Wales

This article is about the country. For other uses, see ity of the population speaks English, the country has re-
Wales (disambiguation). tained a distinct cultural identity and is ocially bilingual.
Over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and
Wales ( /welz/; Welsh: Cymru [km.r]) is a country the language is spoken by a majority of the population in
i
parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century
that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great
Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of
[8]
song, in part due to the eisteddfod tradition. At many in-
Sea to the north and west, and the Bristol Channel to the
south. It had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has ternational sporting events, such as the FIFA World Cup,
2
a total area of 20,779 km (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games, Wales
1,680 miles (2,700 km) of coastline and is largely moun- has its own national teams, though at the Olympic Games,
tainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central ar- Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team.
eas, including Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit. Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an
The country lies within the north temperate zone and has expression of national consciousness.
a changeable, maritime climate.
Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons
after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th cen-
1 Etymology
tury, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic
nations. Llywelyn ap Gruudd's death in 1282 marked The English words Wales and Welsh derive from
the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of the same Germanic root (singular Walh, plural Walha),
Wales, though Owain Glyndr briey restored indepen- which was itself derived from the name of the Celtic tribe
dence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer
Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within indiscriminately to all Celts. The Old English-speaking
the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wlisc when re-
15351542. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the ferring to the Celtic Britons in particular, and Walas
19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplied in the early when referring to their lands.[9] The modern names
20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the for some Continental European lands (e.g. Wallonia
growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national and Wallachia) and peoples (e.g. the Vlachs via a
feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed borrowing into Old Church Slavonic) have a similar
in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Es- etymology.[9][10][11][12]
tablished under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the Historically in Britain, the words were not restricted to
National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to re-
range of devolved policy matters. fer to anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with
At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, development the Britons, including other non-Germanic territories in
of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed Britain (e.g. Cornwall) and places in Anglo-Saxon ter-
the country from an agricultural society into an industrial ritory associated with Celtic Britons (e.g. Walworth in
nation; the South Wales Coaleld's exploitation caused County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire),[13] as
a rapid expansion of Wales population. Two-thirds of well as items associated with non-Germanic Europeans,
the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around such as the walnut.
Cardi (the capital), Swansea and Newport, and in the The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and
nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional ex- Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales. These words
tractive and heavy industries have gone or are in de- (both of which are pronounced [km.r]) are descended
cline, Wales economy depends on the public sector, light from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-
and service industries and tourism. Wales 2010 gross countrymen.[14] The use of the word Cymry as a self-
value added (GVA) was 45.5 billion (15,145 per head, designation derives from the location in the post-Roman
74.0% of the average for the UK, and the lowest GVA Era (after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons) of the Welsh
per head in Britain). (Brythonic-speaking) people in modern Wales as well
Although Wales closely shares its political and social his- as in northern England and southern Scotland ("Yr Hen
tory with the rest of Great Britain, and the vast major- Ogledd") (English: The Old North). It emphasised that
the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were

1
2 2
one people, dierent from other peoples.[15] In particular,
the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peo-
ples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to
the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description
probably before the 7th century.[16] It is attested in a
praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwal-
lon, by Afan Ferddig) c. 633.[17] In Welsh literature, the
word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to de-
scribe the Welsh, though the older, more generic term
Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the
Britonnic peoples (including the Welsh) and was the more
common literary term until c. 1100. Thereafter Cymry
prevailed as a reference to the Welsh. Until c. 1560 the
word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
referred to the people or their homeland.[14]
The Latinised forms of these names, Cambrian, Cambric
and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names
for Wales, Welsh and the Welsh people. Examples in-
clude the Cambrian Mountains (which cover much of
Wales and gave their name to the Cambrian geological
period), the newspaper Cambrian News, and the organisa-
tions Cambrian Airways, Cambrian Railways, Cambrian
Archaeological Association and the Royal Cambrian
Academy of Art. Outside Wales, a related form survives
as the name Cumbria in North West England, which was
once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd. The Cumbric language,
which is thought to have been closely related to Welsh,
was spoken in this area until becoming extinct around the
12th century. This form also appears at times in liter-
ary references, as in the pseudohistorical "Historia Regum
Britanniae" of Georey of Monmouth, where the char-
acter of Camber is described as the eponymous King of
Cymru.
2 History
Main article: History of Wales
2.1 Prehistoric origins
See also: Prehistoric Wales
Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for
at least 29,000 years.[18] Continuous human habitation
dates from the end of the last ice age, between 12,000
and 10,000 years before present (BP), when Mesolithic
hunter-gatherers from central Europe began to migrate
to Great Britain. At that time sea levels were much lower
than today, and the shallower parts of what is now the
North Sea were dry land. The east coast of present day
England and the coasts of present day Denmark, Ger-
many and the Netherlands were connected by the for-
mer landmass known as Doggerland, forming the British
Peninsula on the European mainland. Wales was free of
glaciers by about 10,250 BP, the warmer climate allow-
HISTORY
ing the area to become heavily wooded. The post-glacial
rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland, forming the
Irish Sea. Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea
and, by 8,000 BP, the British Peninsula had become an
island.[19][20] By the beginning of the Neolithic (c. 6,000
BP) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33
feet (10 metres) lower than today.[21][22][23] John Davies
has theorised that the story of Cantre'r Gwaelod's drown-
ing and tales in the Mabinogion, of the waters between
Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower, may be
distant folk memories of this time.[24]
Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous peo-
ple, gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic
life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farm-
ers about 6,000 BP the Neolithic Revolution.[24][25]
They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cul-
tivate the land, developed new technologies such as ce-
ramics and textile production, and built cromlechs such
as Pentre Ifan, Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn
between about 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP.[26][27][28][29] In
common with people living all over Great Britain, over
the following centuries the people living in what was to
become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and ex-
changed ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic
cultures. According to John T. Koch and others, Wales
in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-
networked culture that also included the other Celtic na-
tions, England, France, Spain and Portugal where Celtic
languages developed.[30][31][32][33] This view, sometimes
called Atlantic-Celtic, stands against the view that the
Celtic languages have their origins farther east with the
Hallstatt culture.[34] By the time of the Roman invasion
of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided
among the tribes of the Deceangli, Ordovices, Cornovii,
Demetae and Silures for centuries.[24]
2.2 Roman era
Main article: Wales in the Roman era
The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and
took 30 years to complete. Roman rule lasted over 300
years. The campaigns of conquest are the most widely
2.3 Post-Roman era 3

as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of sev-

eral medieval royal dynasties. In that year the Roman gen-
eral Magnus Maximus, or Macsen Wledig, stripped all of
western and northern Britain of troops and senior admin-
istrators, to launch a successful bid for imperial power;
continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as emperor.[40][41]
Gildas, writing in about 540, says that Maximus departed
Britain, taking with him all of its Roman troops, armed
bands, governors and the ower of its youth, never to re-
turn. Having left with the troops and Roman adminis-
trators, and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain
in the future, his practical course was to transfer local
authority to local rulers. The earliest Welsh genealogies
give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal
dynasties, including those of Powys and Gwent.[42][43] It
was this transfer of power that has given rise to the be-
lief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation.[39] He
is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of
Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and
he gures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales.[44]

2.3 Post-Roman era

See also: Sub-Roman Britain

The 400-year period following the collapse of Roman
known feature of Wales during the Roman era, because rule is the most dicult to interpret in the history of
of the spirited, but ultimately unsuccessful, defence of Wales.[38] After the Roman departure from Britain in
their homelands by two native tribes: the Silures and the AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and
Ordovices. Roman rule in Wales was a military occupa- south-east was overrun by various Germanic peoples. Be-
tion, save for the southern coastal region of south Wales, fore extensive studies of the distribution of R1b Y-DNA
east of the Gower Peninsula, where there is a legacy of subclades, some previously maintained that native Britons
Romanisation.[35] The only town in Wales founded by the were displaced by the invaders.[45] This idea has been dis-
Romans, Caerwent, is in south east Wales. Both Caer- carded in the face of evidence that much of the population
went and Carmarthen, also in southern Wales, became has, at the latest, Hallstatt era origins, but probably late
Roman civitates.[36] Wales had a rich mineral wealth. Neolithic, or at earliest Mesolithic origins with little con-
The Romans used their engineering technology to ex- tribution from Anglo-Saxon source areas.[46] However,
tract large amounts of gold, copper and lead, as well as by AD 500, the land that would become Wales had di-
modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and vided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon
silver.[37] Roman economic development was concen- rule.[38] The kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed and
trated in south-eastern Britain, and no signicant indus- Seisyllwg, Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as indepen-
tries located in Wales.[37] This was largely a matter of cir-
dent Welsh successor states.[38] Archaeological evidence,
cumstance, as Wales had none of the necessary materials in the Low Countries and what was to become England,
in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain re-
countryside was not amenable to industrialisation. Al- versed between 500 to 550, which concurs with Frankish
though Latin became the ocial language of Wales, the chronicles.[47] John Davies notes this as consistent with
people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic. While the British victory at Badon Hill, attributed to Arthur
Romanisation was far from complete, the upper classes of by Nennius.[47] This tenacious survival by the Romano-
Wales began to consider themselves Roman, particularly Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms
after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to was to become the foundation of what we now know as
all free men throughout the Empire.[38] Further Roman Wales. With the loss of the lowlands, Englands king-
inuence came through the spread of Christianity, which doms of Mercia and Northumbria, and later Wessex,
gained many followers when Christians were allowed to wrestled with Powys, Gwent and Gwynedd to dene the
worship freely; state persecution ceased in the 4th cen- frontier between the two peoples.
tury, as a result of Constantine I issuing an edict of toler- Having lost much of what is now the West Midlands
ation in 313.[38] to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries, a resur-
Early historians, including the 6th century cleric Gildas, gent late-7th-century Powys checked Mercian advances.
have noted 383 as a signicant point in Welsh history,[39] Aethelbald of Mercia, looking to defend recently ac-
4 2
Britain in AD 500: The areas shaded pink on the map were in-
habited by the Celtic Britons, here labelled Welsh. The pale blue
areas in the east were controlled by Germanic tribes, whilst the
pale green areas to the north were inhabited by the Gaels and
Picts.
quired lands, had built Wats Dyke. According to John
Davies, this endeavour may have been with the agree-
ment of Powys king Elisedd ap Gwylog, as this bound-
ary, extending north from the valley of the River Severn
to the Dee estuary, gave Oswestry to Powys.[48] Another
theory, after carbon dating placed the dykes existence
300 years earlier, is that it may have been built by the
post-Roman rulers of Wroxeter.[49] King Oa of Mer-
cia seems to have continued this consultative initiative
when he created a larger earthwork, now known as Oas
Dyke (Clawdd Oa). Davies wrote of Cyril Fox's study
of Oas Dyke: In the planning of it, there was a degree
of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On
the Long Mountain near Trelystan, the dyke veers to the
east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh;
near Rhiwabon, it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap
Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygad-
den. And, for Gwent, Oa had the dyke built on the
eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of
recognizing that the River Wye and its trac belonged
to the kingdom of Gwent.[48] However, Foxs interpre-
tations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have
HISTORY
been questioned by more recent research.[50] Oas Dyke
largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and En-
glish, though the Welsh would recover by the 12th century
the area between the Dee (Afon Dyfrdwy) and the Conwy,
known then as Y Berfeddwlad. By the 8th century, the
eastern borders with the Anglo-Saxons had broadly been
set.
In 853, the Vikings raided Anglesey, but in 856, Rhodri
Mawr defeated and killed their leader, Gorm.[51] The
Britons of Wales later made their peace with the Vikings
and Anarawd ap Rhodri allied with the Norsemen oc-
cupying Northumbria to conquer the north.[52] This al-
liance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agree-
ment with Alfred, king of Wessex, with whom he fought
against the west Welsh. According to Annales Cambriae,
in 894, Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste
Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi.[53]
2.4 Medieval Wales
North Wales Principalities, 126776
See also: Norman invasion of Wales and Wales in the
Late Middle Ages
The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to
English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr
(Modern Welsh Lloegr), which may have referred to
the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to
refer to England as a whole.[nb 1] The Germanic tribes
who now dominated these lands were invariably called
Saeson, meaning "Saxons". The Anglo-Saxons called
the Romano-British 'Walha', meaning 'Romanised for-
eigner' or 'stranger'.[54] The Welsh continued to call them-
selves Brythoniaid (Brythons or Britons) well into the
Middle Ages, though the rst written evidence of the
use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to
Cadwallon ap Cadfan (Moliant Cadwallon, by Afan Fer-
ddig) c. 633.[9] In Armes Prydain, believed to be written
around 930942, the words Cymry and Cymro are used
as often as 15 times.[55] However, from the Anglo-Saxon
settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt
2.4 Medieval Wales 5

Powys, and even extend his authority into England.

Historian John Davies states that Gruydd was the
only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory
of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in
1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of
Gruudd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years,
Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither
precedent nor successor.[2] Owain Gwynedd (110070)
of the Aberraw line was the rst Welsh ruler to use the
title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh), a title of
substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains,
according to John Davies.[58]

Hywel Dda enthroned

the name Cymry over Brythoniad.[56]

Statue of Owain Glyndr (c. 1354 or 1359 c. 1416) at Cardi

Dolwyddelan Castle built by Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early City Hall
13th century to watch over one of the valley routes into Gwynedd
Within four years of the Battle of Hastings, England had
From 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led to been completely subjugated by the Normans.[2] William
Rhodri Mawr's (r. 84477) inheritance of Gwynedd and I of England established a series of lordships, allocated
Powys. His sons in turn would found three principal dy- to his most powerful warriors along the Welsh border,
nasties (Aberraw for Gwynedd, Dinefwr for Deheubarth the boundaries xed only to the east.[59] This frontier re-
and Mathrafal for Powys). Rhodris grandson Hywel Dda gion, and any English-held lordships in Wales, became
(r. 90050) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal known as Marchia Wallie, the Welsh Marches, in which
and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930, the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor
ousted the Aberraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys Welsh law.[60] The area of the March varied as the for-
and then codied Welsh law in the 940s.[57] Maredudd tunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed
ab Owain (r. 98699) of Deheubarth (Hywels grandson) and owed.[61] The March of Wales, which existed for
would, (again) temporarily oust the Aberraw line from over 450 years, was abolished under the Acts of Union in
control of Gwynedd and Powys. 1536.[62]
Maredudds great-grandson (through his daughter Owain Gwynedds grandson Llywelyn Fawr (the Great,
Princess Angharad) Gruydd ap Llywelyn (r. 103963) 11731240), wrested concessions through the Magna
would conquer his cousins realms from his base in Carta in 1215 and receiving the fealty of other Welsh
6 2
lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdy, became the
rst Prince of Wales.[63] His grandson Llywelyn ap
Gruudd also secured the recognition of the title Prince
of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery
in 1267.[64] Later however, a succession of disputes, in-
cluding the imprisonment of Llywelyns wife Eleanor,
daughter of Simon de Montfort, culminated in the rst
invasion by King Edward I of England.[65] As a result of
military defeat, the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Lly-
welyns fealty to England in 1277.[65] Peace was short
lived and, with the 1282 Edwardian conquest, the rule
of the Welsh princes permanently ended. With Llywe-
lyns death and his brother prince Dafydd's execution, the
few remaining Welsh lords did homage for their lands to
Edward I. Llywelyns head was carried through London
on a spear; his baby daughter Gwenllian was locked in
the priory at Sempringham, where she remained until her
death 54 years later.[66]
Caernarfon Castle, birthplace of Edward II of England
To help maintain his dominance, Edward constructed a
series of great stone castles: Beaumaris, Caernarfon and
Conwy. His son, the future King Edward II of Eng-
land, was born at Edwards new castle at Caernarfon in
1284.[67] He became the rst English Prince of Wales,
not as an infant, but in 1301. The apocryphal story that
Edward tricked the Welsh by oering them a Welsh-born
Prince who could speak no English was rst recorded
in 1584.[68] The title also provided an income from the
north-west part of Wales known as the Principality of
Wales, until the Act of Union (1536), after which the
term principality, when used, was associated with the
whole of Wales.[69][70][71] After the failed revolt in 1294
95 of Madog ap Llywelyn who styled himself Prince of
Wales in the Penmachno Document and the rising of
Llywelyn Bren (1316), the next major uprising was that
led by Owain Glyndr , against Henry IV of England.
In 1404, Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales
in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain and
Scotland.[72] Glyndr went on to hold parliamentary as-
semblies at several Welsh towns, including Machynlleth.
But the rebellion failed, and Owain went into hiding in
1412; peace was essentially restored in Wales by 1415.
Although the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 provided the
constitutional basis for post-conquest government of the
HISTORY
Principality of north Wales from 1284 until 1536, there
was no formal Union until 1536.[70] Shortly afterwards
Welsh law, which had continued to be used in Wales after
the Norman conquest, was fully replaced by English law,
under what would become known as the Act of Union.[73]
2.5 Industrial Wales
See also: Glamorgan and Lower Swansea valley
Prior to the British Industrial Revolution, which saw a
Dowlais Ironworks (1840) by George Childs (17981875)
rapid economic expansion between 1750 and 1850, there
were signs of small-scale industries scattered through-
out Wales.[74] These ranged from industries connected
to agriculture, such as milling and the manufacture of
woollen textiles, through to mining and quarrying.[74] Un-
til the Industrial Revolution, Wales had always been re-
liant on its agricultural output for its wealth and employ-
ment and the earliest industrial businesses were small
scale and localised in manner.[74] The emerging indus-
trial period commenced around the development of cop-
per smelting in the Swansea area. With access to local
coal deposits and a harbour that could take advantage of
Cornwalls copper mines and the copper deposits being
extracted from the then-largest copper mine in the world
at Parys Mountain on Anglesey, Swansea developed into
the worlds major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting
in the 19th century.[74] The second metal industry to ex-
pand in Wales was iron smelting, and iron manufacturing
became prevalent in both the north and the south of the
country.[75] In the north of Wales, John Wilkinson's Iron-
works at Bersham was a signicant industry, while in the
south, a second world centre of metallurgy was founded
in Merthyr Tydl, where the four ironworks of Dowlais,
Cyfarthfa, Plymouth and Penydarren became the most
signicant hub of iron manufacture in Wales.[75] In the
1820s, south Wales alone accounted for 40% of all pig
iron manufactured in Britain.[75]
In the late 18th century, slate quarrying began to ex-
pand rapidly, most notably in north Wales. The Penrhyn
Quarry, opened in 1770 by Richard Pennant, was em-
ploying 15,000 men by the late 19th century,[76] and along
2.6 Modern Wales
Penrhyn Slate Quarries, 1852
with Dinorwic Quarry, it dominated the Welsh slate trade.
Although slate quarrying has been described as 'the most
Welsh of Welsh industries,[77] it is coal mining which
has become the single industry synonymous with Wales
and its people. Initially, coal seams were exploited to
provide energy for local metal industries but, with the
opening of canal systems and later the railways, Welsh
coal mining saw a boom in its demand. As the south
Wales coaleld was exploited, mainly in the upland val-
leys around Aberdare and later the Rhondda, the ports of
Swansea, Cardi and later Penarth, grew into world ex-
porters of coal and, with them, came a population boom.
By its height in 1913, Wales was producing almost 61
million tons of coal. As well as in south Wales, there
was also a signicant coaleld in the north-east of the
country, particularly around Wrexham.[78] As Wales was
reliant on the production of capital goods rather than con-
sumer goods, it possessed few of the skilled craftspeople
and artisans found in the workshops of Birmingham or
Sheeld in England and had few factories producing n-
ished goods a key feature of most regions associated
with the Industrial Revolution.[75] However, there is in-
creasing support that the industrial revolution was reliant
on harnessing the energy and materials provided by Wales
and, in that sense, Wales was of central importance.[75]
2.6 Modern Wales
2.6.1 Early 20th century
Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of
the First World War as a relatively placid, self-condent
and successful nation. Output from the coalelds con-
tinued to increase, with the Rhondda Valley recording a
peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913.[79]
The outbreak of the First World War (19141918) saw
Wales, as part of the United Kingdom, enter hostilities
with Germany. A total of 272,924 Welshmen served in
the war, representing 21.5% of the male population.[80]
Of these, roughly 35,000 were killed.[80] The two most
notable battles of the War to include Welsh forces were
those at Mametz Wood on the Somme and the Battle of
7
Battle at Mametz Wood by Christopher Williams (1918)
Passchendaele.[81]
The rst quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in
the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865, the Liberal
Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and, fol-
lowing the general election of 1906, only one non-Liberal
Member of Parliament, Keir Hardie of Merthyr Tyd-
l, represented a Welsh constituency at Westminster.[82]
Yet by 1906, industrial dissension and political mili-
tancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the
southern coalelds.[82] In 1916, David Lloyd George be-
came the rst Welshman to become Prime Minister of
Britain when he was made head of the 1916 coalition gov-
ernment.[83] In December 1918, Lloyd George was re-
elected at the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition
government, and his poor handling of the 1919 coalmin-
ers strike was a key factor in destroying support for the
Liberal party in south Wales.[84] The industrial workers of
Wales began shifting towards a new political organisation,
established by Hardie and others to ensure an elected rep-
resentation for the working class, which is now called the
Labour Party.[85] When in 1908 the Miners Federation
of Great Britain became aliated to the Labour Party,
the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all
elected as MPs.[85] By 1922, half of the Welsh seats at
Westminster were held by Labour politiciansthe start
of a Labour hegemony which would dominate Wales into
the 21st century.[85]
2.6.2 Mid 20th century
After economic growth in the rst two decades of the
20th century, Wales staple industries endured a pro-
longed slump from the early 1920s to the late 1930s, lead-
ing to widespread unemployment and poverty in the south
Wales valleys.[86] For the rst time in centuries, the pop-
ulation of Wales went into decline; the scourge of un-
employment only relented with the production demands
of the Second World War.[87] The Second World War
(19391945) saw Welsh servicemen and women ght in
all the major theatres of war, with some 15,000 of them
killed.[88] Bombing raids brought major loss of life as the
German Air Force targeted the docks at Swansea, Cardi
8 3 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
and Pembroke.[88] After 1943, 10% of Welsh conscripts
aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines, where
there were labour shortages; they became known as Bevin
Boys.[88] Pacist numbers during both World Wars were
fairly low, especially in the Second World War, which was
seen as a ght against fascism.[88] Of the political parties
active in Wales, only Plaid Cymru took a neutral stance,
on the grounds that it was an imperialist war.[88]
2.6.3 Late 20th century
The 20th century saw a revival in Welsh national feel-
ing. Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925, seeking greater
autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK.[89]
The term "England and Wales" became common for de-
scribing the area to which English law applied, and in
1955 Cardi was proclaimed as capital city of Wales.
Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg (The Welsh Language So-
ciety) was formed in 1962, in response to long-held fears
that the language might soon die out.[90] Nationalist sen-
timent grew following the ooding of the Tryweryn val-
ley in 1965 to create a reservoir to supply water to the
English city of Liverpool.[91] Despite 35 of the 36 Welsh
MPs voting against the bill (the other one abstained), Par-
liament passed the bill and the village of Capel Celyn
was submerged, highlighting Wales powerlessness in her
own aairs in the face of the numerical superiority of
English MPs in the Westminster Parliament.[92] Both the
Free Wales Army and Mudiad Amddiyn Cymru (Welsh
Defence Movement, abbreviated as MAC) were formed
as a direct result of the Tryweryn destruction, conducting
campaigns from 1963.[93] In the years leading up to the
investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales in 1969,
these groups were responsible for a number of bomb
blastsdestroying water pipes, tax and other oces and
part of the dam at the new Clywedog reservoir project in
Montgomeryshire, being built to supply water to the En-
glish Midlands.[94][95] At a by-election in 1966, Gwynfor
Evans won the parliamentary seat of Carmarthen, Plaid
Cymrus rst Parliamentary seat.[96] In the following year,
the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was repealed and a le-
gal denition of Wales and of the boundary with England
was stated.[97]
By the end of the 1960s, the regional policy of bring-
ing businesses into disadvantaged areas of Wales through
nancial incentives had proven very successful in diver-
sifying the industrial economy.[98] This policy, begun in
1934, was enhanced by the construction of industrial es-
tates and improvements in transport communications,[98]
most notably the M4 motorway linking south Wales di-
rectly to London. It was believed that the foundations
for stable economic growth had been rmly established
in Wales during this period; but this view was shown to
be wildly optimistic after the recession of the early 1980s
saw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that
had been built over the preceding forty years.[99]
2.6.4 Devolution
In the rst referendum, in 1979, the Welsh electorate
voted on the creation of an assembly for Wales, but there
was a large majority for the no vote.[100] However in
1997 a referendum on the same issue secured a yes, al-
though by a very narrow majority.[100] The National As-
sembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was set
up in 1999 (under the Government of Wales Act 1998)
and has the power to determine how the central gov-
ernment budget for Wales is spent and administered, al-
though the UK parliament reserves the right to set limits
on the powers of the Welsh Assembly.
The governments of the United Kingdom and of Wales
almost invariably dene Wales as a country.[101][102] The
Welsh Government says: Wales is not a Principality.
Although we are joined with England by land, and we
are part of Great Britain, Wales is a country in its own
right.[103] The title Prince of Wales is still conferred on
the heir apparent to the British throne, currently Prince
Charles. However the Prince of Wales has no constitu-
tional role in modern Wales.[104] According to the Welsh
Government: Our Prince of Wales at the moment is
Prince Charles, who is the present heir to the throne. But
he does not have a role in the governance of Wales, even
though his title might suggest that he does.[103]
3 Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Wales
See also: Politics of the United Kingdom and National
Assembly for Wales election, 2016
Wales is a country that is part of the United
The Senedd (National Assembly building), designed by Richard
Rogers, opened on St Davids Day (1 March) 2006
Kingdom.[8][105] Constitutionally, the UK is a de
jure unitary state, its parliament and government in
Westminster. In the House of Commons the lower
house of the UK government Wales is represented by
40 MPs (out of 650) from Welsh constituencies. Labour
MPs hold 25 of the 40 seats, the Conservatives eleven,
3.1 Composition of the Assembly 9

Plaid Cymru three and the Liberal Democrats hold one

seat. A Secretary of State for Wales sits in the UK
cabinet and is responsible for representing matters per-
taining to Wales. The Wales Oce is a department of
the United Kingdom government, responsible for Wales.
Alun Cairns has been Secretary of State for Wales since
March 2016.[106]
Referendums held in Wales and Scotland in 1997 chose
to establish a form of self-government in both countries.
In Wales, the consequent process of devolution began
with the Government of Wales Act 1998, which cre-
ated the National Assembly for Wales (Welsh: Cynull-
iad Cenedlaethol Cymru).[107] Powers of the Secretary of
State for Wales were transferred to the devolved govern-
ment on 1 July 1999, granting the Assembly the power
to decide how the Westminster governments budget for
devolved areas is spent and administered.[108] The 1998
Act was amended by the Government of Wales Act 2006
which enhanced the Assemblys powers, giving it legisla-
tive powers akin to those of the Scottish Parliament and
Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly has 60 mem-
bers, known as Assembly Members (Aelodau y Cynull-
iad). Members (AMs (ACau)) are elected for four-year
terms under an additional member system. Forty of the
AMs represent geographical constituencies, elected un-
der the First Past the Post system. The remaining twenty
AMs represent ve electoral regions, each including be-
tween seven and nine constituencies, using the d'Hondt
method of proportional representation.[109] The Assem- Carwyn Jones, First Minister of Wales since December 2009
bly must elect a First Minister, who selects ministers to
form the Welsh Government.[110]
Carwyn Jones remained First Minister following the elec-
tion, this time leading a Welsh Labour ministerial team.
3.1 Composition of the Assembly The Presiding Ocer of the Assembly was Rosemary
Butler of Welsh Labour.
Labour remained the largest Assembly party following
After the May 2016 election, Labour continues to form
the 2007 election, winning 26 of the 60 seats.[111] Hav- the largest group in the Assembly, with 29 AMs.[115]
ing insucient support to form a government, the Labour Plaid Cymru forms the ocial opposition, having in-
Party entered into the 'One Wales' agreement with Plaid creased its representation to twelve AMs. The Conser-
Cymru, forming a coalition, with the Labour leader as vative Party has eleven AMs and the United Kingdom In-
First Minister.[112] Carwyn Jones has been First Minister dependence Party (UKIP) achieved seven MAs for the
and leader of Welsh Labour since Rhodri Morgan retired rst time. The remaining seat is held by Kirsty Williams
from oce in December 2009, after nine years and ten of the Liberal Democrats. The vote for First Minister ini-
months as First Minister.[113] Ieuan Wyn Jones, Deputy tially resulted in a tie between incumbent Carwyn Jones
First Minister in the coalition government, was leader of (Labour) and Leanne Wood (Plaid Cymru).[116] After
Plaid Cymru, the second-largest party in the Assembly discussions amongst the parties, a Labour government in-
with 14 of the 60 seats. Under the 'One Wales agree- cluding the Liberal Democrat AM as Minister for Ed-
ment, a referendum on giving the Welsh assembly full ucation was proposed with limited policy-based support
law-making powers was promised as soon as practica- from Plaid Cymru, and Carwyn Jones was re-elected as
ble, at or before the end of the assembly term (in 2011)" First Minister.[117] Elin Jones of Plaid Cymru was elected
and both parties have agreed in good faith to campaign Presiding Ocer. In August 2016, one of the UKIP
for a successful outcome to such a referendum.[114] AMs left his group and continues to sit as an Indepen-
Welsh Labour remained the largest party in the Assem- dent member,[118] and in October 2016, former Plaid
bly following the National Assembly for Wales election, Cymru president and inaugural Presiding Ocer of the
2011, winning 30 of the 60 seats. Other parties repre- National Assembly, Dafydd Elis-Thomas, left his party
sented in the assembly were the Welsh Conservatives (the and also continues to sit as an Independent member.[119]
loyal opposition) with 14 seats, Plaid Cymru who have In April 2017, a second UKIP AM left the party and
11 seats and the Welsh Liberal Democrats with ve seats. joined the Conservative Assembly group without joining
10 4 LAW AND ORDER

the party.[120] For the purposes of local government, Wales has been di-
vided into 22 council areas since 1996. These principal
areas[129] are responsible for the provision of all local
3.2 Areas of responsibility government services, including education, social work,
environment and roads services.[130]
The twenty areas of responsibility devolved to the Welsh Note: Wales has six cities. In addition to Cardi, New-
Government, known as subjects, include agriculture, port and Swansea, the communities of Bangor, St Asaph
economic development, education, health, housing, lo- and St Davids also have city status in the United King-
cal government, social services, tourism, transport and dom.
the Welsh language.[121][122] On its creation in 1999, the
National Assembly for Wales had no primary legislative
powers.[123] However, since the Government of Wales
Act 2006 (GoWA 2006) came into eect in 2007, the As-
4 Law and order
sembly has power to pass primary legislation as Assembly
Measures on some specic matters within the areas of de- Main articles: Law of the United Kingdom, Cyfraith Hy-
volved responsibility. Further matters have been added wel, English law, and Welsh law
subsequently, either directly by the UK Parliament or by See also: Marcher Lord
the UK Parliament approving a Legislative Competence By tradition, Welsh Law was compiled during an assem-
Order (LCO, a request from the National Assembly for
additional powers). The GoWA 2006 allows for the As-
sembly to gain primary lawmaking powers on a more ex-
tensive range of matters within the same devolved areas
if approved in a referendum.[124]
A referendum on extending the law-making powers of
the National Assembly was accordingly held on 3 March
2011. It asked the question: Do you want the Assembly
now to be able to make laws on all matters in the 20 sub-
ject areas it has powers for?" 63.49% of the voters voted
'yes, and 36.51% voted 'no'. Consequently, the Assem-
bly is now empowered to make laws, known as Acts of
the Assembly, on all matters in the subject areas, without
needing the UK Parliaments agreement.[125]

3.2.1 Foreign relations

Wales is also a distinct UK electoral region of the Euro-

pean Union represented by four Members of the Euro- Illustration of Welsh Judge from the Laws of Hywel Dda
pean Parliament.[126]
bly held at Whitland around 930 by Hywel Dda, king of
Relations between Wales and America is primarily con- most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. The
ducted through the Prime Minister of the United King- 'law of Hywel Dda' (Welsh: Cyfraith Hywel), as it be-
dom, in addition to her Secretary of Foreign Aairs came known, codied the previously existing folk laws
and Ambassador to the United States. Nevertheless, the and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over cen-
Welsh Assembly has deployed their own envoy to Amer- turies. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compen-
ica, primarily to promote Wales-specic business inter- sation for a crime to the victim, or the victims kin, rather
ests. The primary Welsh Government Oce is based than punishment by the ruler.[131][132][133] Other than in
out of the Washington British Embassy, with satellites the Marches, where law was imposed by the Marcher
in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Atlanta.[127] Lords, Welsh Law remained in force in Wales until the
Commensurately, the United States has established a cau- Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. Edward I of England an-
cus to build direct relations with Wales.[128] nexed the Principality of Wales following the death of
Llywelyn ap Gruudd, and Welsh Law was replaced for
criminal cases under the Statute. Marcher Law and Welsh
3.3 Local government Law (for civil cases) remained in force until Henry VIII
of England annexed the whole of Wales under the Laws
Main article: Local government in Wales in Wales Acts 15351542 (often referred to as the Acts
See also: History of local government in Wales of Union of 1536 and 1543), after which English law
applied to the whole of Wales.[131][134] The Wales and
 11

Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied England.[138][139]
to England would automatically apply to Wales (and the
Anglo-Scottish border town of Berwick) unless the law
explicitly stated otherwise; this Act was repealed with re- 5 Geography and natural history
gard to Wales in 1967. English law has been the legal
system of Wales and England since 1536,[135] and con-
tinues to be so, although there is now a growing body of
contemporary Welsh law since devolution to Wales since
1999.
English law is regarded as a common law system, with
no major codication of the law, and legal precedents are
binding as opposed to persuasive.

The Old Court House, Ruthin, Denbighshire, built 1401, follow-

ing Owain Glyndr's attack on the town

The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of the Snowdon, Gwynedd, the highest mountain in Wales
United Kingdom which is the highest court of appeal in
the land for criminal and civil cases. The Senior Courts
of England and Wales is the highest court of rst instance
as well as an appellate court. The three divisions are the
Court of Appeal; the High Court of Justice and the Crown
Court. Minor cases are heard by the Magistrates Courts
or the County Court. In 2007 the Wales and Cheshire
Region (known as the Wales and Cheshire Circuit before
2005) came to an end when Cheshire was attached to the
North-Western England Region. From that point Wales
became a legal unit in its own right, although it remains
part of the single jurisdiction of England and Wales.[136]
The Welsh Assembly has the authority to draft and ap-
prove laws outside of the UK Parliamentary system to
meet the specic needs of Wales. Under powers approved
by a referendum held in March 2011, it is empowered to Map of Wales. From Ortelius: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum
pass primary legislation known as Acts of the Assembly c.1574.
in relation to twenty subjects listed in the Government of
Wales Act 2006 such as health and education. Through Main article: Geography of Wales
this primary legislation, the Welsh Government can then See also: List of settlements in Wales by population and
also enact more specic secondary legislation. List of towns in Wales
Wales is served by four regional police forces, Dyfed-
Powys Police, Gwent Police, North Wales Police and Wales is a generally mountainous country on the western
South Wales Police.[137] Four prisons are in Wales; side of central southern Great Britain.[140] It is about 170
all in the southern half of the country. Wales has miles (270 km) northsouth and 60 miles (97 km) east
no womens prisons; female inmates are imprisoned in west.[141] The oft-quoted 'size of Wales' is about 20,779
12
km2 (8,023 sq mi).[142][143] Wales is bordered by England
to the east and by sea in all other directions: the Irish
Sea to the north and west, St Georges Channel and the
Celtic Sea to the southwest and the Bristol Channel to the
south.[144][145] Wales has about 1,680 miles (2,700 km) of
coastline (along the mean high water mark), including the
mainland, Anglesey and Holyhead.[146] Over 50 islands
lie o the Welsh mainland; the largest being Anglesey, in
the north-west.
Much of Wales diverse landscape is mountainous, par-
ticularly in the north and central regions. The mountains
were shaped during the last ice age, the Devensian glacia-
tion. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia
(Eryri), of which ve are over 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The
highest of these is Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), at 1,085 m
(3,560 ft).[147][148] The 14 Welsh mountains, or 15 if in-
cluding Garnedd Uchaf often discounted because of its
low topographic prominence over 3,000 feet (910 me-
tres) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s and
are located in a small area in the north-west.[149]
The highest outside the 3000s is Aran Fawddwy, at 905
metres (2,969 feet), in the south of Snowdonia.[150] The
Brecon Beacons (Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south
(highest point Pen y Fan, at 886 metres (2,907 feet)), and
are joined by the Cambrian Mountains in Mid Wales. The
highest point being Pumlumon at 752 metres (2,467 feet).
Relief map of Wales:
Topography above 600 feet (180 m)
National Parks
Wales has three national parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Bea- Llyn y Fan Fawr, Powys, within the Brecon Beacons National
cons and Pembrokeshire Coast. It has ve Areas of Out- Park
5 GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY
standing Natural Beauty; Anglesey, the Clwydian Range
and Dee Valley, the Gower Peninsula, the Lln Penin-
sula, and the Wye Valley.[151] The Gower Peninsula was
the rst area in the United Kingdom to be designated as
an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, in 1956. Forty
two percent of the coastline of south and west Wales
is designated as Heritage Coast, with 13 specic desig-
nated strips of coastline maintained by Natural Resources
Wales (successor body to the Countryside Council for
Wales).[152] As from 2012 the coastline of Wales has 43
Blue Flag beaches and ve Blue Flag marinas.[153] De-
spite its heritage and award winning beaches; the south
and west coasts of Wales, along with the Irish and Cornish
coasts, are frequently blasted by Atlantic westerlies/south
westerlies that, over the years, have sunk and wrecked
many vessels. On the night of 25 October 1859, over
110 ships were destroyed o the coast of Wales when a
hurricane blew in from the Atlantic.[154] More than 800
lives were lost across Britain because of the storm, but the
greatest tragedy was the sinking of the Royal Charter o
the coast of Anglesey in which 459 people died.[155] The
number of shipwrecks around the coast of Wales reached
a peak in the 19th century with over 100 vessels lost and
an average loss of life of about 78 sailors per year.[156]
Wartime action caused losses near Holyhead, Milford
Haven and Swansea.[156] Because of oshore rocks and
unlit islands, Anglesey and Pembrokeshire are still noto-
rious for shipwrecks, most notably the Sea Empress oil
spill in 1996.[157]
The rst border between Wales and England was zonal,
apart from around the River Wye, which was the rst ac-
cepted boundary.[158] Oas Dyke was supposed to form
an early distinct line but this was thwarted by Gruudd
ap Llewellyn, who reclaimed swathes of land beyond the
dyke.[158] The Act of Union of 1536 formed a linear bor-
der stretching from the mouth of the Dee to the mouth
of the Wye.[158] Even after the Act of Union, many of
the borders remained vague and moveable until the Welsh
Sunday Closing act of 1881, which forced local busi-
nesses to decide which country they fell within to accept
either the Welsh or English law.[158]
5.2 Climate 13

The Seven Wonders of Wales is a list in doggerel verse

of seven geographic and cultural landmarks in Wales
probably composed in the late 18th century under the
inuence of tourism from England.[159] All the won-
ders are in north Wales: Snowdon (the highest moun-
tain), the Gresford bells (the peal of bells in the me-
dieval church of All Saints at Gresford), the Llangollen
bridge (built in 1347 over the River Dee), St Winefrides
Well (a pilgrimage site at Holywell) in Flintshire, the
Wrexham (Wrecsam) steeple (16th-century tower of St
Giles Church, Wrexham), the Overton yew trees (ancient
yew trees in the churchyard of St. Marys at Overton-on-
Dee) and Pistyll Rhaeadr a tall waterfall, at 240 ft (73
m).[160] The wonders are part of the rhyme:[160]

Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple,

Snowdons mountain without its people,
Overton yew trees, St Winefrides Wells,
Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells.

5.1 Geology
See also: Geology of Wales

The earliest geological period of the Paleozoic era,

the Cambrian, takes its name from the Cambrian
Mountains, where geologists rst identied Cambrian
remnants.[161][162] In evolutionary studies the Cambrian
is the period when most major groups of complex ani-
mals appeared (the Cambrian explosion). The older rocks
underlying the Cambrian rocks in Wales lacked fossils
which could be used to dierentiate their various groups
and were referred to as Pre-cambrian.
In the mid-19th century, two prominent geologists,
Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick (who rst pro-
posed the name of the Cambrian period), independently
used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish
certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology. The
next two periods of the Paleozoic era, the Ordovician and
Silurian, were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this
area based on Murchisons and Sedgwicks work.[163][164]
5.2 Climate
Wales lies within the north temperate zone. It has a
changeable, maritime climate and is one of the wettest
countries in Europe.[165][166] Welsh weather is often
cloudy, wet and windy, with warm summers and mild
winters.[165][167] The long summer days and short win-
ter days result from Wales northerly latitudes (between
53 43 N and 51 38 N). Aberystwyth, at the midpoint August. The south-western coast is the sunniest part
of the countrys west coast, has nearly 17 hours of day-
light at the summer solstice. Daylight at midwinter there
falls to just over seven and a half hours.[168] The coun-
trys wide geographic variations cause localised dier-
Kppen climate types in Wales
ences in sunshine, rainfall and temperature. Average an-
nual coastal temperatures reach 10.5 C (51 F) and in
low lying inland areas, 1 C (1.8 F) lower. It becomes
cooler at higher altitudes; annual temperatures decrease
on average approximately 0.5 C (0.9 F) each 100 me-
tres (330 feet) of altitude. Consequently, the higher parts
of Snowdonia experience average annual temperatures of
5 C (41 F).[165] Temperatures in Wales remain higher
than would otherwise be expected at its latitude because
of the North Atlantic Drift, a branch of the Gulf Stream.
The ocean current, bringing warmer water to northerly
latitudes, has a similar eect on most of north-west Eu-
rope. As well as its inuence on Wales coastal areas, air
warmed by the Gulf Stream blows further inland with the
prevailing winds.[169]
At low elevations, summers tend to be warm and sunny.
Average maximum temperatures range between 19 and
22 C (66 and 72 F). Winters tend to be fairly wet, but
rainfall is rarely excessive and the temperature usually
stays above freezing. Spring and autumn feel quite simi-
lar and the temperatures tend to stay above 14 C (57 F)
also the average annual daytime temperature.[170]
The sunniest time of year tends to be between May and
of Wales, averaging over 1700 hours of sunshine annu-
ally. Wales sunniest town is Tenby, Pembrokeshire. The
dullest time of year tends to be between November and
January. The least sunny areas are the mountains, some
14
Tor Bay and Three Clis Bay, Gower, Swansea
parts of which average less than 1200 hours of sunshine wettest city, with 908 millimetres (35.7 in).[167] Rhyl is
annually.[165][166] The prevailing wind is south-westerly. Wales driest town, its average annual rainfall 640 mil-
Coastal areas are the windiest, gales occur most often limetres (25 in).[165][166]
during winter, on average between 15 and 30 days each
year, depending on location. Inland, gales average fewer
than six days annually.[165]
Wales pictured from the International Space Station
Rainfall patterns show signicant variation. The fur-
ther west, the higher the expected rainfall; up to 40%
more.[166] At low elevations, rain is unpredictable at any
time of year, although the showers tend to be shorter in
summer.[170] The uplands of Wales have most rain, nor-
5 GEOGRAPHY AND NATURAL HISTORY
mally more than 50 days of rain during the winter months
(December to February), falling to around 35 rainy days
during the summer months (June to August). Annual
rainfall in Snowdonia averages between 3,000 millime-
tres (120 in) (Blaenau Ffestiniog) and 5,000 millimetres
(200 in) (Snowdon's summit).[166] The likelihood is that it
will fall as sleet or snow when the temperature falls below
5 C (41 F), and snow tends to be lying on the ground
there for an average of 30 days a year. Snow falls several
times each winter in inland areas, but is relatively uncom-
mon around the coast. Average annual rainfall in those
areas can be less than 1,000 millimetres (39 in). Met
Oce statistics show Swansea to be the wettest city in
Great Britain, with an average annual rainfall of 1,360.8
millimetres (53.57 in).[167] This has led to the old adage
If you can see Mumbles Head it is going to rain if
you can't, it is raining.[167] Cardi is Great Britains fth
Highest maximum temperature: 35.2 C (95 F) at
Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990.[171]
Lowest minimum temperature: 23.3 C (10 F)
at Rhayader, Radnorshire (now Powys) on 21 Jan-
uary 1940.[171]
Maximum number of hours of sunshine in a month:
354.3 hours at Dale Fort, Pembrokeshire in July
1955.[172]
Minimum number of hours of sunshine in a month:
2.7 hours at Llwynon, Brecknockshire in January
1962.[172]
Maximum rainfall in a day (0900 UTC 0900
UTC): 211 millimetres (8 in) at Rhondda, Glamor-
gan, on 11 November 1929.[173]
Wettest spot an average of 4,473 millimetres
(176 in) rain a year at Crib Goch in Snowdonia,
Gwynedd (making it also the wettest spot in the
United Kingdom).[174]
5.3 Flora and fauna
See also: Fauna of Great Britain, Flora of Great Britain,
and List of birds of Wales
Wales wildlife is typical of Britain with several distinc-
tions. Because of its long coastline Wales hosts a vari-
ety of seabirds. The coasts and surrounding islands are
home to colonies of gannets, Manx shearwater, puns,
kittiwakes, shags and razorbills. In comparison, with 60%
of Wales above the 150m contour, the country also sup-
ports a variety of upland habitat birds, including raven
and ring ouzel.[175][176] Birds of prey include the merlin,
hen harrier and the red kite, a national symbol of Welsh
wildlife.[177] In total, more than 200 dierent species of
 15

The north facing high grounds of Snowdonia support

a relict pre-glacial ora including the iconic Snowdon
lily Gagea serotina and other alpine species such
as Saxifraga cespitosa, Saxifraga oppositifolia and Silene
acaulis. Wales also hosts a number of plant species
not found elsewhere in the UK including the spotted
rock-rose Tuberaria guttata on Anglesey and Draba
aizoides[182] on the Gower.

6 Economy
Main article: Economy of Wales
See also: Tourism in Wales and Agriculture in Wales
Over the last 250 years, Wales has been transformed rst

The red kite (Milvus milvus) a national symbol of Welsh

wildlife

bird have been seen at the RSPB reserve at Conwy, in-

cluding seasonal visitors.[178]
The larger Welsh mammals died out during the Nor-
man period, including the brown bear, wolf and the
wildcat.[179] Today, mammals of note include shrews,
voles, badgers, otters, hedgehogs and fteen species of
bat.[179] Two species of small rodent, the yellow-necked
mouse and the dormouse, are of special Welsh note be-
ing found at the historically undisturbed border area.[179]
Other animals of note include, otter, stoat and weasel.
The pine marten which has had the occasional sighting,
has not been ocially recorded since the 1950s. The
polecat was nearly driven to extinction in Britain, but
hung on in Wales and is now rapidly spreading. Feral
goats can be found in Snowdonia.[180]
The waters of south-west Wales of Gower, Pem-
brokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract marine animals, in-
cluding basking sharks, Atlantic grey seals, leatherback
turtles, dolphins, porpoises, jellysh, crabs and lob-
sters. Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion in particular are
recognised as an area of international importance for
bottlenose dolphins, and New Quay has the only sum-
mer residence of bottlenose dolphins in the whole of the
UK. River sh of note include char, eel, salmon, shad,
sparling and Arctic char, whilst the Gwyniad is unique to A prole of the economy of Wales in 2012
Wales, found only in Bala Lake.[181] Wales is also known
for its shellsh, including cockles, limpet, mussels and from a predominantly agricultural country to an indus-
periwinkles.[181] Herring, mackerel and hake are the more trial, and now a post-industrial economy.[184][185] Since
common of the countrys seash.[181] the Second World War, the service sector has come
16
Port Talbot Steelworks once the largest employer in Wales[183]
to account for the majority of jobs, a feature typify-
ing most advanced economies.[186] Total headline Gross
Value Added (GVA) in Wales in 2010 was 45.5 bil-
lion, or 15,145 per head of population; 74.0 per cent of
the average for the UK total, the lowest GVA per head
in the UK.[187] In the three months to July 2010, the
employment rate for working-age adults in Wales was 67
per cent, compared to 70.7 per cent across the UK as a
whole.[188]
From the middle of the 19th century until the post-war
era, the mining and export of coal was a dominant indus-
try. At its peak of production in 1913, nearly 233,000
men and women were employed in the south Wales coal-
eld, mining 56 million tons of coal.[189] Cardi was once
the largest coal-exporting port in the world and, for a few
years before the First World War, handled a greater ton-
nage of cargo than either London or Liverpool.[190][191]
In the 1920s, over 40% of the male Welsh population
worked in heavy industry.[192] According to Professor
Phil Williams, the Great Depression devastated Wales,
north and south, because of its overwhelming depen-
dence on coal and steel.[192] From the mid-1970s, the
Welsh economy faced massive restructuring with large
numbers of jobs in traditional heavy industry disappear-
ing and being replaced eventually by new ones in light
industry and in services. In the late 1970s and early
1980s, Wales was successful in attracting an above av-
erage share of foreign direct investment in the UK.[193]
However, much of the new industry was essentially of
a branch factory (screwdriver factory) type where a
manufacturing plant or call centre is located in Wales but
the most highly paid jobs in the company are retained
elsewhere.[194][195]
Because of poor-quality soil, much of Wales is unsuitable
for crop-growing and livestock farming has traditionally
been the focus of agriculture. The Welsh landscape (pro-
tected by three national parks) and 45 Blue Flag beaches,
as well as the unique culture of Wales, attract large num-
bers of tourists, who play an especially vital role in the
economy of rural areas.[196][197] Wales has struggled to
develop or attract high value-added employment in sec-
tors such as nance and research and development, at-
7 TRANSPORT
British 1 coin (reverse) depicting the Welsh dragon, 2000
tributable in part to a comparative lack of 'economic
mass (i.e. population) Wales lacks a large metropoli-
tan centre.[195] The lack of high value-added employment
is reected in lower economic output per head relative to
other regions of the UK in 2002 it stood at 90% of the
EU25 average and around 80% of the UK average.[195]
In June 2008, Wales made history by becoming the rst
nation in the world to be awarded Fairtrade Status.[198]
The pound sterling is the currency used in Wales. Nu-
merous Welsh banks issued their own banknotes in the
19th century. The last bank to do so closed in 1908;
since then, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ire-
land continue to have the right to issue banknotes in
their own countries, the Bank of England has a monopoly
on the issue of banknotes in Wales.[199][200][201][202] The
Commercial Bank of Wales, established in Cardi by
Sir Julian Hodge in 1971, was taken over by the Bank
of Scotland in 1988 and absorbed into its parent com-
pany in 2002.[203] The Royal Mint, who issue the coinage
circulated through the whole of the UK, have been
based at a single site in Llantrisant since 1980.[204] Since
decimalisation, in 1971, at least one of the coins in UK
circulation has depicted a Welsh design, e.g. the 1995
and 2000 one Pound coin (above). However, Wales has
not been represented on any coin minted from 2008.[205]
7 Transport
Main article: Transport in Wales
The main road artery along the south Wales coast is the
M4 motorway. It also provides a link to southern Eng-
land, terminating in London. The section of the motor-
way managed by the Welsh Government runs from the
Second Severn Crossing to Pont Abraham, Carmarthen-
shire, connecting the cities of Newport, Cardi and

The Second Severn Crossing
carrying the M4 Motorway
Main article: Education in Wales
Swansea. The A55 expressway has a similar role along See also: List of universities in Wales and List of further
the north Wales coast, connecting Holyhead and Bangor education colleges in Wales
with Wrexham and Flintshire. It also links to north- A distinct education system has developed in Wales.
west England, principally Chester. The main north-south
Wales link is the A470, which runs from Cardi to
Llandudno.
An Arriva Trains Wales service at Llandudno Junction railway
station
Cardi International Airport is the only large and inter-
national airport in Wales. Providing links to European,
African and North American destinations, it is about 12
miles (19 km) southwest of Cardi city centre, in the
Vale of Glamorgan. Intra-Wales ights run between An-
glesey (Valley) and Cardi, operated by Isle of Man air-
line Manx2[206] Other internal ights operate to northern
England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
The Welsh Government manages those parts of the
British railway network within Wales. Cardi Cen-
tral is Wales busiest railway station, with over four
times as much passenger trac as any other station in
Wales.[207] The Cardi region has its own urban rail net-
work. Beeching cuts in the 1960s mean that most of the
remaining network is geared toward east-west travel con-
necting with the Irish Sea ports for ferries to Ireland. Ser-
vices between north and south Wales operate through the
17
English towns of Chester and Shrewsbury along the Welsh
Marches Line. All trains in Wales are diesel-powered,
since no lines have been electried. However, the South
Wales Main Line branch of the Great Western Main Line
used by services from London Paddington to Cardi and
Swansea, is undergoing electrication.[208][209]
Wales has four commercial ferry ports. Regular ferry ser-
vices to Ireland operate from Holyhead, Pembroke and
Fishguard. The Swansea to Cork service, cancelled in
2006, was reinstated in March 2010, but has been with-
drawn again in 2012.[210][211]
8 Education
[213]
St. Davids Building, Lampeter campus, University of Wales,
Trinity Saint David (Prifysgol Cymru, Y Drindod Dewi Sant).
Founded in 1822, it is the oldest degree awarding institution in
Wales.[212]
Formal education before the 18th century was the pre-
serve of the elite. The rst grammar schools were es-
tablished in Welsh towns such as Ruthin, Brecon and
Cowbridge.[213] One of the rst successful schooling sys-
tems was started by Grith Jones, who introduced the
circulating schools in the 1730s; believed to have taught
half the countrys population to read.[214] In the 19th
century, with increasing state involvement in education,
Wales was forced to adopt an education system that was
English in ethos even though the country was predomi-
nantly Non-conformist, Welsh-speaking and demograph-
ically uneven because of the economic expansion in the
south.[214] In some schools, to ensure Welsh children
spoke English at school, the Welsh Not was used; a pol-
icy seen as a hated symbol of English oppression.[215] The
not, a piece of wood hung round the neck by string, was
given to any child overheard speaking Welsh, who would
pass it to a dierent child if overheard speaking Welsh.
At the end of the day, the wearer of the not would
be beaten.[216][217] The extent of its practice, however, is
18 10 DEMOGRAPHY

dicult to determine.[218] State and local governmental
edicts resulted in schooling in the English language which,
following Brad y Llyfrau Gleision (the Treachery of the
Blue Books), was seen as more academic and worthwhile
for children.[219]
The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth
in 1872. Cardi and Bangor followed, and the three
colleges came together in 1893 to form the University
of Wales.[214] The Welsh Intermediate Education Act of
1889 created 95 secondary schools. The Welsh Depart-
ment for the Board of Education followed in 1907, which
gave Wales its rst signicant educational devolution.[214]
A resurgence in Welsh-language schools in the latter half
of the 20th century at nursery and primary level saw atti-
tudes shift towards teaching in the medium of Welsh.[220]
In schools where English is the rst language, Welsh is a
compulsory subject until the age of 16.[221] While there
has never been an exclusively Welsh-language college,
Welsh-medium higher education is delivered through the
individual universities and has since 2011 been supported
by the Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol (Welsh National
College) as a delocalised federal institution. In 2006 there
were 33 nursery, 1555 primary, 244 secondary com-
prehensive and 43 special schools with 56 independent
schools in Wales. In 2004 the country had 505,208 pupils
taught by 27,378 teachers.[222]
able through medical advancement, much of the clini-
cal work of the country has been concentrated in newer,
larger district hospitals.[224] In 2006, there were seven-
teen district hospitals in Wales, although none situated
in Powys.[224] NHS Wales provides public healthcare in
Wales and employs some 90,000 sta, making it Wales
biggest employer.[225] The Minister for Health and Social
Services is the person within the Welsh Government who
holds cabinet responsibilities for both health and social
care in Wales.[226]
A 2009 Welsh health survey, conducted by the Welsh As-
sembly, reported that 51% of adults reported their health
good or excellent, while 21% described their health as
fair or poor.[227] The survey also recorded that 27% of
Welsh adults had a long-term chronic illness, such as
arthritis, asthma, diabetes and heart disease.[226][228] En-
quiries into health-related lifestyle choices report 27%
of the adult population are smokers, 45% admit drink-
ing alcohol above recommended guidelines at least once
a week, while 29% undertake the recommended weekly
physical activity.[226]
10 Demography
10.1 Population history

Source: John Davies (1993). A History of Wales. pp.

9 Healthcare 25859, 319.; Census 2001, 200 Years of the Census in
... Wales (2001)
Main article: NHS Wales
Public healthcare in Wales is provided by NHS Wales The population of Wales doubled from 587,000 in 1801
to 1,163,000 in 1851 and had reached 2,421,000 by 1911.
Most of the increase came in the coal mining districts,
especially Glamorganshire, which grew from 71,000 in
1801 to 232,000 in 1851 and 1,122,000 in 1911.[229] Part
of this increase can be attributed to the demographic tran-
sition seen in most industrialising countries during the
Industrial Revolution, as death rates dropped and birth
rates remained steady. However, there was also large-
scale migration into Wales during the Industrial Rev-
olution. The English were the most numerous group,
but there were also considerable numbers of Irish and
smaller numbers of other ethnic groups,[230][231] includ-
ing Italians, who migrated to South Wales.[232] Wales also
received immigration from various parts of the British
University Hospital of Wales, Cardi Commonwealth of Nations in the 20th century, and
African-Caribbean and Asian communities add to the
(GIG Cymru), which was originally formed as part of ethno-cultural mix, particularly in urban Wales. Many
the NHS structure for England and Wales created by of these self-identify as Welsh.[233]
the National Health Service Act 1946, but with pow-
ers over the NHS in Wales coming under the Secre-
tary of State for Wales in 1969.[223] In turn, responsi- 10.2 Current
bility for NHS Wales was passed to the Welsh Assem-
bly and Executive under devolution in 1999. Histori- Main articles: Demography of Wales and Demography
cally, Wales was served by smaller 'cottage' hospitals, of the United Kingdom
built as voluntary institutions.[224] As newer more expen- The 2011 census showed Wales population to be
sive diagnostic techniques and treatments became avail- 3,063,456, the highest in its history.[234] In 2011, 27%
10.3 Languages 19

identity.[241] Partly to address this concern, the 2011 cen-

sus asked the question How would you describe your na-
tional identity?". Respondents were instructed to tick all
that apply from a list of options that included Welsh. The
outcome was that 57.5% of Wales population indicated
their sole national identity to be Welsh; a further 7.1%
indicated it to be both Welsh and British. No Welsh na-
tional identity was indicated by 34.1%. The proportion
giving their sole national identity as British was 16.9%,
and another 9.4% included British with another national
identity. No British national identity was indicated by
73.7%. 11.2% indicated their sole national identity as
English and another 2.6% included English with another
national identity.[242][243][244]
The 2011 census showed Wales to be less ethnically di-
verse than any region of England:[245] 93.2% classed
themselves as White British (including Welsh, English,
Scottish or Northern Irish), 2.4% as Other White (in-
cluding Irish), 2.2% as Asian (including Asian British),
1% as Mixed, and 0.6% as Black (African, Caribbean, or
Map of population density in Wales at the 2011 census. Black British). The lowest proportion of White British
(80.3%) was in Cardi.[244][246]
In 2001, a quarter of the Welsh population were born out-
side Wales, mainly in England; about 3% were born out-
side the UK. The proportion born in Wales varies across
the country, with the highest percentages in the south
Wales valleys and the lowest in mid Wales and parts of the
north-east. In both Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydl,
92% were Welsh-born, compared to only 51% and 56%
in the border counties of Flintshire and Powys.[247] Just
over 1.75 million Americans report themselves to have
Welsh ancestry, as did 440,965 Canadians in Canadas
Swansea Bay and city centre. Swansea is Wales second most 2006 census.[248][249]
populous city. The total fertility rate (TFR) in Wales was 1.90 in
2011,[250] which is below the replacement rate of 2.1.
The majority of births are to unmarried women (58% of
(837,000) of the total population of Wales were not born
births in 2011 were outside marriage).[251] About one in
in Wales,[235] including 636,000 people (21% of the total
10 births (10.7%) in 2011 were to foreign-born mothers,
population of Wales) who were born in England.[236] The
compared to 5.2% in 2001.[252]
main population and industrial areas are in south Wales,
including the cities of Cardi, Swansea and Newport and A 2010 study estimated that 35% of the Welsh pop-
the nearby valleys, with another signicant population in ulation have surnames of Welsh origin (5.4% of the
the north-east around Wrexham and Flintshire. English and 1.6% of the Scottish population also bore
'Welsh' names).[253] However, many modern surnames
According to the 2001 census, 96% of the population
derived from old Welsh personal names actually arose in
was White British, and 2.1% non-white (mainly of British
England.[254]
Asian origin).[237] Most non-white groups were concen-
trated in Cardi, Newport and Swansea. Welsh Asian
and African communities developed mainly through im-
10.3 Languages
migration after the Second World War.[238] In the early
21st century, parts of Wales saw an increased number Main articles: Languages of Wales, Welsh language, and
of immigrants settle from recent EU accession countries Welsh English
such as Poland;[239] though a 2007 study showed a rela- In his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica Edward
tively low number of employed immigrant workers from Lhuyd, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, noted the
the former Eastern Bloc countries in Wales compared to similarity between the two Celtic language families:
other regions of the United Kingdom.[240] Brythonic or PCeltic (Breton, Cornish and Welsh); and
The 2001 UK census was criticised in Wales for not oer- Goidelic or QCeltic (Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic).
ing 'Welsh' as an option to describe respondents national He argued that the Brythonic languages originated in
20 10 DEMOGRAPHY

The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they
could speak Welsh.
Wales Act 1998 provide that the English and Welsh lan-
guages be treated on a basis of equality, and both are used
as working languages within the National Assembly.[258]
Both English and Welsh are considered ocial languages
of Wales,[259] with Welsh further recognised in law as
having ocial status.[260] English is spoken by almost
all people in Wales and is the main language in most of the
country. Code-switching is common in all parts of Wales
and is known by various terms, though none is recognised
by professional linguists.[261] "Wenglish" is the Welsh En-
glish language dialect. It has been inuenced signi-
cantly by Welsh grammar and includes words derived
from Welsh. According to John Davies, Wenglish has
been the object of far greater prejudice than anything
suered by Welsh.[262][263] Northern and western Wales
retain many areas where Welsh is spoken as a rst lan-
guage by the majority of the population, and English
learnt as a second language. The 2011 Census showed
562,016 people, 19.0% of the Welsh population, were
able to speak Welsh, a decrease from the 20.8% returned
in the 2001 census.[264][265] Although monoglotism in
young children continues, life-long monoglotism in Welsh
is recognised to be a thing of the past.[266]
Road signs in Wales are generally in both English and
Welsh; where place names dier in the two languages,
both versions are used (e.g. Cardi and Caerdydd),
the decision as to which is placed rst being that of the lo-
cal authority.[267] During the 20th century, a number of
small communities of speakers of languages other than
Welsh or English, such as Bengali or Cantonese, estab-
lished themselves in Wales as a result of immigration.

10.4 Religion

The largest religion in Wales is Christianity, with 57.6%

The National Eisteddfod, an annual celebration of Welsh culture, of the population describing themselves as Christian
conducted in Welsh in the 2011 census.[268] The Church in Wales with
56,000 adherents has the largest attendance of the
denominations.[269] It is a province of the Anglican Com-
Gaul (France), and that the Goidelic languages originated munion, and was part of the Church of England until dis-
in the Iberian Peninsula. Lhuyd concluded that as the lan- establishment in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914.
guages had been of Celtic origin, the people who spoke The rst Independent Church in Wales was founded at
those languages were Celts. (According to a more re- Llanvaches in 1638 by William Wroth. The Presbyterian
cent hypothesis, also widely embraced today, Goidelic Church of Wales was born out of the Welsh Methodist
and Brythonic languages, collectively known as Insular revival in the 18th century and seceded from the Church
Celtic languages, evolved together for some time sepa- of England in 1811.[270]
rately from Continental Celtic languages such as Gaul- The second largest attending faith in Wales is Roman
ish and Celtiberian.) From the 18th century, the peoples Catholic, with an estimated 43,000 adherents.[269] Non-
of Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, Isle of Man, Scotland andChristian religions are small in Wales, making up ap-
Wales were known increasingly as Celts, and they are re- proximately 2.7% of the population.[268] The 2011 cen-
garded as the modern Celtic nations today.[256][257] sus recorded 32.1% of people declaring no religion, while
The Bible translations into Welsh helped to maintain the 7.6% did not reply to the question.[268] The patron saint
use of Welsh in daily life. The New Testament was trans- of Wales is Saint David (Dewi Sant), with Saint Davids
lated by William Salesbury in 1567 followed by the com- Day (Dydd Gyl Dewi Sant) celebrated annually on 1
plete Bible by William Morgan in 1588. March.[271]
11.1 Mythology 21

Wales has a distinctive culture including its own language,

customs, holidays and music.
Wales has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The
Castles and Town walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd;
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct; and the Blaenavon Industrial
Landscape.[280]

11.1 Mythology

Main article: Welsh mythology

The remnants of the native Celtic mythology of the pre-

Christian Britons was passed down orally, in much altered
form, by the cynfeirdd (the early poets).[281] Some of their
work survives in much later medieval Welsh manuscripts,
known as: the Black Book of Carmarthen and the Book
of Aneirin (both 13th-century); the Book of Taliesin and
the White Book of Rhydderch (both 14th-century); and
the Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400).[281] The prose sto-
ries from the White and Red Books are known as the
Mabinogion, a title given to them by their rst transla-
tor, Lady Charlotte Guest, and also used by subsequent
St. Davids Cathedral, Pembrokeshire translators.[282] Poems such as Cad Goddeu (The Battle of
the Trees) and mnemonic list-texts like the Welsh Triads
and the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, also
In 1904, there was a religious revival (known by some contain mythological material.[283][284][285] These texts
as the 19041905 Welsh Revival, or simply The 1904 also include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legend
Revival) which started through the evangelism of Evan and the traditional history of post-Roman Britain.[281]
Roberts and saw large numbers of people converting
Other sources of Welsh folklore include the 9th-century
to nonconformist and Anglican Christianity, sometimes
Latin historical compilation Historia Britonum (the His-
whole communities.[272] Roberts style of preaching be-
tory of the Britons) and Georey of Monmouth's 12th-
came the blueprint for new religious bodies such as
century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae (the
Pentecostalism and the Apostolic Church.[273] The Apos-
History of the Kings of Britain), as well as later folk-
tolic Church holds its annual Apostolic Conference in
lore, such as The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn
Swansea each year, usually in August.
Thomas.[286][287]
Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Wales,
with more than 24,000 (0.8%) reported Muslims in
the 2011 census.[268] 2 Glynrhondda Street in Cathays, 11.2 Literature in Wales
Cardi, is accepted as the rst mosque in the United
Kingdom[274][275][276] founded by Yemeni and Somali Main articles: Literature of Wales (Welsh language), List
sailors on their trips between Aden and Cardi of Welsh writers, and Literature of Wales (English lan-
Docks.[277] guage)
There are also communities of Hindus and Sikhs, mainly Wales can claim one of the oldest unbroken literary
[288]
in the south Wales cities of Newport, Cardi and traditions in Europe. The literary tradition of Wales
Swansea, while the largest concentration of Buddhists is stretches back to the sixth century and includes Georey
in the western rural county of Ceredigion. [278]
Judaism of Monmouth and Gerald of Wales, regarded by histo-
was the rst non-Christian faith to be established in Wales rian John Davies as among the nest Latin authors of the
[288]
since Roman times, though by 2001 the community has Middle Ages. The earliest body of Welsh verse, by
declined to approximately 2,000. [279] poets Taliesin and Aneirin, survive not in their original
form, but in medieval versions and have undergone sig-
nicant linguistic changes.[288] Welsh poetry and native
lore and learning survived the Dark Ages, through the era
11 Culture of the Poets of the Princes (c. 1100 1280) and then the
Poets of the Gentry (c. 1350 1650). The Poets of the
Main article: Culture of Wales Princes were professional poets who composed eulogies
and elegies to the Welsh princes while the Poets of the
22
Welsh poetry from the 13th Century Black book of Carmarthen
Gentry were a school of poets that favoured the cywydd the First World War had a profound eect on Welsh liter-
metre.[289] The period is notable for producing one of ature with a more pessimistic style of prose championed[292]
Wales greatest poets, Dafydd ap Gwilym.[290] After the by T. H. Parry-Williams and R. Williams Parry.
Anglicisation of the gentry the tradition declined. [289]
Bishop William Morgan
Despite the extinction of the professional poet, the in-
tegration of the native elite into a wider cultural world
did bring other literary benets.[291] Humanists such as
William Salesbury and John Davies brought Renaissance
ideals from English universities when they returned to
Wales.[291] While in 1588 William Morgan became the
rst person to translate the Bible into Welsh, from Greek
11 CULTURE
and Hebrew.[291] From the 16th century onwards the pro-
liferation of the 'free-metre' verse became the most im-
portant development in Welsh poetry, but from the mid-
dle of the 17th century a host of imported accentual
metres from England became very popular.[291] By the
19th century the creation of a Welsh epic, fuelled by the
eisteddfod, became an obsession with Welsh-language
writers.[292] The output of this period was prolic in quan-
tity but unequal in quality.[293] Initially the eisteddfod
was askance with the religious denominations, but in
time these bodies came to dominate the competitions,
with the bardic themes becoming increasingly scriptural
and didactic.[293] The period is notable for the adoption
by Welsh poets of bardic names, made popular by the
eisteddfod movement.
Major developments in 19th-century Welsh literature in-
clude Lady Charlotte Guests translation of the Mabino-
gion, one of the most important medieval Welsh prose
tales of Celtic mythology, into English. 1885 saw the
publication of Rhys Lewis by Daniel Owen, credited
as the rst novel written in the Welsh language. The
20th century experienced an important shift away from
the stilted and long-winded Victorian Welsh prose, with
Thomas Gwynn Jones leading the way with his 1902 work
Ymadawiad Arthur.[292] The slaughter in the trenches of
The
industrialisation of south Wales saw a further shift with
the likes of Rhydwen Williams who used the poetry and
metre of a bygone rural Wales but in the context of an in-
dustrial landscape. Though the inter-war period is domi-
nated by Saunders Lewis, for his political and reactionary
views as much as his plays, poetry and criticism.[292]
The careers of some 1930s writers continued after World
War Two, including those of Gwyn Thomas, Vernon
Watkins, and Dylan Thomas, whose most famous work
Under Milk Wood was rst broadcast in 1954. Thomas
was one of the most notable and popular Welsh writers
of the 20th century and one of the most innovative poets
of his time.[294] Gwyn Thomas became the voice of the
English-speaking Welsh valleys with his humorous take
on grim lives.
The attitude of the post-war generation of Welsh writers
in English towards Wales diers from the previous gen-
eration, in that they were more sympathetic to Welsh na-
tionalism and to the Welsh language. The change can be
linked to the nationalist fervour generated by Saunders
Lewis and the burning of the Bombing School on the
Lleyn Peninsula in 1936, along with a sense of crisis
generated by World War II.[295] In poetry R. S. Thomas
(19132000) was the most important gure throughout
the second half of the twentieth century. While he did
not learn the Welsh language until he was 30 and wrote all
his poems in English,[296] he wanted the Welsh language
to be made the rst language of Wales, and the ocial
policy of bilingualism abolished.
11.4 Visual arts
The major novelist in the second half of the twentieth
century was Emyr Humphreys (1919)., who during his
long writing career published over twenty novels, which
surveys the political and cultural history of twentieth-
century Wales.[297] Another novelist of the post-Second-
World-War era was Raymond Williams (192188). Born
near Abergavenny, Williams continued the earlier tradi-
tion of writing from a left-wing perspective on the Welsh
industrial scene in his trilogy "Border Country" (1960),
Second Generation (1964), and The Fight for Manod 11.4 Visual arts
(1979). He also enjoyed a reputation as a cultural histo-
rian.
11.3 Museums and libraries
The National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth
National Museum Cardi
The National Museum [of] Wales was founded by royal
charter in 1907 and is now a Welsh Government spon-
sored body. The National Museum is made up of seven
sites across the country, including the National Museum
Cardi, St Fagans National History Museum and Big Pit
National Coal Museum. In April 2001, the attractions
attached to the National Museum were granted free en-
try by the Assembly, and this action saw the visitor num-
bers to the sites increase during 20012002 by 87.8% to
1,430,428.[298]
23
Aberystwyth is home to the National Library of Wales,
which houses some of the most important collections in
Wales, including the Sir John Williams Collection and
the Shirburn Castle collection.[299] As well as its printed
collection the Library holds important Welsh art collec-
tions including portraits and photographs, ephemera such
as postcards, posters and Ordnance Survey maps.[299]
Main article: Welsh art
Many works of Celtic art have been found in Wales.[300]
In the Early Medieval period, the Celtic Christianity of
Wales was part of the Insular art of the British Isles.
A number of illuminated manuscripts from Wales sur-
vive, of which the 8th century Hereford Gospels and
Licheld Gospels are the most notable. The 11th century
Ricemarch Psalter (now in Dublin) is certainly Welsh,
made in St Davids, and shows a late Insular style with
unusual Viking inuence.[301][302]
The best of the few Welsh artists of the 16th18th cen-
turies tended to leave the country to work, many of them
moving to London or Italy. Richard Wilson (171482)
is arguably the rst major British landscapist. Although
more notable for his Italian scenes, he painted several
Welsh scenes on visits from London. By the late 18th cen-
tury, the popularity of landscape art grew and clients were
found in the larger Welsh towns, allowing more Welsh
artists to stay in their homeland. Artists from outside
Wales were also drawn to paint Welsh scenery, at rst
because of the Celtic Revival. Then in the early 19th cen-
tury, the Napoleonic Wars preventing the Grand Tour to
continental Europe, travel through Wales came to be con-
sidered more accessible.[303][304]
The Bard, 1774, by Thomas Jones (17421803)
An Act of Parliament in 1857 provided for the establish-
ment of a number of art schools throughout the United
Kingdom and the Cardi School of Art opened in 1865.
Graduates still very often had to leave Wales to work, but
Betws-y-Coed became a popular centre for artists and its
artists colony helped form the Royal Cambrian Academy
24 11 CULTURE

of Art in 1881.[305] The sculptor Sir William Goscombe

John made many works for Welsh commissions, although
he had settled in London. Christopher Williams, whose
subjects were mostly resolutely Welsh, was also based in
London. Thomas E. Stephens and Andrew Vicari had
very successful careers as portraitists based respectively
in the United States and France.[306][307] Sir Frank Brang-
wyn was Welsh by origin but spent little time in Wales.
Many Welsh painters gravitated towards the art capitals
of Europe. Augustus John and his sister Gwen John lived
mostly in London and Paris. However, the landscapists
Sir Kyn Williams and Peter Prendergast lived in Wales
for most of their lives, while remaining in touch with the
wider art world. Ceri Richards was very engaged in the
Welsh art scene as a teacher in Cardi and even after
moving to London. He was a gurative painter in in-
ternational styles including Surrealism. Various artists
have moved to Wales, including Eric Gill, the London-
Welshman David Jones and the sculptor Jonah Jones.
The Kardomah Gang was an intellectual circle centred
on the poet Dylan Thomas and poet and artist Vernon Prince of Waless feathers
Watkins in Swansea, which also included the painter
Alfred Janes.[308]
South Wales had several notable potteries, one of the daodil became popular in [313] the 19th century, encour-
the rst important sites being the Ewenny Pottery in aged by David Lloyd-George. This is attributed to
Bridgend, which began producing earthenware in the confusion (or association) between the Welsh for leek,
17th century. [309]
In the 18th and 19th centuries, with cenhinen, and that for daodil, cenhinen Bedr or St. Pe-
[140]
more scientic methods becoming available more re- ters leek. A report in 1916 gave preference to the
[313]
ned ceramics were produced led by the Cambrian Pot- leek, which has appeared on British pound coins.
tery (17641870, also known as Swansea pottery) and The Prince of Wales heraldic badge is also sometimes
later Nantgarw Pottery near Cardi, which was in op- used to symbolise Wales. The badge, known as the
eration from 1813 to 1822 making ne porcelain and Prince of Waless feathers, consists of three white feath-
then utilitarian pottery until 1920.[309] Portmeirion Pot- ers emerging from a gold coronet. A ribbon below the
tery, founded in 1960 by Susan Williams-Ellis, daughter coronet bears the German motto Ich dien (I serve). Sev-
of Clough Williams-Ellis, creator of the Italianate village eral Welsh representative teams, including the Welsh
of Portmeirion, Gwynedd, is based in Stoke-on-Trent, rugby union, and Welsh regiments in the British Army
England.[310] (the Royal Welsh, for example) use the badge, or a
stylised version of it. The Prince of Wales has claimed
that only he has the authority to use the symbol.[314]
11.5 National symbols "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" (English: Land of My Fathers) is
the National Anthem of Wales, and is played at events
Main article: National symbols of Wales such as football or rugby matches involving the Wales na-
The Flag of Wales incorporates the red dragon (Y Ddraig tional team as well as the opening of the Welsh Assem-
Goch) of Prince Cadwalader along with the Tudor colours bly and other ocial occasions.[315][316] God Save the
of green and white.[311] It was used by Henry VII at the Queen, the national anthem of the United Kingdom, is
Battle of Bosworth in 1485 after which it was carried in sometimes played alongside Hen Wlad fy Nhadau during
state to St. Pauls Cathedral.[311] The red dragon was then ocial events with a royal connection.[317]
included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh de-
scent. It was ocially recognised as the Welsh national
ag in 1959.[312] The British Union Flag incorporates the 11.6 Sport
ags of Scotland, Ireland and England, but has no Welsh
representation. Technically Wales is represented by the Main article: Sport in Wales
ag of England, as the Laws in Wales Act of 1535 an- More than 50 national governing bodies regulate and or-
nexed Wales to England, following the 13th-century con- ganise their sports in Wales.[318] Most of those involved
quest. in competitive sports select, organise and manage indi-
The daodil and the leek are also symbols of Wales. The viduals or teams to represent their country at international
origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while events or xtures against other countries. Wales is repre-
11.7 Media
Millennium Stadium, Cardi
sented at major world sporting events such as the FIFA
World Cup, Rugby World Cup, Rugby League World Cup
and the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympics Games,
Welsh athletes compete alongside those of Scotland, Eng-
land and Northern Ireland as part of a Great Britain team.
Although football has traditionally been the more pop-
ular sport in north Wales, rugby union is seen as a
symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national
consciousness.[319] The Wales national rugby union team
takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship and
has also competed in every Rugby World Cup, host-
ing the tournament in 1999. The ve professional sides
that replaced the traditional club sides in major competi-
tions in 2003 were replaced in 2004 by the four regions:
Scarlets; Cardi Blues; Newport Gwent Dragons; and
the Ospreys.[320][321] The Welsh regional teams play in
the Pro12, the Anglo-Welsh Cup, the European Rugby
Champions Cup and the European Rugby Challenge Cup.
Wales has had its own football league, the Welsh Premier
League, since 1992.[322] For historical reasons, six Welsh
clubs play in the English football league system; Cardi
City, Swansea City, Newport County, Wrexham, Colwyn
Bay and Merthyr Town.[323] Famous Welsh players over
the years include John Charles, John Toshack, Ian Rush,
Ryan Giggs and Gareth Bale.[324]
Rugby league in Wales dates back to 1907. Currently two
professional clubs, the South Wales Ironmen (based in
Merthyr Tydl) and the North Wales Crusaders (based
in Wrexham) compete in the Rugby Football League's
League 1 competition. The Crusaders competed in the
top level Super League competition from 20092011. A
professional Welsh League existed from 1908 to 1910.
In international cricket, Wales and England eld a sin-
gle representative team, administered by the England and
Wales Cricket Board (ECB), called the England cricket
team, or simply 'England'.[325] Occasionally, a separate
Wales team play limited-overs competitions. Glamorgan BBC Cymru Wales is Wales only national radio broad-
County Cricket Club is the only Welsh participant in the caster. BBC Radio Wales is their English-language ra-
England and Wales County Championship.[326] dio service, broadcasting throughout Wales in English.
Wales has produced several world-class participants of BBC Radio Cymru is their Welsh-language radio service,
individual sports including snooker players Ray Reardon, broadcasting throughout Wales in Welsh.[337] A number
25
Terry Griths, Mark Williams and Matthew Stevens.[327]
Track athletes who have made a mark on the world
stage, including the 110-metre hurdler Colin Jackson
who is a former world record holder and the winner
of numerous Olympic, World and European medals as
well as Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won 11 Para-
lympic gold medals.[328][329] Cyclist Nicole Cooke won
gold medals at the Commonwealth, Olympic and World
championships.[330]
Wales also has a tradition of producing world-class box-
ers. Joe Calzaghe was WBO world super-middleweight
champion and then won the WBA, WBC and Ring
Magazine super middleweight and Ring Magazine light-
heavyweight titles.[331] Other former boxing world cham-
pions include Enzo Maccarinelli, Freddie Welsh, Howard
Winstone, Percy Jones, Jimmy Wilde, Steve Robin-
son and Robbie Regan.[332] Tommy Farr, the Tony-
pandy Terror, came close to defeating world heavy-
weight champion Joe Louis at the height of his fame in
1937.[333]
Wales has hosted several international sporting
events.[334] These include the 1958 Commonwealth
Games,[335] the 1999 Rugby World Cup and the 2010
Ryder Cup.[334]
11.7 Media
Main article: Media in Wales
See also: List of newspapers in Wales
All Welsh television broadcasts are digital. The last
of the analogue transmitters ceased broadcasts in April
2010, and Wales became the UKs rst digital nation.[336]
Cardi is home to the television output of Wales. BBC
Cymru Wales is the national broadcaster.[337] Based in
Llanda, Cardi, it produces Welsh-oriented English and
Welsh-language television for BBC ONE Wales, BBC
TWO Wales and S4C channels.[338] BBC Cymru Wales
has also produced programmes, such as Life on Mars,
Doctor Who and Torchwood, shown worldwide.[337][339]
ITV the UKs main commercial broadcaster has a Welsh-
oriented service branded as ITV Wales, whose studios
are in Culverhouse Cross, Cardi.[340] S4C, based in
Llanishen, Cardi, rst broadcast on 1 November 1982.
Its output was mostly Welsh-language at peak hours, but
shared English-language content with Channel 4 at other
times. Since the digital switchover in April 2010, the
channel has broadcast exclusively in Welsh. BBC Cymru
Wales provide S4C with ten hours of programming per
week. Their remaining output is commissioned from ITV
and independent producers.[341]
26 11 CULTURE

tles Golwg (View) (published weekly) and Barn (Opinion)

(monthly).[344] Among the specialist magazines, Y Wawr
(The Dawn) is published quarterly by Merched y Wawr,
the national organisation for women.[344] Y Traethodydd
(The Essayist), a quarterly publication by The Presbyte-
rian Church of Wales, rst appeared in 1845; the oldest
Welsh publication still in print.[344]

11.8 Cuisine

A number of BBC productions, such as Doctor Who and

Torchwood, have been lmed in Wales.

of independent radio stations broadcast to the Welsh re-

gions, predominantly in English. Several regional ra-
dio stations broadcast in Welsh: output ranges from two,
two-minute news bulletins each weekday (Radio Mald-
wyn), through over 14 hours of Welsh-language pro- Cawl, a traditional meat and vegetable dish from Wales
grammes weekly (Swansea Sound), to essentially bilin-
gual stations oering between 37% and 44% of pro- Main article: Welsh cuisine
gramme content (Heart Cymru (formerly Champion 103) See also: Cuisine of Gower
and Radio Ceredigion respectively).[342]
Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales are About 78% of the land surface of Wales is given over to
national newspapers available throughout Britain, un- agricultural use.[353] However, very little of this is arable
like in Scotland where many newspapers have rebranded land; the vast majority consists of permanent grass pas-
into Scottish-based titles. The Western Mail is Wales ture or rough grazing for herd animals such as sheep
only national daily newspaper.[343] Wales-based regional and cows. Although both beef and dairy cattle are
daily newspapers include: Daily Post (which covers north raised widely, especially in Carmarthenshire and Pem-
Wales); South Wales Evening Post (Swansea); South Wales brokeshire, Wales is more well known for its sheep farm-
Echo (Cardi); and South Wales Argus (Newport).[343] ing and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with
Y Cymro is a Welsh-language newspaper, published Welsh cooking.
weekly.[344] Wales on Sunday is the only Welsh Sunday
newspaper to cover the whole of Wales.[345] Traditional dishes include laverbread (made from laver
(Porphyra umbilicalis), an edible seaweed); bara brith
The Welsh Books Council (WBC) is the Welsh Gov- (fruit bread); cawl (a lamb stew); cawl cennin (leek
ernment funded body tasked with promoting Welsh soup); Welsh cakes; and Welsh lamb. Cockles are some-
literature.[346] The WBC provides publishing grants for times served as a traditional breakfast with bacon and
qualifying English- and Welsh-language publications.[347] laverbread.[354]
Around 600650 books are published each year, by some
of the dozens of Welsh publishers.[348][349] Wales main Although Wales has its own traditional food, and has ab-
publishing houses include Gomer Press, Gwasg Carreg sorbed much of the cuisine of England, Welsh diets now
Gwalch, Honno, the University of Wales Press and Y owe more [355]
to the countries of India, China and the United
Lolfa. [348] States. Chicken tikka masala is the countrys favourite
dish while hamburgers and Chinese food outsell sh and
Magazines published in Welsh and English cover gen- chips as a takeaway.[355]
eral and specialist subjects. Cambria, a Welsh af-
fairs magazine published bi-monthly in English, has sub-
scribers in over 30 countries.[350] Titles published quar-
terly in English include Planet and Poetry Wales.[351][352] 11.9 Performing arts
Welsh-language magazines include the current aairs ti-
11.9 Performing arts 27

11.9.1 Music Anne Evans, Dame Margaret Price, Sir Tom Jones,
Bonnie Tyler, Bryn Terfel, Mary Hopkin, Charlotte
Main article: Music of Wales Church, Katherine Jenkins, Meic Stevens, Dame Shirley
See also: Music of Cardi Bassey, Marina and the Diamonds and Duy.
Wales is often referred to as the land of song,[356] and
Popular bands that emerged from Wales include the
Beatles-nurtured power pop group Badnger in the
1960s, Man and Budgie in the 1970s and the Alarm
in the 1980s. Many groups emerged during the 1990s,
led by Manic Street Preachers, followed by the likes of
the Stereophonics and Feeder; notable during this pe-
riod were Catatonia, Super Furry Animals, and Gorkys
Zygotic Mynci who gained popular success as dual-
language artists. Recently successful Welsh bands in-
clude Lostprophets, Bullet for My Valentine, Funeral for
a Friend and Kids in Glass Houses. The Welsh traditional
and folk music scene is in resurgence with performers and
bands such as Carreg Lafar, Fernhill, Sin James and the
Hennessys.
Male voice choirs emerged in the 19th century and con-
tinue today. Originally these choirs where formed as the
tenor and bass sections of chapel choirs, and embraced
the popular secular hymns of the day.[363] Many of the
historic choirs survive in modern Wales, singing a mix-
ture of traditional and popular songs.[363]

11.9.2 Drama

See also: Cinema of Wales

The earliest surviving Welsh plays are two medieval

Traditional Welsh folk singer and harpist Sin James, live on

stage at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient

is notable for its harpists, male choirs, and solo artists.

The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the
annual National Eisteddfod. The Llangollen International
Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides
an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world
to perform. Traditional music and dance in Wales is sup-
ported by a myriad of societies. The Welsh Folk Song
Society has published a number of collections of songs
and tunes.[357]
Traditional instruments of Wales include telyn deires
(triple harp), ddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) and other
instruments.[358][359][360][361] The Cerdd Dant Society
promotes its specic singing art primarily through an an-
nual one-day festival.
The BBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales
and internationally. The Welsh National Opera is based
at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardi Bay, while the
National Youth Orchestra of Wales was the rst of its type
Anthony Hopkins' portrayal of Hannibal Lecter was named the
in the world.[362] [364]
number-one villain in cinema history by the AFI.
Wales has a tradition of producing notable singers, in-
cluding Sir Geraint Evans, Dame Gwyneth Jones, Dame miracle plays, Y Tri Brenin o Gwlen (The three Kings
28
from Cologne) and Y Dioddefaint a'r Atgyfodiad (The
Passion and the Resurrection).[365] A recognised Welsh
tradition of theatre emerged during the 18th century,
in the form of an interlude, a metrical play performed
at fairs and markets.[366] The larger Welsh towns began
building theatres during the 19th century, and attracted
the likes of James Sheridan Knowles and William Charles
Macready to Wales. Along with the playhouses, there
existed mobile companies at visiting fairs, though from
1912 most of these travelling theatres settled, purchasing
theatres to perform in.
Drama in the early 20th century thrived, but the coun-
try failed to produce a Welsh National Theatre com-
pany. After the Second World War the substantial num-
ber of amateur companies that had existed before the out-
break of hostilities reduced by two thirds.[367] The in-
creasing competition from television in the 1950s and
1960s led to a need for greater professionalism in the
theatre.[367] As a result, plays by Emlyn Williams and
Alun Owen and others were staged, while Welsh ac-
tors, including Richard Burton, Rachel Roberts, Donald
Houston and Stanley Baker, were establishing themselves
as artistic talents.[367] Anthony Hopkins was an alum-
nus of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama, and
has since starred in Hollywood lms.John Rhys-Davies
is another well known actor, famous for his portrayal of
Gimli in The Lord of the Rings trilogy and the charis-
matic Arab excavator Sallah in the Indiana Jones lms.
Calan Gaeaf, associated with the supernatural and the
Other Welsh actors to have crossed the Atlantic more dead, is observed on 1 November (All Saints Day). It has
recently include: Ioan Gruudd; Rhys Ifans; Matthew largely been replaced by Hallowe'en. Other festivities in-
Rhys; Michael Sheen; and Catherine Zeta-Jones.[368] clude Calan Mai (May Day), celebrating the beginning
Wales has also produced well known comedians includ- of summer; Calan Awst (Lammas Day); and Gyl Fair y
ing Tommy Cooper, Terry Jones, Harry Secombe, Rhod Canhwyllau (Candlemas Day).[377]
Gilbert and Paul Whitehouse.[369]
11.9.3 Dance
Dancing is a popular pastime in Wales; traditional dances
include folk dancing and clog dancing. The rst men-
tion of dancing in Wales is in a 12th-century account
by Giraldus Cambrensis, but by the 19th century tradi-
tional dance had all but died out; this is attributed to
the inuence of Nonconformists and their belief that any
physical diversion was worthless and satanic, especially
mixed dancing.[370] These ancient dances, orally passed
down, were almost single-handedly rescued by Lois Blake
(18901974) who recorded them in numerous instruction
pamphlets, recording both steps and music.[370] In a sim-
ilar vein, clog dancing was preserved and developed by
the likes of Howel Wood (18821967) who perpetuated
the art at local and national stages.[371] Clog dancing, tra-
ditionally a male dominated art, is now a common part
of eisteddfodau.[371] In 2010, a 30-year traditional dance
festival held in Caernarvon came to an end due to a lack
of participants,[372] though clog dancing has seen a revival
in the 21st century.[373]
13 FOOTNOTES
The Welsh Folk Dance Society was founded in 1949;[371]
it supports a network of national amateur dance teams and
publishes support material. Contemporary dance grew
out of Cardi in the 1970s; one of the earliest compa-
nies, Moving Being, came from London to Cardi in
1973.[371] Diversions was formed in 1983, eventually be-
coming the National Dance Company Wales, now the
resident company at the Wales Millennium Centre.[374]
Conversely, Wales does not have its own national ballet
company.[370]
11.10 Festivals
As well as celebrating many of the traditional religious
festivals of Great Britain, such as Easter and Christmas,
Wales has its own unique celebratory days. An early fes-
tivity was Mabsant, when local parishes would celebrate
the patron saint of their local church.[375] This celebra-
tion died out in the 19th century, to be replaced by Saint
Davids Day, which is celebrated on 1 March throughout
Wales, and by Welsh expats around the world.
Commemorating the patron saint of friendship and love,
Dydd Santes Dwynwen's popularity has been increasing
recently. It is celebrated on 25 January in a similar way to
St Valentines Day: by exchanging cards and by holding
parties and concerts.[376]
12 See also
Outline of Wales
Y Wladfa
13 Footnotes
[1] The earliest instance of Lloegyr occurs in the early 10th
century prophetic poem Armes Prydein. It seems com-
paratively late as a place name, the nominative plural
Lloegrwys, men of Lloegr, being earlier and more com-
mon. The English were sometimes referred to as an en-
tity in early poetry (Saeson, as today) but just as often
as Eingl (Angles), Iwys (Wessex-men), etc. Lloegr and
Sacson became the norm later when England emerged as
a kingdom. As for its origins, some scholars have sug-
gested that it originally referred only to Mercia at that
time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe
of the Welsh. It was then applied to the new kingdom of
England as a whole (see for instance Rachel Bromwich
(ed.), Trioedd Ynys Prydein, University of Wales Press,

1987). The lost land and other fanciful meanings, such
as Georey of Monmouth's monarch Locrinus, have no
etymological basis. (See also Discussion in Reference 40)
14 References
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[4] Laws in Wales Act 1535 (repealed 21.12.1993)". legis-
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[5] Government of Wales Act 1998. legislation.gov.uk.
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[6] Oce for National Statistics. Regional gross value added
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Bolwell, Gibson Flying V, Bhonerrmann, Pete on a Pogo Stick, Panerai219, Peeperman, Beeeeeesu, Mwilso24, Baxterguy, Matthilling009,
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