AIS/Dhaka Physics Measurement

Handbook

Topic Page

Orders of Magnitude & Scientific Notation 2

Metric (SI) system fundamental & derived units 3-5

Unit Conversions & Unit Prefixes 6-7

Accuracy vs. Precision 8-9

Representing Uncertainties: I. in measurements 10 - 12

Simple Statistics on your calculator 13 - 15

Representing Uncertainties: II. in calculations 16 -18

Significant Digits 19 - 20

Representing Uncertainties: III. in graphs

Representing Uncertainties: IV. for slopes of lines

1
Orders of Magnitude & Scientific Notation

Orders of Magnitude:
Definition: An order of magnitude is an exponential change of plus-or-minus 1 in a power-of-10 or an
expression of a number to its closest power-of-10.
Examples: Something that is 10 times larger is one order of magnitude larger, 1000 times smaller is 3
-15 -10
orders of magnitude smaller. The H nucleus is about 10 m across and the H atom is about 10 m
across > thus the H atom is 5 orders of magnitude larger than its nucleus.

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation, sometimes called power-of-10 notation, is a method of writing extremely large and
small numbers. In common scientific notation, any nonzero quantity can be expressed in two parts:
(1.) a coefficient whose value is greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10, and
(2.) a power of 10 by which the coefficient is multiplied.
For numbers of reasonable magnitude, conventional decimal notation is often used, even in scientific
writings (e.g. 21.45 or .0023). As numbers become very large or very small (magnitudes outside the
-4 4
range of 10 to 10 ) it is common to express the number in scientific notation.

To express a number in scientific notation you must do two things:

1.) Move the decimal point to the place where the number is between 1.00 and 9.99
(thus 42300 becomes 4.23)
2.) Count the number of decimal places you moved the decimal point to get the new number and make
that the power-of-10, numbers > 1 have positive exponents and numbers < 1 have negative exponents.
4
(in this case we moved 4 decimal places to the left, thus 42300 becomes 4.23 X 10 )
2 6 -4
Examples: 549 ----> 5.49 X 10 9 870 000 ----> 9.87 X 10 .000658 ----> 6.58 X10

To express the exact number all significant digits must be retained (i.e. not rounded). In fact, the
number of digits in the coefficient is always equal to the number of significant digits.

2
Metric (SI) system fundamental & derived units
Metric System Intro & History:
The Metric System - an international decimal system of weights and measures, based on the metre for length and the
kilogram for mass, that was adopted in France in 1795 and, by the late 20th century, was used officially in almost
all nations.

The French Revolution of 1789 provided the opportunity to pursue the frequently discussed idea of replacing the
confusing welter of traditional and illogical units of measure with a rational system based on multiples of the
number ten. In 1791 the French National Assembly directed the French Academy of Sciences to address the chaotic
state of French weights and measures. It was decided that the new system would be based on a natural physical unit
to ensure immutability. The academy settled on the length called the metre applied as 1/10,000,000 of the distance
of a great circle around the Earth, measured through its poles. After an arduous six-year survey to determine the arc
of this meridian the value was determined to be 39.37008 inches for the new unit to be called the metre, from Greek
metron, meaning measure.

All other metric units were derived from the metre, including the gram for mass (one cubic centimetre of water at its
maximum density) and the litre for volume capacity (one-thousandth of a cubic metre or one cubic decimeter
(dm3)). Greek prefixes were established for multiples of 10, ranging from pico- (one-trillionth) to tera- (one trillion)
and including the more familiar micro- (one-millionth), milli- (one-thousandth), centi- (one-hundredth), and kilo-
(one thousand). Thus, a kilogram equals 1,000 grams, a millimetre 1/1,000 of a metre. In 1799 the Metre and
Kilogram of the Archives, physical platinum embodiments of the new units, were declared the legal standards for all
measurements in France, but the motto of the metric system expressed the hope that the new units would be for all
people, for all time.

Not until 1875 did an international conference meet in Paris to establish an International Bureau of Weights and
Measures. The Treaty of the Metre signed there provided for a permanent laboratory in Svres, near Paris, where
international standards are kept, national standard copies inspected, and metrological research conducted. The
General Conference of Weights and Measures, with diplomatic representatives of some 40 countries, meets every
six years to consider reform. The conference selects 18 scientists who form the International Committee of Weights
and Measures that governs the Bureau.

For a time, the international prototype metre and kilogram were based, for convenience, upon the archive standards
rather than directly upon actual measurement of the Earth. Definition by natural constants was readopted in 1960,
when the metre was redefined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red line in the krypton-86 spectrum, and
again in 1983, when it was redefined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second. The
kilogram is still defined as the mass of the international prototype at Svres.

The International System of Units

Just as the original conception of the metric system had grown out of the problems scientists encountered in dealing
with the medieval system, so the new International System grew out of the problems a vastly enlarged scientific
community faced in the proliferation of subsystems improvised to serve particular disciplines. At the same time, it
had long been known that the original 18th-century standards were not accurate to the degree demanded by 20th-
century scientific operations; new definitions were required. After lengthy discussion the metric system, in October
1960 was formulated into a new International System of Units (abbreviated SI units).

3
The following 7 base units have been adopted and defined:
All defining base units (except the kilogram) can now be measured in the scientific laboratory and no longer have to
be compared to standards at some location far away.

1.) Length: metre

Defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second.

2.) Mass: kilogram

The standard for the unit of mass, the kilogram, is a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept by the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, located in Svres, near Paris. A duplicate in the custody of the National Institute
of Standards and Technology serves as the mass standard for the United States. (This is the only base unit still
defined by an artifact.)

3.) Time: second

The second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation associated with a specified transition,
or change in energy level, of the cesium-133 atom.

4.) Electric current: ampere

The ampere is defined as the magnitude of the current that, when flowing through each of two long parallel wires
separated by one metre in free space, results in a force between the two wires (due to their magnetic fields) of 2
10-7 Newton (the Newton is a unit of force equal (kgm)/s2) for each metre of length.

5.) Thermodynamic temperature: Kelvin

The thermodynamic, or Kelvin, scale of temperature used in SI has its origin or zero point at absolute zero and has
a fixed point at the triple point of water (the temperature and pressure at which ice, liquid water, and water vapour
are in equilibrium), defined as 273.16 Kelvins. The Celsius scale is derived from the Kelvin scale. The triple point is
defined as 0.01 on the Celsius scale, which is approximately 32.02 on the Fahrenheit scale.

6.) Amount of substance: mole

The mole is defined as the amount of substance containing the same number of chemical units (atoms, molecules,
ions, electrons, or other specified entities or groups of entities) as exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.

7.) Light (luminous) intensity: candela

The candela is defined as the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation
at a frequency of 540 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in the same direction of 1/683 watt per steradian
(unit solid angle).

Derived Units:
All other units are derived (put together) in terms of these clearly defined 7 base units and thus the abstract concept
of energy (in units of Joules) is as clearly understood and defined as the simpler and more concrete units of the
length(meters), time(seconds), or mass(kilograms).
dist
Work = Force dis tan ce = (mass acc) dist = mass dist
time2
kg m 2
1 Joule = 1 Newton meter =
s2

4
5
Unit Conversions & Unit Prefixes

Units - most quantities (numbers) used in science have a unit attached to describe what kind of thing
the number is referring to: 5 apples, 1.8 meters, 4.3 lightyears.

There are 7 fundamental units in science (we always use the metric (SI) system) in which all other units
can be derived; these units are: meters (m) --> length, seconds (s) --> time, kilograms (kg) --> mass,
amperes (A) --> electricity, Kelvin (K) --> temp, moles (mol or n) --> amount of stuff, and the candela
(cd) --> light. All other quantities can be derived (are a combination) of these units, examples: velocity or
speed = distance / time thus units meters / seconds (m/s), the units for force and weight are Newtons
2 2 3
which can be worked back to kgm / s , Watts the unit for power are kgm / s ; you can start to see why
we make up new names for units when they get too complicated. Common examples of derived units
2 2
are: Joules (kgm /s ) ---> for work and energy, Hertz (1/s) ---> frequency, Coulomb (As) ---> electrical
charge.

Unit Prefixes - another common way to talk about numbers in scientific notation by attaching a prefix
(that relates to the exponent) to your units; examples: centimeter = .01 meter, kilograms = 1000 grams,
megawatt = 1 000 000 Watts, Gigabyte = 1000 000 000 bytes.

examples of important unit prefixes:

prefixes number exponent symbols Example Equalities

-9
nano .000 000 001 10 n (1 000 000 000 nm = 1m)
-6
micro .000 001 10 ^ (1 000 000 m = 1m)
-3
milli .001 10 m ^ (1 000 mm = 1m)
-2
centi .01 10 c ^ (100 cm = 1m)
-1
deci .1 10 d smaller
- - - Base Units (i.e. m, s, J, etc.) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
--------
1
deca 10 10 da larger
2
hecto 100 10 h V
3
kilo 1000 10 k V (1 000 m = 1 km)
6
mega 1 000 000 10 M (1 000 000 m = 1 Mm)
9
giga 1 000 000 000 10 G (1 000 000 000m = 1 Gm)

6
Converting Units
To convert from one unit to another unit you must do 3 things:

1.) determine an equality between the 2 types of units (eg. 1 inch = 2.54 cm)
2.54cm
2.) write the conversion factor fraction from that equality eg. 1inch
3.) multiply the conversion factor by the original unit number in a way that cancels out the old
units and preserves the units you want:

Example 1: I am 72 inches tall what is that height in cm?

2.54 cm
(72inches) 1inch = 182.8cm
72inches
The 72 inches factor can be thought as the fraction = thus multiplying
1
72inches 2.54 cm
1inch = 182.8cm -> we can cancel the inches in both fractions and are
1
left with units of cm, only.

This can be done more than once to achieve the desired results:
Example 2: I am 6 feet tall what is that height in cm? (1 foot = 12 inches)
12 inches 2.54 cm
(6 feet ) = 182.8cm
1 foot 1 inch

This can also be done to cancel units in more complicated forms as long as you know the equality
between units and you multiply the conversion factor in a way the cancels the units you do not want:
Example 3: I can run 8 m/s (meters per second) how fast is that in km/hr?
8 m 1 km 60 s 60 min 8 60 60 28800 28.8 km
= = =
s 1000 m 1 min 1 hr 1000 1000 hr

7
Accuracy vs. Precision
accuracy, noun.
1: the state of being without errors or mistakes; correctness. 2: conformity of a measure to a standard,
true value, or model.
accurate, adjective.
1: without errors or mistakes; correct; exactly right. 2: conforming exactly to truth or standard. Synonyms:
correct

precision, noun, adjective.

1: the degree of refinement with which an operation is performed or measurement stated. 2: the fact or
condition of being precise; being exact; definiteness. 3: careful exactness.
precise, adjective.
1: exactly or sharply defined or stated. 2: minutely exact. 3: strictly conforming to a pattern 4: exact;
definite.

Answers to Important Measurement Questions

Q: How accurate do I have to measure it?

A: You measure the best you can with what you are given. If you are given a ruler to measure the width of a piece
of paper you should be as precise as the smallest mark on the ruler (plus you can estimate the next digit of
precision between the smallest marks). For example, if you are given a ruler where the smallest mark is in 1 mm
(.1cm) increments you should report a value as precise as say: 21.8 cm (or estimate to 21.77 cm see diagram
below). 21.77 cm is the best you can measure given the ruler below. (21.77.05 cm, uncertainty of half the smallest
mark rule). This is the best anyone can do.

The rule is that one can measure to the most precise digit on the instrument (ruler, thermometer or
whatever) and then possibly make the best estimate the next digit you can.

Q: Why do you keep using the word precision instead of accuracy?

A: For Scientists these two words have very exact and different meanings. Precision in a measurement has to do
with the degree of exactness or closeness in which a measurement is made. In the above example the 3 measures
21.77 cm, 21.76 cm, 21.78 cm taken together would be considered more precise than the measures: 22 cm, 21.5 cm,
or 21.8 cm. Good measurement (precision) usually (but does not always) goes along with good accuracy. Accuracy
describes how close the measure is to the actual true value. If you make good, precise measurements they will
most likely be quite accurate. But, if you were given a warped ruler to measure the paper you could make
measurements to very fine precision but all your values would be a little bit off from the real value (good precision /
bad accuracy) because the ruler was wrong. You can think of it like throwing darts at a target. You can hit the
bulls-eye every time (good precision / good accuracy) which is what we want, you can have all the darts land
close together in a pattern but not near the bulls-eye (good precision / bad accuracy), or you can throw darts all over
the place (bad precision / bad accuracy) which is never very good and hardest to fix (bad precision / bad accuracy is
just sloppiness and what we are trying to avoid). Sometimes you might be lucky and even get good accuracy on
average with bad precision but this usually only averages out to be good over many measurements.

8
 Precision is an indication of the agreement among
a number of measurements made in the same way
indicated by the absolute error. How well do the
measurements fit a pattern? A precise experiment
has a low random error.

Accuracy is an indication of how close a

measurement is to the accepted (true) value
indicated by a low the relative or percentage error
in the measurement. An accurate experiment has a
low systematic error.

Q: Why would you tend to get better accuracy with many measurements and averaging the data?

A: When you measure something there are 2 basic types of errors one can make in the measurement these are
known as random errors and systematic errors. Systematic errors occur when you do the same thing wrong on
every measurement the same way (systematically). For example, if we had a wooden ruler and left it in a jar of
water overnight > it would warp and swell up slightly -> making it slightly longer. If we used it to measure our
piece of paper -> every measurement from the swollen ruler would be systematically too small. There is nothing I
can do but get a better ruler to fix this problem. Systematic errors might also be procedural you might always read
the level of water in a graduated cylinder from the wrong part of the meniscus and perhaps always get a value that is
too large for the volume of water.

The bad news is: that all measurements have some degree of error or uncertainty associated with them there is
no perfect measurement no matter how precise.

The good news is: that if you are doing things right and are using a good measuring instrument (ruler, etc.) with full
precision these errors should be completely random (as likely to be too large, as too small) and will cancel out
with averaging repeated measurements. Thus, taking multiple measurements and averaging them together will
usually eliminate random errors and give you more accurate results (by adjusting your answer to the center of all the
measurements).

Q: How do I know if my precision and accuracy are good?

A: There are signposts in your data that indicate how good it is. Good precision might be indicated by: the
number decimals in your measurements, the closeness of your values when you measure them repeatedly, or how
close your data approximates a known function (like a straight-line or curve). Good accuracy is a bit tougher.
Usually we do not know the answer to an experiment before it is done (what would be the point of doing the
experiment if we already knew the answer) so if we have good, precise measurements -> thats about as good as
we can do and hope for the best. If we happen to know part or all of the answer we can compare our results to the
known answer to see how well we have done. Maybe we could graph our data and can determine logically that it
should go through a certain point (e.g. 0, 0) this would indicate accuracy even if we do not know the exact value.
A quick/easy way to check accuracy in the case where we know something about the answer, is to determine the
relative or percent (%) error (this tells us how far off our answer is and adjusts to the size of the answer itself). It is
important to get a relative difference - because sometimes a small absolute error -> may be a quite large error. For
example if we are trying to determine the value of by experiment and get the value = 3.42 -> that seems close
(absolute error = 3.42 3.14 = .28). But the % error would be about 8.9%, a somewhat large percent. We
determine the % error by using the equation below.

9
 observed true
% error = * 100
true
% error = 3.42 - 3.14 x 100 = 8.9%
3.14

Q: How many decimal points should I include in my answer?

A: A general rule of thumb is to use the same amount of decimals in your answer as you had in your measurement.
For example, if you measure the circumference of a circle to = 9.25cm & its diameter = 2.95cm -> dividing cir/dia =
= 3.13559322 in your calculator. You should not gain 6 decimal points of precision just by dividing two numbers
together -> so you would round-off and report = 3.14 or at worst stretch it to one extra decimal = 3.136. If you
say that = 3 (using less digits than you know for certain) you loose precision and accuracy in your answer; while
saying = 3.13559322 (using more digits than you know for certain) is saying that you know the precision of the
answer to a much greater degree than you actually know. These questions about how many digits to report are
known as questions of significant digits. In science, it is important to report how well you measured something
when you report your answer. Sometimes with multiple measurements we have an idea of what the worst case
measurements might be and we can report this as:
= 3.136 .006. Here we are saying our best estimate of the answer is = 3.136 and we have reason to believe the
answer is off by no more than .006 -> thus it must be within the range between: 3.130 and 3.142. The smaller the
range > the more certain we are about the exactness (precision) of the answer (3.136 .001 is better than 3.136 .1
(a matter of fact it makes no sense to report 3.136 .1)). If you only know and answer to .1 -> then how could you
possibly know about the extra decimals to .136.

10
Representing Uncertainties: I. in measurements
A measurement should always be regarded as an estimate. There are errors and uncertainties
associated with all measurements. The precision of the final result of an experiment cannot be
better than the precision of the measurements made during the experiment, so the aim of the
experimenter should be to make the estimates as good as possible.

There are many factors, which contribute to the accuracy of a measurement. Perhaps the most obvious
of these is the level of attention paid by the person making the measurements: a careless experimenter
will usually get bad results (garbage in garbage out). However, if the experiment is well designed, one
careless measurement will usually be obvious and can therefore be ignored in the final analysis. In the
following discussion of errors, uncertainties, and level of precision it is assumed that the experiment is
being performed by a careful person who is making the best use of the apparatus available.

Try asking 10 people to read the level of liquid in the same measuring cylinder. There will almost certainly
be small differences in their estimates of the level. Connect a voltmeter into a circuit, take a reading,
disconnect the meter, reconnect it and measure the same voltage again. There might be a slight
difference between the readings. These are random (unpredictable) errors. Random errors can never
be eliminated completely but we can usually be sure that the correct reading lies within certain limits.

To indicate the uncertainty of a measurement to the reader of the experiment report, the results of
measurements should be written as:
Result Uncertainty

For example, suppose we measure a length, L to be 25cm with an uncertainty of 0.1cm. We write the
result as: L = 25.0cm 0.1cm

By this, we mean that we are reasonably sure that L is somewhere in the range 24.9cm to 25.1cm.

Quantifying the Uncertainty

The number we write as the uncertainty tells the reader about the instrument used to make the
measurement. (As stated above, we assume that the instrument has been used correctly.) Consider the
following examples.

Uncertainty of a Single Measurement

Rule: the uncertainty = half the smallest division of your measuring instrument.

Example 1: Measurement with a ruler:

1 cm
The length of the object being measured is obviously somewhere between .4cm and .5cm. Our best
estimate would 0.47cm (using maximum precision). It is probably not exactly 0.47cm. So how should
we express our best estimate of this value including the limits in which we are almost certain that the
measurement will fall within? The result could be stated as:
.47cm half the smallest division on the ruler .47cm .05cm

Thus, we are saying that we are sure our result is not smaller than .42cm and not larger than. 52cm. In
choosing an uncertainty equal to half the smallest division on the ruler, we are accepting a range of
possible results equal to the size of the smallest division on the ruler. Unless you have a better indication
of the uncertainty of a measurement the rule will be that the uncertainty = half the smallest division of
your measuring instrument.

Example 2: Using a Stopwatch

Consider using a stopwatch, which measures to 1/100 of a second to find the time for a pendulum to
oscillate once. Suppose that this time is about 1s. Then, the smallest division on the watch is only about
1% of the time being measured. We could write the result as:
T = 1s 0.01s

11
which is equivalent to saying that the time T is between 0.99s and 1.01s

This sounds quite good until you remember that the reaction-time of the person using the watch might
be about 0.1s. Let us be pessimistic and say that the person's reaction-time is 0.15s. Now considering the
measurement again, with a possible 0.15s at the starting and stopping time of the watch, we should now
state the result as:
T = 1s (0.01+ 0.3)s

In other words, T is between about 0.7s and 1.3s. We could probably have guessed the answer to this
degree of precision even without a stopwatch.

Some interesting conclusions from the preceding discussion:

If we accept that an uncertainty of about 1% of the measurement being made is reasonable, then:
a) a ruler, marked in mm, is useful for making measurements of distances of about 10cm or greater.
b) a manually operated stopwatch is useful for measuring times of about 30s or more (for precise
measurements of shorter times, an electronically operated watch must be used).

Uncertainty of a Multiple Measurements

Rule: Uncertainty expressed statistically (eg. as Average Standard Deviation)
One way to reduce random errors is to make multiple measurements and to average all the
measurements. The assumptions is that if the errors are truly random (some will be too high, some too
low) an average will bring the result to the center of the measurements and thus closer to the true
answer. With many measurements we can apply simple statistics to represent the amount of uncertainty.
For example going back to our ruler case, students make the following 5 independent measurements
(.47cm, .46cm, .47cm, .48cm, .46cm). The average (or mean value) of these measurements are
determined as:

average = x =
x i
=
(.47 + .46 + .47 + .48 + .46) = .468cm
n 5
the average = the sum of all the individual measures divided by the number of measurements = .468cm
or (using proper significant figures = .47cm)
But how do we represent the uncertainty of this set of measures?
We could express it as the range of the values: range = .46cm to .48cm or result = .47cm .01cm.

Statistically, there are simple expressions that tell you how far on average your measures are from the
average (mean) -> these are known as the average deviation and standard deviation and are calculated
as follows:

av deviation =
x i x
or st deviation =
(x i x)
2

n n 1
The standard deviation can be simultaneously calculated in the STAT mode of your calculator when you
calculate the average (mean) of list data.

Thus, for multiple measurements your result and uncertainty can be expressed as follows:
Result Uncertainty Average Standard Deviation

Sample Calculations: for values: (.47cm, .46cm, .47cm, .48cm, .46cm)

the absolute difference ( xi x ) from the mean (.468cm) (.002, .008, .002, .012, .008 respectively)

for average dev. Calculation:

x x .032
x i x = .032
i

n
=
5
average deviation = .006cm

result uncertainty = .468cm .006cm

12
for standard dev. Calculation:
( xi x ) = (.000004, .000064, .000004, .000144, .000064 respectively)
2
(x i x ) = .00028
2

(x i x)
2

=
.00028
= .00007
(x i x)
2

= .00007 = .008cm
n 1 4 n 1
result uncertainty = .468cm .008cm

Intro to Simple Statistics on your Calculator

13
 n Length (cm) Width (cm)
xi
1 28.00 21.50 x= = the mean
2 28.00 21.65 n
3 27.95 21.71
( x x )
2

4 28.00 21.60 sx =
i
= the st. deviation
5 27.90 21.55 n 1
6 28.00 21.60 sx
7 28.11 21.50 x = = the st. error of the mean
n
8 28.10 21.70
9 28.10 21.60
10 27.97 21.70 x x x x + x x x
(Some digits are carried to the end calculation)
1.) Find the mean of both length & width: L: 28.013cm W: 21.611cm

2.) Determine the ranges: L: .105cm W: .105cm

3.) Determine the standard deviations: L: .0698cm W: .0788

4.) Determine the standard error of the means: L: .022 W: .025

14
5.) Write the length and width uncertainties: L: 28.013.022cm W:
21.611.025cm

6.) How can we determine the uncertainty of an area calculation?

A = L x W 28.013(21.611) = 605.389cm2

Relative Uncertainties: .022/28.013 = .000785 .025/21.611 = .00115
.000785 + .00115 = .00194

Answer: Area = 605.40.01 cm2 (cut to proper significant digits)

15
16
Representing Uncertainties: II. in calculations
How does an uncertainty in a measurement affect the FINAL result after multiple calculations?

The measurements we make during an experiment are usually not the final result; they are used to
calculate the final result.

When considering how an uncertainty in a measurement will affect the final result, it will be helpful to
express uncertainties in a slightly different way. Remember, what really matters is that the uncertainty in a
given measurement should be much smaller than the measurement itself.

For example, if you write, "I measured the time to a precision of 0.01s", it sounds good: unless you then
inform your reader that the time measured was 0.02s. The uncertainty here is 50% of the measured time
so, in reality, the measurement is useless. It is sometimes useful to write the uncertainty as a proportion
of the measure itself (much like % error) this is called Relative Uncertainty and is defined as:
Relative Uncertainty = Absolute Uncertainty / Measured Value

(to emphasize the difference, we use the term "absolute uncertainty" where previously we simply said
"uncertainty").
Examples:
In out timing example above: our known Absolute Uncertainty = 0.01s and our Measured Value = 0.02s;
so our Relative Uncertainty = Absolute Uncertainty / Measured Value = 0.01s / 0.02s = .5 or 50%

In our ruler example above: .47cm half the smallest division on the ruler .47cm .05cm
our known Absolute Uncertainty = 0.05cm and our Measured Value = 0.47cm, thus our
Relative Uncertainty = Absolute Uncertainty / Measured Value = 0.05cm / 0.47cm = .106 or 10.6%

We will now see how to answer the question:

How does an uncertainty in a measurement affect the FINAL result after calculations?

It is always possible, in simple situations, to find the effect on the final result by straightforward
calculations but the following rules can help to reduce the number of calculations needed in more
complicated situations.

Short Answers: If measured quantities are:

1.) multiplied or divided by a constant then the absolute uncertainty is multiplied or divided by the
same constant.
2.) added or subtracted then their absolute uncertainties are added.
3.) multiplied or divided then their relative uncertainties are added.
4.) raised to a power then their relative uncertainties are multiplied by that power.
5.) changed by a function then their uncertainties are changed by the same function

Detailed Answers:
Rule 1: If a measured quantity is multiplied or divided by a constant then the absolute uncertainty is
multiplied or divided by the same constant. (In other words the relative uncertainty stays the same.)
Example: Suppose that you want to find the average thickness of a page of a book. We might find that
100 pages of the book have a total thickness of 9mm. If this measurement is made using an instrument
having a precision of 0.1mm, we can write:
thickness of 100 pages, T = 90mm 01mm
and, the average thickness of one page, t, is obviously given by:
t = T/100
therefore our result can be stated as t = 9/100mm 01/100mm or t = 0090mm 0001mm
(notice how dividing by a constant drastically reduces error and uncertainty)

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Rule 2: If two measured quantities are added or subtracted then their absolute uncertainties are added.
Example: To find a change in temperature, T, we find an initial temperature, T1, a final temperature, T2,
and then use T = T2 - T1

If T1 is found to be 20C and if T2 is found to be 50C then T= 30C.

But if the temperatures were measured to a precision of 1C then we must remember that
19C < T1 < 21C and 49C < T2 < 51C

The smallest difference between the two temperatures is therefore (49 - 21) = 28C and the biggest
difference between them is (51 - 19) = 32C

This means that 28C < T < 32C In other words T = 30C 2C

Rule 3: If two (or more) measured quantities are multiplied or divided then their relative uncertainties are
added.
Example: To measure a surface area, A, we measure two dimensions, say, x and y, and then use
A = xy

Using a ruler marked in mm, we measure x = 50mm 1mm and y = 80mm 1mm
2 2
This means that the area could be anywhere between (49 x 79)mm and (51 x 81)mm
2 2
that is: 3871mm < A < 4131mm

To state our answer we now choose the number half-way between these two extremes and for the
indeterminacy we take half of the difference between them. Therefore, we have:
4131+ 3871 4131 3871
A = mm
2
mm
2

2 2
2 2 2
A = 4000mm 130mm (wellactually 4001mm but the "1" is irrelevant with such a high uncertainty).

Now, lets look at the relative uncertainties. Relative uncertainty in x is 1mm / 50mm or 0.02.

Relative uncertainty in y is 1mm/80mm or 0.0125. So, if the theory is correct, the uncertainty in the final
result should be the sum of the relative uncertainties or (0.02 + 0.0125) = 0.0325.
2 2
Check, uncertainty in final result for A (as shown above) is 130 mm /4000mm = 00325 verified

Rule 4: If a measured quantity is raised to a power then the relative uncertainty is multiplied by that
power. (If you think about this rule, you will realize that it is just a special case of rule 3.)
3
Example: To find the volume of a sphere, we first find its radius, r (or diameter = 2r), Using: V = (4/3)r

Suppose that the diameter of a sphere is measured (using an instrument having a precision of 0.1mm)
and found to be 50mm.
Diameter = 50.0mm 0.1mm
so, ......... r = 25.0mm 0.05mm (by rule 1)
3 3 3 3
This means that V could be between (4/3)(24.95) and (4/3)(25.05) so ..65058mm < V < 65843mm

As in the previous example we now state the final result as:

65843+ 65058 65843 65058
V = mm
3
mm or V = 65451mm3 393mm3
3

2 2

Check: Relative uncertainty in r is 0.05mm/25mm = 0.002,

3
uncertainty in V = uncertainty in r = uncertainty of r x r x r
by Rule 3: multiplying calculation add the relative uncertainties: .002+.002+.002 = .006

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 3 3
Uncertainty in V is 393mm /65451mm = 0.006 (Ha, right again).

Rule 5: If a measured quantity is changed by a function then their uncertainties are changed by the same
function.
Example: find log(T) -> I time 10 swings of a pendulum 10.81s I know the uncertainty of this measure
because of my reaction-time is about .3s I would report 10.8 .3s.

To get the period (T) of a single pendulum swing I can divide the by the constant 10 and get:
1.08 .03s (by rule 1 (x or / by a constant)
Now I want graph the log(T) against the log(L) (length of the pendulum to determine the power of the
relationship how do I determine my uncertainty for the log(T) values?

when in doubt about a rule with a function ---> calculate the long way by taking the function of the
uncertain range:
the uncertainty range = ((1.08+.03)-(1.08-.03))/2 =
( 1.11 - 1.05 )/2 = .03s (dah, of course)
so
the log of the uncertainty range = (log(1.11) log(1.05))/2 = .012s

thus for T = 1.08 log(T) uncertainty = .033 .012s

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Significant Figures
Whenever you report a number, the way in which you write the number indicates which digits you are
certain about (the last digit was estimated).

2.50 g and 2.5 g are not the same.

If you write 2.50 g, you are indicating that you know the value of the hundredths place for that number is
zero. If you write 2.5 g, you are indicating that you do not know the value of the hundredths place.

We say that the zero (and the two and the five) are significant in 2.50. It has three significant figures.
The number 2.5 has two significant figures.

We can divide all numbers into three types:

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Numbers that dont have a Numbers with a decimal point Numbers with a decimal and
decimal point (whole and at least one non-zero digit only a zero to the left of the
numbers). to the left of the decimal. decimal.
5 5.4 0.0030
100 7.030 0.0459
30,200 52.0 0.6
5200 1000.001 0.5001
806 70.60 0.500

To count the significant

figures in a number:
Start where the decimal would Count all the digits. Start at the decimal, move to
be, move to the left until you the right until you hit the first
hit the first non-zero digit. non-zero digit. Count it and
Count it and all digits to the all digits to the right.
left.
5 = 1 sig fig 5.4 = 2 sig figs 0.0030 = 2 sig fig
100 = 1 sig fig 7.030 = 4 sig figs 0.0459 = 3 sig figs
30,200 = 3 sig figs 52.0 = 3 sig figs 0.6 = 1 sig fig
5200 = 2 sig figs 1000.001 = 7 sig figs 0.5001 = 4 sig figs
806 = 3 sig figs 70.60 = 4 sig figs 0.500 = 3 sig fig

There is actually a fourth type of number as well. All of the numbers above are in decimal notation.
Whenever a number is written in scientific notation, for example:
5.47 x 10-3
we can divide the number into three parts. First, there is a number between one and ten (9.999999
actually). Second, there is a multiplication sign. Lastly, there is the number ten raised to some exponent.

To count the number of significant figures in a number that is in scientific notation, all someone has to do
is count all of the digits before the multiplication sign.

For example:
9.30 x 104 has three significant figures
8.1 x 10-7 has two significant figures
3 x 103 has one significant figure
7.001 x 10-2 has four sig figures
4.17610 x 104 has 6 significant figures

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Significant Figures for calculations:
The rule for applying significant figures to addition and subtraction problems is to round off your answer
to the same level of precision as the least precise decimal place of the numbers used in the calculation.

Example: imagine weighing a penny on different balances. The first balance displays the mass to the
tenths of a gram (2.5 grams). The second balance displays the mass to hundredths of a gram (2.53
grams). The third balance displays the mass to the ten-thousandths of a gram (2.5371 grams). Which
balance is most precise? Least precise?

What if we want to find the total mass of three different pennies massed on these three balances:
Penny #1 2.5 g
Penny #2 2.71 g
Penny #3 3.0986 g

If we add up all three masses in a calculator, we get 8.3086 g. But we must make our sum reflect the
precision we are certain of. We were not sure what the hundredths, thousandths, or ten-thousandths
values were for the first penny, so we must round off our sum to the value of 8.3 g.

The rules for applying significant figures to multiplication and division problems is to round off your
answer to the same number of significant figures as the lowest number of significant figures of the
numbers used in the calculation.

Example: suppose we want to multiply the following numbers together:

123.7 x 0.863 x 240 = ?

A calculator will tell you that the answer is 25620.744, but we must round this number off to the proper
number of significant figures.

The first number has four significant figures, the second has three significant figures, and the third has
two significant figures. We must round off our answer so that it has two significant figures: 26,000.

Try these other examples provided by your teacher:

How many significant figures are indicated by each of the following
(a) 1247 (b) 1007 (c) 0.034 (d) 1.20 104 (e) 62.0 (f) 0.0025 (g) 0.00250 (h) 45.2 (i) 3.2 10-16 (j) 0.0300

Express the following in scientific notation and express number of sig figs
(a) 1250 (b) 30007 (c) 25.10 (d) an area of 4 km2 in m2

find the average of 3.14159, 3.1416, 3.2, 3.141592234

Add the following lengths of 2.35 cm and 7.62 m and 14.2 m.

Calculate the volume of a rectangular block 1.52 cm by 103.4 cm by 3.1 cm.

A metal has a mass of 2.01 g and a volume of 0.01 cm3. Calculate the density of the metal in g/cm3 (with
proper sig figs)

Determine the following to the correct number of significant figures:

(a) (3.74 1.3) 2.12 17.65 (b) (2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1) 0.134

Add 2.76 10-6 cm and 3.4 10-5 cm.

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