Integrated Exploration Explor97 Master Page G Author Index

Information Management O
Explor97 Contents Section Contents
T
Paper 13 Previous Paper O Next Paper
Great Basin, Nevada, gold exploration, sediment-hosted deposit, Carlin-
type, Geographic Information System, GIS, spatial analysis, weights of
evidence

Predictive GIS Model For Sediment-Hosted Gold Deposits,

North-Central Nevada, U.S.A.

Turner, D.D.[1]

1. Echo Bay Mines Ltd., Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
North-central Nevada, located in the Great Basin physiographic province of the western United States, accounts for over
3110 tonnes of past gold production and current reserves from sediment-hosted deposits. The region has a complex history
of sedimentation, volcanic and intrusive igneous activity, and structural deformation dating from the latest Precambrian
through Cenozoic. The geologic processes that resulted in the emplacement of sediment-hosted gold deposits can be recog-
nized at the regional scale from diagnostic recognition criteria: 1) permeable and reactive sedimentary host rocks,
2) structure, 3) associated intrusive rocks, and 4) trace element geochemistry.
The quantitative relationships between geologic, geophysical, geochemical, and remote sensing data sets representative of
the deposit recognition criteria and known gold occurrences are determined using weights of evidence analysis. The result-
ing weights for favorable host lithology, associated granitoid intrusives, favorable structural domain, and anomalous trace
element geochemistry are combined to produce a predictive model which maps regions with high exploration potential for
sediment-hosted gold deposits. High-potential regions with shallow (i.e., < 500 m) Cenozoic cover are classified, thereby
defining prospective target areas that have not been as heavily explored.

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGIC OVERVIEW AND

The discovery of Newmonts Carlin deposit in 1961 (Coope, 1991) and
the subsequent recognition of the sediment-hosted gold model, also
known as Carlin-type, have resulted in the production and reserve
delineation of over 3110 tonnes of gold, almost exclusively in north-
central Nevada. The increased understanding of sediment-hosted gold
deposit geology developed over the last 35 years, coupled with the avail-
ability of digital data and computer-based technologies for data analysis
and interpretation, enhance the odds of new discoveries in what has
become a highly competitive and mature exploration environment.
This paper briefly reviews the geologic setting of north-central
Nevada and outlines the regional scale recognition criteria for sediment-
hosted gold deposits. This geologic framework provides the foundation
for constructing a predictive geographic information system (GIS)
model based upon weights of evidence analysis of geologic, geochemi-
cal, geophysical, and remote sensing data sets representative of the
deposit recognition criteria. The predictive model identifies prospective
regions in the study area with high exploration potential for sediment-
hosted gold deposits, and specifically delineates subregions where
deposits may be concealed beneath shallow Cenozoic cover.
DEPOSIT RECOGNITION CRITERIA
Geologic overview
North-central Nevada is centrally located in the Great Basin physio-
graphic province of the western United States (refer to Figures 1 and 2).
An overview of the regional geologic setting is summarized (see Stewart,
1980; Silbering et al., 1987; Silbering, 1991 for discussion) as:
1. Passive margin deposition of a miogeoclinal sequence of shallow
water shelf carbonates on crystalline Precambrian basement from
latest Precambrian to Devonian,
2. Continent-arc collision and eastward thrusting of eugeoclinal
Roberts Mountains terrane onto the North American miogeocline
during the Late Devonian Antler orogeny,
3. Clastic and minor carbonate deposition eastward from the Antler
orogenic highland during Late Devonian to Permian,
4. Eastward thrusting of inner arc basin sediments and volcanics of
the Golconda terrane onto continental margin during the Late
PermianEarly Triassic Sonoman orogeny,

In Proceedings of Exploration 97: Fourth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration edited by A.G. Gubins, 1997, p. 115126
116 Integrated Exploration Information Management
Figure 1: North-central Nevada location map.
5. Cessation of offshore island arc tectonics and initiation of a com-
plex Mesozoic history of sedimentation, volcanic and intrusive
igneous activity, and deformation in an Andean-type continental
margin setting, including thrust and strike-slip structural juxtapo-
sition of the Jungo (Mesozoic continentally derived clastics), Black
Rock (Paleozoic-Mesozoic volcanogenics and basinal strata), Sand
Springs (Mesozoic basinal volcanogenics), and Paradise (Paleo-
zoic-Mesozoic volcanogenics and minor carbonates) terranes, and
6. Early to Middle Cenozoic subduction-related igneous activity, fol-
lowed by Late Cenozoic extension, igneous activity, and develop-
ment of Basin and Range physiography.
Recognition criteria
Sediment-hosted deposits, also known as Carlin-type deposits, are
disseminated (i.e., micron to sub-micron sized) gold occurrences that
form a major class of precious metal deposit (Mosier et al., 1992). The
high tonnage (up to 464 000 000 tonnes) and variable grade (0.659.60
g /tonne) of these deposits makes them ideal candidates for bulk-mining
operations, although recent developments indicate that many deposits
have significant depth extent and grades (i.e., > 34 g/tonne) which are
mineable by underground methods. Whereas no two of north-central
Nevadas sediment-hosted gold deposits are exactly alike, they all share
certain common characteristics (Bagby and Berger, 1985; Bonham,
1985; Tooker, 1985; Percival et al., 1988; Adams and Putnam, 1992). The
characteristics most important in recognizing sediment-hosted depos-
its at the regional scale are 1) host rock lithology, 2) structure, 3) associ-
ated intrusive rocks, and 4) trace element geochemistry. A summary
diagram of the recognition criteria and host geologic environments is
presented in Figure 3.
Host rock lithology The important parameters for favorable host
lithology are a combination of permeability and chemical reactivity with
respect to hydrothermal fluids (Percival et al., 1988). Carbonate litholo-
gies with a clastic component or clastic units with a relatively high car-
bonate content are excellent ore hosts because they are both highly
permeable and reactive. Relatively impermeable lithologies, such as
shales or massive carbonates, are not receptive unless they underwent
structural enhancement of permeability, such as brecciation or fractur-
ing. It follows that the best sediment-hosted gold lithologies include 1)
thin bedded shaly or silty limestones and dolomites, 2) calcareous shales
and siltstones, 3) bioclastic limestones, and 4) structurally prepared
impermeable units such as argillites, shales, siltstones, sandstones, con-
glomerates, and in some cases even igneous rocks (see volcanic-hosted
deposits in Figures 2 and 3).
Structure Structure is a critical parameter for development of sedi-
ment-hosted gold deposits. At the district and deposit scales, high-angle
feeder structures, low-angle faults, folding, and unconformities served
to control and focus hydrothermal fluid flow and gold mineralization,
particularly at structural intersections. Regionally within north-central
Nevada, geophysical and remote sensing lineaments define 1) a broad
northeast-southwest band of inferred deep-seated crustal structures
known as the Humboldt Structural Zone (Rowan and Wetlaufer, 1979),
and 2) two parallel, north-northwest oriented structures and associated
intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks termed the northern Nevada rift
(Zoback and Thompson, 1978; Blakely and Jachens, 1991) and Grass
ValleyNew Pass lineament (Putnam and Henriques, 1991). Within
these corridors of inferred deep-seated crustal structures, there are
northwest trending linear alignments of sediment-hosted deposits
forming the Carlin and Battle Mountain-Eureka (also known as Cortez)
trends, and the northeast oriented Getchell trend. The alignment of
mineral districts strongly suggests that deep-seated structures con-
trolled the formation of sediment-hosted gold deposits (Bagby, 1989;
Shawe, 1991). The gold belts also are spatially associated with align-
ments of intrusive rocks along their length (discussed in the next sec-
tion), suggesting the role that regional structure played in controlling
magmatism, hydrothermal activity, and mineralization.
Associated intrusive rocks Numerous workers have established
the close spatial association of magmatic activity with mineral deposits
in Nevada (Stewart et al., 1977; Cox et al., 1991; Seedorff, 1991). Nearly
all of the sediment-hosted deposits in north-central Nevada are spatially
associated with intermediate to silicic dykes, stocks, sills, or plutons that
are either exposed or buried at depth (Bagby and Berger, 1985). These
surface and subsurface igneous rocks are evidenced by aeromagnetic
highs which form prominent linear trends coincident with the align-
ment of gold deposits along the Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and
Getchell trends (Shawe, 1991). White (1985), Cox et al., (1991), and
Shawe (1991) demonstrate a temporal relationship between Nevada pre-
cious metal deposits and Mesozoic through Tertiary age igneous rocks.
However, some proximal igneous bodies have been altered and weakly
mineralized, indicating that the hydrothermal systems outlived the
associated magmatic event. Regardless, igneous activity and resulting
granitoid intrusives are interpreted to have been the heat source for the
hydrothermal systems, and may have been the source of the gold-bear-
ing fluids (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990).
D.D. Turner SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS, NORTH-CENTRAL NEVADA, U.S.A. 117

Figure 2: Overview map of geologic terranes, gold deposits, and structural and metallogenic trends on shaded relief topographic base.
Note that HLZ refers to Humboldt lineament zone.
118 Integrated Exploration Information Management

Trace element geochemistry
Altered and mineralized rocks in sediment-hosted deposits have
chemical compositions directly related to their interaction with gold-
bearing hydrothermal fluids (Percival et al., 1988; Kuehn and Rose,
1992). The presence of gold in even low amounts in geochemical sam-
pling is a key indicator to the presence of a mineralized system. In addi-
tion to gold, a distinct suite of pathfinder elements combine to provide
a characteristic alteration signature which generally includes As, Sb, Hg,
and Ag (Craig and Wakefield, 1991). Other trace elements that may be
found in anomalous concentrations include Ba, Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo, W, Tl,
and Te. The trace elements form broad zones of anomalous enrichment
within, and peripheral to, ore bodies and mineralized zones (Silberman
and Berger, 1985).
this technique is somewhat involved (see Bonham-Carter, 1994, Chs. 8
and 9 for detailed explanation), a simplified and intuitive approach is
suggested by an approximation of the conditional probability:
positive spatial
(% occ. in Df) (% of total area occupied by Df) > 1
association if
negative spatial
(% occ. in Df) (% of total area occupied by Df) < 1
association if
no spatial
(% occ. in Df) (% of total area occupied by Df) = 1
association if
For the situation of positive associations, more occurrences fall in
the test domain than would be expected due to chance, and conversely,
a negative association implies that there are fewer occurrences in the test

A AA >
> AAAA
>
domain than would be expected if the occurrences and test domain were
unrelated. By way of example, if 50% of the gold occurrences fall within
a test domain representing 15% of the total area, then the resulting ratio

AA AAA
> AAAA
A
>
Volcanic Cover
Volca of 3.33 (i.e., ratio > 1) implies a positive spatial association; whereas if

AA
>
A AAAA
A
>
nics
5% of the occurrences are contained in the same 15% area, the 0.33 ratio

AAAAA
A AA
> AAAA
A
1
Fault (i.e., ratio < 1) suggests a negative relationship. Simplifying further, and
Sedimentary assuming that the areal footprint of an occurrence is much smaller than

AAAAA
AA
AA AA
A AAAA
A
Rocks
the domain being considered (i.e., nominal occurrence area of 0.01 km2
ininKilometers

AAAAA
A
>>
> AAAA AAAA
AA
>
versus domain areas on the order of thousands of km2), weights of evi-
Kilometers

dence are estimated by taking the natural log of the probability ratios:

AAAAA
A
>> AAAA
AA
AA
AA AAAA
AAA
2
rmal
othe
Hydr tion W+ = ln ((% occ. in Df) (% of total area occupied by Df))

AAAAA
A>>>
> > AAAA
AA A AAA
AAAA
AA
>>
>
AA
Favorable r a
Host Alte
W = ln ((% occ. in Du) (% of total area occupied by Du))

AAAAA
A
>>
A
> >
>>AAAAAA
AAAA
AA
A >
AA AA
AAAA
AA
AAA
>>
>>
Depth
Depth

AAAAAA
AAAAA
>>
AA AAAAAA
AAAA
AA>>
AA
>AAAAA
A
AA
These weights represent unitless measures of the spatial correlation
Fault between gold occurrences and a given deposit recognition criterion (i.e.,

AAAAAA
AA
AAAAA A
AAAAAA
AA
AAAA
>>
AAAAAAA
AAA
Thrust
test domain). W+ > 0 and W < 0 indicate positive associations, W+ < 0

AAAAAA
AA AAAAAA
A AAA
A
4 Fault
and W > 0 indicate negative associations, and W+ = W = 0 indicate
no association. In addition, the contrast ( C ) combines these W weights

AAAAAA
AA AAAA
AAA
AA
AA
>>
A> A
Ore
into an overall measure of association for a given test domain and is sim-
Deposit

AAAAAA
AA AAAA
CCC
AAA
AAA
ply defined as C = (W+) (W).
Weights of evidence were calculated for each of the data sets analyzed

AAAAAA
A AAAA
AA
CCC
5
Granitoid (see Bonham-Carter, 1994, Ch. 6 for discussion of GIS analysis tech-

AAAAAA
A AAAA
AA
Figure 3: Idealized cross-sectional diagram showing geologic environ-
ments for sediment-hosted gold deposits (modified from Shawe, 1991).
Also note volcanic-hosted deposits.
GIS METHODS AND DATA SETS
GIS methods
GIS analysis was used to delineate regions with high potential for the
occurrence of sediment-hosted gold deposits in the north-central
Nevada study area. The predictive model is based upon the quantitative
relationships between data sets representative of the recognition criteria
and known gold occurrences using Bayesian weights of evidence prob-
ability analysis (Bonham-Carter et al., 1989). In practice, a binary
hypothesis is stated (i.e., test domain is either present or not) and the
scoring performed between that domain and known gold occurrences,
yielding 1) W+ weights within the test domain (Df) and 2) W weights
not within the test domain (Du). Although the mathematical basis for
niques). Simple point-in-polygon analysis was performed for inherently
polygonal domains (i.e., mapped lithologic units) and the weights cal-
culated. In the case of linear features, such as faults and granite contacts,
buffer analysis was employed to create geologically meaningful zones of
influence (i.e., a granite related to metallogenesis has an effect periph-
eral to the intrusive itself). These zones of influence then were analyzed
as polygons and the weights computed. Point features (i.e., geochemical
sample locations) were given an area of influence by constructing
Thiessen polygons. These polygonal domains were used to generate the
weights of evidence. At the end, a final predictive map was calculated by
overlaying the binary maps representing the four deposit recognition
criteria, and for each map summing the weights (i.e., W+ for presence,
W for absence) at every location.
GIS data sets
The study utilized only those digital data sets that gave the most
direct evidence of the sediment-hosted gold recognition criteria and
were available in the public domain. Each data set was georeferenced to
the Universal Transverse Mercator zone 11 coordinate system in units of
meters and clipped to the study area map extent (i.e., 99,499 km2).
D.D. Turner
The Minerals Industry Location System (MILS) compiled by the
U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996) and the
Minerals Resources Database System (MRDS) from the U.S. Geological
Survey (Mason and Arndt, 1996) were used to document the occurrence
of gold-related metallogeny. Subsets of the MILS and MRDS databases
were chosen based upon two criteria: 1) gold was present in the produc-
tion or commodity field, and 2) the deposit type was not a placer. These
selection criteria were fairly liberal, but ensured that any in-situ evidence
of gold mineralization was included for analysis, thereby identifying
regions that may be favorable for economic sediment-hosted gold depos-
its, but which have not yet been identified. The resulting MILS and MRDS
subsets include 590 and 463 locations, respectively. These occurrence
subsets complement, as well as overlap, each other with respect to specific
locations. As a result, the MILS and MRDS non-placer gold occurrence
databases were used individually with a given binary recognition crite-
rion map to generate independent weights of evidence; these weights (i.e.,
MILS W+, MRDS W+, and MILS W, MRDS W) were averaged to pro-
duce the criterion maps input for the final predictive model.
A database of 52 sediment-hosted gold deposits, each with greater
than 3.11 tonnes of production or reserves, was compiled from the liter-
ature to highlight areas of significant mineralization. These deposits
were not used to build the predictive GIS model, but instead were
employed as a standard to validate the model; if the model predicted the
location of these major deposits, it could be confidently used to infer
prospective areas with similar characteristics.
Data sets used to delineate favorable host rock, granitoid intrusive,
structural, and geochemical anomaly domains include 1) the digital
geologic map of Nevada (Turner and Bawiec, 1991), 2) subsurface gran-
itoid pluton outlines (Grauch et al., 1988; V.J.S. Grauch, pers. comm.,
1995), 3) USGS digital elevation model (DEM) topographic data (U.S.
Geological Survey, 1993), 4) gridded aeromagnetics (Hildenbrand and
Kucks, 1988), 5) gridded isostatic gravity (Saltus, 1988), 6) gridded
three-channel radiometrics (Duval, 1988), 7) a Landsat Thematic
Mapper (TM) mosaic, and 8) the National Uranium Resource Evalua-
tion (NURE) geochemical sample database (Hoffman and Buttleman,
1994). In addition, a USGS data set representing the thickness of Ceno-
zoic rocks and unconsolidated sediments (Jachens and Moring, 1990)
was used to identify prospective regions beneath shallow cover in the
study area.
WEIGHTS OF EVIDENCE ANALYSIS
Analysis of favorable host rocks
Favorable host rocks were selected from the 1:500 000 digital geologic
base, resulting in a polygon coverage defining preferred lithologic
domains in the study area (refer to Figure 4). The selected host rocks
include not only highly favorable lithologies (i.e., silty carbonates, etc.),
but also moderately favorable rock units (i.e., sandstones, etc.). A benefit
of including less favorable lithologies is that the resulting model is not too
restrictive, and areas with other favorable characteristics are not elimi-
nated from consideration. The favorable lithologies constitute 12.5% of
the study area.
Point-in-polygon analysis was performed between the MILS and
MRDS gold occurrences and the host rock polygons, and the weights of
evidence were generated (Table 1). There is a positive, yet only moder-
ate, spatial correlation between gold occurrences and the selected lithol-
SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS, NORTH-CENTRAL NEVADA, U.S.A. 119
ogies. This is due to using all the MILS and MRDS deposit types (i.e.,
veins, stockwork, etc.) in the analysis. On the plus side, this results in a
permissive model which reflects evidence of gold-related metallogeny in
areas with unfavorable host rocks (i.e., volcanics) that may cover favor-
able hosts that occur at depth. The weights increase substantially for the
sediment-hosted deposits, as expected, but still only 74.5% of these
deposits are in the favorable domain. The balance of the sediment-
hosted deposits (i.e., 25.5%) are almost invariably in favorable litholo-
gies that occur beneath unfavorable units mapped at the surface.
In order to identify potentially favorable lithologies that are covered
either by unfavorable outcrop or pediment, a 500 m buffer was con-
structed around the selected lithologic units. This buffer distance was an
educated guess for extrapolating the mapped outcrop. In some areas this
distance is too conservative (i.e., the pediment-covered Pipeline deposit
is approximately 900 m from the nearest favorable host outcrop),
whereas in others it is misleading (i.e., extrapolating across range
bounding faults). The 500 m buffer expanded the mapped and projected
host lithologies to 19.0% of the total area. The resulting weights of evi-
dence slightly decrease for the gold occurrences, but increase signifi-
cantly for the sediment-hosted gold deposits (Table 2). The buffer
distance could have been extended to include all of the sediment-hosted
deposits, but this would have increased the area included for analysis by
too large a margin. In spite of these omissions, the use of the 500 m
buffer substantially improves the viability of the host rock portion of the
model, as evidenced by the overall increase in weights for the major
sediment-hosted deposits.
The weights used in the final model are based upon the average buff-
ered lithology weights for the MILS and MRDS occurrences:
W+ = 0.81 if in a favorable host rock domain, and
W = 0.34 if not in a favorable host rock domain.
Analysis of granitoid intrusives
Triassic through Cretaceous granitic units and Tertiary intrusives of
felsic to intermediate composition were selected as a polygon coverage
from the 1:500 000 geologic base. These granites and intrusive units
serve as a regional scale representation of surface mapped granitoid
rocks and constitute 1.8% of the total study area. Granitoid plutonic
bodies interpreted by Grauch et al. (1988) and updated by Grauch (V.J.S.
Grauch, pers. comm., 1995) from aeromagnetics and other geophysical
data were used to represent intrusives concealed at depth. These grani-
toid plutons range in composition from granite to diorite (Grauch et al.,
1988), and are assumed to be Triassic to Tertiary in age, as are the gra-
nitic and intrusive units from the geologic map. These plutons consist of
high confidence subsurface extensions of surface exposed intrusives, as
well as lower confidence plutons inferred entirely from geophysical data.
To eliminate any uncertainties resulting from strictly geophysical inter-
pretation, only the subsurface plutons extended from surface exposures
were selected for analysis. The selected subsurface plutons represent
8.7% of the total study area.
Buffer and weights of evidence analysis was performed on the sur-
face mapped granitic rocks and the subsurface granitoid pluton cover-
ages independently to determine optimum buffer distances for the
respective domains. The areas of influence provided by buffer analysis
take into account that gold metallogeny was adjacent to, but preferen-
tially not hosted by, associated intrusives. Both coverages were buffered
120 Integrated Exploration Information Management

NORTHCENTRAL NEVADA SEDIMENTHOSTED GOLD GIS STUDY

BUFFERED HOST
HOST ROCKS ROCK DOMAINS

GEOLOGY

BUFFER ANALYSIS
GRANITICS

GRANITOID
DOMAINS

GRANITOID
PLUTONS

PREDICTIVE
MODEL

DEM

MAGNETICS

LINEAMENT STRUCTURAL
INTENSITY DOMAINS
LINEAMENT INTERPRETATION

TM

RADIOMETRICS

GRAVITY

STATISTICAL & ANOMALY

GEOCHEMISTRY PREPROCESS SPATIAL ANALYSIS DOMAINS
**
***
****
****
****
****

111111
11111
1111
111
11

Figure 4: Overview flow chart for GIS data sets, analysis, and predictive model.
D.D. Turner SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS, NORTH-CENTRAL NEVADA, U.S.A. 121

at distances of 500 m to 5000 m, in increments of 500 m, and weights of Analysis of favorable structural domains
evidence and contrast were computed using the MILS and MRDS data.
The optimum buffer was defined as the distance that yielded the maxi- The identification of favorable structural domains was achieved by
mum contrast. This optimum distance was interpreted at 2000 m for the interpreting regional scale, through-going lineaments from the follow-
surface mapped granitic units and at 1000 m for the subsurface plutons. ing data sets:
The buffered domains were combined to derive a unified coverage 1. DEMgeomorphic expression of structure,
representing all granitoid intrusives, from both surface and subsurface
evidence. The resulting coverage constitutes 14.9% of the study area. The 2. Magneticsstructural alignment of igneous rocks,
weights of evidence analysis reveals strong spatial correlations between 3. Radiometricsstructural contacts between litho-tectonic packages,
the granitioids and gold occurrences and deposits (Table 3). Clearly,
4. Isostatic gravitycrustal scale deep-seated structures, and
there is an unequivocal spatial association between intrusives and gold
metallogeny in north-central Nevada. This spatial affinity is especially 5. TM mosaicgeomorphic and lithologic representation of structure.
evident along the Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and Getchell trends. These data sets were interactively manipulated and displayed in an
The weights used in the final model are based upon the average buff- image processing environment, employing standard techniques such as
ered granitoid weights for the MILS and MRDS occurrences: shaded relief display, pseudocolor stretching, and high and low pass fil-
tering. These processing enhancements maximized the recognition of
W+ = 1.18 if in a granitoid intrusive domain, and obvious, as well as more subtle linear trends.
W = 0.50 if not in a granitoid intrusive domain. All of the lineament data sets display predominant regional trends of
northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast. These two directions
Table 1: Analysis of favorable host lithology domains. parallel the well-documented 1) northeast trending Humboldt linea-
ment zone and Getchell trend, 2) north-northwest trending northern
Database % Occs [1] % Area [2] Ratio [3] W+ W C [4] Nevada rift, 3) northwest aligned Walker Lane structural trend to the
southwest of the study area, and 4) northwest aligned Carlin and Battle
MILS 30.4 12.5 2.43 0.89 0.23 1.12
Mountain-Eureka trends.
MRDS 40.4 12.5 3.23 1.17 0.38 1.55 The lineament interpretations for each individual data set were com-
Sed Dep 74.5 12.5 5.96 1.78 1.23 3.01 bined into one data set to characterize the total lineament intensity for
1. Percentage of occurrences in the favorable domain.
the study area. This was accomplished by dividing the study area into
2. Percentage of total area occupied by the favorable domain. 10 km by 10 km blocks, and computing the following parameters for
3. (% Occs) (% Area). each 100 km2 cell: 1) total number of lineaments, 2) total length of linea-
4. C is the contrast = (W+) (W) and gives overall measure of spatial association. ments, and 3) total number of lineament intersections. These parameters
then were normalized into Z-scores (see Davis, 1986, Ch. 2 for discus-
sion) and summed to derive total lineament intensity in units of
Table 2: Analysis of favorable host lithology domains with standard deviation:
500 m buffer.
Z-score sum of lineament length
Database % Occs [1] % Area [2] Ratio [3] W+ W C [4] + Z-score number of lineaments
MILS 39.0 19.0 2.05 0.72 0.28 1.00 + Z-score number of lineament intersections
MRDS 46.2 19.0 2.43 0.89 0.41 1.30 = Total lineament intensity
Sed Dep 88.2 19.0 7.06 1.95 1.93 3.88
1. Percentage of occurrences in the favorable domain.
The resulting sum of the Z-scores yields an empirical model that
2. Percentage of total area occupied by the favorable domain. maps the distribution of total lineament intensity in the study area, with
3. (% Occs) (% Area). a minimum of 3.4 (i.e., very low lineament intensity) and a maximum
4. C is the contrast = (W+) (W) and gives overall measure of spatial association. of +17.3 (i.e., very high lineament intensity).
Weights of evidence then were iteratively computed between the gold
occurrences and total lineament intensity grid at Z-score thresholds
Table 3: Analysis of buffered granitoid intrusive domains. ranging from the minimum to maximum in increments of 0.1. The opti-
mum weights of evidence were interpreted at a Z-score of +3.0 cumula-
Database % Occs [1] % Area [2] Ratio [3] W+ W C [4] tive standard deviations. The lineament intensity grid was contoured at
MILS 46.6 14.9 3.14 1.14 0.47 1.61 the +3.0 threshold and converted into a polygonal coverage representing
favorable structural domain, and final weights of evidence were calcu-
MRDS 49.7 14.9 3.34 1.21 0.53 1.74
lated (Table 4). The weights for gold occurrences and favorable struc-
Sed Dep 38.5 14.9 2.59 0.95 0.32 1.27 tural domain yielded significant spatial correlations, but lower than
1. Percentage of occurrences in the favorable domain. expected for a deposit type known to be strongly controlled by structure.
2. Percentage of total area occupied by the favorable domain. These low weights undoubtedly are due to the inclusion of ore related as
3. (% Occs) (% Area). well as non-ore related lineaments in the analysis. Further work to seg-
4. C is the contrast = (W+) (W) and gives overall measure of spatial association. regate the important structures could significantly improve the results.
122 Integrated Exploration Information Management

The weights used in the final model are based upon the average because it has good statistical characteristics (i.e., log normality), exten-
favorable structural domain weights for the MILS and MRDS occur- sive geographic coverage, and is almost universally associated with sed-
rences: iment-hosted gold mineralization.
Geochemical pathfinder suites associated with gold mineralization,
W+ = +0.92 if in favorable structural domain, and as proxied by arsenic, were quantitatively determined with 1) correla-
W = 0.52 if not in favorable structural domain. tion, 2) cluster, and 3) factor analysis. A prominent aspect of the multi-
variate analyses was the lack of strong positive or negative correlations,
clusters, or factor loadings. Nevertheless, the multivariate associations
are broadly indicative in spite of the regional nature of the data and the
mix of different lithologic and metallogenic populations. The final path-
Table 4: Analysis of favorable structural domains.
finder suites were interpreted based upon the 1) consistent behavior of
the individual elements with respect to each multivariate techniques
Database % Occs [1] % Area [2] Ratio [3] W+ W C [4]
groupings, and 2) geochemical relationships which have a logical basis
MILS 54.1 21.3 2.53 0.93 0.54 1.47 in the regional geology. These criteria resulted in the identification of
MRDS 50.3 21.3 2.46 0.90 0.50 1.40 two pathfinder groupings: 1) As-Sb-Zn-Ag-W, and 2) Cr-V-Fe-Co-Sc.
The group 1 elements contain the well-documented primary elements of
Sed Dep 58.6 21.3 2.77 1.02 0.63 1.65
arsenic, antimony, and silver, as well as frequently associated elements
1. Percentage of occurrences in the favorable domain. zinc and tungsten. The group 2 elements represent second order path-
2. Percentage of total area occupied by the favorable domain. finders for gold.
3. (% Occs) (% Area). The individual elements were gridded and displayed as density-
4. C is the contrast = (W+) (W) and gives overall measure of spatial association. sliced color images to qualitatively highlight geochemical anomalies
associated with trends of sediment-hosted gold mineralization. The
group 1 pathfinders, especially arsenic, antimony, and zinc, provide
Table 5: Analysis of geochemical anomaly domains.
good spatial continuity and correlation with known gold occurrences,
and clearly delineate the Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and Getchell
Database % Occs [1] % Area [2] Ratio [3] W+ W C [4] trends, as well as the Jerritt Canyon district. The group 2 elements pro-
MILS 56.5 16.5 3.42 1.23 0.64 1.87 duce anomaly patterns which are sometimes, but not always, associated
MRDS 54.3 16.5 3.29 1.19 0.60 1.79 with gold occurrences.
The qualitative spatial associations apparent from imaging the indi-
Sed Dep 58.1 16.5 3.52 1.26 0.68 1.94
vidual elements provided confidence in applying quantitative weights of
1. Percentage of occurrences in the favorable domain. evidence analysis to the two geochemical pathfinder groups. Thiessen
2. Percentage of total area occupied by the favorable domain. polygons were used to assign areas of influence for the individual sample
3. (% Occs) (% Area). points in areas with geochemical sample coverage. The resulting
4. C is the contrast = (W+) (W) and gives overall measure of spatial association. geochemical polygons were iteratively scored with weights of evidence
analysis for each individual element, incrementing from the mean value
to the maximum in steps of 0.1 standard deviation. An optimum thresh-
Analysis of geochemical anomaly domains old was selected at the maximum contrast for each element, and the
selected weights of evidence were combined to create a merged
The NURE geochemical data set was utilized to identify domains of geochemical anomaly coverage. For areas without geochemical data
anomalous geochemistry related to sediment-hosted gold mineraliza- coverage, a neutral weight of 0.00 was assigned. The optimum threshold
tion. A total of 11,305 sample points were extracted from the original for the merged anomaly coverage was determined in a similar fashion,
database. Because the NURE database has a number of well-recognized resulting in the final definition of weights of evidence for anomalous
biases, errors, and omissions, these data were subjected to a series of pre- geochemical domains (Table 5). The high weights quantitatively sub-
processing steps (i.e., subsetting data by lab and sample type, normal- stantiate that these domains clearly fingerprint geochemical domains
ization, elimination of elements with poor geographic coverage, etc.) related to gold metallogeny. As expected, this final model not only
prior to statistical and spatial analysis. reflects the patterns outlined by the individual pathfinder elements, but
The resulting pre-processed database consisted of 5500 stream sed- also reinforces and sharpens many of the single-element trends and
iment and soil samples covering approximately 75% of the total study anomalies (i.e., Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and Getchell trends,
area (i.e., average of one sample per 14 km2 for the area covered). The 34 Jerritt Canyon, etc.).
elements in the database included base and precious metals (Ag, Zn, W) The weights used in the final predictive model are based upon the
(note lack of gold), proximal pathfinders (As, Sb, Ba), distal pathfinders average geochemical anomaly domain weights for the MILS and MRDS
(V, Cs, Fe, Sc), rare earths (Ce, Dy, Eu, Hf, La, Lu, Rb, Sm, Ta, Tb), rock occurrences:
forming elements (Al, Ca, K, Mg, Na, Sr), other metals (Co, Cr, Mn, U,
Th, Ti), and other non-metals (Cl, Br). Because there was a complete W+ = 1.21 if in geochemical anomaly domain,
absence of gold in the database, another element needed to be pegged as W = 0.62 if not in geochemical anomaly domain.
the known for comparison with the other elements. A logical proxy
would have been silver, but most of the silver assays were at or near the
detection limit. As a result, arsenic was selected as the gold proxy
D.D. Turner
SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD PREDICTIVE MODEL
Model construction
The predictive model was generated by summing the weights of evidence
for the sediment-hosted gold recognition criteria binary maps (Table 6).
The various overlap combinations of the binary maps result in the highest
cumulative weights in areas where all of the recognition criteria coexist,
and the lowest weights where there is a paucity of favorable conditions.
The predictive weights range from a maximum of 4.12 to a minimum of
1.98, providing a relative measure for prioritizing an areas exploration
potential. This model assumes conditional independence of the input
recognition criteria binary maps (see Bonham-Carter, 1994, Ch. 9).
Table 6: Summary of weights of evidence for recognition
criteria binary maps.
Recognition Criterion W+ W
Favorable host lithology 0.81 0.34
Granitoid intrusives 1.18 0.50
Favorable structural domain 0.92 0.52
Anomalous geochemical domain 1.21 0.62
Cumulative total 4.12 (maximum) 1.98 (minimum)
Model validation and delineation of prospective areas
The ability of the model to predict regions favorable for economic
gold mineralization was verified by comparing it with the occurrence of
major sediment-hosted gold deposits (which were not used to build the
model). The optimum predictive weight for delineating highly prospec-
tive areas was determined at a threshold of 0.61, which represents the
cumulative weight if an area has at least a coincidence of the two lowest
ranked criteria, namely favorable host lithology and structural domain.
At this threshold, the model identifies 88.5% of the major sediment-
hosted deposits in 15.0% of the area, thereby empirically validating the
efficacy of the results. Of note, 100% of the deposits with more than 31.1
tonnes of gold reserves and production are delineated by the model.
Further, for those deposits that are missed, the average distance to the
nearest high-potential domain is 1.8 km. At nominal compilation scales,
ranging from 1:500 000 to 1:250 000, this equates to map distances of
3.6 mm to 7.2 mm, respectively. Clearly, the model points in the right
direction for subsequent follow-up in these cases.
From the regional perspective, the predictive model convincingly
defines the Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and Getchell trends, Jerritt
Canyon, and other less recognized, yet favorable areas (Figure 5). This
quantitatively and independently confirms the geologic viability of the
known trends and districts. Other areas include discontinuous tracts
which enclose isolated deposits, as well as large regions of unfavorable
lithologies (i.e., Golconda, Jungo terranes, etc.) in the western portion of
the study area.
Targets beneath shallow Cenozoic cover
Cenozoic basin fill and volcanic rocks cover a significant portion of
the study area (Blakely and Jachens, 1991). The USGS thickness of Cen-
SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS, NORTH-CENTRAL NEVADA, U.S.A. 123
ozoic cover data set was used to classify prospective areas concealed by
shallow cover (Figure 6). A thickness of 500 m was chosen as a reason-
able first-pass cutoff to define shallow exploration targets; deeper areas
probably are not as attractive from an exploration viewpoint. Many of
the high-potential areas with shallow cover occur along the Battle
Mountain-Eureka trend and are presently undergoing intense explora-
tion activity (i.e., in the vicinity of the Pipeline deposit). However, there
are a number of covered areas at the southeast extreme of the trend that
may not be as heavily explored. Another intriguing covered area occurs
along the southeast margin of the Getchell trend, a tract which hosts the
pediment-covered Rabbit Creek deposit. The areas encompassed by
these prospective tracts are prime regional exploration targets. Further-
more, other areas with shallow cover that are immediately adjacent to
regions with high predictive weights also are candidates for detailed
follow-up.
Targeting concepts and conclusions
The highly prospective nature of north-central Nevada for sedi-
ment-hosted gold deposits has been widely known since the initial dis-
covery of the Carlin deposit. As many geologists have argued for years,
the major gold belts indeed result from structurally controlled zones of
gold-bearing magmatic activity intersecting favorable host lithologies.
The model has quantitatively and unequivocally confirmed this asser-
tion. As a result, many exploration targets will be within or proximal to
the long-established Carlin, Battle Mountain-Eureka, and Getchell
trends. The prospectors and geologists have been right all along (see
Roberts, 1960; Roberts, 1966; Jerome and Cook, 1967). The identifica-
tion of targets beneath shallow cover will constitute the best exploration
opportunities in these mature areas; the predictive model has broadly
outlined the places to start. The high weights in unfavorable host rocks,
in what have historically been low priority exploration areas, are another
opportunity, especially if there is a high degree of structural preparation.
This study, and the resulting predictive model leads into the detailed
targeting phase of evaluation, which could be supported by many of the
digital data sets already assembled. The characterization of the detailed
relationships between these data sets and gold mineralization in areas
such as the Carlin trend provides a paradigm that can be extrapolated to
lesser known target areas. If the veracity of the predictive model is
accepted, then at the very least it will help to focus and prioritize explo-
ration activities in the region. This focus, considering the areas highly
competitive exploration environment, may significantly increase the
odds of exploration success in the search for north-central Nevadas sed-
iment-hosted gold deposits.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank FMC Gold Company (now Meridian
Gold Company) and Echo Bay Mines Ltd. for substantial support in
completing this study. The advice, comments, and patience from the
authors Colorado School of Mines thesis committee (Keith Turner, Gra-
ham Closs, and Trobe Gross) also are appreciated. Finally, considerable
thanks are due to Doug Peters and Graeme Bonham-Carter for editorial
reviews and suggestions.
124 Integrated Exploration Information Management

Figure 5: Predictive model map outlining high potential areas. Note that BM-E Trend refers to Battle Mountain-Eureka trend.
D.D. Turner SEDIMENT-HOSTED GOLD DEPOSITS, NORTH-CENTRAL NEVADA, U.S.A. 125

Figure 6: Predictive model map outlining high potential areas that outcrop or are covered by shallow Cenozoic cover.
126 Integrated Exploration Information Management
REFERENCES
Adams, S.S., and Putnam, B.R., III, 1992, Mineral deposit models in exploration:
a case study of sediment-hosted gold deposits, Great Basin, Western United
States, in Annels, A.E., ed., Case histories and methods in mineral resource
evaluation: Geological Society Special Publication No. 63, 1-23.
Bagby, W.C., 1989, Patterns of gold mineralization in Nevada and Utah, in Shawe,
D.R., and Ashley, R.P., eds., United States gold terranes-part I: U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Bulletin 1857-B, B11-B20.
Bagby, W.C., and Berger, B.R., 1985, Geologic characteristics of sediment-hosted,
disseminated precious metal deposits in the western United States, in Berger,
B.R., and Bethke, P.M., eds., Geology and geochemistry of epithermal
systems: Soc. of Economic Geologists Reviews in Econ. Geology, 2, 169-202.
Blakely, R.J., and Jachens, R.C., 1991, Concealed mineral deposits in Nevada
Insights from three-dimensional analysis of gravity and magnetic anomalies,
in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds., Geol-
ogy and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of Nevada Sym-
posium Proceedings, April, 1990, v. 1, 185-192.
Bonham, H.F., Jr., 1985, Characteristics of bulk-minable gold-silver gold-silver
deposits in Cordilleran and island-arc settings, in Tooker, E.W., ed., Geologic
characteristics of sediment- and volcanic-hosted dissemenated gold deposits
search for an occurrence model: U.S. Geol. Survey Bulletin 1646, 71-78.
Bonham-Carter, G.F., 1994, Geographic information systems for geoscientists
modelling with GIS: Pergamon.
Bonham-Carter, G.F., Agterberg F.P., and Wright, D.F., 1989, Weights of evidence
modelling: a new approach to mapping mineral potential, in Statistical appli-
cations in the earth sciences: Geological Survey of Canada Paper 89-9,
171-183.
Coope, J.A., 1991 Carlin trend exploration history: discovery of the Carlin
deposit: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Special Publication 13.
Cox, D.P., Ludington, S., Sherlock, M.G., Singer, D.A., Berger, B.R., and Tingley,
J.V., Mineralization patterns in time and space in the Great Basin of Nevada,
1991, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds.,
Geology and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of Nevada
Symposium Proceedings, April, 1990, v. 1, 193-198.
Craig, R.R., and Wakefield, T.W., 1991, Geochemistry on the Carlin Trend, in
Craig, R.R., ed., Field Trip Guidebook, Geology and Geochemistry of the
Carlin Trend: Association of Exploration Geochemists, 4.1-4.7.
Davis, J.C., 1986, Statistics and data analysis in geology, second edition: John
Wiley and Sons.
Duval, J.S., 1988, Aerial gamma-ray contour maps of regional surface concentra-
tions of potassium, uranium, and thorium in Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey
Map GP 982, scale 1:750 000.
Grauch, V.J.S., Blakely, R.J., Blank, H.R., Oliver, H.W., Plouff, D., and Ponce,
D.A., 1988, Geophysical delineation of granitic plutons in Nevada: U.S. Geo-
logical Survey Open File Report 89-11.
Hildenbrand, T.G., and Kucks, R.P., 1988, Filtered magnetic anomaly maps of
Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Map 93B, scale 1:1 000 000
(4 sheets) and 1:2 000 000 (1 sheet).
Hoffman, J.D., and Buttleman, K., 1994, National geochemical database:
National uranium resource evaluation data for the conterminous United
States: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-18-A, 1 CD-ROM.
Jachens, R.C., and Moring, B.C., 1990, Maps of the thickness of Cenozoic depos-
its and the isostatic residual gravity over basement for Nevada: U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey Open File Report 90-404.
Jerome, S.E., and Cook, D.R., 1967, Relation of some metal mining districts in the
western United States to regional tectonic environments and igneous activ-
ity: Nevada Bureau of Mines Bulletin 69.
Kuehn, C.A., and Rose, A.W., 1992, Geology and geochemistry of wall-rock
alteration at the Carlin gold deposit, Nevada: Economic Geology, 87,
1697-1721.
Mason, G.T., Jr., and Arndt, R.E., 1996, Mineral resource data system: U.S. Geo-
logical Survey Digital Data Series DDS-20, 1 CD-ROM.
Mosier, D.L., Singer, D.A., Bagby, W.C., and Menzie, W.D., 1992, Grade and ton-
nage model of sediment-hosted Au, in Bliss, J.D., ed., Developments in min-
eral deposit modeling: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2004, 26-28.
Percival, T.J., Bagby, W.C., and Radtke, A.S., 1988, Physical and chemical features
of precious metal deposits hosted by sedimentary rocks in the western United
States, in Schafer, R.W., Cooper, J.J., and Vikre, P.G., eds., Bulk mineable pre-
cious metal deposits of the western United States: Geological Society of
Nevada Symposium Proceedings, April, 1987, 11-34.
Putnam, B.R., III, and Henriques, E.Q.B., 1991, Geology and mineralization at
the South Bullion deposit, Pinon Range, Elko County, Nevada: Implications
for western U.S. Cenozoic tectonics, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W.,
and Wilkinson, W.H., eds., Geology and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geo-
logical Society of Nevada Symposium Proceedings, April, 1990, v. 2, 713-728.
Roberts, R.J., 1960, Alinements of mining districts in north-central Nevada, in
Geological Survey Research 1960: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
400-B, B17-B19.
Roberts, R.J., 1966, Metallogenic provinces and mineral belts in Nevada, in
Papers presented at the AIME Pacific Southwest Mineral Industry Confer-
ence, May, 1965: Nevada Bureau of Mines Report 13, 47-72.
Rowan, L.C., and Wetlaufer, P.H., 1979, Geologic evaluation of major LANDSAT
lineaments in Nevada and their relationship to ore districts: U.S. Geological
Survey Open File Report 79-544.
Saltus, R.W., 1988, Gravity data for the state of Nevada on magnetic tape: U.S.
Geological Survey Open File Report 88-433.
Seedorff, E., 1991, Magmatism, extension, and ore deposits of Eocene Age in the
Great BasinMutual effects and preliminary proposed genetic relation-
ships, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds.,
Geology and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of Nevada
Symposium Proceedings, April, 1990, v. 1, 133-178.
Shawe, D.R., 1991, Structurally-controlled gold trends imply large gold resources
in Nevada, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H.
eds., Geology and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of
Nevada Symposium Proceedings, April, 1990, v.1, 199-212.
Silbering, N.J., 1991, Allochthonous terranes of western Nevada current status, in
Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H. eds., Geology
and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of Nevada Sympo-
sium Proceedings, April, 1990, v. 1, 101-102.
Silbering, N.J., Jones, D.L., Blake, M.C. Jr., and Howell, D.G., 1987, Lithotectonic
terrane map of the western conterminous United States: U.S. Geological Sur-
vey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF01874-C, 20p., scale 1:2 500 000.
Silberman, M.L., and Berger, B.R., 1985, Relationship of trace-element patterns
to alteration and morphology in epithermal precious-metal deposits, in
Berger, B.R., and Bethke, P.M., eds., Geology and geochemistry of epithermal
systems: Society of Economic Geologists Reviews in Economic Geology, 2,
203-232.
Sillitoe, R.H., and Bonham, H.F., Jr., 1990, Sediment-hosted gold deposits: Distal
products of magmatic-hydrothermal systems: Geology, 18, 157-161.
Stewart, J.H., 1980, Geology of Nevada; A discussion to accompany Geologic
Map of Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines Special Publication 4.
Stewart, J.H., Moore, W.J., and Zietz, I., 1977, East-west patterns of Cenozoic
igneous rocks, aeromagnetic anomalies, and mineral deposits, Nevada and
Utah: Geological Society of America Bulletin, 88, 67-77.
Tooker, E.W., 1985, Discussion of the disseminated-gold-ore-occurrence model,
in Tooker, E.W., ed., Geologic characteristics of sediment- and volcanic-
hosted dissemenated gold depositssearch for an occurrence model: U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1646, 107-148.
Turner, R.M. and Bawiec, W.J., 1991, Digital geologic coverage of Nevada
a representation of the geologic map of Nevada, 1978: U.S. Geological Survey
Digital Data Series 2.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1993, Digital elevation models: Data Users Guide 5.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1996, Mineral industry location system data CD-ROM:
U.S. Government Printing Office, Publication # 024-004-2428-3.
White, D.E., 1985, Vein and disseminated gold-silver deposits of the Great Basin
through space and time, in Tooker, E.W., ed., Geologic characteristics of
sediment- and volcanic-hosted dissemenated gold depositssearch for an
occurrence model: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1646, 5-14.
Zoback, M.L., and Thompson, G.A., 1978, Basin and Range rifting in northern
Nevada: Clues from a mid-Miocene rift and its subsequent offsets: Geology,
6, 111-116.