Ventilation, infiltration and air permeability

of traditional dwellings
Diane Hubbard

ArchiMetrics

Email: diane@archimetrics.co.uk

Abstract:
The focus of this research is in the field of ventilation in traditional dwellings,
specifically with reference to the rule of thumb quoted by English Heritage for historic
buildings of twice the normal level of ventilation being required.
Examination of the subject has taken place through a literature review and empirical
case studies of two groups of un-improved dwellings, considering the ventilation
delivered. One of the studies has been undertaken on behalf of the SPAB.
The results challenge the orthodoxy, with a number of dwellings having air
permeabilities which comply with the current regulations for new build dwellings and
common infiltration points have been identified.
The study also includes an introductory study of air flows related to flues and chimneys,
which may be an important factor in older buildings.

Keywords:
Air permeability, chimney, flue, traditional dwelling, ventilation.

1 Introduction
Domestic space heating accounts for 18% of UK energy use (BERR 2005) and, in order
to achieve significant reductions in carbon emissions, energy use in the existing housing
stock needs to be reduced significantly.
Generally built before 1919, traditional dwellings account for about 25% of the UK
housing stock (CLG 2010) and are perceived as hard to treat because of features such
as solid wall construction, the lack of damp proof course and the use moisture
permeable materials.
Ventilation plays an important role in all dwellings, controlling levels of moisture and
other pollutants, but it has been established that losses through excessive ventilation can
be significant (Orme 1998). There is a general perception that older buildings,
especially historic ones, require a greater level of ventilation (English Heritage 2010)
despite the fact there is currently little research into the delivered levels of ventilation in
existing dwellings.
With the impending introduction of the Green Deal, major refurbishment of the
traditional housing stock without understanding basic parameters of building
performance may lead to inappropriate measures being applied.
This paper explores the level of ventilation delivered in un-refurbished dwellings.
Approached through a literature review and empirical case studies, it adds to the body
of research on the performance of traditional dwellings.
2 Literature Review
It is widely accepted the fabric of traditional buildings functions in a different way to
modern structures, though there is limited research in this field and it is viewed as
complex (Halliday 2009). Moisture and ventilation are important components of this
picture, with the former having important effects on building performance and
durability as well as the comfort and health of their occupants (Garratt & Nowak 1991).
Considering ventilation, Approved Document F (HM Government 2010) defines it as
the supply and removal of air (by natural or mechanical means) to or from a space or
spaces in a building. It normally comprises a combination of purpose provided
ventilation and infiltration. Infiltration is the uncontrolled exchange of air between
inside a building and outside through a wide range of air leakage paths in the building
structure and purpose-provided ventilation the controllable air exchange between the
inside and outside of a building by means of a range of natural and/or mechanical
devices.
Purpose-provided ventilation breaks down into three components (ibid.):
Extract ventilation for removing moisture from wet rooms
Whole building ventilation
Purge ventilation.
ion of air infiltration through air leakage paths and ventilation through purpose provided
openings such as trickle vents. BRE air leakage tests indicate that air infiltration plays
by far the greater role in most dwellings.
A blower door test for air permeability is one method of quantifying infiltration and Part
L1A (HM Government 2010) provides an objective air permeability for new dwellings
of 10 m3h-1per m2 of building envelope @50Pa using this method. However, published
test results on existing houses are limited, the most extensive being shown in Fig. 1
(Stephen 2000).

35

30

25
Number of cases

20

15

10

0
20-21
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20

21-22
22-23
23-24
24-25
25-26
26-27
27-28
28-29
29-30
6-7

9-10
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6

7-8
8-9

Air permeability (m3h-1m-2 @50Pa)

Figure 1. Air permeability: UK dwellings (Source: Stephen 2000)

Mean 11.48m3h-1m-2 @50Pa, n=384
The conventional view of historic buildings (which may also be considered as relevant
to the traditional housing stock because of their common construction detail) is a need
for more ventilation than modern structures (investigated in Hubbard 2010) and this is
in evidence as a rule of thumb of twice the normal level of ventilation needed for
these buildings (Warm & Oxley 2002, English Heritage 2010), though English Heritage
fail to define the normal level.
As discussed above, infiltration plays an important role in the ventilation delivered in
existing UK dwellings and for older dwellings a potentially significant means of
ventilation is excluded from the standard test procedure flues.

Considering air permeability, Johnston et al (2004) express a widely held opinion that
older dwellings are more permeable than modern properties, corroborated by research
(Hubbard 2010), but Stephens research (op.cit.) questions this view.
One difficulty with quantitative analysis of the field is the lack of accessible data -
unlike new buildings, there is no requirement to air leakage test existing buildings
resulting in a limited range of available test results on what is a disparate body of
buildings.

3 Research Methodology
Air permeability testing through use of a blower door was chosen as the test method for
this study because of its wide acceptance (e.g. specification in Part L1A), minimal
disruption to dwelling occupants, availability of equipment and ease of testing. It is,
however, accepted the results may not directly represent the level of infiltration (BRE
1986), with alternative methods of measurement giving a more accurate representation,
and the research has been carried out bearing in mind these limitations.
Under the UK standard test method for air permeability testing (ATTMA 2010), a 50Pa
differential to external conditions is maintained within the building and deliberate
ventilation such as trickle vents, extractor fans, chimneys and other flues are excluded.
The air permeability is measured in m3 per hour per m2 (m3h-1m-2@50Pa) of building
envelope, including party walls, ground floor and ceilings. For the purposes of this
study, the buildings were depressurized below atmospheric pressure which permitted
the use of a thermal imaging camera to identify the key points of ingress through the
fabric.
Using the calculated building volume, the air changes per hour (ach @50 Pa) can be
calculated. This figure is easy to relate to but has the disadvantage of losing the
relationship to the surface area of building fabric.
In some cases, a secondary test on part of a dwelling was carried out. In accordance
with the ATTMA standard applied to accommodation such as apartments where the
dwelling forms only a part of a building, it was noted where it was not possible to vent
the untested part of the dwelling to external conditions.

It is recognized in the literature review that flues and chimneys could be a significant
factor in the ventilation levels in older buildings, but these are excluded from the
standard test procedure. As a crude indication, the intake for each flue was uncovered
whilst the building was depressurized. This offers no indication of actual air flow
related to chimneys, but can at least present some means of comparison of between
dwellings tested under the same conditions.
4 Findings and Discussion
Two groups of un-refurbished dwellings have been studied by the author. The first, Fitz
Steps was undertaken as individual research and the second, the SPAB Building
Performance Study is a two year study which is currently in progress. For both studies,
examination of air permeability forms only part of the research project.

4.1 Fitz Steps, Cumbria

Fitz Steps is a late 19th Century terrace of 7 dwellings. External walls have an open slate
outer skin with recessed mortar and the building fabric was mainly in close to original
state when the study was carried out (Hubbard 2010) and in a satisfactory state of repair.
Used as social housing, the dwellings have either 2 or 3 bedrooms, with each house
having different provision of space heating and one dwelling had significant
condensation and mould problems. Five of the households were involved in the study
and there was a diversity of occupation densities and living patterns across the group.
A range of data was collected during the study including temperature and humidity data,
occupant logs and air permeability testing, which allowed an insight into relevant issues.
Evidence demonstrated low levels of thermal comfort in three of the dwellings.
Table 1. Air permeability test results at Fitz Steps (Source: Hubbard 2010)

Units Dwelling number

No. 1 No. 2 No. 4 No. 5 No.7
Floor area m2 79 51 49 47 70
Dwelling m3 203 132 129 122 183
volume
Dwelling m2 207 158 156 151 193
envelope area
Building m3h-1 2610 1894 1466 1715 2640
leakage rate @50Pa
Measured air m3h-1m-2 12.6 12.0 9.4 11.4 12.8
permeability @50Pa
Air change rate ach 12.9 14.4 11.4 14.1 13.5
@50Pa

The results of the air permeability testing are outlined in Table 1 and the following
comments can be made:
The air permeability results are around / just above the current requirements for
new build dwellings (L1A 2010, 10 m3h-1m-2 @50Pa)
These results are lower than anticipated from the literature review
They are similar to Stephen (2000), with a UK dwelling mean of 11.48 and an
air change rate for pre-1900 dwellings of 12.3ach @50Pa.
As part of the test process, the main air leakage points in each building were identified
as being via the ceiling / floor void and from the roof space (via stud walls).

1.2 SPAB Building Performance Survey

The SPAB (Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings) Building Performance
Survey appraises a group of 7 pre-1900, owner-occupied houses which are all due to be
refurbished, assessing their energy performance through a wide range of parameters,
including air permeability. The project is in two stages in winter 2010/11 initial
monitoring of the un-improved dwellings took place (Rye and Hubbard 2011a), with the
post-refurbishment evaluation taking place during winter 2011/12 and publication of
final report on the project by mid-2012.

Table 2. The SPAB Building Performance Survey 2011- description of dwellings

(Source: Rye and Hubbard 2011b)

Drewsteignton
Lower Brailes

Riddlecombe
Shrewsbury

Ashburton
Property

Consols
Skipton

Devon
Floor area 60 210 113 86 332 325 161
(m2)
Location Shropshire North Warwick- Devon Devon Devon Devon
Yorkshire shire
Approx. Earlier than 1790 19th 19th Early 19th 19th Mid 19th
Age 1820 Century Century Century Century Century
Type End terrace Detached Mid- Semi- Mid- Detached Mid-
with rear with 19th terrace Detached terrace (at barn terrace
extension. and 20th with 20th with least 3 conversion
century Century early and stages of with 1970s
additions extension late 20th building) extension.
Century
additions
Constru- Brick Sandstone Hornton Cob with Limestone Granite Clay-
ction of rubble stone (no cement rubble and slate
original rubble render timber rubble
dwelling core) frame with
slate
hung or
rendered
exterior
Number of 1 5 1 5 5 2 1
occupants
Building Yes Yes No No Yes No No
work in
progress?

Table 2 shows the diversity of the dwellings tested and the air permeability test results
are detailed in Table 3. It should be noted the dwelling at Ashburton could not be
depressurized to a 50Pa differential, so an extrapolated result is shown for this building.
Table 3 shows the broad range of air permeability results, ranging from
5.5 m3h-1m2 @50 Pa at Riddlecombe to 22.6 m3h-1m2 @50 Pa for Ashburton. Drawing
comparison to the building regulations for new dwellings (L1A 2010, 10 m3h-1m2 @50
Pa), three of the dwellings have an air permeability which is within this standard and in
the case of Riddlecombe (5.5 m3h-1m2 @50 Pa) substantially better.
With exception of Devon Consols, the dwellings which have higher air permeability
rates had an element of refurbishment taking place at the time of testing.
Table 3. SPAB Building Performance Survey 2011- summary of air permeability test results.
(Source: Rye & Hubbard 2011a)

Units Shrewsbury Skipton Lower Riddleco- Ashburton Drewste- Devon

Brailes mbe ignton Consols

Whole dwelling

Internal floor area m2 60 190~ 113 86 332 325 161

Habitable building volume m3 134 458~ 263 189 817 759 379

Dwelling envelope area m2 185 401~ 285 245 690 708 380

Measured air flow m3h-1 @50 Pa 2106 6789~ 2478 1355 15615* 6139 7615

Air permeability test result m3h-1m-2 @50 11.4 16.9~ 8.7 5.5 22.6* 8.7 20.0
@50Pa Pa

Air changes per hour @ 50Pa ach @50 Pa 15.7 14.8~ 9.4 7.2 19.1* 8.1 20.1

Part of dwelling

Description Extension Original Original Original Barn

cottage cottage house plus conversion
old extn
Internal floor area m2 17 96 54 240 235

Habitable building volume m3 41 224 124 643 552

Envelope area m2 81 230 184 514 473

Measured air flow m3h-1 @50 Pa 520 2152 927 11494 2804

Air permeability test result at m3h-1m-2 @50 6.4 9.4 5.0 22.4 5.9
50Pa Pa

Air changes per hour @ 50Pa ach @50 Pa 12.8 9.6 7.5 17.9 5.1

*Ashburton whole house figures may not be inaccurate due to human error.
~ Skipton not full area of dwelling due to issues with building preparation.
Five of the dwellings tested had 20th Century additions to the original building and a
number of secondary tests were made on either the original building or extension.
Subject to a proviso expressed under methodology, one addition appears to be less
airtight than the original dwelling (Drewsteignton) and two further properties show
similar results (Lower Brailes and Riddlecombe).

The thermographic surveys carried out in conjunction with the air permeability testing
identified a number of common infiltration points, including ingress via ceiling / floor
voids, around windows, door surrounds and loft hatches. In terms of more specific
problems, ingress around service pipes was noticeable at Lower Brailes. The property at
Devon Consols demonstrated a specific problem with significant ingress through the
external slate hung wall, which could account for its high air permeability.

4.3 Exploration of air flows relating to flues

Basic measurements were taken of air flows related to the flues and chimneys under the
depressurised test conditions for the SPAB group of 7 properties. These clearly will not
relate to actual air flows, which will be subject to passive stack and convective effects,
but they do serve to offer some form of comparison between individual flues under the

Table 4 Air flow rates recorded under 50Pa pressure differential for the SPAB test dwellings.

Devon Consols
Drewsteignton
Lower Brailes

Riddlecombe
Shrewsbury

Ashburton
Property

Skipton

Floor area (m2) 60 210 113 86 332 325 161

Building leakage rate 2106 6789 2478 1355 15615# 6139 7615
(m3h-1@50Pa)
Number of flues checked 1 4* 2 2 6 1* 4
Number of flues showing an 1 2 1 2 5 1 4
air flow
Individual flue max flow 990 32 61 32 1627 99 685
recorded (m3h-1@50Pa)
Description Open Stove Register Stove Open Stove Open
hearth fitted plate fitted hearth fitted hearth
Individual chimney min 24 22 70 100
flow recorded (m3h-1@50Pa)
Description Stove Stove Prepared Stove
fitted fitted for fitted
register
plate
Total additional air flow 990 56 61 54 3197 99 1449
recorded from all active flues
in dwelling (m3h-1@50Pa)
As percentage of building 47% <1% 3% <1% 21% 2% 19%
leakage rate
*Excludes flue for oil fired range
# Ashburton whole house figures may not be inaccurate due to human error.
test conditions, their current mode of use and put into context with the air permeability
of a dwelling. Table 4 shows a wide variation in the additional flows recorded as each
of the flues were uncovered. Significantly greater air flows for open hearths were
recorded than for enclosed stoves. For open hearths, the air flow for the building as a
whole under the test conditions increased by as much as 50% through one flue.
Figures for open hearths varied between 210 m3h-1@50Pa and in excess of 1600
m3h-1@50Pa (both for Ashburton). For stoves, the difference between vents being open
and closed was measured. The results ranged from 22 m3h-1@50Pa to 100 m3h-1@50Pa
(Riddlecombe and Devon Consols respectively).
Further research by the author is scheduled for this field.

6 Conclusion and Further Research

This paper analyses the subject of ventilation in traditional dwellings through a
literature review and empirical case studies of two groups of un-improved dwellings,
one of which is being undertaken on behalf of the SPAB. Though the paper does not
consider the level of ventilation required, it does examine the amount of ventilation
currently being delivered in dwellings investigated. The results challenge the accepted
view of older buildings and add to the body of research available.
The key findings identified in this paper are as follows:
A significant proportion of the air permeabilities recorded for the un-refurbished
traditional buildings studied are lower than anticipated from the literature
review, with 30% being below the limit for new dwellings constructed to 2010
Building Regulations.
Where higher air permeabilities are recorded, these are often attributable to other
factors, such as refurbishment in progress or a specific feature.
A number of common points of ingress were identified.
There was some evidence that older dwellings may not be more air permeable
than 20th Century extensions to a property.
There was a wide variation in the measured air flows for flues both between and
within properties, with the greatest air flows occurring from open hearths.
However, the limitations of case studies as a means of investigation have to be
recognised, as conclusions cannot be assumed to be widely applicable.

It is imperative that our lack of understanding of the performance of the UKs

traditional buildings is addressed, especially with the impending implementation of the
Green Deal, where, if inappropriate measures are applied to dwellings, there could be
implications for both occupant health and building fabric.
With respect to air permeability, the following have been identified for further research
by the author:
Completion of the SPAB Building Performance Survey in 2012.
The dwellings at Fitz Steps have been refurbished during 2011 and further air
permeability testing is intended.
Pursuance of known air permeability data on un-refurbished buildings which are
not currently publically available and collation of results.
In relation to flues and chimneys, they appear to play a key role in older dwellings, yet
there is little documented knowledge of the ventilation rates delivered by them. The
author intends to carry out a further literature review and practical testing.
It has also been identified that there needs to be an over-arching exploration of the
relationship between ventilation needs and ventilation achieved in traditional dwellings,
which should take into account occupancy data and indoor air quality.

7 Acknowledgements
The funded SPAB Building Performance Survey has been supported in part by a grant
from the Dartmoor National Park Sustainable Development Fund.
The thermographic survey work was carried out using equipment kindly loaned to the
project by Cumbria Action for Sustainability.

8 References
ATTMA (2010), Technical Standard L1: measuring air permeability of building
envelopes (dwellings) October 2010 issue.
http://www.attma.org/downloads/ATTMA%20TSL1%20Issue%201.pdf, viewed
1/2011.
BERR, Domestic energy consumption by end use 1970-2005.
http://berr.gov.uk/energy/statistics/publications/ecuk/domestic/page18071.html, viewed
12/6/2008.
BRE (1986), Domestic draught proofing: ventilation considerations Digest 306, BRE,
Garston.
CLG (2010), English Housing Survey Headline Report 2008-2009.
http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/statistics/pdf/1479789.pdf, viewed on
21/5/2010.
English Heritage (2010) Energy efficiency in historic buildings application of part L
of the Building Regulations to historic and traditionally constructed buildings,
http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/professional/advice/advice-by-topic/climate-
change/energy-conservation/building-regulations/, viewed on 8/3/2010.
Garratt, J. and Nowak, F. (1991) Tackling condensation: a guide to the causes of, and
remedies for, surface condensation and mould in traditional housing, BRE, Garston.
Halliday, S. (2009), Indoor air quality and energy efficiency in traditional buildings.
Historic Scotland Technical Conservation Group Technical Paper 6,
http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/traditional-buildings-air-quality-energy-
efficiency.pdf, viewed on 2/4/2010.
H M Government, (2010) The Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document L1A
Conservation of fuel and power, RIBA, London.
http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_ADL1A_2010.pdf, viewed on
8/10/2010.
H M Government, (2010) The Building Regulations 2000: Approved Document F
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http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_ADF_2010.pdf, viewed on
8/10/2010.
Hubbard, D., (2010) Ventilation and condensation in traditional Lakeland dwellings:
controlling moisture and maintaining building performance. MSc AEES thesis,
Graduate School of the Environment, Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth.
Johnston, D., Wingfield, J. & Bell, M., (2004) Airtightness in buildings towards
higher performance. Interim Report No. 1 Literature review and built examples,
http://www.lmu.ac.uk/as/cebe/projects/airtight/airtight1.pdf, viewed on 19/3/2009.
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Coventry.
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performance survey 2011, SPAB, London.
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presentation at Salford Retrofit 2012 24 26 January 2012.
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