Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Valerie Kidd
Senior Seminar
4/18/2017
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managers alike is what motivates employees to be productive at work? There is research that
supports that employees are intrinsically motivated to be successful and there is literature that
indicates extrinsic motivation. How do we know if our employees are motivated? According to
S. Fowler (2015), a top motivational author, highly motivated employees possess five intention
characteristics. They are: to stay, endorse the organization, use discretionary effort on behalf of
the organization, use citizenship behaviors, and perform at above-expected standards. Fowler
(2015) also argues that most people are not intrinsically motivated at work because they do not
feel pure enjoyment while working; however, research does not generally agree. In this paper, I
will review various motivation theories and examine the evidence of effectiveness of each one. I
will also view other factors that contribute to employee motivation, such as personality,
To begin, I will discuss one of the most well-known theories of motivation. Maslows
Hierarchy of needs proposes that individuals are motivated first by physiological needs that
eventually progress into intrinsic needs such as self-actualization. If we translate these needs to
the workplace, will it make the employee motivated? Let us consider each of these from an
occupational standpoint. The first need on the Maslows pyramid is physiological and in order to
meet the physiological need, employees need adequate rest, be able to breath, eat, drink, and
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have their body at homeostasis. To begin, they are not resting if they are overworked and they
cannot be at homeostasis if they do not take breaks for nourishment and effectively manage
stress. In addition, employees need clean air so they should have appropriate personal protective
equipment around toxins. Next, the safety need states individuals need security, employment,
resources, health, and morality. From an occupational perspective, employees cannot live in
fear of losing their job, nor have inappropriate health care, and pay. The next need is love and
belonging. While we would not want love or sexual intimacy in the workplace, it is reasonable
to consider friendship and bonding with colleagues. The next level is esteem and satisfies the
need to feel achieved, confident and respected by others. The final level of self-actualization is
more personal and in depth and probably will not be reached by workplace success alone but
further, Herzberg proposed in his two-factor theory that individuals had two basic needs in the
workplace. The first is the avoidance of pain. By avoiding pain and unpleasant encounters,
employees are able to feel happier in the workplace. The second factor, like in Maslows
Hierarchy of needs, relates to the achievement of self-actualization and the need for personal
growth. If employers are able to meet all of the needs previously described, does that mean
workers will automatically be more motivated and satisfied? The answer is no. While employers
should consider these needs, they will not alone dictate motivation because there are other
factors to consider such as the personality and character of each individual employee and other
Intrinsic Motivation
One intrinsic based theory is achievement theory. Achievement theory (Atkinson 1957 as
quoted by Martin, 2009) indicates that people are motivated to achieve success or to avoid the
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feeling of failure. We can also consider value-based theories such as equity theory (Adams, 1965
as quoted by Martin, 2009). Simply put, equity theory states that people want to work for
companies that treat everyone fair and equitable. If an employee feels treated unfairly, they will
be less motivated and dedicated to the goals of the organization. Researchers have also found
that employees respond well to setting their own goals. According to goal setting theory, people
will work towards achievement if they have part in structuring their own goals. There are so
many different theories; it is difficult for managers and human resource professionals to identify
how they plan to achieve motivation. Another topic sparking interest of researchers is
Age Differences
One study examined the relationship between generations and work motivation and
managerial level with work motivation. Researchers found there was a stronger correlation
between managerial level and work motivation than generations and work motivation (Deal,
Stawiski, Graves, Gentry, Weber, & Ruderman, 2013). One limitation discussed was the issue
that most managerial positions are actually filled by older employees, however researchers
suggest that this could also indicate that those were the group of people who were more
motivated to fill such management positions. This type of research is important because it can
help employers identify the best ways to motivate their employee base. While differences in age
will require further research, there has been significant evidence of the effects of personality on
individual motivation.
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Personality Traits
In another study, researchers were able to identify that three out of four motivational
traits predicted workplace deviance (Diefendorff & Mehta, 2007). Individuals who are deviant
in the workplace may possess one of many of the following behaviors: wasting resources,
verbal abuse (Diefendorff & Mehta, 2007). The one trait negatively related to workplace
deviance was personal mastery. People scoring high in personal mastery are typically ambitious,
goal seeking, and hardworking. I thought these traits were interesting findings because they are
very similar to Suzanne Kobasas work on Psychological Hardiness. Kobasa indicated that
successful mid-level managers shared three traits, which were control, commitment, and
challenge (Kobasa, 1979). Control refers to an individuals internal verses external locus of
control. People with an internal locus of control feel that they have control over their lives and
the things that take place in them, while those with an external locus of control feel that their
lives are dictated by the events occurring in the world that are not within their control. Kobasa
(1979) found that successful managers shared an internal locus of control. The second trait
possessed by successful managers is commitment (Kobasa, 1979). This refers to tenacity or the
ability to not give up on oneself. The final trait identified is challenge. Successful managers
view the events of life as challenging and necessary for their personal growth (Kobasa, 1979).
They work well under pressure and view challenges as a game of beating the odds (Kobasa,
1979). With these types of characteristics indicating successful, non-deviant employees, I think
it is crucial that human resource teams identify if these traits are present in potential employees.
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motivation. In this study, participants who were ego involved, displayed less intrinsic
motivation (Ryan & Deci, 1989). That is, they were more concerned with how they appeared to
others than the task-involved. This changed based on the type of feedback they received. Some
Researchers found that participants were more likely to have intrinsic motivation after
informational feedback than feedback that was domineering and controlling (Ryan & Deci,
1989). This is important research in the treatment of employees. It proves that if managers are
overbearing or demanding that they will stand a greater risk of demotivating their employees.
This theory leads to my next topic which is leadership and how it effects the motivation of the
employee.
Leadership Approach
One interesting factor of motivation is how leaders affect the performance of their
subordinate employees. Many researchers have already explored the effects of transformational
motivating, inspiring, and convince employees that change is for the great good of the
organization (Boga & Ensari, 2009). They also encourage open sharing of ideas (Boga & Ensari,
2009). Transactional leaders are less personal with their employees and tend to focus on setting
clearly defined expectations, and offering recognition once goals are achieved (Boga & Ensari,
2009). Transformational leaders help achieve organizational success amidst changes like an
acquisition or downsizing (Boga & Ensari, 2009). This indicates that a leaders personality can
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study found that personality traits such as humility and shared leadership contributed to the
overall success of the group (Chiu, Owens, & Tesluk, 2016). In addition, researchers identified
that non-dominant leaders work very well with employees who have a proactive personality
(Chiu et al, 2016). This indicates that if leaders remain humble, it allows for employees with a
proactive personality to feel empowered, motivated, and to be more productive (Chiu et al,
2016). One stipulation is that the employee with proactive personality also needs to be skilled or
A related study examines the link between personality traits from the five-factor model of
Bono, 2000). This is fascinating research because it was initially believed that transformational
leadership was a learned behavior that can be taught, however individual personality is not thought
to be easily changed (Judge & Bono, 2000). The trait with the strongest correlation to
transformational leadership was agreeableness (Judge & Bono, 2000). Researchers initially
predicted that conscientiousness would be related to transformational leadership but the data was
not able to confirm (Judge & Bono, 2000). In fact, conscientiousness was a deterrent to becoming
a transformational leader because those with high conscientious are not good at delegating and
tend to micromanage employees (Judge & Bono, 2000). Additionally, leaders that were deemed
transformational had direct reports that were more motivated and dedicated to the organization
list of things, not to do. Researchers have found that abuse from the highest level of
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management has a trickledown effect on employees and prompts negative supervision and
damaging employee behaviors. When employees notice this behavior in their supervisors and/or
co-workers, they obtain cues that the company supports that type of behavior and/or deems it
acceptable (Mawritz, Dust, & Resick, 2014). This in turn, causes the employee to develop a
negative image of the company (Mawritz, Dust, & Resick, 2014). Organizations need to
proactively detect hostility even at the highest of levels of authority and take action to ease these
feelings (Mawritz et al, 2014). If not handled, employees may become disengaged, experience
among individuals, especially those who do people work (Kirsh, Duffy, & Atwater, 2014).
Employees may also feel depersonalization, which means that they will no longer see clients as
human and will not take care of client needs (Kirsh et al, 2014). In addition, employees might
experience emotional exhaustion brought on by unreasonable demands and long working hours
(Kirsh et al, 2014). Employees experiencing burnout may also feel as if their work is not
important which causes them to feel less motivated (Kirsh et al, 2014).
Health Implications
Too much stress has a damaging and negative affect not only on motivation but also on
overall employee well-being. Stress overloads can cause a breakdown in the immune system
causing individuals to be more susceptible to physical illness. More than 50% of Americans
report that they experience major job stress (Kirsh et al, 2014). Shockingly, approximately, 25%
of Americans feel that their stress is significant enough to cause a nervous breakdown (Kirsh et
al, 2014). Sadly, prolonged stress paired with tension is associated with high blood pressure and
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depression. I think it is fair to presume that leaders have a significant impact not only on
motivating their employees but also on their overall health and well-being.
Self-Determination Theory
type of motivation each employee possesses determines performance (Deal, Stawiski, Graves,
Gentry, Weber, & Ruderman, 2013). There are two broad categories. The first is intrinsic and
identified motivation and employees in this category are more self-determined. The second is
external and introjected where the individuals are less self-determined. Employees who
considered intrinsic and identified showed higher levels of motivation and were more likely to
strive for upper level management positions (Deal, Stawiski, Graves, Gentry, Weber, &
Ruderman, 2013). These types of findings if further defined could be potentially useful to
human resource departments in applicant selection and screening. One current measure used is
The Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS) (Tremblay, Blanchard, Taylor,
Pelletier, & Villeneuve, 2009). This is an 18-item measure of work motivation based in self-
income, and other motivational factors. Researchers found that as self-determination rises so do
positive outcomes such job satisfaction and commitment and lower levels of self-determination
result in negative outcomes such as work strain and turnover (Tremblay et. al, 2009).
Additionally, as self-determination rose workers reported more organizational loyalty and were
more apt to help coworkers (Tremblay et. al, 2009). In addition, lower levels of self-
determination creates passive employees who do the minimum that lack citizenship and blaming
others. Those with low levels of self-determination were also more likely to take part in deviant
behaviors against coworkers such as being rude or making racial slurs (Tremblay et. al, 2009). .
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Researchers found that this measure produced valid results in predicting motivational
personalities. Human resource teams and organizational psychologists have already begun
conducting research in order to obtain highly motivated candidates possessing high levels of self-
Motivational Testing
In one study, researchers were trying to identify how to accurately screen and hire nurses
with high levels of motivation. Results indicated that nurses personal values and characteristics
could indicate their level of motivation (Koch, Proynova, Paech, & Wetter, 2014). Those who
scored high on benevolence, who worked on general wards, were in the middle of their careers,
and had computer experience were more motivated than other nurses were (Koch, Proynova,
Paech, & Wetter, 2014). By conducting this type of research, HR professionals could potentially
use this information to select the right individuals for open positions in all types of occupational
settings.
Discussion
How will hiring managers, organizational psychologists and human resource teams decide
which approach is best? To begin, they must first understand the demographics of the employee
base then construct a plan. Leaders should certainly consider Maslows Hierarchy of Needs as a
foundation then build up with other relevant theories. To establish relevance, they need to ask
the situational appropriate questions. What type of work are the employees doing? What are the
goals/expectations of the job? Do employees have the necessary skills to complete the work or
will they require additional training? Is proper leadership in place for the scope of the task? By
using a combination of many different motivational theories, a comprehensive plan will yield the
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best results. By choosing the right personality type for each position, ensuring fair company
take part in their own goal setting, and promoting positive growth and support, I believe
companies will have their best chance at fostering an atmosphere ready for the motivated
employee.
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References
Boga, I., & Ensari, N. (2009). The role of transformational leadership and organizational change
Chiu, C. ., Owens, B. P., & Tesluk, P. E. (2016). Initiating and utilizing shared leadership in
teams: The role of leader humility, team proactive personality, and team performance
Deal, J. J., Stawiski, S., Graves, L., Gentry, W. A., Weber, T. J., & Ruderman, M. (2013).
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0032693
Diefendorff, J. M., & Mehta, K. (2007). The relations of motivational traits with workplace
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.967
Fowler, S. (2015). Motivation Done Right. TD: Talent Development, 69(12), 76-77.
Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational
http://ezproxy.wvstateu.edu:2048/docview/614344968?accountid=29132
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Kirsh, S. J., Duffy, K. G., & Atwater, E. (2014). Psychology for Living: Adjustment, Growth, and
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1
Koch, S. H., Proynova, R., Paech, B., & Wetter, T. (2014). The perfectly motivated nurse and the
others: workplace and personal characteristics impact preference of nursing tasks. Journal
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1989). Bridging the research traditions of task/ego involvement and
Tremblay, M. A., Blanchard, C., Taylor, S., Pelletier, L. G., & Villeneuve, M. (2009). Work
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation scale: Its value for organizational psychology research.