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Calculation of reverse-fault-related parameters

using topographic profiles and fault bedding*

Yang Xiaodonga,*, Li Wenqiaob, Qin Zhenc

a
The Second Monitoring and Application Center, China Earthquake Administration, Xi'an 710054, China
b
Institute of Earthquake Science, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100036, China
c
Chongqing Institute of Geological Survey, Chongqing 401122, China

article info abstract

Article history: Fault-related parameters are critical for studying tectonic evolution, deformation character-
Received 2 June 2014 istics, active tectonism, and seismic hazards. A new method of calculating reverse-fault-
Accepted 28 September 2014 related parameters has been developed, which uses systematic analysis of the geometrical
Available online 11 April 2015 characteristics of normal and reverse scarps of reverse faults together with measurements of
topographic profiles and fault bedding. The results show that the most suitable method of
Keywords: calculating fault parameters heavily relies on the specific type of fault scarp. For a reverse scarp,
Reverse fault scarp the size of the vertical displacement (VD) of the fault, the vertical separation (VS) of the hanging
Fault-related parameters wall and the footwall, and the fault scarp height (SH) show the relationship VD
VS
SH;
Scarp height conversely, for normal scarps, VD  VS  SH. The theoretical equations were used to study fault
Vertical separation deformation in the Southwest Tianshan Mountain foreland basin. The results showed that,
Vertical displacement for every fault, VD
VS
SH, which is consistent with our predicted relationship. This finding
Topographic profile demonstrates that this method is suitable to explore structural information of reverse faults. In
Fault bedding the study area, the vertical displacement is 1.4 times the horizontal displacement, suggesting
that flexural-slip faults may play an important role in transferring local deformation from
horizontal shortening to vertical uplift. Therefore, one of the most important steps in correct
calculation of reverse-fault-related parameters is selection of the proper equations by identi-
fying the specific type of fault scarp and the corresponding calculation method.
2015, Institute of Seismology, China Earthquake Administration, etc. Production and
hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

intervals, and models of fault motion, have been widely used to

1. Introduction study active tectonics during the late Quaternary (100e120 ka).
In general, reverse-fault scarps can be either a normal scarp or
Reverse-fault-related parameters, which are critical for a reverse scarp. The relative dip direction of the fault scarp and
analyzing fault displacement, paleoseismic recurrence

*
This work is supported by the Science and Technology Program of Shanxi Province (2014KJXX-18) and the Spark Programs of
Earthquake Sciences (XH14069).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xiaodong9650@163.com (Yang X.).
Peer review under responsibility of Institute of Seismology, China Earthquake Administration.

Production and Hosting by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geog.2014.09.002
1674-9847/ 2015, Institute of Seismology, China Earthquake Administration, etc. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2
the ground topography can be used to distinguish these two
types of fault scarps. For normal scarps, the dip direction of the
scarp is consistent with that of ground topography: the dip
direction of a reverse scarp is opposite to that of the ground
topography. Many previous studies have been devoted to
calculating the parameters of fault scarps [1e6] using various
different methods. Caskey [2] initially proposed formulas to
calculate normal-fault-related parameters using the
topographic characteristics of normal and reverse scarps;
however, a critical assumption of this method is that the
ground surface of the hanging wall and the footwall are
parallel to each other, which is not always true in nature.
With this assumption, the vertical displacement of the
ground surface is easy to obtain from direct calculation of the
difference in elevation. Thompson et al. [6] combined fault
dip with topographic surveys of normal scarps to calculate
the parameters of reverse faults, but this formula was not
applicable to the reverse fault scarps of reverse faults. For
reverse-fault scarps, Chen et al. [3] explored the influence of
variations in the ground surface slope on fault deformation.
They determined that the ratio of horizontal displacement to
vertical displacement of a fault represents the tangent of the
fault dip; consequently, the fault dip can be easily calculated.
They also discussed obtaining true displacement from
apparent displacement. Li et al. [5] discussed the complexity
of measuring the displacement of the surface ruptures of
reverse faults and methods to calculate the slip vectors of
reverse faults, then proposed combining the displacement
vector with the footwall dip to measure the vertical and
horizontal displacement of reverse faults and to obtain the
slip vector, plunge, and slip direction.
The studies mentioned above developed basic methods for
calculation of the parameters of reverse faults, but did not
derive equations to calculate the parameters of reverse faults
with different scarp types. In addition, detailed derivations of
formulas have rarely been documented in previous studies
[7e9]. In a range of continental orogenic belts, particularly in
regions with steep slopes, reverse scarps are common. Accu-
rate calculation of the parameters of this type of fault scarp is
essential to estimate the active history of faulting and the
associated seismic hazards. This study will address the
following themes: parameter calculation for reverse faults
with reverse scarps, differences between that and calculation
of parameters for faults with normal scarps, and patterns in
the values of fault-related parameters. Based on previous
studies, using detailed geometrical analysis, linear modeling,
and integration of measured fault dip with scarp topography,
we develop reliable equations to calculate the parameters of
reverse faults and discuss the probable variations in and re-
lationships between parameter size.
2. Calculation of parameters of reverse faults
with different fault scarps
Precise definitions of the parameters of reverse faults are
still a matter of debate, and have rarely been systemically
described in previous studies. Additionally, many previous
studies have incorrectly regarded all parameters of reverse
faults as a single concept without explicit discrimination.
107
Therefore, we propose definitions for reverse-fault-related
parameters prior to introducing the formulas for calculating
them. These parameters are: dip slip (DS) of fault, vertical
displacement (VD) of fault, horizontal displacement (HS) of
fault, vertical separation (VS) of the ground surfaces of fault
walls, and scarp height (SH) of fault (Figs. 1 and 2). Dip slip is
the pure distance that the fault slips along the fault plane. The
vertical component of dip slip is the vertical displacement of
the fault; similarly, the horizontal component of dip slip is the
horizontal displacement of the fault. The vertical separation
of the ground surface is mostly derived from the ground sur-
face offset resulting from fault movement, which is equiva-
lent to the difference in elevation of the initial fault tips on the
ground prior to an earthquake. The scarp height is the dif-
ference in elevation between the higher and lower intersec-
tion points of a scarp, which represents the scale of the fault
scarp (Figs. 1 and 2). Therefore, the fault horizontal displace-
ment, vertical separation of the ground surface, and scarp
height are all different concepts with markedly different
geological meanings. These concepts have been confused in
most previous studies, resulting in incorrect estimation of
fault slip rates, paleoseismic recurrence intervals, and asso-
ciated seismic hazards. Incorrect fault slip rates will give
incorrect results for fault slip characteristics and their
geological implications.
As introduced above, the dip slip (DS) of a fault represents
the true co-seismic slip vector along the fault plane during a
specific earthquake; therefore, the vertical and horizontal
components of DS are the real displacements of a fault in the
vertical and horizontal directions. Fault displacement can be
combined with dating results to calculate the slip rate, which
is a key factor for the recurrence interval of paleo-earth-
quakes. The vertical separation of the ground surfaces of fault
walls (VS) is a function of the trend lines of the hanging wall,
scarp slope, and footwall resulting from fault activity. The
previous ground surface, which was an intact plane, was
offset by abrupt uplift of the active fault during an earthquake,
so the vertical separation of the ground surface can be
considered as the scale of rupture of the ground surface when
assessing the destructive capability of a fault. Obviously,
special attention should be paid to analysis of the activity
history and destructive capability of a fault. Finally, scarp
height is the most confusing parameter, and has been wrongly
regarded as the vertical displacement of the fault in previous
studies of slip rate and activity history. In reality, these are
completely different parameters of fault geometry. The scarp
height is the parameter of scarp scale, which is determined by
the intersection points of the trend lines of the hanging wall
and footwall with the scarp slope, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In
general, due to the intensive erosion in high mountain ranges,
it is not possible to measure the degraded scarp height simply
by topographic surveying, and linear fitting of topography is
required to recover the initial topographic geometry of the
scarp prior to calculating the scarp height.
2.1. Calculation of the parameters of a reverse fault with
a reverse scarp
Through linear fitting of points surveyed by high-resolu-
tion differential GPS along the hanging wall, the formulas of
108 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2

Fig. 1 e Diagrammatic sketch of calculation of the parameters of a reverse fault with a reverse scarp. VS: Vertical separation
of ground surface; VSmin: minimum vertical separation of ground surface; VSmax: maximum vertical separation of ground
surface; SH: scarp height; DS: dip slip of fault; HD: horizontal displacement of fault; VD: vertical displacement of fault; q: fault
dip; ah: angle of ground surface of the hanging wall; as: slope angle of fault scarp; af: angle of ground surface of footwall;
P(x,y): fault tip; P1(x1,y1): intersection point of hanging wall; P2(x2,y2): intersection point of footwall.

the topographical trend lines of the hanging wall, scarp slope, y1 bs  bh =mh  ms mh bh (5)
and footwall are obtained as follows:



x2 bs  bf mf  ms (6)
yh mh x bh (1)



y2 bs  bf mf  ms mf bf (7)
ys ms x bs (2)
The scarp height is the difference in elevation between P1
yf mf x bf (3) and P2:
Thus, the coordinates of the intersection points of the SH y1  y2 (8)
hanging wall P1(x1,y1) and the footwall P2(x2,y2) with the scarp
The maximum vertical separation of the ground surface
slope can be acquired:
(VSmax) is the plumbed displacement from the upper inter-
x1 bs  bh =mh  ms (4) section point P1(x1,y1) to the trend line of the footwall:

Fig. 2 e Diagrammatic sketch of calculation of the parameters of a reverse fault with a normal scarp. VS: Vertical separation
of ground surface; VSmin: minimum vertical separation of ground surface; VSmax: maximum vertical separation of ground
surface; SH: scarp height; DS: dip slip of fault; HD: horizontal displacement of fault; VD: vertical displacement of fault; q: fault
dip; ah: angle of ground surface of the hanging wall; as: slope angle of fault scarp; af : angle of ground surface of the footwall;
P(x,y): fault tip; P1(x1,y1): intersection point of hanging wall; P2(x2,y2): intersection point of footwall.
 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2 109

VSmax x1 mh  mf bh  bf (9) 2.2. Calculation of the parameters of a reverse fault with
a normal scarp
The minimum vertical separation of the ground surface
(VSmin) is the plumbed displacement from the lower inter-
From linear fitting of points surveyed by high-resolution
section point P2(x2,y2) to the trend line of the hanging wall:
differential GPS along the hanging wall, the formulas of the

topographical trend lines of the hanging wall, scarp slope, and
VSmin x2 mh  mf bh  bf (10)
footwall are as follows:
Therefore, the true vertical offset of the ground surface is
between VSmax and VSmin: VSmin  VS  VSmax. yh mh x bh (1)
If the ground surface of the hanging wall is parallel to that
of the footwall, i.e., ah af, ys ms x bs (2)

DS AB VScos ah =sinq ah (11) yf mf x bf (3)

HD AC DS cos q VS cos ah cos q=sinq ah The coordinates of the intersection points of the scarp
VS=tan q tan ah (12) slope with the hanging wall P1(x1,y1) and the footwall P2(x2, y2)
can be acquired using the following equations:

VD BC DS sin q VS cos ah sin q=sinq ah x1 bs  bh =mh  ms (4)

VS tan q=tan q tan ah (13)
y1 bs  bh =mh  ms mh bh (5)
If the ground surface of the hanging wall is not parallel to
that of the footwall, i.e., ah s af,


x2 bs  bf mf  ms (6)
PP3 PP4  P3 P4 AP sin q  AP cos q tan af




AP sin q  cos q tan af (14) y2 bs  bf mf  ms mf bf (7)
Combining equations (2) and (3) with P(x,y) gives: The scarp height can be obtained from the difference in


PP3 x ms  mf bs  bf (15) elevation between P1 and P2:

Combining (14) with (15) gives: SH y1  y2 (8)



The maximum vertical separation of the ground surface
AP x ms  mf bs  bf sin q  mf cos q (16)
(VSmax) is the plumbed displacement from P1(x1,y1) to the
PP5 PP6  P5 P6 BP sin q  BP cos q tan ah trend line of the footwall:
BPsin q  cos q tan ah (17)

VSmax x1 mh  mf bh  bf (9)
Equations (1) and (2), together with P(x,y), The minimum vertical offset of the ground surface (VSmin)
PP5 xmh  ms bh  bs (18) is the plumbed displacement from P2(x2,y2) to the trend line of
the hanging wall:
Using equations (17) and (18),


VSmin x2 mh  mf bh  bf (10)
BP xmh  ms bh  bs =sin q  mh cos q (19)
Thus, the true vertical separation of the ground surface is
Thus, the dip slip of the fault is the sum of AP and BP as
between VSmax and VSmin: VSmin  VS  VSmax.
follows:
If the ground surface of the hanging wall is parallel to that
DS AB AP BP of the footwall, i.e., ah af:



x ms  mf bs  bf sin q  mf cos q xmh  ms
DS AB VS cos ah =sinq ah (11)
bh  bs =sin q  mh cos q
(20)
HD AC DS cos q VS cos ah cos q=sinq ah
The vertical and horizontal displacements of the fault are VS=tan q tan ah (12)
the vertical and horizontal components of the dip slip, which
are given by: VD BC DS sin q VS cos ah sin q=sinq ah
VD DS sin q VS tan q=tan q tan ah (13)



x ms  mf bs  bf sin q  mf cos q xmh  ms
If the ground surface of hanging wall is not parallel to the
bh  bs =sin q  mh cos q sin q ground surface of the footwall, i.e., ah s af:
(21)
HD DS cos q PP4 PP3 P3 P4 AP sin q AP cos q tan af




x ms  mf bs  bf sin q  mf cos q xmh  ms AP sin q cos q tan af (14)

bh  bs =sin q  mh cos q cos q Combining equations (2) and (3) with P(x, y),
(22)
110 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2

PP4 x ms  mf bs  bf (15) the structural deformation of the anticline. We found that
the dip of the strata altered significantly from SW to NE,
Integrating equation (14) with equation (15)
from a gentle dip of 48e54 to nearly vertical dip values of


80e86 , resulting in the formation of active axial plane m. In
AP x ms  mf bs  bf sin q mf cos q (16)
order to adjust the strain difference in folding along both
sides of active axial plane m, in the northern part of axial
PP5 BP sin q BP cos q tan ah BPsin q cos q tan ah (17)
plane m, six flexural-slip fault scarps have formed terraces
Through developing equations (1) and (2) and P(x,y) we on the south bank of the Kezilesu River, which are named
obtained, MF1, MF2, MF3, MF4, MF5, and MF6 from west to east. We
combine the topography of these fault scarps surveyed by
PP5 xmh  ms bh  bs (18)
high-resolution differential GPS with the dip measurements,
Combining equations (17) and (18), and use the method introduced above to calculate the
reverse-fault-related parameters (Table 1).
BP xmh  ms bh  bs =sin q mh cos q (19)
As shown in Table 1, the values of almost every parameter
The dip slip of the fault is the sum of AP and BP: for a single fault are not consistent: sometimes there are large
differences in the values of VS, VD, and SH. For example, for
DS AB AP BP MF1, VS is 1.8 0.1 m, VD is 1.8 0.2 m, and SH is 1.6 m: the



x ms  mf bs  bf sin q mf cos q xmh  ms remaining parameters are listed in Table 1.
bh  bs =sin q mh cos q We plotted all calculated values of VD, VS, and SH onto one
(20) chart, from which it is obvious that the values of VD, VS, and
SH in the same fault scarp gradually decrease or are of equal
The vertical and horizontal displacements of the fault are value (Fig. 4). In general, from the distribution of parameters,
the vertical and horizontal components of the dip slip, which we can draw the preliminary conclusion that VD
VS
SH
are given by: (Fig. 4), which is consistent with our derived formulas (Figs.
1 and 2). A special case in this study is that VD, VS, and SH
VD DS sin q


of MF5 all have the same value (1.5 m). This parameter
x ms  mf bs  bf sin q mf cos q xmh  ms
distribution usually occurs when the ground surfaces of
bh  bs =sin q mh cos q sin q both walls of the fault are parallel to each other, so that the
(21) formulas to calculate the parameters are identical.
We also note that the vertical displacement (VD) is larger
HD DS cos q than the horizontal displacement (HD) for every fault (Table 1).



x ms  mf bs  bf sin q mf cos q xmh  ms For example, for MF1, VD (1.8 0.2 m) is larger than HD
(1.4 0.1 m). On average, VD is 1.4 times HD for faults in this
bh  bs =sin q mh cos q cos q
area. The junction region of Pamir, the Tianshan mountains,
(22)
and Tarim is dominated by crustal shortening, as proven by
the presence of widely distributed thrust faults and related
folds [13,14]. However, in the area in which flexural-slip
3. Case study in the southwest Tianshan faults are developed, very localized deformation involves
foreland basin vertical uplift rather than horizontal shortening, which
has important implications for variations in regional
The study area is the southwest Tianshan foreland basin, deformation. As a result, the existence of flexural-slip faults
which is bounded by the Pamir Plateau to the west and the may play an important role in transferring local deformation
Tarim Basin to the southeast. Due to the ongoing northward from horizontal shortening to vertical uplift.
movement of Pamir and the subduction of Tarim into the
Tianshan mountains, a series of compressive tectonic struc-
tures such as folds and thrust faults have been formed to 4. Discussion and conclusions
accommodate crustal shortening in the junction area (Fig. 3)
[10e12]. In northern margin of the Mayikake Basin, near- Using high-resolution differential GPS data to survey the
parallel flexural-slip fault scarps with an EeW trend and topography of flexural-slip fault scarps can provide a large
northward dip are widely developed in several river terraces amount of basic data. From detailed analysis of the geometry
in the southern limb of the Wulagen anticline, which is of reverse-fault scarps and development of various formulas
located in southwest Tianshan. As shown in Fig. 3, the to calculate fault parameters, we determined that the vertical
Kezilesu River flows eastward along the southern margin of separation of the ground surface, the fault scarp height, and
the Mayikake Basin, changing direction to the southeast as it the vertical displacement of the fault have different numerical
flows away from the basin. The river has formed three values and represent different geological features. In previous
terraces in the bedrock, Tk1, Tk2, and Tk3, on the south studies, the difference in elevation between the ground sur-
bank of the river. The Quaternary Xiyu Formation, which face of the hanging wall and that of the footwall has been
consists mainly of sandstone and limestone pebbles, forms regarded as the vertical displacement of the fault scarp; this,
the underlying bedrock. Along the outcrop of the bedrock, however, is incorrect. This simple assumption is obviously not
we obtained many measurements of bedding to constrain reliable, and is not the true situation in real-world cases.
 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2 111

Fig. 3 e Flexural-slip fault scarps in the southern limb of the Wulagen anticline [7].

(1) For a reverse fault with a reverse scarp, the rela-

tionship between the vertical displacement of the
Table 1 e Parameters of flexural-slip faults in the fault, the vertical separation of the ground surface,
southern limb of the Wulagen anticline, northern margin and the scarp height is VD
VS
SH. For a reverse
of the Mayikake Basin. fault with a reverse scarp, the scarp height is much
Fault as ( ) DS (m) HD (m) VD (m) VS (m) SH (m) less than the vertical displacement of the fault, so
MF1 11.5 2.3 0.2 1.4 0.1 1.8 0.2 1.8 0.1 1.6
replacement of VD with SH is inaccurate.
MF2 9.5 1.9 0.1 1.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.4 0.1 1.2 (2) For a reverse fault with a normal scarp, the rela-
MF3 6.5 0.6 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.4 tionship between the vertical displacement of the
MF4 12.6 2.3 0.1 1.4 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.8 0.1 1.7 reverse fault, the vertical separation of the ground
MF5 14.1 1.9 0.1 1.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.5 surface, and the scarp height is VD  VS  SH. In
MF6 13.3 1.4 0.1 0.8 0.1 1.2 0.1 1.2 0.1 1.1
most cases, the scarp height is much larger than the
112 g e o d e s y a n d g e o d y n a m i c s 2 0 1 5 , v o l 6 n o 2 , 1 0 6 e1 1 2
Fig. 4 e Comparison of VD, VS, and SH for each fault.
vertical displacement of the fault, so replacement of
VD with SH is also inaccurate.
(3) A case study in the southwest Tianshan Mountain
foreland basin shows a decreasing trend in the values
of VD, VS, and SH for every fault, which is consistent
with the theoretically predicted relationship
VD
VS
SH, demonstrating that our method is
suitable to obtain structural information of reverse
faults. In the study area, the vertical displacement is
1.4 times the horizontal displacement, suggesting
that flexural-slip faults may play an important role in
transforming local deformation from horizontal
shortening to vertical uplift.
(4) Finally, accurate fault parameters cannot be ob-
tained simply using the difference in elevation,
particularly in areas with complex tectonic charac-
teristics. More detailed geometric analysis combined
with linear fitting of topography and fault dip is
necessary for accurate calculation of fault-related
parameters. The correct identification of scarp type
is critical for selection of the proper equations to
obtain accurate results.
Acknowledgments
We thank two anonymous reviewers for their extensive
and constructive comments that significantly improved the
manuscripts.
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Yang Xiaodong, PhD student, who was born
in March 1988, is an assistant engineer at
the Second Monitoring and Application
Center, China Earthquake Administration.
He obtained his Bachelor's Degree in Geo-
science from the Department of Earth Sci-
ences, Sun Yat-sen University, in July 2010.
Subsequently, he undertook graduate study
at the Institute of Geology, China Earth-
quake Administration, and was finally
awarded a Master's Degree in Structural
Geology in July 2013. He is currently study-
ing regional leveling deformation and
active tectonism on the northeast margin of
the Tibet Plateau.