FaultFoldForward

v. 6

by Richard W. Allmendinger 2012

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Table of Contents

Introduction!.....................................................................................................................3

Disclaimer!........................................................................................................................4

Interactive Features and Differences with Previous Versions!...................................5

Program Layout!..............................................................................................................6

Using FaultFoldForward!................................................................................................8

Making a New Model!.............................................................................................................................8

Modifying Your Model!........................................................................................................................10

Modifying Your Plot!............................................................................................................................11

Saving and Importing an Old Model!.................................................................................................12

Making more complicated models using pictures and ad hoc beds!............................................12

Ad Hoc Beds!................................................................................................................................13

Using Pictures!..............................................................................................................................14

Selected References!....................................................................................................16

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 Introduction
FaultFoldForward is a program for
both Macintosh and Windows operating
systems that allows you to create forward
models of area balanced cross sections. The
program allows you to specify either similar
or parallel fault-bend folds {Medwedeff
1986; Suppe 1983; Suppe 1990; Woodward
1989}, and produces fault-propagation folds
using trishear kinematics {Allmendinger
1998; Allmendinger 2000; Cardozo 2003; Er-
slev 1991; Hardy 1997a; Hardy; Zehnder
2000}. Sections can have multiple faults and
each fault can have multiple bends in it. In-
dividual faults can be either normal or re-
verse. The program also calculates strain at evenly spaced intervals in a section. Surpris-
ingly complicated sections can be simulated (Fig. 1):
FaultFoldForward is an update of the
forward modeling part of my venerable
FaultFold program for Macintosh and
Windows computers. The older program,
FaultFold v. 4 and 5, no longer works un-
der Windows 7 or Mac OS X 10.7
(Lion). This new program works with
all recent versions of Mac and Windows
operating systems. Eventually, we will
produce updated versions of the program
that also incorporate and update the in-
verse modeling functions of the original
FaultFold.

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Figure 1. Example of a complicated sequence of faults simulated with FaultFoldFor-

ward. The active fault is in black and inactive faults in red. Several generations of growth
strata are in orange. Ellipses are shaded by magnitude of strain. Diagram is unretouched
PDF output from FaultFoldForward. This is the same section as appears in colored for-
mat on the title page.

While FaultFoldForward offers considerable power for constructing forward

models of cross sections that are area balanced, it has several limitations that may re-
duce its suitability for simulating any particular deformation. A few of these include:
Multi-bend kink fault-bend folds like those described by Medwedeff and
Suppe {%Medwedeff 1997} cannot be produced with the program. Kink

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 axes due to the active ramp do not refract across higher level inactive
ramps. Thus, bed thickness is not preserved across higher ramps. In gen-
eral, you are better off using similar folding over multi-bend ramps.
Kink-style fault-propagation folds {Suppe 1990} cannot currently be pro-
duced with the program (though we hope to introduce this capability in
future versions.
It is possible to enter parameters that will result in at least local area loss
or gain. For example, if you have a kink ramp off of a decollement higher
than 30 the program will warn you but will allow you to go ahead with
the model.
Small errors in area calculations accrue to to rounding, offsets by faults,
etc.
Probably many other things that I am forgetting right now!

Disclaimer
FaultFoldForward is distributed on an "as is" basis without any warranty, explicit
or implicit. The author will not be liable for direct, indirect, incidental, or consequential
damages resulting from any defect in this software or this users manual. Furthermore, I
make no systematic effort to inform all users of either bug fixes or upgrades. The pro-
gram is upgraded periodically; write to us for details.
The algorithms in FaultFoldForward were written by Richard W. Allmendinger,
based on the theory published in {Allmendinger 1998; Allmendinger 2000; Hardy; Jin
2006; Suppe 1983; Suppe 1992; Williams 1983; Zehnder 2000}. There are many other pub-
lications about these topics (see the further reading list at the end), but the list above are
the ones whose theory I relied upon.
I distribute the program FaultFoldForward to non-commercial users without
charge in the interest in scientific communication (and because I dont want to have to
worry about whether someone pirated the program every time I see a plot produced by
it in a journal or at a meeting!). I grant permission for people to distribute one copy of
the program and the users manual to other non-commercial users, but only free of
charge and accompanied by this page. This program may not be sold or offered as an
inducement to buy any other product. Commercial users, please contact me for details.
I do not distribute copies of the source code in order to protect me from unau-
thorized changes for which we might be blamed later. Please do not ask. If you have
scientific questions about any of the procedures, I will provide copies of the individual
subroutines for your inspection.

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 I have tried to make the program as bug free as possible (after all, we use it for
our own research), but errors may remain. I am always interested in errors people have
found or suggestions for improvement. Please write with your comments or sugges-
tions. Thanks for your interest. I hope your find the program useful.
Any names herein that refer to other software are trademarks of, and/or copy-
right by, their respective owners/companies.

Interactive Features and Differences with Previous Versions

FaultFoldForward has numerous differences with previous versions. Many of
these are due to use of a different development environment and the modern interface
enabled by that environment. This version has a much higher degree of interactivity,
better display of various parameters, etc. Some of the interactive features include:
clicking and dragging in the plot cross section tab will measure distance
and angle
control/right clicking in the cross section tab of the window will display
the plot menu are a contextual menu
option-clicking on an ellipse will open up the info tab and display high-
light the ellipse in the strain list box as well as writing the strain for that
ellipse to the history panel.
any selected ellipse will be highlighted with a yellow halo in the plot win-
dow. you can deselect all ellipses by option clicking in the cross section tab
(not on any ellipse), or by choosing deselect all from the edit menu.
the Strain listbox in the Info Tab is sortable by column so you can sort by,
say, stretch and select all ellipses that have a stretch greater than a certain
value.
You can turn on or off the plotting of any bed by toggling the checkbox for
it in the bedding listbox.
Normally, the coordinates read in the units and in the direction of the axes
displayed on the screen (positive to the right and up). However, if you
hold down the shift key while moving/dragging the mouse in the win-
dow, you will see displayed the coordinates and lengths in pixels in the
screen's native coordinate system (positive to the right and down).
Likewise, this version has capabilities that the old version lacked:

There is no longer any limit on the length of beds. All arrays should resize
automatically.

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 Scans of existing cross sections can be imported as .png, .jpg, .tiff, or .pdf
format using File:Open:Picture. These can be rescaled and moved around
with the Digitize:Picture Scale & Position menu choice and the transpar-
ency controlled with a slider in the appearance tab of the Inspector. Plot-
ting is turned on or off completely with the Plot:Picture menu choice.
Right now, the program can read and write text files (as well as saving
plots as PDFs), but eventually it will have a native binary file format. I
want to see what format makes the most sense and is most comprehensive
for the eventual functionality. It should read and write the old FaultFold
text files.

Program Layout
The main program window has two tabs: selecting Cross Section will display
the forward model you are working on (Figure 2a). Whenever the mouse moves over
the plot area, its position is shown at the left side of the status bar at the bottom of the
window. Clicking and dragging in the plot area draws a line between the initial mouse-
down position and the current position; this can be used to measure lengths and angles,
which are displayed in the status bar. The coordinates and lengths are shown in the cur-
rent coordinate system (positive to the right and positive up) which is displayed in light

Click and drag the mouse in the

plot area to measure lengths and
angles, which are shown here

Status of the current model is

displayed here. You can copy
text from any of these fields

Mouse cursor position updated

as you move over the plot area

Figure 2a. The Cross section tab of the main window.

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 Bedding Info list box. You can turn on or off
plotting of a bed by toggling the checkbox in
this list.

History Text area. This editable text area

records the history of your model. You can
add your own notes to this box just by
clicking and typing, and text can be
copied/pasted from/to this box.
Strain Info list box. Data on all strain ellipses
are listed here. Columns can be sorted by click-
ing on the headings. Select one or more lines in
the list box and the corresponding strain ellip-
ses will be highlighted on the plot in the Cross
Section tab

Figure 2b. The Info tab of the main window.

gray. If you want to see the screen coordinates always in pixels, with 0, 0 at the upper
left corner and positive to the right and down hold down the shift key while moving
or dragging the mouse. The coordinate system scale and position of the origin (0, 0) can
be set at any time by choosing Set Scale and Origin in the Model Menu.
The Info Tab (Figure 2b) has three sections. On the left is a scrolling text area that
contains a history of all of the models you have run since you started up the program.
This field is completely editable: you can jot down your own notes here, erase informa-
tion that you dont need, and copy and paste text information from or to this box.
On the right hand side are two list boxes: at the top is a list of all of the beds in
the model. You can control which beds are plotted by toggling the checkbox in the cor-
responding bedding row. The bottom list box contains a listing of all of the strain ellip-
ses in the model. If you select one or more lines in this box, the corresponding ellipses in
the plot will be highlighted in yellow. You can sort the list by clicking any column in the
box. Finally, you can select any or all of the rows and then copy tab delimited text data
to the clipboard. These data can be pasted into spreadsheet programs or other programs
for further analysis and plotting.

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Using FaultFoldForward
Making a New Model
To start a new model, choose New from the
File Menu. Doing so will completely erase whatever
model may previously have been plotted. The character-
istics of a new model is controlled by settings in two dif-
ferent places.
The most basic settings, and those that you are
likely to change relatively infrequently are set in the
Model tab of the Inspector Palette (Figure 3), a floating
window that you can make visible by choosing it from
the Windows Menu. The parameters in the New Model
group box, especially the length of beds, spacing be-
tween points on a bed, and slip increment can markedly
affect your model run times. With the settings shown in
Figure 3, each bed will be a polygon of 500 vertices. If Figure 3. The Model tab of
you have a total slip of 100, the model will be recalcu- the Inspector Window
lated 50 times (a slip increment of 2 units). If you were
to change the bed point spacing and the slip increment
to 1 each, you would increase the number of calculations by a factor of 4. The calcula-
tions would be marginally more accurate but usually not enough to merit the increased
processing overhead. One could further increase the speed by unchecking strain and
particle paths if you were sure that you wouldnt need those later on. In my experience,
particle paths are seldom used by strain is frequently used so the defaults shown in
Figure 3 are my preferences. Turning on or off strain and particle paths only has an ef-
fect if done before a new model run. You cannot, for instance, turn on strain midway
through a model run.
You can set the default backlimb kinematic fold model to either parallel or simi-
lar folding. If you choose the latter, you should also specify an oblique shear angle. This
angle, commonly referred to as alpha in the literature is given as the deviation from ver-
tical. Figure 3 shows a shear angle of zero, which means that the shear planes will be
vertical. By convention, antithetic shear planes those which dip opposite to the dip of
the fault are positive and synthetic shear planes are negative.
Finally, you also specify the default characteristics of trishear fault propagation
folding here. The linear, sine, and center concentrated fields are all as described in
Zehnder and Allmendinger {%Zehnder 2000}; corrections to a typographical error in the
sine field in that reference are given in Hardy and Allmendinger {%Hardy}. The back-
limb kinematics and the trishear zone can be change in mid-model using the Modify

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Model command in the
Model Menu.
More common features
of new models, which are
likely to change with each
model, are specified in the
New Model dialog box
(which in Mac versions of the
program appears as a sheet
window, sliding down from
the title bar of the main
menu). Most of the entries in
this box are reasonably self- Figure 4. The New Model dialog box.
explanatory. Positive values
of all angles (dips) are in-
clined downwards to the left in the plot area. If you want to model a normal fault, both
the slip and the P/S ratio should be negative; clicking the normal radio button, both
of these values will be made negative automatically. Likewise, if you make either the P/
S ratio or the Slip value negative, the normal radio button will automatically be se-
lected. If you check the Ramp up button, your model will have a decollement at the
level given by the Y = value in the preceding line; otherwise, the fault will have a con-
stant dip downwards below the initial coordinates of the tip line. Additional bends in
the fault can be added after the slip is completed by selecting Modify Model from the
Model menu.
If you want a fault that has multiple bends
before any displacement at all has occurred that
is essentially an infinite P/S prior to the start of de-
formation then check Initial multi-bend fault.
After you click Okay, the program will wait for you
to draw the fault and display a small dialog box Figure 5. Small reminder that you
(Figure 5) to remind you that you are still in fault- are still drawing a fault.
drawing mode and that you should double click to
identify the tip line and exit from fault drawing mode. While in fault-drawing mode,
every mouse click will be interpreted as a vertex on the fault. Drawing the fault hap-
pens in a different thread than the main program; if you mistakenly forget to double
click for the tip line and run the model before you are finished by selecting cmd-R (Mac)
or ctl-R (Windows), the program will automatically kill the thread and assume that the
last clicked vertex is tip line.

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 Beds are added to the model in the panel on the right hand side of the New
Model dialog box (Figure 4). You can add beds by clicking the Add Bed button or
simply press return/enter on your keyboard while editing a line and a new bed will be
added automatically. If you make no entry in the Dip column, the dip for that bed will
be assumed to be zero. If you mistakenly press return after the last bed, simply delete
that line before pressing Okay.
Once the new model has been defined, it will be displayed on the screen. To run
the model, choose Run from the Model Menu. If you want to terminate a model run
before it has reached the full slip specified in the New Model dialog, just click the
mouse. Running a model happens in a separate thread so that you can change what to
plot while the model is running (e.g., turn on or off display of ellipses, for example);
however, you should do this via key commands (cmd- or ctl-E in the case of ellipse plot-
ting) because if you use the mouse to make a menu selection, the program will interpret
the click to mean stop the run early. If this happens, you can just choose Run again from
the Model Menu to complete the run.
Finally, if your model has run to the specified slip and you want to continue with
the same parameters, simply choosing Run again will not work because the model has
already reached the specified slip. In that case, you have two options: The easiest is
simply to choose Continue from the Model Menu (cmd- or ctl-K); the model will then
be run by the same increment of slip as the initial increment. For example, if you set the
total slip to be 100 units in the New Model dialog, running the model will result in 100
units of slip, choosing Continue once will result in another 100 units of slip (i.e., 200
units total) and each subsequent time you choose Continue, you will get 100 more units.
This is an excellent way to produce growth strata, for
example, with even increments of slip. The other way to
continue running the model with more total slip is to
choose Modify Model from the Model Menu and then
enter a new value for the slip.

Modifying Your Model

After your model has stopped running, you may
modify it in three different ways: (1) Change the pa-
rameters for the active fault, (2) add one or more beds,
or (3) as a new fault in a different part of the sections. To
change the parameters for the current active fault, use
the Modify Model dialog (Figure 6) which you access
from the Model Menu. Note that you can change several
characteristics including the backlimb kinematics and
the type of trishear propagation. The Display increment Figure 6. The Modify Model
dialog box.

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determines how often the screen is refreshed during a
model run. It does not change the slip increment, but will
make a model run come to conclusion faster because the
program will not have to take time to redraw the screen.
Another way to modify an existing model is to
add new beds to it. Doing so simulates growth strata
deposition during deformation and you can reproduce
many of the classic growth strata geometries with Fault-
FoldForward. To add beds select Add Beds from the
Model Menu and you will get the dialog box shown in
Figure 7. A new bed will already be added and the cell
for specifying the top ready to receive input. Like the
bedding part of the New Model dialog, you can just press Figure 7. The Add Beds
return to enter another bed, or use the Add bed button. dialog box.

For your reference, all of the beds are displayed in this

dialog. Beds that are added after the start of deformation
are referred to as growth strata in the Inspector, where
they can be assigned a different color and/or line weight.
Finally, you can add a new fault to your existing
section by choosing Start New Fault from the Model
Menu. This dialog (Figure 8) works exactly like the left
side of the New Model dialog. The fault can be normal or
reverse, ramp up from a decollement, or you can draw it
with initial multiple bends. A section can have only one
active fault. Once you click Okay the previously active
fault is re-digitized with a spacing between vertices of
two and it deforms passively just like beds. Old faults
can never be reactivated once you have drawn a new
Figure 8. The Start New
fault. To reactivate along the same trace as the old fault Fault dialog box.
you will have to define a new fault with the exact same
trace as the old fault. This can be done surprisingly suc-
cessfully, albeit somewhat tediously!

Modifying Your Plot

At any time during you use of the program, you determine what gets plotted by
making selections in the Plot Menu. If an item is checked in the menu, it will be plotted
(assuming it has be calculated -- e.g., particle paths will not be plotted if they have not
been calculated, even if they are checked in this menu).

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 Colors, line widths, etc. are controlled by the
Strain and Appearance tabs of the Inspector Win-
dow (Figures 9a and b). Note that here you can specify
that ellipses be colored according to their strain magni-
tude by checking the box Color fill by strain magni-
tude. If you want to have the fill but not the outline, just
set the line weights to zero for both normal ellipses and
every 5th ellipse. The color scale for the magnitude at
present is hardwired and cannot be changed. To change
any of the other colors, click on the color box to the
right; a standard system color picker will be displayed.
Changes in the Inspector are instantaneously re-
flected in the plot window

Saving and Importing an Old Model

Models can be exported to disk as a text file by
selecting Export:Forward Model from the File Menu.
Such text files retain all strain information but any spe-
cial formatting beyond the default colors and line
widths is not retained. You can read back into the pro-
gram any file that you have exported. Doing so will
erase whatever plot is currently on the screen, though
not the ad hoc beds. The import and export text file
formats are the same as those used by earlier versions of
FaultFold and so should be interchangeable.
Eventually, the program will have a native binary
file format which will capture the exact state of the pro-
gram, including all formatting, etc. The program capa- Figure 9. (a) The Strain tab
and (b) the Appearance tab
bilities need to stabilize further before implementing a
of the Inspector.
permanent file format

Making more complicated models using pictures and ad hoc beds

FaultFoldForward can create surprisingly complicated structural models from
very simple starting geometries with layer-cake stratigraphy (e.g., Figure 1). Normally,
forward model beds are linear with constant dip, even thought he earth is considerably
more complicated than that. In the real Earth, beds pinch out or have other pre-existing
complicated geometries. Thus, in addition to forward model beds (i.e., what you enter
in the New Model or Add beds dialog boxes) the program offers a second type of bed,
ad hoc beds, which provide a unique solution with multiple applications:

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 Ad Hoc Beds

Ad hoc beds are beds in the same coordinate system as the forward model beds
that the program keeps track of. Unlike forward model beds, ad hoc beds are never de-
formed when running a model. Ad hoc beds are entered by drawing polygons on the
screen. These polygons can be as complicated as you like, can have gaps or breaks, and
can start and end wherever you want on the screen. You can at any time convert ad hoc
beds into forward model beds, and forward model beds can be duplicated as ad hoc
beds. Some potential uses of ad hoc beds include:
Provide a frame of reference for comparing two forward models. In this
case, you would run the first forward model, then convert it to ad hoc
beds, then run the second ad hoc model. For example, in figure 10, a for-
ward model was run with a slip increment of 2. It was then converted to
ad hoc beds (colored red) and the same model was run again with a slip
increment of 10 (in black) in order to see how slip increment influences
fold shape.

200 300 400 500 600 700

Figure 10. Example of using ad hoc beds to compare the

results of two different model runs. The red beds were
run with a slip increment of 2 and the black beds with a
slip increment of 10.

Provide a mechanism for producing more complicated starting models. In

this case, one can simply draw on screen the starting geometry (or tracing
on screen an imported picture such as a photograph, seismic section, or
pre-existing cross section; see the section on Pictures, below). For example,
the two plots below (Figure 11) show a more complicated geometry draw
on the screen as ad hoc beds (a simple rift scenario with some beds trun-

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 500

cated below a gentle angular unconformity), converted to a forward

400

model, and then reactivated as a high angle reverse fault.

300

200

100

200 300 400 500 600 700 100 800 200 900 300 1000400 1100500 600 700 800 900 1000 1

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Figure 11. Example of using ad hoc beds to enter a more complicated bed geometry (left side),
which can then be converted to, and deformed as, a forward model (right side).

Ad hoc beds have a variety of other uses but these cover two of the most frequent.

Using Pictures

FaultFoldForward can read in existing graphics files as .png, .tif, .jpg, or .pdf
format by selecting Open:Picture from the File Menu. These pictures can be of just
about anything, but realistically they are most likely to be a photograph of an outcrop,
scan of a seismic line, or some previously published cross section and/or reconstruc-
tion. By default, the picture is placed at the top of, and scaled to the width of, the win-
dow, and is displayed at 50% transparent. The transparency can be controlled, from
completely transparent to completely opaque, by the slider in the Appearance Tab of the
Inspector (Figure 9b). This is convenient because it is easiest to trace over a part of a pic-
ture when it is partly transparent. You can move the picture around and shrink or ex-
pand it to suit your needs by choosing Picture Scale and Position from the Digitize
Menu. The resulting dialog box (Figure 12). Note that
if you click the fit window width radio button the
picture will be returned to its default position at the
top of and with the current width of the drawing
area. Although you can set the offset of the picture
from its current to its new position, you may find it
easier to check set offset by clicking and dragging
the mouse. Once you click Okay, the dialog box will
not disappear but will remind you to click and drag. Click
on the exact point that you want and drag it to the Figure 12. Scaling and reposi-
point that you want it to be once repositioned. As tioning a picture

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soon as you release the mouse button, the picture will be redraw in its new location and
the dialog box will disappear.
A particularly convenient work flow is to position the picture where you want,
and then set the scale and origin of the model. To set the scale, first click and drag on a
known distance in your model and note the number of pixels displayed in the status
bar. Then select Set Scale and Origin from the Model Menu. In the Set Scale and Ori-
gin dialog, to produce Figure 13, I entered 253 pixels = 25000 units (meters) and set the
origin with the mouse by clicking at the east (right) end of the section.

Figure 13. A picture repositioned and scaled, and then with the scale of the model and the origin set
according to the scale on screen in the picture.

Pictures and ad hoc beds combined allow you to develop powerful and compli-
cated models to study. They will acquire even more utility when inverse modeling re-
turns to the program.

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Acknowledgments
The PDF classes included in this program are from pdfFile by Toby W. Rush
Copyright 2004.
I would like to thank Nstor Cardozo, Alan Zehnder, Ernesto Cristallini, and
Stuart Hardy for their contributions and collaborations over the years.

Selected References
Allmendinger, R. W., 1998, Inverse and forward numerical modeling of trishear fault-
propagation folds: Tectonics, v. 17, no. 4, p. 640-656.
Allmendinger, R. W., 1999, Propagation-to-slip ratio and fold style in fault-propagation
folds: perspectives gleaned from trishear modeling, in Geological Society of
America Abstracts with Programs: .
Allmendinger, R. W., 2004, Evaluating uncertainty in balanced cross-sections: A critical
step for relating thrust-belts to plateau uplift: Geological Society of America Ab-
stracts with Programs, v. 36, no. 5, p. 49.
Allmendinger, R. W., Cardozo, N. C., and Fisher, D., 2012, Structural Geology Algo-
rithms: Vectors & Tensors: Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, 289
pp.
Allmendinger, R. W., and Shaw, J. H., 2000, Estimation of fault propagation distance
from fold shape: Implications for earthquake seismicity: Geology, v. 28, no. 12, p.
1099-1102.
Allmendinger, R. W., Zapata, T. R., Manceda, R., and Dzelalija, F., 2004, Trishear kine-
matic modeling of structures, with examples from the Neuqun Basin, Argentina,
in McClay, K., ed., Thrust tectonics and hydrocarbon Systems: Tulsa, American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir, p. 356-371.
Cardozo, N., 2005, Trishear modeling of fold bedding data along a topographic profile:
Journal of Structural Geology, v. 27, no. 3, p. 495-502.
Cardozo, N., 2008, Trishear in 3D: Algorithms, implementation, and limitations: Journal
of Structural Geology, v. 30, p. 327-340, doi: 10.1016/j.jsg.2007.12.003.
Cardozo, N., and Aanonsen, S., 2009, Optimized trishear inverse modeling: Journal of
Structural Geology, v. 31, no. 6, p. 546-560.
Cardozo, N., Bawa-Bhalla, K., Zehnder, A. T., and Allmendinger, R. W., 2003, Mechani-
cal models of fault propagation folds and comparison to the trishear kinematic
model: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 25, no. 1, p. 1-18.

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Cardozo, N., Jackson, C. A. L., and Whipp, P. S., 2011, Determining the uniqueness of
best-fit trishear models: Journal of Structural Geology, .
Cristallini, E. O., and Allmendinger, R. W., 1999, Pseudo-3d Numerical Analysis of the
Trishear Fault-propagation Fold Model: Geological Society of America Abstracts
with Programs, v. 31, no. 7, p. 127.
Cristallini, E. O., and Allmendinger, R. W., 2001, Pseudo 3-D modeling of trishear fault-
propagation folding: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 23, no. 12, p. 1883-1900.
Cristallini, E. O., and Allmendinger, R. W., 2002, Back-limb trishear: A kinematic model
for curved folds developed over angular fault bends: Journal of Structural Geol-
ogy, v. 23, no. 2, p. 289-296.
Cristallini, E. O., Giambiagi, L., and Allmendinger, R. W., 2004, True 3-D trishear: A
kinematic model for strike-slip and oblique-slip deformation: Geological Society
of America Bulletin, v. 116, no. 7/8, p. 938-952, doi: 10.1130/B25273.1.
Erslev, E. A., 1991, Trishear fault-propagation folding: Geology, v. 19, no. 6, p. 617-620.
Erslev, E. A., and Mayborn, K. R., 1997, Multiple geometries and modes of fault-
propagation folding in the Canadian thrust belt: Journal of Structural Geology, v.
19, no. 3-4, p. 321-335.
Erslev, E. A., and Rogers, J. L., 1993, Basement-cover geometry of Laramide fault-
propagation folds, in Schmidt, C. J. and others, eds., Laramide basement defor-
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