9.19 Derivation for Voltage-Stability Index 404 xvxvi Covrents Key Notes, ald Short Questions and Answers 414 ‘Multiple-Choice Questions 415 Review Questions 420 Problems a CHAPTER 10 Voltage Control 421 CHAPTER 14 101 Introduction at 10.2 Necessity of Voltage Control 421 10.3 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power 422 10.4 Location of Voltage-Control Equipment 422 10.5__Methods of Voltage Control 423 10.5.2 Shunt capacitors and reactors 426 10.5.3 Series capacitors 426 10.5.4 Tap-changing transformers 428 10.5.5 Booster transformers 431 10.5.6 Synchronous condensers 432 10.6 Rating of Synchronous Phase Modifier 433 Key Notes 439 Short Questions and Answers 439 Multiple-Choice Questions 440 Review Questions 442 Problems gt Modeling of Prime Movers and Generators 443 LL1_Introduction —__aa3 11.2___ Hydraulic Turbine System 444 112.1 Modeling of hydraulic turbine 444 11.3 Steam Turbine Modeling 447 IL31 — Non-reheat ype 447 11.3.2 Reheat npe 448 114 Synchronous Machines. 452 1.4.1 Salient-pole-twpe rotor 452 11.4.2 Non-salient-pole-type rotor 452 11.5 _ Simplified Model of Synchronous Machine (Neglecting Salicncy and Changes in Flux Linkages) 452 11.6 Effect of Saliency 457 1.7 __ General Equation of Synchronous Machine 459 LL8 Determination of Synchronous Machine Inductances 460 118.1 Assumptions 461Contents: xvii LL9 Rotor inductances U91 Rotor self-Induciance 161 19.2 Stator to rotor mutual inductances 461. 110 Stator Self-Inductances GD 11.11 Stator Mutual Inductances 464 11.12 Development of General Machine juations—Matrix Form 465 11.13 _ Blondel’s Transformation (or) Park’s ‘Transformation to “dgo” Components 467 114 Inverse Park’s Transformation __ 469. 11.15 Power-Invariant Transformation in ‘f-d-g-0" Axes 470 11.16 Flux Linkage Equations 472 11.17 Voltage Equations 473 11.18 Physical Interpretation of Equations (11.62) and (11.68) 475 11.19 Generalized Impedance Matrix (Voltage—Current Relations) 476 11.20 Torque Equation 4i7 11.21 Synchronous Machine—Steady-State Analysis 478 1121.1 ” Salient-pole synchronous machine 479 1121.2 _ Non-salient-pole synchronous (cylindrical rotor) machine 482 122 amic Model of Synchronous Machine 483 1122.1 Salient-pole synchronous igenerator—substransiont effect 483 1.22.2 1ic model of synchronous machine including damper winding 488 1122.5 Equivalent circult of synchronous generator—including damper winding effect 490 1123 Modeling of Synchronous Machine—Swing Equation 492 Key Notes _ 495 Short Questions and Answers 495 Multiple-Choice Questions 498 Review Questions: 503 CHAPTER 12 Modeling of Speed Governing and Excitation Systems 505 12.1__Introduction 805 12.2 _ Modeling of Speed-Governing Systems 506 23 ForSte : ¢ 123.1 Mechanical-hydraulic-controlled speed- "governing systems 506 123.2 __ Electro-hydraulic-controlled speed. ‘governing systems 508,xviii Covtenrs 12.3.3 General model for speed-governing systems 509 12.4 _ For Hydro-Turbines 509 1241 Mechanical-hydrailic-controlled speed. ‘governing systems 509 12.42 Electric—hydraulie-controlted speed- governing system su 12.5 Modeling with Limits si2 12.5.1 Wind-up limiter 512 125.2 Non-wind-up limiter S12 12.6 Modeling of a Steam-Govemor Turbine System 513 261 Reheat system unit S13 12.6.2 Block diagram representation SI 12.63 Transfer junction of the steam-governor turbine modeling SIS 12.7 Modeling ofa Hydro-Turbine-Speed Governor 516 12.8 Excitation Systems si 12.9 Effect of Varying Excitation of a ‘Synchronous Generator 517 129.1 Explanation 518 129.2 Limitations of increase in excitation 520 12.10 Methods of Providing Excitation 520 1210.1 Common excitation bus method 521 12.10.2 Individual excitation mothod 521 12.10.3 Block diagram representation structure ofa general excitation system 521 12.11 Excitation Control Scheme 524 12.12. Excitation Systems—Classification 528 12.121 DC excitation system 525 12.12.2 AC excitation system $25 1212.3 Static excitation system 525 12.13 Various Components and their Transfer Functions of Excitation Systems 526 12.131 PT and rectifior 526 12.13.2 Voltage comparator 527 12.133 Amplifiers 527 12.14 Self-Excited Exciter and Amplidyne 529 12.15 Development of Excitation System Block Diagram $31 12.15.1 Transfer junction of the stabilizing transformer 532 1215.2 Transfer function of synchronous generator 533 12.5.3 IEEE type-I excitation system 533 12.154 Transfer function of overall excitation system 535 12.16 General Functional Block Diagram of an Excitation System 536 12.16.1 Terminal voltage transducer and load compensation 536 12.162 _ Exciters and voltoge regulators 537Contents: xix 12.163 Excitation system stabilizer and transient «gain reduction 537 12.164 Power system stabilizer 539 12.17 Standard Block Diagram Representations of Different Excitation Systems 540 12.171 DC excitation system 540 12.172 AC excitation system 542 12.173 Static excitation system 543 Key Notes 544 ‘Short Questions and Answers 544 Multiple-Choice Questions 548 Review Questions 555 CHAPTER 13 Power System Security and State Estimation 557 13.1_Introduction ss 13.2 The Concept of System Security 557 13.2.1 Long-term planning 558 13.22 Operaiional planning 558 13.23 On-line operation 558 13.3 Security Analysis 558 13.3.1 Digital simulation 559 13.3.2" Hybrid computer simulation. 560 13.3.3 Lyapunov methods 560 1334 Pattern recognition 560 13.4 _ Security Enhancement 561 “13.5 _ SSS Analysis 562 13.5.1 Requirements of an SSS assessor 563 13.6 _ Transient Security Analysis 565 3.61 Digital simulation. 566 13.6.2 Pattern recognition 566 13.63 Lyapunov method 566 13.7__State Estimation J __________$66 12.21 State estimator S68 ‘1322 Static-state estimation 587 13.73 Modeling of uncertain 567 13.74 Some basie facts of state estimation 568 B75 Least squares estimation 569 13.7.5 Applications of.staie estimation 571 Key Notes 572 Short Questions and Answers 5722 Multiple-Choice Questions 575 Review Questions 577 Appendix A 379 Index sa