STUDY GUIDE

M AT H E M AT I C S SL
2017.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Prior knowlegde 7

2. Algebra 11

3. Functions 21

4. Vectors 29

5. Trigonometry and circular 35

functions

6. Differentiation 45

7. Integration 57

8. Probability 65

9. Statistics 75

3
INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the IB Academy guide book for IB Mathematics Standard Level.

This guide contains everything you should know for your final exam. The guide is
broken into chapters by syllabus topic. Each chapter starts with a Cheat Sheet,
summarising the chapter contents. You may find this useful when working with
exercises. The chapter is then broken in to subtopics which first explain the theory
before showing you a step by step approach to answering relevant questions. Finally
there is a calculator section, explaining how to effectively use your calculator to answer
questions. Throughout the guide there are helpfull hints from the former IB students
who now teach with IB Academy.

Our Mathematics Standard Level revision course builds on this guide with interactive
lectures, exam-style exercise and effective feedback; helping to put the theory into
practice and helping you achieve your best possible result. See our website for more
details.

We hope that you find this guide helpful.

IB Academy Team

5
PRIOR KNOWLEGDE 1

Before you start make sure you have a firm grasp of the following. Many marks are lost
through errors in these fundamentals.

1.1 Number
Numbers can be grouped in to a number of sets. From the diagram you see that all
rational numbers are also real numbers; i.e. Q is a subset of R.

R real numbers
Q rational numbers

1 251 Z integers
3 267 . . . , 4, 3, 2, 1, . . .
N naturals
. . . , 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
p
p 10
2
2
irrational numbers

Positive integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

Positive integers and zero N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
Integers Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
p
Rational numbers Q = any number that can be written as the ratio
q
of any two integers, where q 6= 0

1.2 Signs
+ and signs describe positive and negative numbers. Remember they work the
opposite way with negative intergers. In maths two wrongs do make a right.

1 1=1+1=2 1 1=1

7
 PRIOR KNOWLEGDE BIDMAS

1.3 BIDMAS

A handy acronymn for remembering the order in which to calculate equations:

Brackets functions within brackets

B
(these should also be calculated following BIDMAS)

I Indecies powers

DM Division/Multiplication working from left to right

AS Adition/Subtraction working from left to right

Therefore in the following equation

6
42 + 5 (9 1) =
4
6
B ! = 42 + 5 (8) =
4
6
I ! = 16 + 5 8 =
4
30
D/M ! = 16 + 8=
4
= 16 + 7.5 8 =
= 16 + 60 =
A/S ! = 76

1.4 Solving simulatenous equations

If we have two unknows, for example x and y, and two equations, then we can solve for
x and y simulateously.
(
(1) y = 3x + 1
(2) 2y = x 1

There are 3 methods to solve simultaneous equations.

8
PRIOR KNOWLEGDE Solving simulatenous equations 1

Elimination Substitution
Multiply an equation and then sub- Rearange and then substitute one in to
tract it from the other in order to another.
eliminate one of the unknows.

3 (2) ) (3) 6y = 3x 3 Substitute (1) into (2)

(3) (1) ) 6y y = 3x 3x 3 1
2(3x + 1) = x 1
5y = 4
6x + 2 = x 1
4
y= 5x = 3
5
3
x=
Put y in (1) or (2) and solve for x 5
4 Put x in (1) or (2) and solve for x
= 3x + 1
5
9 3
3x = y = 3( )+1
5 5
9 3 4
x= = y=
15 5 5

Graph

Graph both lines on your gdc. Where they intersect will be the solution to the equation.

y = 3x + 1

2y = x 1

8
> 3
<x =
5
> 4
:y =
5

Note that this method is also great when you have to solve more complex equations.

9
 PRIOR KNOWLEGDE Geometry

1.5 Geometry

These are given in the data booklet

Area of parallelogram A= bh
1
Area of a triangle A = (b h)
2
1
Area of a trapezium A = (a + b)h
2
Area of a circle A = r2

Circumference of a circle C = 2r
1
Volume of a pyramid V = (area base vertical height)
3
Volume of a cuboid (rectangular prism) V =lwh

Volume of a cylinder V = r2 h

Area of the curved surface of a cylinder A = 2rh

4
Volume of a sphere V = r3
3
1 2
Volume of a cone V = r h
3

10
ALGEBRA 2
Table of contents & cheatsheet

2.1. Sequences 12 2.2. Exponents and logarithms 15

Arithmetic: +/ common difference Exponents

un = n th term = u1 + (n 1)d x1 = x x0 = 1
n xm
Sn = sum of n terms = 2u1 + (n 1)d x m x n = x m+n = xm n
2 xn
n n
with u1 = a = 1st term, d = common difference. (x m ) = x mn (x y) = x n y n
1 1
x 1= x n=
x xn
Geometric: / common ratio 1 p p p
x2 = x x x=x
un = n th term = u1 r n 1 p p p 1 p
xy = x y xn = n x
u1 (1 r n ) m p m 1
Sn = sum of n terms = n
x n = xm x n = p
(1 r ) n
xm
u1
S1 = sum to infinity = , when 1< r <1
1 r Logarithms

with u1 = a = 1st term, r = common ratio. loga a x = x a loga b = b

Sigma notation
Let a x = b , isolate x from the exponent:
A shorthand to show the sum of a number of terms in a
sequence. loga a x = x = loga b
Last value of n
Let loga x = b , isolate x from the logarithm:
X
10
3n 1 Formula a loga x = x = a b
n=1

First value of n Laws of logarithms

e.g.
I: log A + log B = log(A B)
X
10
A
3n 1 = (3 1) 1 + (3 2) 1 + (3 3) 1 + + II: log A log B = log
n=1
| {z } | {z } | {z } B
n=1 n=2 n=3
+ (3 10) 1 = 155 III: n log A = log(An )
| {z }
n=10 log A
IV: logB A =
log B

2.3. Binomial Expansion 17

Find the coefficient using either pascals triangle
1 n=0

1 1 n=1
+
n n n n r r
(a + b )n = an + a 1
b + + a b + + bn 1 2 1 n=2
1 r + +
1 3 3 1 n=3
n n n n 1 n n 2 2
= a + a b+ a b + ... + + +
0 1 2 1 4 6 4 1 n=4
+ + + +
1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

Or the nCr function on your calculator

11
 ALGEBRA Sequences

2.1 Sequences

2.1.1 Arithmetic sequence

Arithmetic sequence the next number is the previous number the

common difference (d ).

e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . d = +2 and 2, 3, 8, 13, . . . d= 5

To find the common difference d , subtract any term of an arithmetic sequence

from the term that follows it, i.e. second term (u2 ) first term (u1 ).

DB 1.1 Use the following equations to calculate the n th term or the sum of n terms.

un = n th term Sn = sum of n terms

n
un = u1 + (n 1)d Sn = 2u1 + (n 1)d
2

with

u1 = a = 1st term d = common difference

Often the IB requires you to first find the 1st term and/or common difference.

Finding the first term u1 and the common difference d from other
terms.

In an arithmetic sequence u10 = 37 and u22 = 1 find the common difference and the
first term.

1. Put numbers in to n th term formula 37 = u1 + 9d

1 = u1 + 21d

2. Equal formulas to find d 21d 1 = 9d 37

12d = 36
d= 3

3. Use d to find u1 1 21 ( 3) = u1
u1 = 64

12
ALGEBRA Sequences 2

2.1.2 Geometric sequence

Geometric sequence the next number is the previous number multiplied by

the common ratio (r ).

To find the common ratio, divide any term of an arithmetic sequence by the
second term (u2 )
term that precedes it, i.e. e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . r = 2
first term (u1 )
1
and 25, 5, 1, 0.2, . . . r =
5

Use the following equations to calculate the n th term, the sum of n terms or the sum to
infinity when 1 < r < 1. DB 1.1

un = n th term Sn = sum of n terms S1 = sum to infinity

u (1 r n ) u
= u1 r n 1
= 1 = 1 , when 1 < r < 1
(1 r ) 1 r

again with

u1 = a = 1st term r = common ratio

Similar to questions on Arithmetic sequences, you are often required to find the 1st term
and/or common ratio first.

2.1.3 Sigma notation

Sigma notation is a way to represent the summation of any sequence this means that it
can be used for both arithmetic or geometric series. The notation shows you the formula
that generates terms of a sequence and the upper and lower limits of the terms that you
want to add up in this sequence.

Last value of n
X
10
3n 1 Formula
n=1

First value of n
X
10
e.g. 3n 1 = (3 1) 1 + (3 2) 1 + (3 3) 1 + + (3 10) 1 = 155
n=1
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
n=1 n=2 n=3 n=10

13
 ALGEBRA Sequences

Finding the first term u1 and common ratio r from other terms.

X
5 X
1
(Geometric series) = 3798, (Geometric series) = 4374.
1 1
X
7
Find (Geometric series) =?
1

1. Interpret the question The sum of the first 5 terms of a

geometric sequence is 3798 and the sum
to infinity is 4374. Find the sum of the
first 7 terms

2. Use formula for sum of n terms 1 r5

3798 = u p
1 r
3. Use formula for sum to infinity u1
4374 =
1 r
4. Rearrange 3. for u1 4374(1 r ) = u1

5. Substitute in to 2. 4374(1 r) 1 r5
3798 =
1 r

6. Solve for r 3798 = 4374 1 r5
3798
=1 r5
4374
211
r5 = 1
s 243
p
5 5 32
r=
243
2
r=
3

7. Use r to find u1 2
u l = 4374 1
3
u l = 1458

8. Find sum of first 7 terms 2

1
1458 37 = 4370
2
1
3

14
 ALGEBRA Exponents and logarithms 2

2.2 Exponents and logarithms

2.2.1 Laws of exponents

Exponents always follow certain rules. If you are doing any mathematical operation
(+, , or ) with numbers that have exponents, use the following rules to determine
what happens with the powers.
.

x1 = x 61 = 6
Example

x0 = 1 70 = 1
x m x n = x m+n 45 46 = 411
xm 35
= xm n
= 35 4 = 31 = 3
xn 34
2
(x m )n = x mn 105 = 1010
(x y)n = x n y n (2 4)3 = 23 43 and (3x)4 = 34 x 4
1
11 1
1 3 4
x = 5 = and =
x 5 4 3
1 1 1
x n= 3 5= =
xn 35 243

2.2.2 Fractional exponents

When doing mathematical operations (+, , or ) with fractions in the exponent you
will need the following rules. These are often helpful when writing your answers in
simplest terms.

p p
.

1 1
Example

x2 = x 22 = 2
p p p p
x x=x 3 3=3
p p p p p p p p
xy = x y 12 = 4 3 = 4 3 = 2 3
1 p 1 p
3
xn = n x 53 = 5
m p
n 2 1
x n = xm 3 5=p 5
32

15
 ALGEBRA Exponents and logarithms

2.2.3 Laws of logarithms

Logarithms are the inverse mathematical operation of exponents, like division is the
inverse mathematical operation of multiplication. The logarithm is often used to find the
DB 1.2 variable in an exponent.
ax = b , x = loga b

Since loga a x = x, so that x = loga b .

This formula shows that the variable x in the power of the exponent becomes the subject
of your log equation, while the number a becomes the base of your logarithm.

Below are the rules that you will need to use when performing calculations with
logarithms and when simplifying them. The sets of equations on the left and right are
the same; on the right we show the notation that the DB uses while the equations on the
left are easier to understand.

Laws of logarithms and change of base

DB 1.2
I: log A + log B = log(A B) logc a + logc b = logc (a b )

A a
II: log A log B = log logc a logc b = logc
B b
III: n log A = log(An ) n logc a = logc (a n )
log A logc a
IV: logB A = log b a =
log B logc b
Note

x = loga a = 1
With the 4th rule you can change the base of a log.
loga 0 = x is always undefined (because a x 6= 0).
When you see a log with no base, it is referring to a logarithm with a base of 10
(e.g. log 13 = log10 13).

Solve x in exponents using logs.

Solve 2 x = 13.

1. Take the log on both sides log 2 x = log 13

2. Use rule III to take x outside x log 2 = log 13

3. Solve log 13
x=
log 2

16
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion 2

Expressing logs in terms of other logs

.

For the following three examples use that p = loga 5 and q = loga 2.
Example

1. Express loga 10 in terms of p and q: loga (5 2) = loga 5 + loga 2 = p + q

2. Express loga 8 in terms of p and q: loga (23 ) = 3 loga 2 = 3q
3. Express loga 2.5 in terms of p and q:
5
loga = loga 5 loga 2 = p q
2

But what about ln and e? These work exactly the same; e is just the number 2.71828 . . .
(infinitely too long to write out) and ln is just loge .

ln a + ln b = ln(a b )

a
ln a ln b = ln
b
n ln a = ln a n
ln e = 1
eln a = a

2.3 Binomial expansion

Binomial an expression (a + b )n which is the sum of two terms raised to the

power n.
e.g. (x + 3)2

Binomial expansion (a + b )n is expanded into a sum of terms

e.g. x 2 + 6x + 9

Binomial expansions get increasingly complex as the power increases:

binomial binomial expansion

(a + b )1 = a + b
(a + b )2 = a 2 + 2a b + b 2
(a + b )3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3a b 2 + b 3

n n r r n
The general formula for each term is: a b , the coefficient is and the powers
r r
are n r and r for a and b respectively. In order to find the full binomial expansion of a

17
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion

binomial, you have to determine the coefficient and the powers for each term, as shown by
the binomial expansion formula.

Binomial expansion formula

DB 1.3

n n n
n n n r r
(a + b ) = a + a 1
b + + a b + + bn
1 r

n n n n 1 n n 2 2
= a + a b+ a b + ...
0 1 2

The powers decrease by 1 for a and increase by 1 for b for each subsequent term.

The sum of the powers of each term will always = n.

There are two ways to find the coefficients: with Pascals triangle or the binomial
coefficient function (nCr).

Pascals triangle

1 n=0

1 1 n=1
+
1 2 1 n=2
+ +
1 3 3 1 n=3
+ + +
1 4 6 4 1 n=4
+ + + +
1 5 10 10 5 1 n=5

Pascals triangle is an easy way to find all the coefficients for your binomial expansion. It
is particularly useful in cases where:

1. the power is not too high (because you have to write it out manually);
2. if you have to find all the terms in a binomial expansion.

18
ALGEBRA Binomial expansion 2

Binomial coefficient function (nCr)

n n!
=
r r !(n r )!
Use the nCr function on your calculator! In the 1st term of the
expansion r = 0, in the
2nd term r = 1, . . .

19
 ALGEBRA Binomial expansion

How to expand binomial expansions.

5
2
Find the expansion of x
x

1. Use the binomial expansion formula 2
(x)5 + (5C 1)(x)4 +
2 x
a = xb = 2 3
x 2 2
(5C 2)(x)3 + (5C 3)(x)2 +
x
4 5 x
2 2
(5C 4)(x) + (5C 5)
x x
2. Find coefficients Row 0: 1
using Pascals triangle for low powers and
Row 1: 1 1
nCr calculator for high functions
Row 2: 1 2 1
Row 3: 1 3 3 1
Row 4: 1 4 6 4 1
Row 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

(5C 0) = 1 (5C 2) = 10 (5C 4) = 5

(5C 1) = 5 (5C 3) = 10 (5C 5) = 1

3. Put them together 5 42 1 3 2 2
x + 5x + 10x +
3 x 4 x
2 2 2 5
10x 2 + 5x +
x x x
4. Simplify 80 80 32
x5 10x 3 + 20x +
using laws of exponents x x3 x5

The IB use three Finding a specific term in a binomial expansion.

different terms for
these types of question
which will effect the Find the coefficient of x 5 in the expansion (2x 5)8
answer you should
give: 1. One term is asked, usually of a high n n n r
power then use binomial expansion
(a + b ) = + a b r + ...
Coefficient the r
number before the x formula
value
2. r 5 5
Determine Since a = 2x , to find x we need a .
Term the number and
the x value a 5 = a n r = a 8 r , so that r = 3
Constant term the

3. Plug r into the general formula n n r r 8 8 3 3 8 5 3
number for which there a b = a b = a b
is no x value (x 0 ) r 3 3

4. Replace a and b , use nCr 8 5 3 8
and calculate the numbers
(2x) ( 5) , = 8nC r 3 = 56 so
3 3
5 5 3
that 56 2 x ( 5) = 224000

20
FUNCTIONS 3
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions

Function a mathematical relationship where each input has a single output. It is oft en written as f (x) where x is the input
Domain all possible x values, the input. (the domain of investigation)
Range possible y values, the output. (the range of outcomes)
Coordinates uniquely determines the position of a point, given by (x, y)

3.1. Types of functions 22 3.2. Rearranging functions 26

Linear functions y = mx + c Inverse function, f 1 (x) reflection of f (x) in y = x.

where m is the gradient,
c is the y intercept.
y=x

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
Midpoint , f (x)
2 2
Distance (x2 , y2 )
p (x1 , y1 ) f 1 (x)
(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2
y y1
Gradient m = 2
x2 x1
Parallel lines m1 = m2 (same gradients)
Perpendicular lines m1 m2 = 1

Quadratic functions y = ax 2 + b x + c = 0
y y
a>0

x x Composite function, ( f g )(x) is the combined

O O
function f of g of x.
a<0 When f (x) and g (x) are given, replace x in f (x) by g (x).
If a = 1 use the factorization method (x + p) (x + q)
If a 6= 1 use the quadratic formula
Transforming functions
When asked excplicity complete the square

Change to f (x) Effect

Exponential Logarithmic
f (x) = a x + c g (x) = loga (x + b ) f (x) + a Move graph a units upwards
f (x + a) Move graph a units to the left
f (x) g (x) a f (x) Vertical stretch by factor a
1
f (a x) Horizontal stretch by factor
a
c f (x) Reflection in x-axis
b f ( x) Reflection in y-axis

21
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions

3.1 Types of functions

Functions are mathematical relationships where each input has a single output. You have
probably been doing functions since you began learning maths, but they may have
looked like this:

16 +10 26 Algebraically this is:

f (x) = x + 10,
here x = 16, y = 26.

We can use graphs to show multiple outputs of y for inputs x, and therefore visualize the
relation between the two. Two common types of functions are liner functions and
quadratic functions.

3.1.1 Linear functions

Linear functions y = m x + c increases/decreases at a constant rate m,

where m is the gradient and c is the y intercept.

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 3
Midpoint ,
2 2
2
Distance x1 )2 + (y2
(x2 y1 ) 2
y y1 1
Gradient m= 2
x2 x1
Parallel lines m1 = m2 (equal gradients) -1 1 2 3
Perpendicular lines m1 m2 = 1 -1
.

Determine the midpoint, distance and gradient using the two points P1 (2, 8)
Example

and P2 (6, 3)

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 2+6 8+3
Midpoint: , = , = (4, 5.5)
2 2 2 2
p p p p
Distance: (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = (6 2)2 + (3 8)2 = (4)2 + (5)2 = 41
y
y2 y1 3 8 5 9 P1 (2, 8)
Gradient: m = =m= = 8
x2 x1 6 2 4 7
6
5 5
Parallel line: x + 3 4 P2 (6, 3)
4 3
4 2
Perpendicular line: x +7 1
5
1234567x

22
FUNCTIONS Types of functions 3

3.1.2 Quadratic functions

y y
a>0

O x O x

a<0
a > 0, positive quadratic a < 0, negative quadratic

Quadratic functions y = a x2 + b x + c = 0

Graph has a parabolic shape, increase/decrease at an increasing rate.

The roots of an equation are the x-values for which y = 0, in other words the
x-intercept(s).

To find the roots of the equation you can use

factorisation: If a = 1, use the factorization method (x + p) (x + q)

2
quadratic formula: If a 6= 1, use the quadratic formula The b 4ac part of
the quadratic formula is
p p also known as the
b b2 4ac b D
= discriminant D . It can
2a 2a be used to check how
many x -intercepts the
equation has:
D > 0 ) 2 solutions
Solving quadratic equations by factorisation. D = 0 ) 1 solutions
D < 0 ) no real
solutions
Solve: x2 5x + 6 = 0

1. Set up system of equations p+q = 5
p+q = b and pq =c p= 2 and q= 3
pq =6

2. Plug the values for p and q into: (x 2)(x 3) = x 2 5x + 6

(x + p)(x + q)

3. Equate each part to0 (x 2) = 0
(x + p) = 0, (x + q) = 0, and solve for x =2 or x =3
(x 3) = 0
x(x 2)(x 3) = 0

23
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions

Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula.

Solve: 3x 2 8x + 4 = 0

1. Calculate the discriminant = ( 8)2 4 3 4 = 16

2
=b 4ac

2. How many solutions? > 0, so 2 solutions

> 0 ) 2 solutions
= 0 ) 1 solutions
< 0 ) no real solutions
p
3. Calculate x , use 8 16 8 4
p x= =
b 23
x= 9 6
2a 8 4 4>
= = >
=
6 6 ) x=2 or x =2
8+4 > 3
= =2>
;
6

By completing the square you can find the value of the vertex (the minimum or
maximum). For the exam you will always be asked explicitly.

Find the vertex by completing the square

4x 2 2x 5=0

1. Move c to the other side 4x 2 2x = 5

2. Divide by a 1 5
x2 x=
2 4
0 12
3. x coeficient 2 1
Calculate
B 2C
2 B C = 1
@ 2 A 16

4. Add this term to both sides 1 1 5 1

x2 x+ = +
2 16 4 16
5. 2
Factor perfect square, bring constant 1 21
back
x =0
4 16
1 21
) minimum point= ,
4 16

Other forms: y = a(x h)2 + k vertex (h, k) and y = a(x p)(x q), x intercepts:
( p, 0)(q, 0).

24
 FUNCTIONS Types of functions 3

3.1.3 Functions with asymptotes

Asymptote a straight line that a curve approaches, but never touches.

A single function can have multiple asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and in rare cases
diagonal. Functions that contain the variable (x) in the denominator of a fraction will
always have asymptotes, as well as exponential and logarithmic functions.
Vertical asymptotes

Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator is zero, as dividing by zero is

undefinable. Therefore if the denominator contains x and there is a value for x for which
the denominator will be 0, we get a vertical asymptote.
x
.
Example

In the function f (x) = , when x = 4, the denominator is 0 so there is a vertical

x 4
asymptote.

Horizontal asymptotes

Horizontal asymptotes are the value that a function tends to as x become really big or
really small; technically: to the limit of infinity, x ! 1. When x is large other parts of
the function not involving x become insignificant and so can be ignored.
x
.
Example

In the function f (x) = , when x is small the 4 is important.

x 4
x = 10 10 4 = 6
But as x gets bigger the 4 becomes increasingly insignificant
x = 100 100 4 = 96
x = 10000 10000 4 = 9996
Therefore as we approach the limits we can ignore the 4.
x
lim f (x) = = 1
x!1 x
So there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 1.

Exponential and logarithmic functions

Exponential functions will Exponential Logarithmic

always have a horizontal f (x) g (x)
asymptote and logarithmic
functions will always have a
vertical asymptote, due to the
nature of these functions. The c
position of the asymptote is b
determined by constants in the
function.
f (x) = a x + c g (x) = loga (x + b )
where a is a positive number
(often e)

25
 FUNCTIONS Rearranging functions

3.2 Rearranging functions

1
3.2.1 Inverse functions, f (x)

Inverse functions are the reverse of a func- f 1 (x)

tion. Finding the input x for the output y.
You can think of it as going backwards
through the number machine

This is the same as reflecting a graph in the y = x axis.

Finding the inverse function.

f (x) = 2x 3 + 3, find f 1
(x)

1. Replace f (x) with y y = 2x 3 + 3

2. Solve for x y 3 = 2x 3
y 3
) = x3
s 2
3 y 3
) =x
2
1
s
3. x f (x) and y x
Replace with with 3 x 3
= f 1 (x)
2

3.2.2 Composite functions

Composite functions are combination of two functions.

(f g )(x) means f of g of x

To find the composite function above substitute the function of g (x) into the x of f (x).
Let f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = x 2 . Find (f
.

g )(x) and (g f )(x).

Example

(f g )(x): replace x in the f (x) function with the entire g (x) function

(2 g (x)) + 3 = 2x 2 + 3

(g f )(x): replace x in the g (x) function with the entire f (x) function
2
f (x) = (2x + 3)2

26
FUNCTIONS Rearranging functions 3

3.2.3 Transforming functions

Change to f (x) Effect

By adding and/or f (x) + a Move graph a units upwards
multiplying by constants f (x + a) Move graph a units to the left
we can transform a a f (x) Vertical stretch by factor a
function into another f (a x) Horizontal stretch by factor 1/a
function. f (x) Reflection in x-axis
Exam hint: describe the
transformation with
f ( x) Reflection in y-axis words as well to
guarantee marks.

Transforming functions f (x) ! a f (x + b)

1 5
Given f (x) = x 3 + x 2 x , draw 3 f (x 1).
4 4
1. Sketch f (x) y
f (x)
3
2
1

3 2 1 1 2 3 x
1
2
3

2. Stretch the graph by the factor of a a=3 y 3 f (x)

f (x)
3
2
1

3 2 1 1 2 3 x
1
2
3

3. Move graph by b Move graph by 1 to the right

y
f (x) 3 f (x 1)
3
2
1

3 2 1 1 2 3 x
1
2
3

27
VECTORS 4
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions

0 1 0 1 0 1
Vector a geometric object with magnitude (length) and 1 0 0
direction, represented by an arrow. B C B C B C
Base vector i~ = @0A, ~j = @1A, k~ = @0A.
Collinear points points that lie on the same line 0 0 1
Unit vector vector with magnitude 1

4.1. Working with vectors

30
~ 3
Vector from point O to point A: OA = a~ =
2

~ = b~ = 1
Vector from point O to point B: OB
1 y
Can0be1 written in two ways: 4
3
B C 3 3
a~ = @2A =
2 A
0 2
a~ = 3i + 2 j + 0k = 3i + 2 j B a~
1
p p p
Length of a~: |~
a| = x2 + y2 =
32 + 22 = 13 b~
1 1 2 3 4 x
~ 3 1 3 2 1
Addition & multiplication: a~ + 2 b = +2 = + =
2 1 2 2 4

3 1 4
Subtraction: a~ b~ = =
2 1 1

4.2. Equations of lines 32 4.3. Dot product 34

y The dot product of two vectors c~ d~ can be
Example of a line:
5 y = x +3 used to find
0 1 the angle
0 between
1 them.

0 1 4 c d
r= +t B 1C B 1C
3 1 3
1 Let c~ = @c2 A, d~ = @d2 A:
t
1 c3 d3
direction vector 2 0
parameter 1 3
c~ d~ = |~
c ||d~| cos
position vector
3 2 1 1 2 3 x c~ d~ = c1 d1 + c2 d2 + c3 d3

29
 VECTORS Working with vectors

4.1 Working with vectors

Vectors are a geometric object with a magnitude (length) and direction. They are
represented by an arrow, where the arrow shows the direction and the length represents
the magnitude.

So looking at the diagram we can see that

vector u~ has a greater magnitude than v.
~
Vectors can also be described in terms of the P u~ Q
points they pass between. So
( N
u~ = P~Q v~
v~ = P~S
S M R
with the arrow over the top showing the
direction.

You can use vectors as a geometric algebra, expressing other vectors in terms of u~ and v.
~
For example

P~R = u~ + v~ Q~S = u~ + v~ ~ = 1 ( u~ + v)
QN ~
2
1
u~
P u~ Q P u~ Q P u~ 2 Q
1
v~
N N 2
v~ v~

S M R S M R S M R

This may seem slightly counter-intuitive at first. But if we add in some possible figures
you can see how it works. If u~ move 5 units to the left and v~ moves 1 unit to the right
(-left ) and 3 units down.

Then P~R = u~ + v~ = 5 units to the left 1 unit to the left and 3 units down = 4 units to
the left and 3 units down.

30
VECTORS Working with vectors 4

4.1.1 Vectors with value

Formally the value of a vector is defined by its direction and magnitude within a 2D or
3D space. You can think of this as the steps it has to take to go from its starting point to
its end, moving only in the x, y and z axis.

Vector from point O to point A: y

4
~ = a~ = 3
OA 3
2
A
2
Vector from point O to point B: B a~
1

~ 1
~
OB = b = b~
1 1 1 2 3 4 x
Note: unless told
otherwise, answer
Vectors can be written in two ways:
questions in the form
used in the question.
0 1
3
B C 3
1. a~ = @2A = , where the top value is movement in the x-axis. Then the next is
2
0
movement in the y and finally in the z. Here the vector is in 2D space as there is
no value for the z-axis.
2. as the sum of the three base vectors:
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0
B C ~j = B C B C
i~ = @0A , @ 1A , k~ = @0A .
0 0 1

Here i~ is moving 1 unit in the x-axis, ~j 1 unit in the y-axis and k~ 1 unit in the z-axis.
a~ = 3i + 2 j + 0k = 3i + 2 j

When we work with vectors we carry out the mathematical operation in each axis
separately. So x-values with x-values and so on.

Addition & multiplication: y a~ + 2 b~

4 b~
~ 3 1 3 2 1
a~+2 b = +2 = + = 3 b~
2 1 2 2 4
A
2 b~
Subtraction: B a~
1 a~ b~
~ 3 1 4
a~ b= = b~
2 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 x

However it must be remembered that vector notation does not give us the actual length
(magnitude) of the vector. To find this we use something familiar.

31
 VECTORS Equations of lines

Length of a~:
a~ y p
a| =
|~ x2 + y2
p p
= 32 + 22 = 13
x

Sometimes you will be asked to work with unit vectors. These are vector with a
magnitude of 1. We can convert all vectors to unit vectors like so: Determine the unit
vector ab in the direction of any vector a~

a~ 3 ~ 2 ~ 1 3
b
a= =p i+p j=p
a|
|~ 13 13 13 2

4.2 Equations of lines

We can further divide vectors into two types:

position vectors vectors from the origin to a point,

~ 1
e.g. P = ( 1, 3) ) P = .
3

direction vectors vectors that define a direction.

Using both we can define lines in y

terms of vectors. 5 y = x +3
Example
of a line:
4
0 1 1
r= +t 3 t
3 1 1
2 0
direction vector
1 3
parameter
position vector 3 2 1 1 2 3 x

Note the position vector can go to any where on the line. So in this example we could
also use ( 3, 0) or (1, 4). Equally the direction vector can be scaled. So we could used
(2, 2), (30, 30), . . .

Because of this parallel lines will have direction vectors with the same ratio but not
necessarily in exact numbers.
Parallel lines: direction vector of L1 = direction vector of L2 constant

Questions often deal with point and or multiple lines. It is worth making a sketch to
help understand the question.

32
VECTORS Equations of lines 4

Finding a line passing through two points.

Find the equation of the line passing through points P = (1, 3, 2) and Q = (0, 1, 4).
Does point R = ( 2, 9, 1) lie on the line?
P
Direction vector
Q Note this can go either way from Q
Position vector to P of P to Q.
Position vector

0 1 0 1
1. Write points as position vectors 1 0
~ @ A
P= 3 ,Q=~ @ 1A
2 4
0 1 0 1
2. Direction vector 0 1 1
= vector between points @ 1 3A = @ 4A
4 2 2
0 1 0 1
3. ~ 1 1
Choose P~ or Q as position vector
@ A
r = 3 +t @ 4A
2 2
0 1 0 1 0 1
4. ~ and the line r . 2 1 1
Equate R
If there is no contradiction, @ 9 A = @ 3 A + t @ 4A
R lies on r 1 2 2
) 2=1 t )t =3
) 9 = 3 4t ) 9 6= 3 12
) R does not lie on the line.

Finding the intersection of two lines.

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 3
Find the intersection for r1 = @1A + s @ 1 A and r2 = @ 3 A + t @ 0 A
0 4 7 1

1. Equate 2 3s = 1 + 3t
write simultaneous equations 1+ s =3

2. Solve s = 2, t = 1
0 1 0 1
3. Substitute back into r1 or r2 2 3(2) 4
@ 1+2 A=@ 3 A
4(2) 8

33
 VECTORS Dot (scalar) product

4.3 Dot (scalar) product

DB 4.2 The dot product of two vectors c~ d~ can be used to find the angle between them.
Let
0 1 0 1
c1 d
B C ~ B 1C
c~ = @c2 A d = @d2 A
c3 d3

c~ d~ = |~
c ||d~| cos
c~ d~ = c1 d1 + c2 d2 + c3 d3

Learn to add the

following statement to
questions asking are Finding the angle between two lines.
they perpendicular?.
(Often are these two vectors perpendicular)
c~ d~ = 0 therefore
cos x = 0, therefore 1 0 0 1
x = 90. Lines are 2 8
perpendicular. Of Find the angle between @ 3 A and @1A.
course, when lines are 1 3
not perpendicular
replace all = with 6=. 1.
Find c~ d~ in terms of components c~ d~ = 2 8 + 3 1 + ( 1) 3 = 16

2.
p
Find c~ d~ in terms of magnitudes c~ d~ = 22 + 32 + ( 1)2
p p p
82 + 12 + 32 cos = 14 74 cos
p p
3. Equate and solve for 16 = 14 74 cos
16
) cos = p p
14 74
) = 60.2

Note: when = 90 (perpendicular vectors), cos(90) = 0 ) c~ d~ = 0

34
TRIGONOMETRY AND 5

CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
Table of contents & cheatsheet

5.1. Basic trigonometry 36

180
radians = degrees degrees = radians Non-right angle triangles
180
segment
1 2 c b
chord Area of a sector = r A
2
Arc length = r B C
sector a
arc in radians, r = radius. a b c
Sine rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C
Right-angle triangle (triangle with 90 angle)
Use this rule when you know: 2 angles and a side (not
opposite between the angles) or 2 sides and an angle (not
sin = SOH
e

between the sides).

us

opposite

hypotenuse
n
te

Cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2 a b cos C

po

adjacent
hy

cos = CAH
hypotenuse Use this rule when you know: 3 sides or 2 sides and
opposite the angle between them.
adjacent tan = TOA
adjacent 1
Area of a triangle: Area = a b sin C
2
Use this rule when you know: 3 sides or 2 sides and
the angle between them.
Three-figure bearings
Direction given as an angle of a full circle. North is 000 and the angle is expressed in the clockwise direction from North.
So East is 090, South is 180 and West 270.

5.2. Circular functions 41

deg 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180
sin 90 = 1
1 1 1 1 2 3 5
positive angles rad 0
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
p p
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 p 1 p 0

cos 0 = 1 p2 2 2 2 2 2
p
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 p 0 p 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 p p 1
tan 0 p 1 3 1 3 1 p 0
3 3

Trigonometric function y = a sin(b x + c) + d Trigonometric identities

Amplitude: a sin
tan =
360 2 cos
Period: or
b b sin2 + cos2 = 1
Horizontal shift left: +c 2 sin cos = sin 2
Vertical shift up: d cos 2 = cos2 sin2

35
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

5.1 Basic trigonometry

This section offers an overview of some basic trigonometry rules and values that will
recur often. It is worthwhile to know these by heart; but it is much better to understand
how to obtain these values. Like converting between Celsius and Fahrenheit; you can
remember some values that correspond to each other but if you understand how to
obtain them, you will be able to convert any temperature.

5.1.1 Converting between radians and degrees

2 2
3 3 90 3

4 120 60 4
5 135 45
6 6
150 30

radians = degrees
180 0 0
180
360 2

180
degrees = radians

270
3
2

Table 5.1: Common radians/degrees conversions

Degrees 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 180 270 360

2 3 3
Radians 0 2
6 4 3 2 3 4 2

5.1.2 Circle formulas

DB 3.1

segment
1 chord
Area of a sector = r 2
2
Arc length = r

sector
in radians, r = radius.
arc

36
TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry 5

5.1.3 Right-angle triangles

opposite
sin = SOH se
hypotenuse nu
te

opposite
adjacent p o
cos = CAH hy
hypotenuse
opposite
tan = TOA
adjacent
adjacent

Two important triangles to memorize:

5
3 13
5

4 12

The IB loves asking questions about these special triangles which have whole numbers
for all the sides of the right triangles.

30
2 p
3 p
2 45 1

60
45
1 1

Note: these triangles can help you in finding the sin, cos and tan of the angles that you
should memorize, shown in table 5.2. Use SOH, CAH, TOA to find the values.

37
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

Read the question,

does it specify if you
are looking for an acute 5.1.4 Non-right angle triangles
(less than 90) or
obtuse (more than 90)
angle. If not there may
To find any missing angles or side lengths in
be 2 solutions. Exam c A b
hint: Use sketches non-right angle triangles, use the cosine and sine
when working with
B C rule. Remember that the angles in the triangle
worded questions! a add up to 180!
DB 3.6
a b c
Sine rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C
Use this rule when you know:

2 angles and a side or 2 sides and an angle

(not between the angles) (not between the sides)

a
B B
a
b
A

Cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2 a b cos C

Use this rule when you know:

3 sides or 2 sides and the angle between them

a
c C
b
b
a

1
Area of a triangle: Area = a b sin C
2
Use this rule when you know:

3 sides or 2 sides and the angle between them

a
c C
b
b
a

38
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry 5

4ABC : A = 40, B = 73, a = 27 cm.

.
Example

Find C.
C = 180 40 73 = 67

Find b.
a b
=
sin A sin B
7 b
=
sin 40 sin 73
27
b= sin 73 = 40.169 40.2 cm
sin 40

Find c.
c a
=
sin C sin A
27
c= sin 67 = 38.7 cm
sin 40

Find the area.

1
Area = 27.40.2 sin 67
2
= 499.59 500 cm2
.
Example

km z
6.5
35 x
10 km

Find z .
z 2 = 6.52 + 102 2 6.5 10 cos 35
) z 2 = 35.7602
) z = 5.98 km

Find x.
6.5 5.98
=
sin x sin 35
) sin x = 0.6235
) x = sin 1 (0.6235) = 38.6

39
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Basic trigonometry

5.1.5 Three-figure bearings

000
N Three-figure bearings can be used
to indicate compass directions on
maps. They will be given as an
angle of a full circle, so between 000
270 W E 90
and 360. North is always marked
as 000. Any direction from there
can be expressed as the angle in the
S clockwise direction from North.
180
In questions on
three-figure bearings,
.

SW: 45 between South and West = 225 N40E: 40 East of North = 040
Example

you are often

confronted with quite a
lot of text, so it is a N N
good idea to first make N40E
a drawing. You may
also need to create a 040
right angle triangle and
W E W E
use your basic
45
trigonometry.
225
SW
S S

A ship left port A and sailed 20 km in the direction 120.

It then sailed north for 30 km to reach point C . How far from the port is the ship?

1. Draw a sketch C
N

120
W E
A
B
S

2. Find an internal angle of the triangle. = 180 120 = 60

3. Use cosine or sin rule. (here cosine)

AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 2 AB BC cos
AC 2 = 202 + 302 2 20 30 cos 60
1
AC 2 = 400 + 900 2 20 30
p p2
AC = 400 + 900 600 = 700

40
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions 5

5.2 Circular functions

5.2.1 Unit circle

Unit circle
sine = 1 The unit circle is a circle with a
radius of 1 drawn from the origin
of a set of axes. The y-axis
corresponds to sine and the x-axis
cosine = 1 cosine = 1 to cosine; so at the coordinate (0, 1)
it can be said that cosine = 0 and
sine = 1, just like in the sin x and
cos x graphs when plotted.
sine = 1

The unit circle is particularly useful to find all the solutions to a trigonometric equation
within a certain domain. As you can see from their graphs, functions with sin x, cos x or
tan x repeat themselves every given period; this is why they are also called circular
functions. As a result, for each y-value there is an infinite amount of x-values that could
give you this output. This is why questions will give you a set domain that limits the
range of x-values you should consider in your calculations or represent on your sketch
(e.g. 0 x 360).
pos
iti
v
ea
ng

Relations between sin, cos and tan:

les

and have the same sine

and have the same cosine

and have the same tangent
.

sin 30 = sin 150 cos 30 = cos 330 tan 150 = tan 330
Example

150 30 150 30 150 30

30 30 30

41
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions

Table 5.2: Angles to memorize

deg 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180

1 1 1 1 2 3 5
rad 0
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
p p
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 p 1 p 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
p p
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 p 0 p 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 p p 1
tan 0 p 1 3 1 3 1 p 0
3 3

5.2.2 Graphs: trigonometric functions

sin x tan x
y 90 90
y
90 180 270 360
1

0 x

1
3 2 x
2 2

cos x
y
90 180 270 360
1

-
2 2
0 x

1
3 2
2 2

42
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions 5

5.2.3 Transformations
Besides the transformations in the functions chapter, trigonometric functions have some
transformations with their own particular names. For a trigonometric function, the
vertical stretch on a graph is determined by its amplitude, the horizontal stretch by its
period and an upward/downward shift by its axis of oscillation.

A trigonometric function, given by y = a sin(b x + c) + d , has:

an amplitude a;
360 2
a period of or ;
b b
a horizontal shift of +c to the left, in degrees or radians;

vertical shift of +d upwards, oscillates around d .

.

Transformations of y = cos x.
Example

y 90 180 270 360 y 90 180 270 360

2 2 y = 2 cos x
1 y = cos x 1
0 x 0 x
1 1
2 2
3 2 3 2
2 2 2 2

y 90 180 270 360 y 90 180 270 360

2 1 y = cos(4x) 1
1 0 x
0 1
x
1 y = cos(x + 4) 2
2 3
3 2 3 2
2 2 2 2

43
 TRIGONOMETRY AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS Circular functions

5.2.4 Identities and equations

In order to solve trigonometric equations, you will sometimes need to use identities.
Identities allow you to rewrite your equation in a way that will make it easier to solve
DB 3.2 & 3.3 algebraically.

Trigonometric identiy Popular rearrangement

sin sin
tan = cos =
cos tan
sin = cos tan

sin2 + cos2 = 1 sin2 = 1 cos2

cos2 = 1 sin2

2 sin cos = sin 2

cos 2 = cos2 sin2 cos 2 = 1 2 sin2

cos 2 = 2 cos2 1

Solving equations with trigonometric identities

Solve 2 cos2 x + sin x = 1, 0 x 360.

1. Identify which identity from the databook Here we could use either
to use. Note you are always aiming to get sin2 + cos2 = 1 or
an equation with just, sin, cos or tan. cos2 sin2 = cos 2. We should use
the first so that we get an equation with
just sin.

2. Rearrange identity and substitute into cos2 = 1 sin2

equation.
2(1 sin2 x) + sin x = 1
2 2 sin2 x + sin x = 1
2 sin2 x = sin x + 1 = 0

3. Solve for x. Giving answers within the Substitue u for sin x :

2
stated range. Recognise that here the 2u + u + 1 = 0
eqauation looks like a quadratic equation. ( 2u 1)(u 1) = 0
u = sin x = 1 x = 90
u = sin x = 0.5 x = 210 or 330

44
DIFFERENTIATION 6
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 6.1. Polynomials 46

Differentiation is a way to find the gradient of a function at any Product y = uv, then: y 0 = uv 0 + u 0 v
dy
point, written as f 0 (x), y 0 and . u v u 0 uv 0
dx Quotient , then: y 0 =
y=
v v2
Tangent line to a point on a curve is a linear line with the same Chain y = g (u) where u = f (x), then:
gradient as that point on the curve. dy dy d u
=
dx du dx

6.3. Turning points 49

6.2. Tangent and normal 48
f (x)
y Local minumum
Both are linear lines with general formula: y = mx + c.
Local maximum
Tangent line with the same gradient as a single point on a curve.
Point of inflection
1. Use the derivative to find m: the gradient of the
tangent.
2. Input the x-value of the point into f (x) to find y.
3. Input y, m and the x-value into y = m x + c to find c.
x
1
Normal perpendicular to the tangent m =
slope of tangent
1. Use the derivative to find the gradient of the tangent,
1
use m = to find the gradient of the f 0 (x) f 00 (x)
slope of tangent
normal. Local minimum 0 +
2. Input the x-value of the point into f (x) to find y. Local maximum 0
3. Input y, m and the x-value into y = m x + c to find c. Points of inflection 0

6.5. Applications 54
6.4. Sketching graphs 52 Kinematics
Gather information before sketching:
Derivative represents the rate of change, integra-
tion the reverse.
Intercepts x-intercept: f (x) = 0
y-intercept: f (0)
ds dv
=v =a
Turning points minima: f 0 (x) = 0and f 00 (x) < 0 dt dt
maxima: f 0 (x) = 0 and f 00 (x) > 0 s v a
point of inflection: f 00 (x) = 0
Optimization
Asymptotes vertical: x-value when the function divides by 0
horizontal: y-value when x ! 1 Set up simultaneous equations:
1. Use DB1.1 to find the formula for the
Plug the found x-values into f (x) to determine the y-values. area / volume
2. Use the text to set up remaining equa-
tion(s)

45
 DIFFERENTIATION Polynomials

6.1 Polynomials

As you have learnt in the section on functions, a straight line graph has a gradient. This
gradient describes the rate at which the graph is changing and thanks to it we can tell
how steep it will be. In fact gradients can be found for any function - the special thing
about linear functions is that their gradient is always the same (given by m in
y = mx + c). For polynomial functions the gradient is always changing. This is where
calculus comes in handy; we can use differentiation to derive a function using which we
can find the gradient for any value of x.

Using the following steps, you can find the derivative function ( f 0 (x)) for any
polynomial function ( f (x)).

Polynomial a mathematical expression or function that contains several

terms often raised to different powers

e.g. y = 3x 2 , y = 121x 5 + 7x 3 + x
2/3 2/3
or y = 4x + 2x

dy
Principles y = f (x) = a x n ) = f 0 (x) = na x n 1
.
dx

The (original) function is described by y or f (x), the derivative

dy
(gradient) function is described by or f 0 (x).
dx

Derivative of a constant (number) 0

e.g. For f (x) = 5, f 0 (x) = 0

Derivative of a sum sum of derivatives.

If a function you are looking to differentiate is made up of several

summed parts, find the derivatives for each part separately and
then add them together again.

e.g. f (x) = a x n and g (x) = b x m

f 0 (x) + g 0 (x) = na x n 1
+ mb xm 1

46
DIFFERENTIATION Polynomials 6

6.1.1 Rules

With more complicated functions, in which several functions are being multiplied or
divided by one another (rather than just added or substracted), you will need to use the
product or quotient rules. DB 6.2

Product rule when functions are multiplied: y = uv, then: y 0 = uv 0 + u 0 v

dy dv du
which is the same as =u +v
dx dx dx

e.g. y = x 2 cos x, then y 0 = x 2 (cos x)0 + (x 2 )0 cos x = x 2 sin x + 2x cos x

u v u 0 uv 0
Quotient rule when functions are divided: y = , then: y 0 =
v v2
du dv
v u
dy dx dx
which is the same as =
dx v2

x2 (x 2 )0 cos x x 2 (cos x)0 2x cos x + x 2 sin x

e.g. y = , then y 0 = =
cos x (cos x)2 cos2 x

Chain rule function inside another function: y = g (u) where u = f (x), then:
dy dy du
=
dx du dx

Differentiating with the chain rule.

Let y = (cos x)2 , determine the derivative y 0

1. What is the outside function? What is the Inside function:u = cos x

2
inside function? Outside function: y = u

2. Find u 0 and y 0 du dy
u0 = = sin x ; y0 = = 2u
dx du
3. Fill in formula dy dy du
=
dx du dx
= 2u( sin x)
= 2 sin x cos x

47
 DIFFERENTIATION Tangent and normal equation

6.2 Tangent and normal equation

Tangent a straight line that touches a curve at one single point. At that
point, the gradient of the curve is equal to the gradient of the tangent.

Normal a straight line that is perpendicular to the tangent line:

1
slope of normal =
slope of tangent

For any questions with tangent and/or normal lines, use the steps described in the
following example.

Finding the linear function of the tangent.

Let f (x) = x 3 . Find the equation of the tangent at x =2

1. Find the derivative and fill in value of x to f 0 (x) = 3x 2

Steps 1, 2 and 4 are determine slope of tangent
identical for the f 0 (2) = 3 22 = 12
equation of the tangent
and normal 2. Determine the y value f (x) = 23 = 8

3. Plug the slope m and the y value in 8 = 12x + c

y = mx + c

4. Fill in x to find c 8 = 12(2) + c

c = 16
eq. of tangent: y = 12x 16

48
DIFFERENTIATION Turning points 6

Finding the linear function of the normal.

Let f (x) = x 3 . Find the equation of the normal at x =2

1. f 0 (2) = 12 Steps 1, 2 and 4 are

identical for the
2. f (x) = 8 equation of the tangent
and normal
3. Determine the slope of the normal 1
m=
1 12
m= and plug it and the
slope tangent 1
8= x+c
y -value into y = mx + c 12
4. Fill in x to find c 1
8= (2) + c
12
49
c=
6
1 49
eq. of normal: y= x+
12 6

6.3 Turning points

There are three types of turning points:

1. Local maxima

2. Local minima

3. Points of inflection

We know that when f 0 (x) = 0 there will be a maximum or a minimum, however, we

dont know which if we do not have a sketch. We also have no way of determining a
point of inflection from the first derivative.

If you take the derivative of a derivative function (one you have already derived) you get
the second derivate! In mathematical notation, the second derivative is written as y 00 ,
d2 y
f 00 (x) or . We can use this to determine whether a point on a graph is a maximum, a
dx 2
minimum or a point of inflection as demonstrated in the following Figure 6.1.

49
 DIFFERENTIATION Turning points

Figure 6.1: Graph that shows a local maximum, a local minimum and points of inflection
Notice how the points f (x) y Local minumum
of inflection of f (x) are
minima and maxima
Local maximum
in f 0 (x) and thus Point of inflection
equal 0 in f 00 (x)

f 0 (x) y f 0 (x) = 0
f 0 (x) = 0
f 0 (x) = anything but
is a local max/min of
f 0 (x)

f 00 (x) y f 00 (x) > 0 positive

f 00 (x) < 0 (negative)
f 00 (x) = 0

50
DIFFERENTIATION Turning points 6

Finding turning points.

The function f (x) = x 3 + x 2 5x 5 is shown. Use the first and second derivative to
find turning points: the minima, maxima and points of inflection (POI).

2.5

5 2.5 2.5 5
2.5

7.5

1. Find the first and second derivative. f 0 (x) = 3x 2 + 2x 5

f 00 (x) = 6x + 2

2. Find xmin and xmax by setting f 0 (x) = 0. 3x 2 + 2x 5=0

5
GDC yields: x = 1 or x =
3
3. Find y -coordinates by inserting the f (1) = (1)3 + (1)2 5(1) 5 = 8,
x -value(s) into the original f (x). so xmin at (1, 8).
3 2
5 5 5
f = +
3 3 3

5
5 5 = 1.48(3 s.f.),
3
5
so xmax at , 1.48 .
3
4. Find POI by setting f 00 (x) = 0 6x + 2 = 0
3 2
5. Then enter values of x into original 1 1 1 1
function to find coordinates
f = + 5 5
3 3 3 3
y = 3.26 (3 s.f.)

1
so POI at , 3.26
3

51
 DIFFERENTIATION Sketching graphs

6.4 Sketching graphs

When sketching a graph, you will need the following information:

1. Intercepts,

2. Turning points (maximums, minimums and inflection points) and

3. Asymptotes

Sketching a function.

x2
Sketch the function f (x) =
x2 16
1. Note down all information:

1. Intercepts: 1. y -intercept when x = 0:

y -intercept: f (0) 02
x -intercept: f (x) = 0 f (0) = = 0 (0, 0)
02 16
x2
f (x) = =0 x =0 (same)
x 2 16
This is the only x -intercept.

32x
2. Turning points: 2. Turning point: f 0 (x) = ,
min/max: f 0 (x) = 0 x2 162
x = 0 (0, 0) (Found with quotient rule).
inflection: f 00 (x) = 0
f 0 = 0 when x = 0.

3. Asymptotes: 3. Vertical asymptotes when

vertical: denominator = 0, x= b, x 2 16 = 0, so x = 4 and x = 4.
log(x + b )
for
Horizontal asymptote:
horizontal: lim , y = c , for x2
x!1 or
x! 1 lim f (x) = = 1, so y =1
ax + c x!1 x2

To find the y -coordinate, input the

x -value into the original f (x).

52
DIFFERENTIATION Sketching graphs 6

2. Mark out information on axis Clearly indicate them to guarantee marks

vertical asymptotes

x= 4
f (x) x =4

horizontal
asymptote y =1
1
4 0 4 x
x and y intercept,
turning point

3. Think about where your lines are coming f (x)

from

1
4 0 4 x

4. Join the dots f (x)

53
 DIFFERENTIATION Applications

6.5 Applications

6.5.1 Kinematics

Kinematics deals with the movement of bodies over time. When you are given one
function to calculate displacement, velocity or acceleration you can use differentiation or
integration to determine the functions for the other two.

Displacement, s Z
ds
v dt
dt ds
Velocity, v =
dt Z
dv
a dt
dt Acceleration,
dv d2 s
a= =
dt dt 2

The derivative represents the rate of change, i.e. the gradient of a graph. So, velocity is
the rate of change in displacement and acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.

Answering kinematics questions.

A diver jumps from a platform at time t = 0 seconds. The distance of the diver above
2
water level at time t is given by s (t ) = 4.9t + 4.9t + 10, where s is in metres.
Find when velocity equals zero. Hence find the maximum height of the diver.

1. Find an equation for velocity by v(t ) = 9.8t + 4.9

differentiating equation for distance

2. Solve for v(t ) = 0 9.8t + 4.9 = 0, t = 0.5

3. Put value into equation for distance to s (0.5) = 4.9(0.5)2 + 4.9(0.5) + 10 =

find height above water 11.225 m

54
DIFFERENTIATION Applications 6

6.5.2 Optimization

We can use differentiation to find minimum and maximum areas/volumes of various

shapes. Often the key skill with these questions is to find an expression using simple
geometric formulas and rearranging in order to differentiate.

Finding the min/max area or volume

The sum of height and base of a triangle is 40 cm. Find an expression for its area in
terms of x , its base length. Hence find its maximum area.

1. Find expressions for relevant dimensions length of the base ( b ) = x

of the shape height + base = 40
so h + x = 40
1
area of triangle A = x h
2
2. Reduce the number of variables by h = 40 x , substitute h into A:
Since
solving the simultaneous equations 1 1 2
A = x(40 x) = x + 20x
2 2
3. Differentiate f 0 (x) = x + 20

4. Find x when f 0 (x) = 0 x + 20 = 0 ) x = 20

5. Plug x value in f (x) 1 2

20 + 20(20) = 200 + 400 = 200 cm2
2

If an expression is given in the problem, skip to step 2 (e.g. cost/profit problems).

55
INTEGRATION 7
Table of contents & cheatsheet

7.1. Indefinite integral 58

Integration with an internal function
Z
f (a x + b ) dx

Z 1
n x n+1 Integrate normally and multiply by
x dx = +C n 6= 1 coefficient of x
n+1
Integration by substitution
Z
f g (x) g 0 (x) dx

7.2. Definite integral 60

Be careful, the order you substitute a and b into the
Z b Z indefinite integral is relevant for your answer:
f (x) dx = F (b ) F (a) where F= f (x) dx Z b Z a
a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a b

Area between a curve and the x-axis

By determining a definite integral for a function, you can find Note: the area below the x-axis gives a negative value
the area beneath the curve that is between the two x-values for its area. You must take that value as a positive value
indicated as its limits. to determine the area between a curve and the x-axis.
y f (x) Sketching the graph will show what part of the function
Z b lies below the x-axis.
Acurve = f (x) dx
a a b x

Area between two curves

Using definite integrals you can also find the areas enclosed With g (x) as the top function (furthest from the x-
between curves. axis). For the area between curves, it does not matter
y what is above/below the x-axis.
Zb f (x)
Abetween = g (x) f (x) dx
a a x
b g (x)

Volume of revolution

Besides finding areas under and between curves, integra-

Z b Z b tion can also be used to calculate the volume of the solid
V = y 2 dx V = y 2 dx that a curve would make if it were rotated 360 around
a a its axis - this is called the volume of revolution.

57
 INTEGRATION Indefinite integral and boundary condition

7.1 Indefinite integral and boundary

condition

Integration is essentially the opposite of derivation. The following equation shows how
to integrate a function:

Z
x n+1
x n dx = +C, n 6= 1
n+1

As you can see, every time you integrate the power on your variable will increase by 1
(this is opposite of what happens when you derive, then it always decreases). Whenever
you integrate you also always add +C to this function. This accounts for any constant
that may have been lost while deriving. As you may have noticed, whenever you do
derivation any constants that were in the original function, f (x), become 0 in the
derivative function, f 0 (x). In order to determine the value of C , you need to fill in a
point that lies on the curve to set up an equation in which you can solve for C .
(Note: this is the same thing you need to do when finding the y-intercept, C , for a linear
function see Functions: Linear functions).

Standard integration.

Let f 0 (x) = 12x 2 2

Given that f ( 1) = 1, find f (x).

Z Z Z
1. Separate summed parts 2 2
(optional)
12x 2 dx = 12x dx + 2 dx

Z Z
2. Integrate 2
f (x) = 12x dx + 2 dx =
12 3
x 2x + C
3
3. Fill in values of x and f (x) to find C Since f ( 1) = 1,
3
4( 1) 2( 1) + C = 1
C =3

So: f (x) = 4x 3 2x + 3

58
 INTEGRATION Indefinite integral and boundary condition 7

7.1.1 Integration with an internal function

Z
1
f (ax + b ) dx integrate normally and multiply by
coefficient of x
.

Find the following integrals:

Example

Z Z
e3x 4 dx cos(5x 2) dx

Coefficient of x = 3, so Coefficient of x = 5, so
R 3x 4 1 R 1
e dx = e3x 4 + C cos(5x 2) dx = sin(5x 2) + C
3 5

7.1.2 Integration by substitution

Z
f g (x) g 0 (x) dx

Integration by substitution: usually these questions will be the most

complicated-looking integrals you will have to solve. So if an integration question looks
complicated, try to look for a function and its derivative inside the function you are
looking to integrate; it is likely to be a question where you have to use the substitution
method! Study the example to see how its done.

Integrate by substitution
Z
3
Find 3x 2 e x dx

1. Identify the inside function u , this is the g (x) = u = x 3

function whose derivative is also inside
f (x).

2. du du
Find the derivative u0 = = 3x 2
dx dx
Z Z
3. du u du
Substitute u and into the integral e dx = e u du = e u + C
dx dx
(this way dx cancels out)
Z
4. Substitute u back to get a function with x 3
eu + C = ex + C

59
 INTEGRATION Definite integral

7.2 Definite integral

If there are limit values indicated on your integral, you are looking to find a definite
integral. This means that these values will be used to find a numeric answer rather than a
function.

This is done in the following way, where the values for a and b are substituted as x-values
into your indefinite integral:

Z b Z
f (x) dx = F (b ) F (a) where F= f (x) dx
a

Be careful, the order you substitute a and b into the indefinite integral is relevant for
your answer:
Zb Za
f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a b

Solving definite integrals.

Z 7
Find 12x 2 2 dx , knowing that F (x) = 4x 3 2x
3

1. Z 7 7
Find the indefinite integral
(without +C ) 12x 2 2 dx = 4x 3 2x
3
3

2. F (b ) F (a)
Fill in: = 4(7)3 2(7) 4(3)3 2(3)
(integral x = b ) (integral x = a)
= 1256

60
INTEGRATION Definite integral 7

7.2.1 Area

Area between a curve and the x -axis

y
By determining a definite integral for a DB 6.5

function, you can find the area beneath

f (x)
the curve that is between the two
x-values indicated as its limits.
a b x
Z b
Acurve = f (x) dx
a

Note: the area below the x-axis gives a

negative value for its area. You must
y take that value as a positive value to
determine the area between a curve and
the x-axis. Sketching the graph will
f (x) show what part of the function lies
c below the x-axis. So
a b x Zb Zc
Acurve = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a b

or
Z c
Acurve = f (x) dx
a

Area between two curves

y Using definite integrals you can also

find the areas enclosed between curves:
f (x)
Zb
Abetween = g (x) f (x) dx
a

With g (x) as the top function

a b x (furthest from the x-axis). For the area
between curves, it does not matter what
g (x) is above/below the x-axis.

61
 INTEGRATION Definite integral

Finding areas with definite integrals.

Let y = x3 4x 2 + 3x
Find the area from x = 0 to x = 3.

1. Find the x -intercepts: f (x) = 0 x 3 4x 2 + 3x = 0, using the GDC:

x = 0 or x = 1 or x = 3

2. If any of the x -intercepts lie within the y

range, sketch the function to see which
parts lie above and below the x -axis. 1

1 2 3 x
1
2

3.
Z 1
Setup integrals and integrate
Left: x3 4x 2 + 3x dx =
0
1
1 4 4 3 3 2
= x x + x
4 3 2 0

1 4 3
= + (0)
4 3 2
5
=
12

Z 3
Right: x3 4x 2 + 3x dx =
1

1 4 4 3 3 2 3
= x x + x
4 3 2 1

1 4 4 3 3 2
= (3) (3) + (3)
4 3 2

1 4 4 3 3 2
(1) (1) + (1)
4 3 2
8
=
3

4. Add up the areas (and remember areas 5 8 37

+ =
are never negative!) 12 3 12

62
 INTEGRATION Definite integral 7

7.2.2 Volume of revolution

Besides finding areas under and between curves, integration can also be used to calculate
the volume of the solid that a curve would make if it were rotated 360 around its axis
this is called the volume of revolution. DB 6.5

Z b Z b
2
V = y dx V= y 2 dx
a a

y y

f (x)

a b x a b x

rotate around x-axis

p
.

Find the area from x = 1 to x = 4 for the function y = x.

Example

Z 4p 4
2 3 2 3 2 3 14
A= x dx = x 2 = (4) 2 (1) =
2
1 3 1 3 3 3

This area is rotated 360 (= 2) around the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid.
Z 4p Z 4 4
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 15
V = x dx = x dx = x = (4) (1) =
1 1 2 1 2 2 2

63
PROBABILITY 8
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 8.1. Single events 66

Sample space the list of all possible outcomes.

A B
Event the outcomes that meet the requirement.
Number of ways A can happen
Probability for event A, P (A) = .
all outcomes in the sample space

8.2. Multiple events 68

Conditional probability used for successive events that come after one another (as in tree diagrams).
P (A \ B)
The probability of A, given that B has happened: P (A|B) = .
P (B)
Probabilities for successive events can be expressed through tree diagrams. In general, if you are dealing with a question that
asks for the probability of:
one event and another, you multiply
one event or another, you add

8.3. Distributions 70
Expected values
X
E(X ) = xP (X = x)
On calculator:
Binomial distribution with parameters n and p it should
be used for situations with only 2 outcomes and lots of Binompdf(n,p,r) P(x=r)
trials Binomcdf(n,p,r) P(Xr)
n r n r
P (X = x) = P 1 p Mean np
r
Varience npq
n n!
where = nCr = , n = number of trials,
r r !(n r )!
p = probability of success, r = number of success.
total area = 1

mean St. dv. x 0 1 z

Notation: X N (, 2)

x
Transform to standard N: Z =

On calculator: normal cdf (lower bound, upper bound, mean (= ), standard deviation (= ))

65
 PROBABILITY Single events (Venn diagrams)

8.1 Single events (Venn diagrams)

Probability for single events can be expressed through venn diagrams.

Sample space the list of all possible outcomes.

Event the outcomes that meet the require-
A B ment.
Probability for event A,

Number of ways A can happen

0 P (A) =
all outcomes in the sample space

Here the shaded circle.

Imagine I have a fruit bowl containing 6 apples and 4 bananas.

.

I pick a piece of fruit.

Example

What is the probability of picking each fruit?

Apple=0.6 Banana=0.4

In independent events
P (A \ B) =
P (A) P (B). It will
often be stated in
questions if events are
independent.
.
As apples cannot be bananas this is mutually exclusive, therefore P (A[ B) = P (A) + P (B)
and P (A \ B) = 0. It is also an exhaustive event as there is no other options apart from
apples and bananas. If I bought some oranges the same diagram would then be not
exhaustive (oranges will lie in the Sample Space). This is not mutually exclusive as both
apples and bananas are yellow fruits. Here we are interested in the intersect P (A \ B) of
apples and yellow fruit, as a yellow apple is in both sets
P (A \ B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A [ B).

Of the apples 2 are red, 2 are green and 2 are yellow.

Example

What is the probability of picking a yellow apple?

A Yellow apples B

66
 PROBABILITY Single events (Venn diagrams) 8

What is the probability of picking an apple or a yellow fruit?

.
Example

A B

This is a union of two sets: apple and yellow fruit. When an exhaustive
event, as here, the
probability of the union
The union of events A and B is: is 1.

when A happens;
when B happens;
when both A and B happen P (A [ B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A \ B).

What is the probability of not picking a yellow fruit?

.
Example

A B

This is known as the compliment of B or B 0 . B 0 = 1 B.

Here we are interested in everything but the yellow fruit.

What is the probability of picking an apple given I pick a yellow fruit?

.
Example

Yellow apples

Yellow
Apples
fruits

This is conditional probability in a single event. Do not use the formula in the
0.2 1
formula booklet. Here we are effectively narrowing the sample space = = .
(0.2 + 0.4) 3

67
 PROBABILITY Multiple events (tree Diagrams)

You can think of it like removing the non yellow apples from the fruit bowl before
choosing.

P (A \ B)
Conditional probability P (A|B) = .
P (B)

8.2 Multiple events (tree Diagrams)

Dependent events two events are dependent if the outcome of event A

Questions involving
dependent events will
often involve elements
that are drawn without
replacement.
Remember that the
probabilities will be
changing with each
new set of branches.
affects the outcome of event B so that the probability is changed.
Independent events two events are independent if the fact that A occurs
does not affect the probability of B occurring.
Conditional probability used for successive events that come after one
another (as in tree diagrams). The probability of A, given that B has
P (A \ B)
happened: P (A|B) = .
P (B)

Probabilities for successive events can be expressed through tree diagrams. In general, if
you are dealing with a question that asks for the probability of:

one event and another, you multiply

one event or another, you add

68
. PROBABILITY Multiple events (tree Diagrams) 8

Two disks are randomly drawn without replacement from a stack of 4 red and 5
Example

blue disks. Draw a tree diagram for all outcomes.

The probability of drawingtwo red disks can be found by multiplying both

4 3
probabilities of getting red .
9 8

1st draw 2nd draw The probabilities

making up one branch
3 4 3 12 should always add up
8 R R and R: = to 1. The probabilities
9 8 72 describing all the
4 R possible outcomes
should also equal 1
9 5 4 5 20 (that is, the
B R and B: =
8 9 8 72 probabilities that we
found by multiplying
along the individual
4 5 4 20 branches).

8 R B and R: =
5 9 8 72
9 B
4 5 4 20
B B and B: =
8 9 8 72

What is the probability to draw one red and one blue disk?
P (one red and one blue)
P (R) and P (B) or P (B) and P (R)
P (R) P (B) P (B) P (R) It is common for
conditional proability
20 20 40 5 questions to relate to
+ = =
72 72 72 9 previous answers.

What is the probability to draw at least one red disk?

P (at least one red)
P (R and R) + P (B and R) + P (R and B) = 1 P (B and B)
12 20 20 20 52 13
+ + =1 = =
72 72 72 72 72 18

What is the probability of picking a blue disc given that at least one red disk is
picked?
5
P (a blue disk) 10
P (blue disk | at least one red disk) = = 9 =
P (at least one red disk) 13 13
18

Another way of dealing with multiple events is with a sample space diagram or a
probability distribution.

69
 PROBABILITY Distributions

Probability distributions.

A fair coin is tossed twice, X is the number of heads obtained.

1. Draw a sample space diagram H T

H H, H H, T
T T, H T, T

2. Tabulate the probability distribution

x 0 1 2
1 1 1
P (X = x)
4 2 4

(The sum of P (X = x) always equals 1)

X
3. Find the expected value of X : E(X ) E(X ) = xP (X = x)
1 1 1
=0 +1 +2 =1
4 2 4
So if you toss a coin twice, you expect to
get heads once.

8.3 Distributions

Probability distribution a list of each possible value and their probabilities.

8.3.1 Distribution by function

A probability distribution can also be given by a function.

Probability distribution by function.

x 1
1
P (X = x) = k for x = 1, 2, 3. Find constant k.
3
X 1 2 3
1. 1 1 1 1 1 1
Use the fact that P (X = x) = 1
k +k +k =1
3 3 3
2. Simplify and solve for k 1 1 13 9
k + k + k = k = 1. So, k= .
3 9 9 13

70
PROBABILITY Distributions 8

8.3.2 Binomial distribution

Binomial distribution with parameters n and p it should be used for

situations with only 2 outcomes and lots of trials

n n!
where = nCr =
r r !(n r )!
n r n r n = number of trials
P (X = x) = P 1 p
r p = probability of success
r = number of success

8.3.3 Normal distribution

A normal distribution is one type of probability distribution which gives a bell-shape

curve if all the values and their corresponding probabilities are plotted.

We can use normal distributions to find the probability of obtaining a certain value or a
range of values. This can be found using the area under the curve; the area under the
bell-curve between two x-values always corresponds to the probability for getting an
x-value in this range. The total area under the normal distribution bell-curve is always 1;
this is because the total probability of getting any x-value adds up to 1 (or, in other
words, you are 100% certain that your x-value will lie somewhere on the x-axis below
the bell-curve).

total area = 1

mean St. dv. x 0 1 z

Even though you will be

using your GDC to find
proabilities for normal
distributions, its
Notation: X N (, 2)
always very useful to
draw a diagram to
x indicate for yourself
Transform to standard N: Z =
(and the examiner)
what area or x-value
On calculator: normal cdf (lower bound, upper bound, mean (= ), standard you are looking for.
deviation (= ))

71
 PROBABILITY Distributions

Finding mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution.

All nails longer than 2.4 cm (5.5%) and shorter than 1.8 cm (8%) are rejected. What is
the mean and standard deviation length?

1. Write down equations P (L < 1.8) = 0.08

P (L > 2.4) = 0.055

2. Draw a sketch!

1.8 2.4 x

3. Write standardized equation of the form 1.8
P (Z < . . .) P Z< = 0.08

2.4
P Z< = 0.055

2.4
P Z< =1 0.055

= 0.945

4. Use inVnorm on calculator inVnorm (0.08, 0, 1 = 1.4051)

inVnorm (0.945, 0, 1 = 1.5982)

5. Equate and solve 1.8

= 1.4051

2.4
= 1.5982

) = 2.08, = 0.200

72
PROBABILITY Distributions 8

The weights of pears are normally distributed with mean = 110 g

and standard deviation = 8g
Find the percentage of pears that weigh between 100 g and 130 g. 8% of pears weigh
more than m grams.

1. Sketch!
Indicate:
The mean = 100 g
Lower bound = 100 g
Upper bound = 130 g
And shade the area you are looking to
find.

100 110 130 weight (g)

2. Use normalcdf on your GDC normcdf(100, 130, 110, 8)

2nd
! Distr ! normalcdf = 0.888 = 88.8%

Find m. 250 pears are weighed.

1. Sketch!

8% = 0.08

110 x weight (g)

2. Set probability Area to the left of x =1 0.08 = 0.92

3. Use invnorm invnorm(0.92, 110, 8) = 121 g

73
 PROBABILITY Distributions

Find the expected value of pears that weigh less than 105 g

1. Sketch!
Set lower and upper bounds:
Lower bound = 100 g
Upper bound = 130 g

105 110 weight (g)

2. Use normcdf normcdf(-1E99, 105, 110, 8) = 0.266

3. Use expected value formula 250 0.266 = 66.5

74
STATISTICS 9
Table of contents & cheatsheet

Definitions 9.2. Statistical graphs 78

Population the entire group from which statistical data is Frequency the number of times an event occurs in an
drawn (and which the statistics obtained represent). experiment
Sample the observations actually selected from the popu- Cumulative frequency the sum of the frequency for a
lation for a statistical test. particular class and the frequencies for all the the
Random Sample a sample that is selected from the classes below it
population with no bias or criteria; the observations Histogram Cumulative frequency
are made at random.
Discrete finite or countable number of possible values
(e.g. money, number of people)
Continuous infinite amount of increments
(e.g. time, weight)
Note: continuous data can be presented as discrete data,
e.g. if you round time to the nearest minute or weight to Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Box and whisker plot
the nearest kilogram.

9.1. Descriptive statistics 76 lowest value highest value

Q1 Q2 Q3
Mean the average value,
the sum of the data
x = 9.3. Bi-variate analysis 81
no. of data points
Mode the value that occurs most often
Interpretation of r -values Scatter diagrams
Median when the data set is ordered low to high and the
number of data points is: r -value correlation Perfect positive
y
odd: the median is the middle value; 0.00 |r | 0.25 very weak
even: the median is the average of the two 0.25 |r | 0.50 weak
middle values. 0.50 |r | 0.75 moderate
0.75 |r | 1.00 strong
Range largest x-value smallest x-value
P x
2 f (x x2 )
Variance = calculator only Correlation does not mean
n No correlation
p causation. y
Standard deviation = variance calculator only

Grouped data: data presented as an interval.

Use the midpoint as the x-value in all calculations.
Q1 first quartile = 25th percentile. x

Q2 median = 50th percentile

Weak negative
Q3 third quartile = 75th percentile y
Q3 Q1 interquartile range (IQR) = middle 50 percent

75
 STATISTICS Descriptive statistics

9.1 Descriptive statistics

The mean, mode, and median, are all way of measuring averages. Depending on the
distribution of the data, the values for the mean, mode, and median can differ slightly or
a lot. Therefore, the mean, mode, and median are all useful for understanding your data
set.

x 3 6 7 13
Example data set: 6, 3, 6, 13, 7, 7 in a table:
frequency 1 2 2 1
P P
the sum of the data x fx
Mean the average value, x = = = P
no. of data points n f
3 + 6 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 13 1 3 + 2 6 + 2 7 + 1 13
e.g. x = = =7
6 1+2+2+1

Mode the value that occurs most often (highest frequency)

e.g. The example data set has 2 modes: 6 and 7

Median the middle value when the data set is ordered low to high. Even
number of values: the median is the average of the two middle values.
1
Find for larger values as n + .
2
e.g. data set from low to high: 3, 6, 6, 7, 7, 13
6+7
median = = 6.5
2

Range largest x-value smallest x-value

e.g. range = 13 3 = 10

P
2 f (x x2 )
Variance = calculator only
n
p
Standard deviation = variance calculator only

Note on grouped data: data presented as an interval; e.g. 1020 cm.

Use the midpoint as the x-value in all calculations. So for 1020 cm use
15 cm.

For 1020 cm, 10 is the lower boundary, 20 is the upper boundary and
the width is 20 10 = 10.

76
 STATISTICS Descriptive statistics 9

Adding a constant to all the values in a data set or multiplying the entire data set by a
constant influences the mean and standard deviation values in the following way:

Table 9.1: Adding or multiplying by a constant

adding constant k multiplying by k

mean x + k k x
standard deviation k

Q1 first quartile = 25th percentile.

The value for x so that 25% of all the data values are to it.

Q2 median = 50th percentile

Q3 third quartile = 75th percentile

Q3 Q1 interquartile range (IQR) = middle 50 percent

.

Snow depth is measured in centimeters:

Example

30, 75, 125, 55, 60, 75, 65, 65, 45, 120, 70, 110.
Find the range, the median, the lower quartile, the upper quartile and the
interquartile range.

First always rearrange data into ascending order: 30, 45, 55, 60, 65, 65, 70, 75, 75, 110, 120, 125

1. The range:
125 30 = 95 cm
2. The median: there are 12 values so the median is between the 6th and 7th value.

65 + 70
= 67.5 cm
2
3. The lower quartile: there are 12 values so the lower quartile is between the 3rd
and 4th value.
55 + 60
= 57.5 cm
2
4. The upper quartile: there are 12 values so the lower quartile is between the 9th
and 10th value.
75 + 110
= 92.5 cm
2
5. The IQR
92.5 57.5 = 35 cm

77
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs

9.2 Statistical graphs

Frequency the number of times an event occurs in an experiment

Cumulative frequency the sum of the frequency for a particular class and
the frequencies for all the the classes below it

Age 17 18 19 20 21
No. of students 21 45 93 61 20
Cumulative freq. 21 66 159 220 240

f A histogram is used to display the

100
90 frequency for a specific condition. The
80 frequencies (here: # of students) are
70
60 displayed on the y-axis, and the
50 different classes of the sample (here:
40 age) are displayed on the x-axis. As
30
20 such, the differences in frequency
10 between the different classes assumed in
Age the sample can easily be compared.
17 18 19 20 21

cf The cumulative frequency graph is used

to display the development of the
250 frequencies as the classes of the event
increase. The graph is plotted by using
200 the sum of all frequencies for a
particular class, added to the frequencies
150
for all the classes below it. The classes
100 of the event (age) are displayed on the
x-axis, and the frequency is displayed
50 on the y-axis. The cumulative
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
frequency graph always goes upwards,
because the cumulative frequency
17 18 19 20 21 Age increases as you include more classes.

78
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs 9

Box and whisker plots neatly summarize the distribution of the data. It gives information
about the range, the median and the quartiles of the data. The first and third quartiles are
at the ends of the box, the median is indicated with a vertical line in the interior of the
box, and the maximum and minimum points are at the ends of the whiskers.

Figure 9.1: Box and whisker plot

lowest value highest value

Q1 Q2 Q3

Outliers will be any points lower than Q1 1.5 IQR and larger than
Q3 + 1.5 IQR (IQR =interquartile range)

To identify the value of Q1 , Q2 and Q3 , it is easiest to use the cumulative frequency

graph. First, determine the percentage of the quartile in question. Second, divide the
total cumulative frequency of the graph (i.e. the total sample size) by 100 and multiply by
the corresponding percentage. Then, you will have found the frequency (y-value) at
which 25% for Q1 / 50% for Q2 / 75% for Q3 of the sample is represented. Then, to find
the x-value, find the corresponding x-value for the previously identified y-value.
.

Using the histogram, create a cumulative frequency graph and us it to construct

Example

a box and whisker diagram.

12

10
Lenght (cm)

20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of fish

79
 STATISTICS Statistical graphs

Write out the table for frequency and cumulative frequency.

.
Example
Age 2030 3040 4050 5060 6070 7080 8090 90100 100110 110120
Frequency 2 3 5 7 11 5 6 9 1 1
Cumulative f. 2 5 10 17 28 33 39 48 49 50

Plot on cumulative frequency chart. Remember to use the midpoint of the date, e.g.,
25 for 2030.

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115

Use graph to find Q1 , Q2 and Q3 .

55
50
45
40
35 Q1 25% of 50 = 12.5 ! 48
30
Q2 50% of 50 = 25 ! 62
25
20 Q3 75% of 50 = 37.5 ! 83
15
10
5
Q1 Q2 Q3

0 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115

Plot box and whiskers.

20 48 62 83 120

80
STATISTICS Bi-variate analysis 9

9.3 Bi-variate analysis

Bi-variate analysis is a method of assessing how two (bi) sets of data (variables) correlate
to one another. We use persons correlation to put a number to this relationship

Pearsons correlation r is a measure to assess the linear correlation between

two variables, where 1 is total positive correlation, 0 is no correlation,
and 1 is total negative correlation.

Interpretation of r -values:
r -value 0 |r | 0.25 0.25 |r | 0.50 0.50 |r | 0.75 0.75 |r | 1
correlation very weak weak moderate strong

Scatter diagrams

Perfect positive correlation r = 1

y

However it is important to
remember this maxim:
Correlation does not mean
causation.
x
No correlation r = 0
Just because two variable have a
y
relationship it does not mean they
cause one another. For example Ice
cream sales show a strong
correlation to the number deaths
by drowning. Therefore we might
falsely state ice cream consumption
x causes drowning. But it is more
plausible that both are caused by
Weak negative correlation 1< r <0 warm weather leading to more
y desire for ice cream and swimming
and are just correlated.

81