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Article history: The most promising solution for propulsion of marine vessels currently and for the near future is the two-
Received 30 August 2014 stroke low-speed diesel engines. Despite its advantages, as far as specic fuel oil consumption, power
Received in revised form 27 November 2014 density and reliability is concerned, it suffers from increased NOx emissions mainly because of its low
Accepted 21 December 2014
rotational speed. But the upcoming NOx emission legislation (Tier III) in the marine sector requires con-
Available online 22 January 2015
siderable reduction of NOx emissions towards levels which have not yet been commercially achieved
using primary methods. This creates new challenges for the development and application of innovative
Keywords:
techniques that could reduce engines NOx emissions with the lowest possible fuel penalty. This is impor-
Multi-zone combustion model
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
tant considering current and future fuel prices. The large size of the 2-stroke marine engine makes the use
NOx emissions of experimental techniques, to investigate this potential, expensive and time consuming. Modelling can
Two-stroke low-speed diesel engine signicantly contribute towards this effort and result to reduction of research and development cost.
Engine performance Among the most effective in-cylinder techniques for NOx reduction is EGR, a proven technology for smal-
ler engines used in the transport sector. In the present study, it is investigated via modelling, the potential
to reduce NOx emissions of two-stroke marine engines using EGR. Despite the technological difculties
resulting mainly from the use of Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), which makes the application of conventional EGR
techniques difcult, it is worthwhile investigating the NOx reduction potential, since signicant progress
has been achieved towards the development of new EGR gas cooling techniques and scrubber technolo-
gies for removal of sulphur species from the exhaust gas. The present investigation makes use of an exist-
ing well validated multi-zone combustion model, initially developed for high-speed DI diesel engines.
The model has been successfully applied in the past, to investigate heavy duty diesel engine NOx reduc-
tion via EGR, providing favourable results. Currently it is modied and applied on a two-stroke marine
diesel engine using EGR. Model evaluation is based on experimental data acquired from the international
literature, due to lack of experimental data for 2-stroke engines. The analysis of derived results reveals
models ability to predict both engine performance and NOx emissions but most important the ability
q
This paper is included in the Special Issue of Clean Transport edited by Prof.
Anthony Roskilly, Dr. Roberto Palacin and Prof. Yan.
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: raptosp@central.ntua.gr (S.I. Raptotasios), nikolaossak@
hotmail.com (N.F. Sakellaridis), papgian@central.ntua.gr (R.G. Papagiannakis),
dx1961@central.ntua.gr (D.T. Hountalas).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.12.041
0306-2619/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823 815
to predict the overall effect of EGR on NOx emissions in a qualitatively correct way. The results also reveal
the strong potential of EGR to control NOx emissions of 2-stroke engines with relatively low fuel penalty
compared to alternative techniques.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
necessitated by the upcoming emission limits which are still under NOx abatement techniques NOx reduction
development and/or evaluation. The majority of these techniques Alternative Fuels 5060%
or measures have been successfully applied in the past on Heavy Emulsified Fuel Water Addition 5060%
Duty DI diesel engines in the transport sector. A classication of Basic IEM Slide Fuel Valves 20%
these techniques is provided in Fig. 1 [612]. Injection timing retardation 30%
Compression Ratio Modification 1030%
The effectiveness of the aforementioned techniques is based on Injection System Modification 30%
the nominal NOx reduction and on the corresponding effect on Scavenge/Charge Air Cooling 14%
other pollutants and mostly on specic fuel consumption. The Scavenge/Charge Air Pressure Increase 1040%
NOx reduction potential for the most important techniques is dis- Direct Water Injection (DWI) 4060%
Humid Air Motor (HAM) 7080%
played in Table 1 [79,12,13].
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 8098%
From this table it is concluded that to drastically reduce NOx Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 8099%
and comply with future emission regulations, a combination of
Fig. 1. Schematic view of the currently applied and the developing NOx abatement techniques.
816 S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823
reduction of local oxygen availability inside the fuel jet result- engine. The EGR system layout for the different engine running
ing to the suppression of the kinetically-controlled local NOx modes is described by detail in the literature [3436]. In this refer-
formation rate. ence it is also comprehensively described the engine outline with
Chemical dissociation mechanism: The recirculated water the various feasible integrated EGR congurations along with the
vapour and CO2 dissociate during combustion, directly affecting necessary auxiliary systems for EGR operation [3436].
the combustion process and the in-cylinder NOx formation rate. Considering the previous it is thus worthwhile investigating via
modelling the NOx reduction potential of two-stroke low-speed
However, despite the benecial NOx emission reduction which diesel engines using EGR and its impact on engine performance
necessitates the use of EGR, the aforementioned mechanisms can to avoid the extremely high cost and time consuming procedure
result to an increase of specic fuel consumption and mainly par- of an experimental investigation.
ticulate emissions as a consequence of the well-known NOx-bsfc For this reason a theoretical investigation is performed in the
and NOx-Soot trade-offs [1517,22,2933]. present work to evaluate the effect of EGR on the performance
It is reasonable to assume that the recirculation of a portion of characteristics and pollutant emissions of a low-speed two-stroke
exhaust gas inside the combustion chamber of a two-stroke low- diesel engine using an existing well validated multi-zone combus-
speed diesel engine would have a similar positive effect on NOx tion model [30,41]. The specic model has been initially developed
emissions. This is veried by lab investigations where several cases for four stroke high-speed DI diesel engines and has been modied
have been examined and high EGR rates (up to 39%) have been herein to properly describe the processes of the two-stroke operat-
implemented revealing that compliance with Tier III NOx emis- ing cycle and mainly the use of EGR on a two-stroke diesel engine
sions is feasible using only EGR [13,34]. These investigations have [42,43]. The model has been successfully applied in the past, to
been conducted using high-pressure loop EGR. The required pres- investigate heavy duty diesel engine NOx reduction via EGR, pro-
sure increase of the exhaust gases (for the recirculation) is viding favourable results [29,44].
achieved using a high pressure EGR blower. The recirculated The results of the present work indicate the models ability to
exhaust gases pass through a scrubber and an EGR cooler and pen- adequately predict both performance and NOx emissions of the
etrate into the charge air path upstream of the charge-air cooler two-stoke marine diesel engine considered at several engine oper-
and downstream of the compressor [13,3436]. ating conditions comprising of variations in load and EGR rate. Fur-
However, the use of Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) in low-speed two- thermore it is veried the NOx reduction potential of two-stroke
stroke diesel engines still imposes constraints for the commercial marine diesel engines using EGR which is accompanied by a rela-
application of EGR. This is mainly attributed to the increased risk tively low fuel penalty.
of corrosion wear of engines components due to the high sulphur
content of the fuel, which results to formation of sulphuric acid
[8,11,13,37]. Increased particulate matter from the use of EGR 2. Brief description of the model
results to lube oil contamination and thus increase of deterioration
and wear [6,8,11,15,22,33]. Last but not least an additional prob- Details concerning the main structure and the physical and
lem is cooling of the EGR gas due to the increased risk of EGR cooler chemical sub-models of the engine simulation code have been pre-
and charge-air cooler fouling. sented in the past and can be retrieved from previous publications
A possible solution to the previous technical issues appears to [29,4144]. Herein focus is given on modications of the model,
be the use of seawater EGR scrubbers, where signicant progress which were necessary to describe the processes of the entire
has been achieved [12,13,3436,3840]. An experimental investi- two-stroke diesel engines operating cycle. These are the following:
gation conducted on a test engine demonstrated that SO2 can be
reduced up to 98% with a typical value of 90% while particulates Modication of the gas exchange mechanism (method of lling
can be reduced up to 92% with a typical value of 7080% and emptying) to comply with the two-stroke cycle.
[9,12,34,38].In addition it is mentioned that suitable EGR cooling Introduction of a two-zone scavenging model for two-stroke
techniques are being developed revealing that it is feasible to turbocharged engines.
achieve efcient EGR cooling without fouling issues. Modication of the jet formation model to account for the dif-
A service test for EGR utilization is currently in progress on- ferent geometry and jet axis location.
board a commercial vessel after retrotting the EGR system on Modications in the mathematical treatment especially for the
the M/E (main engine). The required conguration to make EGR evaporation, mixing and combustion mechanisms to account
application on two-stroke marine diesel engines feasible is for the low rotational speed (reduction of calculation time step
described by detail in the literature [13].The results referring to to 0.1 deg CA). For the evaporation process of injected fuel an even
NOx reduction appear to be encouraging without signicant risk lower time step has been used corresponding to 0.01 deg CA.
of wear [13].
Because of this, development of two stroke engines with EGR The scavenging model and the modications of the gas
components integrated into the engine structure has initiated exchange mechanism and jet formation model have been pre-
[3436]. An engine equipped with an integrated high-pressure sented by detail in previous publications [42,43]. Thus for the sake
EGR system has already been installed on-board a 4500 teu of space only a brief outline is presented in the following text.
(twenty-foot equivalent unit) container vessel. This system is com- The combustion model used is a multi-zone phenomenological
prised of two turbochargers (one small and one large) which for one where the fuel jet, resulting after injection, is divided into dis-
Tier II operation are both active and the EGR components inactive. crete volumes, called zones. The zones are extended in the three
This is the economy engine running mode, which facilitates an dimensions according to a concentric consideration. The pressure
approximate 4 g/kWh fueloil saving at part-load operation, com- is considered uniform throughout the combustion chamber. Each
pared to the standard Tier II engine, accomplished through a com- zone has its own history of temperature, composition etc., which
bination of sequential turbocharging, turbocharger cut-out and low are determined by applying the rst law of thermodynamics as
EGR rates. In the EGR mode, which is IMO Tier III compliant mode well as the conservation equations for mass and momentum. This
for ECA operation the small turbocharger is by-passed and the EGR enables the detailed prediction of the local thermodynamic proper-
system is activated. Testing in this mode achieved a low bsfc pen- ties of the in-cylinder mixture and their corresponding effect on
alty equivalent to 14 g/kWh, compared to the standard Tier II the formation of NO.
S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823 817
Table 2
4T50ME-X test engine specications.
Bore 500 mm
Stroke 2200 mm
Connecting rod length 2885 mm
Compression ratio 18.2
MCR speed 123 rpm
MCR power 7050 kW
MCR Mean Effective Pressure 20 bar
Fig. 2b. Zone formation on the xr plane. 4. Model calibration initial model validation
A description of the method used to divide the jet into zones is As already mentioned the model is initially evaluated concern-
given in Figs. 2a and 2b where a representative division into axial ing its ability to predict performance and NOx emissions at various
and radial zones can be observed. The number of axial zones is operating conditions without EGR. Model evaluation is based on
determined by the duration of fuel injection and the calculation experimental data, for performance and emissions at four different
time step used, while the number of zones in the two directions operating conditions, acquired from the international literature
normal to it is determined by making trials and nding the number [14,37,46]. The test cases considered where: I: 25% (78 rpm), II:
from which a further increase results to no modication of model 50% (98 rpm), III: 75% (112 rpm) and IV: 100% (123 rpm) of the
results. In the present work, a number of ve zones are used in the maximum continuous rating (MCR) under the propeller law.
radial direction and eight in the circumferential direction. The data used for initial model validation were the measured
The contents of each zone are initially assumed to consist only cylinder pressure, the respective heat release rate, global perfor-
of air and perfect combustion products (O2, N2, CO2 and H2O). A mance data (power, specic fuel consumption etc.) and tailpipe
complete chemical equilibrium scheme is then applied and the NOx (as equivalent NO2) emissions. Model calibration was con-
equilibrium mixture composition is calculated considering 11 ducted at 75% load without EGR and then model constants were
chemical species (O2, N2, CO2, H2O, H, H2, N, NO, O, OH, CO). The kept constant for the remaining operating points and for the con-
formation of nitric oxide is controlled by chemical kinetics. In the sequent EGR investigation.
present work, the extended Zeldovich mechanism [16,45] is used An appropriate method to evaluate models ability to predict
involving the following three reactions which are given along with engine performance and the combustion mechanism is to compare
the corresponding forward reaction rate constants (kf): the cylinder pressure and net heat release rate diagrams.
k1f In Fig. 3(a)(d) is given the comparison between measured and
O N2 $ NO N; k1f 1:6 1010 1 calculated in-cylinder pressure histories. As observed, the simula-
k2f 3125 tion code manages to accurately predict the cylinder pressure trace
N O2 $ NO O; k2f 6:4 106 T exp 2 at all engine operating conditions examined.
T
k3f To evaluate models capability to predict the combustion mech-
N OH $ NO H; k3f 4:2 1010 3 anism a comparison is given in Fig. 4(a)(d) between the measured
and calculated cumulative net heat release. Model predictive abil-
The variation of NO concentration in each zone is expressed by:
1 dNOV 21 b2 R1
4 Table 3
V dt 1 b R2RR
1 Test cases examined.
3
(a) 25% of full engine load (b) 50% of full engine load
(c) 75% of full engine load (d) 100% of full engine load
Fig. 3. Comparison between the calculated and measured in-cylinder pressure traces for: (a) 25%, (b) 50%, (c) 75% and (d) 100% of full engine load at 0% EGR.
ity is encouraging, despite the fact that the injection prole was 0.5%. On the other hand, a higher relative error (up to 6%) is
not granted by the literature. To overcome this the injection rate observed for turbine inlet temperature (Fig. 5(d)), whereas the
was assumed to be constant which is partially responsible for the overall trend of the temperature variation with engine load is cap-
slight deviations observed at high load. In general the model tured. This is normal considering the uncertainty of exhaust gas
appears to adequately predict the in cylinder cumulative net heat temperature measurement in general. It is thus demonstrated from
release providing a clear indication for models ability to ade- Figs. 35, that the overall performance of the two-stroke low-speed
quately describe the combustion mechanism of the two-stroke diesel engine is adequately predicted by the model.
low-speed diesel engine at all loads examined. Considering that the main purpose of the present study is to
To further validate models ability to predict overall engine per- investigate the NOx reduction potential of two-stroke diesel
formance, the calculated values of several basic engine perfor- engines using EGR, it is examined models ability to predict NOx
mance parameters are compared against the corresponding emissions (as equivalent NO2). The comparison between the exper-
measured ones. The comparison is depicted in Fig. 5(a)(d), for imental and predicted values of NOx emissions is depicted in Fig. 6,
the following parameters: (a) Power output, (b) brake specic fuel where an adequate convergence between measured and calculated
consumption (bsfc), (c) Peak ring pressure and compression values is observed. The relative errors are 3.5%, 5%, 0% and 7.5% for
pressure (d) and Turbine Inlet Temperature respectively. The the 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of full engine load respectively which
evaluation is conducted for all four operating points examined is encouraging since the main target when investigating NOx emis-
(I: 25%78 rpm, II: 50%98 rpm, III: 75%112 rpm and IV: 100% sions is to capture trends. It is thus veried the predictive ability of
123 rpm of the maximum continuous rating) that cover the entire the simulation for performance and NOx emissions of the specic
operating range of the engine. two stroke marine diesel engine enabling its use for the examina-
As shown the model accurately predicts the main engine oper- tion of EGR effect.
ating parameters. The calculated values of power output, brake
specic fuel consumption, peak ring pressure and peak compres-
sion pressure match well the measured ones. The maximum rela- 5. Model application for EGR effect on NOx emissions
tive errors are 3.4%, 3.3%, 0.6% and 2.4% for power output, brake
specic fuel consumption, peak ring pressure and peak compres- In the present section it is evaluated models ability to predict
sion pressure respectively. These peak relative errors refer to the the effect of EGR on NOx emissions and most important to examine
low-load (25%) case while for the other loads they are below the effect of EGR percentage on two-stroke slow speed diesel
S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823 819
(a) 25% of full engine load (b) 50% of full engine load
(c) 75% of full engine load (d) 100% of full engine load
Fig. 4. Comparison between the calculated and measured cumulative net heat release for: (a) 25%, (b) 50%, (c) 75% and (d) 100% of full engine load at 0% EGR.
engines. For this reason the application of EGR is focused at 75% 6. Effect of EGR on the combustion and NOx formation
load from which data were available. Another reason for selecting mechanisms
the specic load point i.e. 75% is its high weighting factor in the E3
test cycle which denes the maximum allowable NOx emission An advantage of the simulation model is that it can be used to
limits for marine diesel engines according to IMO regulations [4]. obtain information for the fundamental effect of EGR on both the
For the investigation it is assumed that the scavenge air pressure combustion and NOx formation mechanisms of two-stroke, slow
remains constant when introducing EGR resulting to the reduction speed marine diesel engines. Towards this direction, in Fig. 8 is
of in-cylinder air/fuel equivalence ratio (lambda), since EGR provided the in-cylinder NOx formation for various EGR rates. As
replaces an equal amount of air. It is also assumed that the back- observed the NOx reduction rate is becoming slightly more intense
pressure remains constant, since EGR is assisted using an EGR with EGR rate increase. Moreover, it is noted that NOx formation
blower. Model evaluation is conducted using available experimen- freezes at almost the same crank angle degree, regardless of the
tal data for EGR rates up to 39% [13]. EGR rate. This is an indication that EGR affects mainly the rate of
The results are depicted in Fig. 7. As observed the multi-zone NOx formation and not the formation period.
combustion model predicts the effect of EGR on NOx emission with To further investigate the effect of EGR on the combustion char-
minor deviations which demonstrates the reliability of the models acteristics, the aforementioned main NOx formation mechanisms
results. For the specic Tier-I engine EGR rates in the range of 18 are considered. For this reason the in-cylinder histories of overall
20% and 3637% are required to achieve Tier-II and Tier-III emis- O2 concentration inside the fuel jet, mean gas temperature, net
sion limits respectively. It is thus concluded that the multi-zone heat release rate and cumulative net heat release versus EGR rates
combustion model can become a useful tool for the investigation are given in Figs. 912.
of EGR as a NOx reduction technique, providing fundamental infor- Fig. 9 which provides the total oxygen concentration inside the
mation for the reduction mechanisms involved. Furthermore, as fuel jet provides an explanation for the effect of the dilution mech-
revealed in Fig. 7, in general there exists a linear correlation anism. As observed, there is a signicant reduction of O2 percent-
between EGR rate and NOx reduction (especially for EGR rates age with the increase of EGR, approaching the value of 50% for
above 5%). The slope of this curve is 25% NOx reduction/10% EGR 40% EGR rate, which is the most important NOx reducing mecha-
rate. nism. However O2 percentage reduction, results to the reduction
820 S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823
of recirculated CO2 and H2O) is shown in Fig. 10. From this it is evi-
dent the reduction of the peak combustion temperature with EGR
rate (which is mainly the result of the thermal mechanism) con-
tributing signicantly to the reduction of NOx.
Finally the net heat release rate and the corresponding cumula-
tive net heat release for various EGR rates are shown in Figs. 11 and
12. Generally the lack of oxygen (dilution mechanism), when EGR
is applied, results to the reduction of combustion rate and to the
increase of combustion duration. As a result, brake power is
slightly decreased (for the same fuelling rate) whereas brake spe-
cic fuel consumption and soot formation both increase (NOx-bsfc
and NOx-Soot trade off). This is clearly observed in Fig. 13 where it
is given the percentage variation of bsfc vs EGR rate. These effects
are in accordance to the international literature, for application of
EGR on high speed diesel engines [2933,44]. It is to be stated that
these negative effects appear to be less pronounced in the slow
speed marine diesel engine due to the higher time duration of
the in-cylinder processes as a result of the lower rotational speed
Fig. 6. Comparison between the calculated and measured values of NOx emissions. and the higher air fuel ratios [13]. This is clearly observed in Figs. 11
and 12 where it is evident that the effect of EGR on the heat release
rate becomes signicant only for high EGR rates.
of local combustion rate and thus gas temperatures reducing fur- Furthermore it is concluded from Fig. 13 that the bsfc increase
ther NOx formation rate. for low EGR rates (up to 20%) is negligible, while for Tier III appli-
The effect of EGR on the thermal mechanism due to the increase cation (more than 35% EGR rate according to Fig. 7) the bsfc
of the charge mixture heat capacity (higher specic heat capacities increase is in the range of 4%. The difference in absolute values is
S.I. Raptotasios et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 814823 821
Fig. 9. Effect of EGR on calculated total O2 Concentration inside the fuel jet.
Fig. 7. Comparison between calculated and measured NOx emissions vs EGR at 75%
Load.
7. Conclusions Fig. 11. Effect of EGR on calculated in-cylinder Net Heat Release Rate.
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