CHAPTER 1: TEACHING APTITUDE OUTLINE

I. ConceptofTeaching
II.NatureandCharacteristicsofTeaching
III.AimandModesofTeaching
IV. ObjectivesofTeaching
V. ModernConceptsofTeaching
VI. BasicRequirementsofTeaching
VII. FactorsEffectingTeaching
VIII. MethodsofTeaching
A. Accordingtodifferentschoolsofphilosophy
B. RecommendedbySecondaryEducationCommission(19521953)
C. SpecificMethods
D. TeachingAids
E.EvaluationSystems
Chapter 1: Teaching Aptitude (From I to VII)

I. Concept of Teaching
Education is important for:
Preservation and transmission of culture
Preparation for a vocation

A proper definition of teaching should:

Identify whether teaching is a process or product
Indicate Constitutional factors
Reveal Objectives
Reveal Organizational & Structural Aspect

Definitions of Teaching

1. Morrison
A disciplined social process
Where the teacher influences the behaviour of less experienced pupil
Helps them develop according to the need & ideas of the society

2. Smith
An organized system of specific activities aimed to help the learner learn something
 Considered a tripolar process involving an agent, goal & intervening variables

3. Brubacher
Where the pupils play a central role

4. Gage
Personal relationship between teacher & taught resulting in behaviour modification

5. Amidon
A process of cooperative social interaction between teacher and taught

6. Clarke
All organized activities resulting in behaviour modification

7. Green
What a teacher does for the development of a child

II. Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Nature of Teaching:

a. Dynamic, Social & Humane: Influenced by human & social factors

b. An Art & Science: Exercise of being systematic & including talent & creativity
c. Diverse in Application: There are various forms of teaching

Characteristics of Teaching

a. A system of actions
b. A professional activity
c. Subjected to analysis & assessment
d. An interactive process
e. A specialized task
f. A collection of various modes

III. Aims & Modes of Teaching

Aims of Teaching

a. Change the behaviour of students Teaching

b. Improve learning skills of students Conditioning
c. Shaping behaviour & conduct Training
 d. Acquisition of knowledge Instruction
e. Formation of beliefs - Indoctrination

Modes of Teaching

1. Training helps to shape conduct and various skills

2. Instruction & Indoctrination work on a higher footing than conditioning & training
3. Instruction is concerned with the development of knowledge & understanding in an individual
4. Teaching is aimed towards the shaping of a total individual
5. Indoctrination is a high level of teaching shaping beliefs & ideals

IV. Objectives of Teaching

Desired changes in pupils
Shape behaviour & conduct
Acquisition of knowledge
Improve learning skills
Formation of a belief system
Provide a social & efficient member to the society

V. Modern Concepts of Teaching

a. Questioning

By the teacher to the student and student to the teacher

b. Discussion

Clears doubts of students

Expression of thought
Teacher directs discussion

c. Investigation

Either individual or group after the teacher presents the information

Can be followed by expression of thoughts of the students

d. Expression

Can be in the form of practical activities

VI. Basic Requirements in Teaching

 a. Three variables in teaching Includes the Teacher, Student & Environmental factors
b. Professionalism
c. Suitable Environment
d. Teacher Student Relationship
e. Students Discipline
f. Teacher & Students devotion to teaching & learning

Learner Characteristics

i. Readiness Motivation, interest & curiosity to learn

ii. Exercise Practice what is learnt
iii. Effect Activities associated with pleasure are preferred over those that lead to pain or punishment
iv. Attitudes & Habits Must be positive & encouraging
v. Absence of anger & jealousy- They weaken learning abilities
vi. Slow beginning followed by gradual development of interests

VII. Factors Effecting Teaching

The three variables of the teacher, student & environment
Teacher student relationship
Methods of teaching used
Teacher- Administration relationship
The social environment

Chapter 1: Teaching Aptitude (Part VIII)

VIII. Methods of Teaching

Teaching is an exercise of both talent & creativity involving a repertoire of skills, techniques and
procedures. The teaching profession has faced many challenges and transformations and has adopted recent
and sophisticated technology.

The act of teaching has three phases mainly,

Pre-Active: Planning phase

Inter-Active: Implementation of what was planned i.e. actual teaching
Post- Active: Evaluating activities that serve as feedback

There are five steps involved in the process of teaching:

a. Preparation

Of both the teacher and student

Teacher must identify the level of the children
 The teacher can introduce the lesson by asking appropriate questions from a previous chapter to connect
it to the new chapter
Relevant topics/stories can be discussed & narrated in class
Introduction must be brief and create interest to stimulate curiosity in students

b. Presentation

Teacher must state the aim of the lesson to be taught so that the students can prepare themselves for what
they are expecting
The teacher then presents the lesson by using different materials, presenting facts and other principles
relevant to the lesson
The teacher can leave some area of the lesson for the student to explore

c. Comparison

The third step of learning where the student is presented with the opportunity to compare two sets of facts

d. Generalization

By observation and comparison various conclusions can be drawn

Teachers must aid the students when they arrive at incorrect generalizations
The students must understand the law/principle taught by the teacher for this stage to be successful

e. Application

Knowledge loses half its value unless if used in the discovery of further facts and their application to new
situations
Makes learning meaningful and permanent
Serves purpose of revision of what has been learnt
Children can be evaluated through examinations

A. Methods of Teaching According to Different Schools of

Philosophy
a. Methods by Idealism

- They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only

- They dont specify any method to be adopted while learning (used during the Upanishadic period too in
India)
- aka informal dialectic method
- Idealist value use of well prepared & presented lectures
- Socrates Question method
- Plato Conversational method
- Aristotle Inductive and Deductive methods
- Hegel Logical method
- Pestalozzi Self activity method
- Herbart Discussion method
- Froebels metaphor of Kindergarten

b. Methods by Naturalism

- Rousseau believed education lasts throughout life & is gained everyday through various life experiences
- He believes learning should be based on actual experience & a practical problem must be studied in its
natural setting
- Learning can also take place in the spirit & methods of play
- The methods recommended by Rousseau maybe identified with the heuristic method & experimental
method advocated by John Dewey

c. Pragmatic Methods

- Focus on child and society and the activities therein

- Learning occurs as a result of an activity
- Children must learn how to discover & method of teaching experimental
- It must develop reflective thinking in children so that they ask Why?
- The Project method of teaching is where a problematic act has to be carried out in completion in its
natural setting

d. Existential Methods

- Ask questions until an acceptable conclusion is reached.

- Focuses on Inductive thinking
- Emphasis on individual education
- Homeschooling preferred over School Education
- Does not believe in indoctrination but enhancing the child's creativity

B. Methods of Teaching recommended by Secondary

School Commission (1952-1953)
i. Methods of teaching must provide opportunities for children to develop clear thinking & expression

ii. Individual - centered methods & opportunities for practical application of knowledge must be adapted

iii. Activity and Project method must be used in school practice

iv. Experimental & Demonstrative Schools must be encouraged (e.g: NCC)

C. Specific Methods in Teaching

1. Inferential Problem Solving Technique

It involves Inductive and Deductive Reasoning which is the basis for problem solving

Steps in Inductive Reasoning

i. Recognition of the problem
ii. Searching for data
iii. Organization for data
iv. Framing tentative solutions
v. Elimination
vi. Verification

(Note: For Deductive Reasoning one begins from vi. to i.)

2. Team - Teaching / Co-operative teaching

- Its a recent idea in the field of education

- Here two ore more teachers make a plan of the subjects cooperatively, carry it out and evaluate the effects
on the students periodically

3. Micro - Teaching

- Term coined by Dwight Allen of Stanford University in 1963

Features of Micro - Teaching

i. Teacher training technique

ii. Focus on developing teachers skills
iii. Reduces class size to 5-10 students
iv. Topics taught are small
v. Individualized training skill
vi. Feedback for trainee's performance
vii. Effective device to prepare competent teachers
viii. Learners are provided with immediate knowledge of the correctness of response.

Steps in Micro - Teaching

i. Defining the skill

ii. Demonstrating the skill
iii.Planning the lesson
iv. Teaching the lesson
v.Discussion
vi. Re planning
vii. Re- Teaching
viii. Re-discussion
ix. Repeating the cycle till desired level of skill is achieved

4. Question Answer technique in teaching

Purpose of questioning

i. Test knowledge
ii. Locate difficulty
iii.Arouse motivation
iv. Participation of students
v. Apply knowledge
 D. Teaching Aids
Teaching aids helps students to improve their skills and make learning fun. There are various kinds of
teaching aids.

1. Chart - Shows group facts in the form of a diagram, table or graph & includes an outline or word
definitions

2. Flash Cards - A set of cards that have number, letters, pictures or words on it & are used for facts
and enhance memory

3. Flip Charts - Useful for teaching large groups at a time and while teaching a lesson which involves
stages or a process.

4. Maps - Used in social studies so that students can understand spatial relations

5. Newspapers - Used to learn about different places, cultures, grammar & current events.

6. Graphs - Can be used in any subject. To compare population growth in social studies, numbers &
ratios

7. Surveys - Can be used by the teacher to gain feedback.

8. Audio Visual Aids - Things to remember while using AV aids:

- Select the one suited for the topic
- Use AV to support or reinforce the activity
- Make sure the AV aid can be seen & heard clearly
- Practice using the aids before hand

9. Hardware - Radio, TV & Tape recorder

10. Software - Board, Cartoons & Models

E. Evaluative Systems

They are a device through which we can gauge what exactly a student achieve from the teaching-
learning experience
1. Examinations

- Help in testing achievements of students

- Evaluating students interests, aptitude & intelligence
- Helps to classify students and provide them guidance

2. Psychological Evaluation

-Helps to know about the physical, mental, emotional and social behavior of the individual
- Aids in guidance of the pupil
- Three methods of personality assessment: Psychometric, Projective & Behavioral

Projective Tests

- Helps to uncover unconscious motives

- An ambiguous stimulus is presented to the client who interprets it as they like thus
projecting their personality through their responses.
- Two widely used Projective tests are : Rorschach Test & Thematic Apperception Test

a. Rorschach Test

- Developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in the 1920's

- Series of 10 cards each displaying different inkblots either colored or black & white
- The subject is asked to look at each card one at a time & report everything seen on the card
- After all 10 cards are done, the examiners goes over every response to ask them what features
of the blot game them that particular impression

b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

- Developed at Harvard University by Henry Murray in 1930's

- Less ambiguous than Rorschach as it consists of actual scenes on 20 cards
- The subject is asked to base a story depending on the picture
- The test is intended to reveal the 'themes' that occur in the persons imaginations
- Apperceptions is perceptions of things in a certain way due to past experience
- If a problem is bothering a particular subject, they may show up in a number of stories.

3. Philosophical Evaluation

- Evaluation based on mastery of subject matter

- Test the memory, mastery and ability to apply the skills learnt
 Chapter Outline: Research Aptitude
CHAPTER 2: Research Aptitude
1. Meaning of Research

2. Characteristics of Research

3. Aims and Objectives of Research

4. Types of Research

5. Research Requirements

6. Steps of Research

7. Methods of Research

8. Research Ethics

9. Thesis Writing

10. Typing a Report

Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topics 1-5)

1. What is research

- An attitude of inquiry.

- An attempt to elicit facts

- A systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method

- A state of mind

2. Characteristics of Research

- Its a scientific investigation

- It helps in developing and evaluating concepts and theories

- Expands the limits of knowledge

- Findings through research cannot be implemented immediately

- Its an essential tool for good decision making

 3. Aims and Objectives of Research

Main aim : To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as
yet

- Gain familiarity with a phenomenon and to achieve new insights

- Portray accurately the characteristics (description)

- Determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnosic)

- Test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

4. Types of Research

i. Classification - I

a. Fundamental research

- Used when developing theories, generalizations and principles

- Methods: Sampling, Hypothesizing and laboratories

b. Applied Research

- Utilizes principles made by fundamental research to know the problems with best
possible manner

- Undertaken to solve an immediate problem

c. Action Research

- Immediate application but not any development of theory

ii. Classification - II

Descriptive Analytical

Description of the state of affairs as it Has to use facts that are readily
exists available

Also known as Ex post facto research Facts analyzed to make a critical

evaluation

Researcher has no control over the

variables

Used to discover causes when variables

cannot be controlled

Fact finding enquires and field surveys

 Method of research: Survey

Applied Fundamental

Find solution for immediate problem Generalizations and formulation of a

theory

Research is aimed at a solution Concerns natural phenomenon or math

Solution to some pressing practical Finding information that has a broad

problem base of application

Adds to the existing body of scientific

knowledge

Quantitative Qualititative

Phenomena that can be quantified Used in behavioural sciences

Used when studying human behaviour

Projective techniques used

Phenomena involves quality or kind

Conceptual Empirical

Based on some ideas on theory Relies on experience or observation

Used by philosophers and thinkers Data based research

Experimental research

One time research: Confined to a single time period

Longititudinal research: Research carried over several time periods

Field Setting Research or Laboratory research: Depending on the environment

Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Goes deep into the causes of events or things

Exploratory or Formalized: Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis

Historical : Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past

Problem oriented research: To look for solutions to the problem

 Decision oriented: Done for the need of the decision maker.

Operational: Example of decision making research. Provides a quantitative basis for

taking up a decision

5. Research requirements

i. Planning

- Definition and Classification or purpose and scope of operations

- Analysis to determine the meaning of facts

- Planning helps in bringing a good result in the conclusion

ii. Guidance

- Helps researcher concentrate on problems

- Concerned with the selection of problems

iii. Experts

- Knowledge in the area being studied

- Must be able to guide properly and formulate a well planned project for research

iv. Training

- They know how to plan, organize and maximize educational output

v. Finance

- Problems taken for study require financial help from the state

vi. References

- Well planned project

- Preliminary work done helps while investigating the problem

vii. Library

- Provides materials through books which enhances the quality and quantity of the
research

viii. Research Journals

- Provides studies and research done nationally and internationally

Chapter 2: Research Aptitude (Topic 6)

 6. Steps of Research
1. Formulating the research problem

- Maybe related to states of nature or relationships between variables

- A researcher must single out problem to be study and must decide the aura of interest
- Feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before working on the problem
- Two steps in formulating a research problem: Understanding the problem thoroughly and Rephrasing
the same into meaningful terms
- Discuss the problem with experts
- Examine available literature both conceptual and empirical
- Reevaluate the problem and focus on its specifics
- Make sure the problem can be defined unambiguously
- State the objective
- Pertinent terms in relation to the problem must be defined

2. Extensive Literature Survey

- Brief summary of the problem after the problem is formulated

- Write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the committee or research board
- Literature survey by abstracting journals and reading up bibliography

3. Development of working Hypothesis

- Its made so as to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences
- Discuss with work colleagues and experts about the problem
- Examine past data and records
- Review similar studies in that area
- Personally investigate the problem with interested parties

4. Preparing the research design

- Means of obtaining the information

- Ability and skill of the researcher and staff
- Explaining the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the
reasoning leading to selection
- Time available for research
- Cost factor relating to research

5. Determining Sample Design

- the items selected constitute what is called a sample

- Sample design is a plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from
a given population
- Samples can either be:

Probability Sample - Each have an element of being included in the sample and are based on
Random, Systematic,Stratified, Cluster/Area Sampling.
 Non Probabilty Sample - Based on Consciences Sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota
Sampling

- Some of the important sample designs are:

(i) Deliberate Sampling

Purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample that
represents the universe.
When population elements are selected based on access it's known as convenience sampling
Judgement sampling is when a researchers judgement is used to select items he considers to be
representative of the population
(ii) Simple Random Sampling
Each and every item in the population has equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one
has the probability of being selected.
(iii) Systematic Sampling
An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
Useful when sample frame is in form of a list
Selection process starts by picking some random point on the list and then every nth element is
selected until the desired number is secured
(iv) Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn doesn't constitute a homogeneous group,
then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample
The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling, the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling is known as stratified random
sampling.
(v) Quota Sampling
When interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, tge actual selection
of the items for sample being left to the individual's judgement
Size of quota is proportionate to size of stratum in the population
Form of non probability sampling.
(vi) Cluster sampling
Grouping of population and then selecting the groups or the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample
Sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure same level of
accuracy as in cluster sampling there is a chance of various biases and error
However this procedure is relatively easier than others and can be used in the case of personal
interviews
(vii) Area Sampling
Area is divided into smaller non overlapping areas = geograpical clusters and a number of these
smaller areas are randomly selected
Field interviewing is made more efficient through this technique and when there's no list of the
population
(viii) Multi stage Sampling
 Meant for large geographical areas like an entire country
(ix) Sequential Sampling
Ultimate size of the sample is determined as the survey progresses

6. Collecting the data

Various ways - experiment or survey

Survey methods include - observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews, mailing of
questionnaires, schedules
7. Execution of the project
Its necessary to collect adequate and dependable data in a systematic manner and in time
Careful watch on uncontrollable factors
Survey must be under statistical control
Must deal with non respondents
8. Analysis of Data
Categorize raw data
Coding to transform categorized data to symbols - editing can also be done at this stage
Tabulation is done to put classified data in form of tables
Statistical inferences are drawn through the assistance of computers
9. Hypothesis testing
Chi-square, t-test, f-test
Either accepts the hypothesis or rejects it
10. Generalization and Interpretation
If hypothesis is tested and upheld its easy to build a theory
Triggers new questions in the hypothesis
11. Preparation of the report/ thesis
Introduction
Summary
Main Report
Conclusion
Bibliography

Chapter 2: Methods of Research (Topic 7)

7. Methods of Research
Provide new and useful information in an orderly and precise manner.
A. Experimental Method
Matter of logic not location
Special laboratories to control conditions
Labs are generally located in universities or a research institute
1. Laboratory
Control conditions and take measurements of variables in an orderly manner
2. Variables
Independent Variable - Independent of what subject does
 Dependent Variables - Variable affected by changes (measure of subject behaviour)
3. Degree of Control
Use of precision instruments to control unseen variables
4. Value of an experiment

B. Observational Method
Observation in natural environment
C. Survey Method - Field Studies
Either through the use of questionnaires or interviews
D. Case Studies
Scientific Biographies
Reconstruction of a person's life events
Used in Longitudinal studies
E. Test Method
Measures all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes and accomplishments
Subjects are presented with a uniform situation to a group of people who vary in aspects
relevant to the situation

Chapter 2: Research Ethics, Thesis Writing, Typing of a Report

(Topics 8, 9, & 10)
8. Research Ethics
Researcher must ensure that data is accurate
Researcher must not try to intentionally prove a point
Researcher must ensure that data is sufficiently investigated and findings are totally accurate
Researcher must not misrepresent the statistical accuracy of data nor must they over represent
the results by altering the findings
Researcher must ensure privacy, anonymity and set out a code of ethics

9. Thesis Writing & 10. Typing of Report

Final stage of research
Provides overall view and solution to the problem
Provides all the elements of the project taken for study
Bears the total summary of the work
Satisfies all researchers by providing partial or detailed knowledge over their problems
A) Format of Thesis Writing

1. Preliminary Section

* Title Page
* Acknowledgement
* Table of Contents
* List of Tables
* List of Figures
2. Main Body

* Introduction to the topic

* Analysis of Literature
* Design of the study
* Presentation and Analysis of Data
* Summary and Conclusions

3. Reference Section

* Bibliography
* Appendix
* Footnotes