CAPSTONE REPORT

(Semester January-May2017)

RANGE PREDICTION FOR AN

ELECTRIC VEHICLE
PROTOTYPE

Under the guidance of Submitted by:

Dr. Tarlochan Kaur Sidharth Sood (13104003)
Head of Department Harshit Goyal (13104009)
Electrical Engineering Shipra Mangla (13104026)
Department Ishani Chadha (13104075)
PEC University of Technology

Department Of Electrical Engineering

Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh
(Deemed University)
January to May, 2017

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe a great many thanks to all the people who helped, supported and motivated us
throughout the project tenure.
We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Tarlochan Kaur for
giving us such a great opportunity to do this project. We would like to thank her for her
inspiring and stimulating guidance, valuable suggestions and constant encouragement which
helped us to complete this project.
Also we would like to thank Punjab Engineering College University of Technology for
providing the wonderful opportunity to be in association of such great people.
Above all, we are deeply grateful to our family and friends who supported and encouraged us in
achieving our goals.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter-1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles5

Chapter-2 Range anxiety and anti-collision system...19

Chapter-3 Components......29

Chapter-4 Working40

Future scope of the project44

Suggestions/Difficulties faced...46

References..48
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1-Electro-mobility advantages...6

Figure 1.2-Cost comparison of EV with ICE vehicle..7
Figure 1.3-Torque development in IC vs Electric drive motor....8
Figure 1.4-Types of vehicles9
Figure 1.5- Types of Electric Vehicles...11
Figure 1.6- Components of Electric Vehicles....12
Figure 1.7- Primary v/s Secondary Battery....13
Figure 1.8- Specifications of Li ion battery...15
Figure 1.9- Rise in Electric cars (2015-2040)....16
Figure 1.10- Infrastructure development for EV integration in Grid....16
Figure 1.11- NEMP Mission Proposals.18
Figure 2.1- Factors for choosing BEV..19
Figure 2.2- Factors affecting Range Anxiety20
Figure 2.3- Range Anxiety flowchart21
Figure 3.1-Voltage per battery cell30
Figure 3.2- Relay circuit diagram..31
Figure 3.3- Relay used in the project.32
Figure 3.4- Arduino Nano .32
Figure 3.5- Technical specs of Arduino.32
Figure 3.6- LCD display....34
Figure 3.7- Circuit diagram of a capacitor.35
Figure 3.8- Capacitors used in the project.35
Figure 3.9-Diagram of the basic ultrasonic sensor operation37
Figure 3.10- Current Sensor..38
Figure 3.11-Generated magnetic fields.....39
Figure 4.1-Circuit diagram of the project..41
Figure 4.2- Connections and Interfacing with Arduino Nano...41
Figure 4.3-Calculation of state of charge..42
Figure 4.4- Simplified Block Diagram for Working.........43
 Chapter 1- Introduction to Electric Vehicles

1.1 Introduction

Unlike vehicles with combustion engines, electric vehicles do not produce exhaust gases during
operation. This alone makes electric vehicles more environmentally friendly than vehicles with
conventional technology. However, the electrical energy for charging the vehicle does have to be
produced from renewable sources, e.g. from wind, solar, hydroelectric or biogas power plants. By
combining different drive types, the overall efficiency of the vehicle can be improved and fuel
consumption can be reduced.

1.2 Why is Electromobility Interesting?

Electromobility has impacts in the areas of environment, politics, economy, society, infrastructure
and technology. It is not possible to completely separate the content of these areas because there are
complex relationships between them.
Climate change and the conditions for the use of fossil resources (limited availability, price) are
causing countries to change their climate and energy policies and are causing changes to their
national societies. Politicians are responding to these changes with national emissions limits that
unfortunately vary at international level. As a rule, these limits cover direct emissions of CO2 or
other environmentally harmful gases. Electric vehicles do not produce direct emissions in the form
of CO2.
The introduction of low emissions or emissions-free zones in towns and a changed political
framework will speed up the expansion of electromobility. State or municipal funding will stimulate
the economy and support advances in science and research. An increasing number of companies are
investing in electromobility and are improving existing concepts, technological innovations and their
future applications in collaboration with researchers.
 Figure 1.1 Electromobility advantages

1.3 Advantages of Electromobility

Electric drive motors run quieter than internal-combustion engines. The noise emissions from
electric vehicles are very low. At high speeds, the rolling noise from the tires is the loudest sound.
Electric vehicles produce no harmful emissions or greenhouse gases while driving. If the high-
voltage battery is charged from renewable energy sources, an electric vehicle can be run CO2 -free.
In the near future, if particularly badly congested town centres are turned into zero-emissions
zones, we will only be able to drive through them with high-voltage vehicles.
The electric drive motor is very robust and requires little maintenance. It is only subject to minor
mechanical wear.
 Electric drive motors have a high degree of efficiency of up to 96% compared with internal-
combustion engines that have an efficiency of 3540%.
Electric drive motors have excellent torque and output characteristics. They develop maximum
torque from standstill. This allows an electric vehicle to accelerate considerably faster than a vehicle
with an internal combustion engine producing the same output.
The drive train design is simpler because vehicle components like the transmission, clutch,
mufflers, particulate filters, fuel tank, starter, alternator and spark plugs are not required.
When the vehicle is braked, the motor can also be used as an alternator that produces electricity
and charges the battery (regenerative braking).
The high-voltage battery can be charged at home, in a car park and by using any accessible
sockets. The blue charging connector on the vehicle and on public charging stations has been
standardized across Germany and is used by all manufacturers.
The energy is only supplied when the user needs it. Compared with conventional vehicles, the
electric drive motor never runs when the vehicle stops at a red light. The electric drive motor is
highly efficient particularly in lines and bumper-to-bumper traffic.
Apart from the reduction gearbox on the electric drive motor, the electric vehicle does not require
any lubricating oil.

Figure 1.2- Cost comparison of EV with ICE vehicle

1.4 Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles have a limited range due to battery size and construction.
Charging a high voltage battery can take a long time, depending on the battery charge and power
source.
 The network of electric charging stations is sparse.
If the destination is beyond the range of the electric vehicle, the driver will need to plan the
journey. Where can I charge my electric vehicle on the road?

Comparison of Torque Development

Electric Drive Motor The electric drive motor (a) reaches its maximum torque as early as the first
revolution. It does not require a start-up phase to reach idling speed. Once a specific rpm figure has
been reached, the available torque falls as the revs increase. This motor speed is approximately
14,000 rpm. These characteristics of an electric drive motor mean that a complex transmission is not
required.
Internal-Combustion Engine The internal-combustion engine (b) requires an idling speed to produce
a torque. The available torque increases when the engine speed is increased. In addition, this
characteristic of the internal-combustion engine requires a transmission with several gear ratios. The
torque is transferred to the transmission via a clutch or a torque converter. This concept is shown in
figure 1.3.

Figure1.3- Torque development in IC vs Electric drive motor

1.5 Terminology
The topic of electromobility basically refers to all vehicles that are driven by means of electrical
energy. This includes both battery-powered vehicles and hybrid vehicles (full hybrid vehicles) or
vehicles with a fuel cell. Electric vehicles are categorized primarily according to concept and their
names indicate how the electrical energy is supplied shown in figure 1.4.
 Figure 1.4- Types of vehicles

Extended-range EV

The Extended range EV is a type of plug-in hybrid car and it has a specific set-up with the internal
combustion engine providing power to an electric generator to charge the battery when required and
not to drive the wheels. The benefit of this type of EV is that you have a solution to anxiety over
battery charging and range but there are added costs and complexities with the dual engine/power
configuration. You can charge the Extended-range EV through an external power source in the same
way as you would with other EVs.

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV)

The Battery Electric Vehicle is the purest form of EV in a way as it is powered solely by an on-board
electric battery that drives the electric motor(s). These are also known as Plug-in EVs. The BEV
needs regular charging through a custom point at home or on the road. There are a rapidly increasing
number of these external charging points throughout the UK. The battery can also take a charge
through regenerative braking where the electric motor helps to slow the vehicle and uses some of the
energy that would be converted to heat by the brakes to deliver kinetic energy to the fuel cells.

Depending on which of the more than 30 EV models chosen, you can have a slow charge (up to
3kW) ideal overnight charge (6-8 hours) or a fast charge (7-22kW) providing full recharge in less
than four hours. There are also growing numbers of and Rapid AC and DC (43-50kW) charge
facilities that give you an 80% charge in around 30 minutes.

Standard Hybrid Vehicle

The hybrid car has been around for almost 20 years now. It has two engines, one electric and one
heat (petrol or diesel), which it uses as required. Depending on the level of hybridisation of these
two engines, these vehicles are referred to as:
 micro-hybrids

mild hybrids

full hybrids.

In a full hybrid (the most common model), the electric engine is used to start up the vehicle and
when travelling at low speeds. So the car can run in electric mode for one or two kilometres. After
this, the petrol engine takes over. The electric engine recharges only when the vehicle is running, in
particular by recovering the energy released when the driver breaks.

The disadvantages of a vehicle like this are that two engines means twice the weight and twice the
manufacturing energy costs! In fact, it only lives up to its potential in urban settings, as it becomes a
petrol or diesel vehicle again on the motorway. So the emissions savings vary between 10 % and 50
%, depending on how the vehicle is used.

Plug-in hybrid EV

The plug-in hybrid is a combination of two power technologies, the internal combustion engine and
the electric battery, controlled by computer. This combination helps to provide better fuel efficiency
in some conditions such as city driving where stop-start is common. In these conditions, the electric
motor gives the driver greater efficiency in starting and acceleration while at urban low speeds, the
car runs solely on the battery, which is exactly when a conventional fuel engine is least efficient.
Fuel waste is minimized by the auto-shutdown when the EV is stationary for a time, although this
function is now very common in internal combustion models as well now. The battery takes a charge
through both the engine and through regenerative braking. The plug-in hybrid also can be charged
directly from an external electricity supply, unlike conventional hybrid vehicles which is shown in
figure 1.5.
 Figure 1.5- Types of Electric Vehicles

1.6 Main components of an electric vehicle

1. Electric motor/generator
2. Transmission with differential
3. Power electronics
4. High-voltage lines
5. High-voltage battery
6. Electronics box with control unit for battery regulation
7. Cooling system
8. Brake system
9. High-voltage air conditioner compressor
10. High-voltage heating
11. Battery charger
12. Charging contact for external charging
13. External charging source
 Figure 1.6- Components of Electric Vehicles

Motor:
The electric motor/generator is very environmentally compatible thanks to the lack of noise and
harmful emissions. The electric motor/generator responds quickly, has good acceleration figures and
a high level of efficiency. In contrast to combustion engines, electric motors supply their nominal
power steplessly over a broad rpm range. The maximum torque is available even at low rpm (i.e.
when pulling away) and only drops once the motor reaches very high speeds. As a result, neither a
manually operated transmission, an automatic transmission nor a clutch are required. The direction
of rotation of an electric drive motor is freely selectable. It can turn clockwise to move the vehicle
forwards and counter-clockwise to reverse it. Electric motors start automatically. A separate starter
motor is not required. Electric motors have a simpler design and have considerably fewer moving
parts than internal-combustion engines. Only the rotor with its permanent magnets rotates inside the
electric motor/generator. There are no vibrating masses as in internal combustion engines. Oil
changes are not necessary as lubricating oil is not required. Consequently electrically powered
vehicles are low-maintenance in terms of their drive unit.

Batteries

Originally batteries and accumulators were two different types of storage media for electrical energy.
Today, the term rechargeable battery is generally used. Figure 1.7 shows the primary vs
rechargeable battery.
 Figure 1.7- Primary vs Secondary Battery

The term battery refers to a storage device A rechargeable battery is made up of

for electrical energy that cannot be recharged. secondary cells. The most familiar
The battery is made up of primary cells. The rechargeable battery is the lead acid battery
total voltage depends on the number and that is commonly used as a car battery. As
voltage of the individual cells. A primary cell with non-rechargeable batteries, the available
releases the chemical energy it has stored as quantity of energy is determined by the
electrical energy in a chemical reaction. The number of secondary cells that are connected
original charge state cannot be restored by to each other. In contrast with the primary
electrical recharging cell battery, the chemical reaction that occurs
here is easy to reverse. This means you can
recharge the discharged battery with energy
using a charger.

1.7 Performance Parameters of Battery:

Energy Density -This figure indicates the performance of a battery related to its weight. The
higher the energy density, the more energy can be stored and then released again. The unit of
energy density is watt hours per kilogram [Wh/kg] and is calculated from the electrical work
[Wh] and the weight [kg] of the battery. The range of an electric vehicle can be determined from
the energy density.
Life- The cycle stability of a high-voltage battery is set at a total of 3,000 cycles over a period of
10 years, i.e. 300 cycles/year. On the basis of this property, so-called automotive batteries, i.e.
batteries for use in a high-voltage vehicle, cannot be compared with the consumer batteries
used in laptops or mobile telephones.
Efficiency -The efficiency indicates how much of the energy that is invested into charging can be
made useful again when the battery is discharged. A battery can never have 100% efficiency
since a small part of the charging energy is released in the form of heat (charge loss).
1.8 Types of Rechargeable Battery

The different types of rechargeable batteries are distinguished by the materials used for the
electrodes and electrolytes. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead-acid, nickel-cadmium,
nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries.
1. Lead-Acid Battery

The traditional 12 V vehicle electrical system battery has plates made from lead and lead/lead oxide
and are used as electrodes. Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte.
Requires maintenance (distilled water needs to be added to ensure the required electrolyte liquid
level)
Not well suited for powering electric vehicles because they are very heavy and large, reducing the
load capacity
Can lose a large part of its capacity after just six years
If damaged, electrolyte (acid) can leak.
2. Nickel-Cadmium Battery

Cadmium (Cd) and a nickel compound are used for the electrodes in these batteries. Potassium
hydroxide is used as the electrolyte.
Also called an alkaline battery
Has a higher energy density than lead acid batteries
Less prone to damage and electrolyte leaks
Subject to a memory effect. This type of battery can tolerate deep-discharging or overcharging only
to a certain extent without becoming less efficient
Cadmium and cadmium compounds are poisonous
3. Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery

These batteries use a nickel compound and a compound of another metal for the electrodes.
Potassium hydroxide is the electrolyte. They have a higher energy density than Ni-Cd batteries and
are relatively resistant to damage. Even if a memory effect does not occur to the extent of the Ni-Cd
batteries, these batteries also lose efficiency over the course of their life. To a certain extent, this loss
in efficiency is reversible. Nickel metal hydride batteries do not contain any poisonous heavy metals
like lead or cadmium. The electrolyte is stored in the battery in solid form. If the housing is broken,
only a few droplets will escape.
4. Lithium-Ion Battery

This battery uses lithium metal oxides and graphite for electrodes. Different solvents for lithium
salts form the electrolyte. Lithium ion batteries contain only a small amount of water and do not
have a memory effect. Compared with the nickel cadmium batteries, they have more than twice as
much energy density. This means that this battery type requires less space in an electric vehicle
leaving more room for the occupants and the luggage compartment. Figure 1.8 shos the
specifications of lithium ion battery used in electric vehicles.

Figure 1.8- Specifications of Li ion battery

1.9 Vision and Mission of Electric vehicles

The Indian government is working on ways to incentivize consumers to purchase electric vehicles
with a target to have 100% electric vehicles by 2030 without the need for any subsidies. The
minister did share some of the car fleet by 2030. The Minister for Power, Coal and New &
Renewable Energy Piyush Goyal recently stated that his government is looking at innovative ways
to have people purchase electric vehicles thought process the government is working on and
clarified that nothing has been finalized yet. He proposed that people could purchase electric
vehicles with zero down payments, meaning no upfront payment and then payout the cost of the
vehicle in instalments from the savings they realize on petroleum products. This proposal is similar
to what the government has already managed to accomplish from the Domestic Efficient Lighting
Programme. While the Indian government has very ambitious plans in the electric mobility segment,
end-consumers have shown little interest so far, most likely due to lack of basic infrastructure to
support electric vehicles; supply of electricity for vehicles is yet another challenge with millions still
awaiting electricity access in the country. Figure 1.9 shows in the rise in number of electric cars in
the world with he boost given to electric vehicles through various schemes.
 Figure 1.9- Rise in Electric cars (2015-2040)

In 2014, the government considered providing a subsidy worth Rs 14,000 crore ($2.5 billion) to
electric and hybrid car manufacturers. The government would deliver the subsidies to the car
manufacturers, the benefits of which would be passed on to the end customers. The
government increased the subsidy for manufacturing electric vehicles from Rs 123 crore ($19
million) in FY2016-17 to Rs 175 Crore ($27 million) in FY2017-18. Figure 1.10 shows the
infrastructure development required for integration of electric vehicle in grid.

Figure1.10- Infrastructure development for EV integration in Grid

1.10 National Electric Mobility Mission

Government of India launched the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 in 2013.
It aims to achieve national fuel security by promoting hybrid and electric vehicles in the country.
There is an ambitious target to achieve 6-7 million sales of hybrid and electric vehicles year on year
from 2020 onwards. Government aims to provide fiscal and monetary incentives to kick start this
nascent technology. With the support from the Government, the cumulative sale is expected to reach
15-16 Million by 2020. It is expected to save 9500 Million Liters of crude oil equivalent to Rs.
62000 Cr. savings. Government has launched the scheme namely Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME India) under NEMMP 2020 in the Union
Budget for 2015-16 with an initial outlay of Rs. 75 Cr. The scheme will provide a major push for
early adoption and market creation of both hybrid and electric technologies vehicles in the country.
The thrust for the Government through this scheme will be to allow hybrid and electric vehicles to
become the first choice for the purchasers so that these vehicles can replace the conventional
vehicles and thus reduce liquid fuel consumption in the country from the automobile sector. It is
envisaged that early market creation through demand incentive, in-house technology development
and domestic production will help industry reach a self-sufficient economies of scale in the long run
by around the year 2020.

As per the data available, around 42000 electric vehicles were sold in 2012-13 and nearly 20000
hybrid and electric vehicles were sold in 2013-14. In the year 2012-13, most of the electric vehicles
sold were electric low speed scooters. It is expected that with the launch of the aforementioned
scheme, market for hybrid and electric vehicles will gain momentum for all the vehicles segments
including 2W, 3W, 4W, LCVs and Buses.
In the aforementioned Government plans to incentivize buyers while purchasing these hybrid and
electric vehicles by providing monetary support. Department of Heavy Industry, M/o HI&PE has
finalized the details of the scheme including the monetary support for various hybrid and electric
vehicles (incentive per vehicle-technology segment) under the FAME scheme just approved. The
incentive shall be administered through an efficient and effective electronic mechanism/portal for
incentive disbursement. Under this mechanism the manufacturer will reduce the purchase price of a
hybrid and electric vehicle (the purchase price will be reduced by the level of the eligible
predetermined incentive amount) at the time of selling to the buyer, and the same will be reimbursed
to them by the Government. Figure 1.11 shows the changing landscapes with NEMP.

The subsidy initiative seems to be a part of governments 2020 plan to invest up to Rs 23,500 crore
($4.3 billion) by 2020 to promote demand and create a sustainable infrastructure for the electric
automotive industry. In 2012, the government announced plans to pump in $2.5 billion by 2020 to
spur demand for electric vehicles. The balance of $1.75 billion would be invested by the government
and the industry to develop power and charging infrastructure and in research and development.
According to the government, the $2.5 billion subsidy to be offered to the auto industry until 2020
would help the country save about $11 billion on fuel costs.

Figure 1.11- NEMP Mission Proposals

CHAPTER 2- RANGE ANXIETY AND ANTI COLLISION SYSTEM

PART 1- RANGE ANXIETY

Range anxiety is the fear of not having enough fuel to make your next fueling stop. It can happen in
any car. Regardless of fuel type, this is only an issue on trips where the next fuel stop isnt until
somewhere near the range of the car. The simple and obvious solution is: always refuel any vehicle
well before it runs out of fuel. All you need to know is when the vehicle will run out of fuel, and
where to refuel it. The bad news is that most gas drivers dont know the true range of an electric car
or where charging stations are. The good news is that both of these issues can be easily addressed
with information or completely avoided with a plug-in hybrid. Figure 2.1 shows that there are
numerous factors which affect our choice for Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV).

Figure 2.1- Factors for choosing BEV

Charging time impacts how gas drivers view range anxiety. Charging an EV takes longer than filling
a car with gas. Unlike range anxiety, this cant be addressed with education driving on a long trip
really takes longer because charging is slower. Of the many oft-repeated downsides to EVs (they
are slow, ugly, pollute just as much as gas cars, cost more to own, etc), this is the only one that is
real. Even then, it is only real for BEVs.

Fortunately, no downside matters unless one experiences it. For day-to-day driving you charge at
night; and if time matters on a long trip, you can fly or take another car. If you dont have another
car, you can buy a PHEV instead of a BEV. Its that simple anybody can electrify most of their
driving without having to wait for a charge.

Factors affecting Range Anxiety:

Aside from the issue of charging time, there are many interdependent psychological factors that
make gas drivers, justified or not, more fearful of running out of fuel in electric cars than they are in
gas cars which is shown in Figure 2.2. All of them contribute in some way to uncertainty in the two
things they need to know, but dont how far the car can go, and where to charge.

Figure 2.2- Factors affecting Range Anxiety

Its a novel technology, so that causes more worry. Plugging in at home nightly is a novel usage
pattern compared to filling up with gas weekly. Some other battery-powered devices dont have
power gauges and just suddenly shut off. Automakers tout unrealistically high range estimates.
Range meters are often optimistic. While electricity is widespread, charging infrastructure is not yet
so. DC charging stations arent standardized. We need to overcome these factors by making it easy
to know how far a BEV will go, and when and where they can charge up. Or by pointing out that
PHEV buyers dont have to learn either one.

With experience one becomes very familiar with the cars capabilities and learns how to find
charging stations. There is no silver bullet that will take care of every situation. But there are several
simple suggestions that can help a great deal in some cases. Different things work best depending on
the situation, as shown in the Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3- Range Anxiety flowchart
1. Consider a PHEV

For people just starting to consider how to fit a plug-in in to their life, start with the simplest answer.
A PHEV will automatically electrify most of their driving, but they dont have to do any thinking,
because it is still a gas car. They can go anywhere at any time, and dont have to ever charge it
anywhere other than in their own garage. This instantly takes care of range anxiety and charging
time. This may seem an obvious point, but it is very often overlooked by gas drivers that are eager
to find a reason to dismiss electricity as a fuel. Many people dont understand that a PHEV has a gas
engine and operates exactly like a gas car on long trips.

Once they understand this point, if they are a multi-vehicle family, you might want to see if they d
consider a BEV. BEVs have more electric range and less maintenance, but they still allow you to
take gas trips too you just have to swap vehicles. Thats the hybrid garage approach.

2. For long trips, can you fly/train/bus/rent/swap?

There is no such thing as cargo anxiety, because everybody understands that one can use another
vehicle on the rare occasion that the need arises.

Yet when it comes to long trips, it seems difficult to understand that you dont have to take a BEV if
its not the best-suited car for the trip. If they can take another vehicle on a trip, then they never have
to figure out their exact range, or look for charging stations, or wait for a charge. They can just drive
their wonderful electric car around town, charge at home in the garage and take a gas car on long
trips. This is very nearly the same as the PHEV answer, just using a hybrid garage rather than a
hybrid car.

3. Are you willing to learn range factors and calculate your own range?

If you are at this point with a person that is not yet an owner, you should make clear that this is
optional. A fair number of new owners though far from all of them are excited about their car and
willing to learn how it operates. The more they know, the more use they can get out of their car and
the less likely they are to get in trouble. They will need to learn about the effects to speed,
acceleration, elevation, wind, water and debris on the road, and temperature. While it is Tesla-
specific, there are many details in this post: Putting some numbers on the factors that affect range.
Other cars have owner forums that have similar tips.

4. Can you follow tips on BEV road trips?

Some owners really dont want to learn anything new when they buy a car. They just want to get in
and drive. They dont want to do any math; they just want to know how far the car will go. This also
applies to most potential customers that havent purchased a car yet; they are less eager to spend a
lot of time on this. They would rather just know some simple limits. When the Environmental
Protection Agency estimates the fuel economy of a conventional vehicle or driving range of an
electric vehicle, the agency emphasizes that the numbers they provide are only estimates and that
actual mileage may vary based on a wide range of factors.

If you ever do take a BEV on a road trip and stop to charge, keep charging until the cars EPA range
indicator says that you have at least 150% of the miles necessary to make it to the next stop.

5. Does your car have an always spot-on (or slightly pessimistic) range meter?

Some people really dont want to learn anything new not even quick tips. They just want to get in
and drive. They want the car to tell them how far it will go (in fact, some journalists seem to be
testing the range meter more than the car). Fortunately for them, most EVs have a range meter
designed to tell them exactly that. Unfortunately for them, most of those range meters are
deliberately optimistic. Its easy to understand how this can happen; marketing departments that are
used to selling well-understood near-commodity gas-powered products want to tout the best possible
numbers to ensure their product gets purchased instead of the competitions nearly identical vehicle;
gas buyers dont really expect the numbers and are understanding when they are not met.

But this is exactly the wrong thing to do in an emerging, poorly-understood, highly differentiated
market. Many vehicles have a projected option that helps at least, when conditions are constant. If
you are driving across plane areas, this is extremely useful too. If you are driving across hilly terrain,
over a couple of mountain ranges, it can make things even worse as the estimates fluctuate wildly up
and down. Some automakers already offer more than one range estimation mode. Best of all, they
could integrate range estimation in to the navigation system, and have it take in to account elevation,
traffic and weather conditions and tell the user how much range will be left if they travel at various
speeds.

6. Does your car display kWh or SOC instead of miles of range?

Until the auto manufacturers have either truly accurate or at least consistently pessimistic range
meters, the best thing is to not display range at all display a measure of remaining battery capacity
instead. Sure, that will scare somebody getting in to the car for the first time. But given an
unrealistic range estimate, that is a good thing they will definitely be cautious until they learn how
it works!
There are many ways to resolve range anxiety. But the simplest ones to get new people interested in
the market are to consider a plug-in hybrid car, or a plug-in hybrid garage (owning a BEV and a gas
car).

What can BEV owners do to avoid range anxiety and communicate confidence to others?

Always have a charging point planned within 2/3 of EPA range

Always charge to 150% of your next destination

Learn factors that affect range

What can automakers do to reduce range anxiety in their BEV customers?

Offer a range gauge that takes external factors in to account and gives real range

If you insist on displaying a non-predictive range offer a safe range mode

Charging Infrastructure (CI) is an important entity of power grid. Availability of this infrastructure is
a key factor in general acceptance of Electric Vehicles (EV). The lack of CI as well as recharging
time of an EV together with its limited range may discouraged many drivers from switching to EV
and will lead to Range Anxiety. Range anxiety is the fear of being left on the road with an empty
battery where there is no charging station or lack of any CI in which the EVO has registered. Range
anxiety can be considered as another impact on market acceptance of EVs. Therefore, availability of
public CI is an important factor in penetration of EVs. In addition to the physical charging facilities,
CI is a central communication interface among EV, Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE),
Power Grid, and energy suppliers. The data returning from EV through Charge Point can be used for
monitoring, scheduling, energy distribution controlling during peak hours, and managing the energy
consumption during off peak hours. Therefore, a universal charging platform which is reliable and
available in both public and private spots will accelerate user acceptance of EVs.

CI plays an important role in development and acceptance of EVs. Accuracy and safety of its
components will bring satisfaction and reliability to the industry. New techniques and technologies
in design and production of battery packs and lots of research and developments funded by
governments together with different Battery Management Systems (BMS) with improved calculation
algorithms are the signs of the EVs desire to stay in the market. However there is still a big obstacle
against general acceptance of EVs which is uncertainty of availability of CI upon EV Owners
(EVO) demand.
Considering the limited driving range of an EV compared to the conventional internal combustion
engines, lack of CI and the long charging time of an EV can cause anxiety and stress while driving
or prior to driving an EV without any auxiliary power source. This situation, which is referred to as
range anxiety will affect penetration of EVs in transport system. Although range anxiety was first
observed in General Motors project in 1997, lots of researches have been carried out on this issue
since then.

Some solutions are provided in order to reduce or overcome this issue, which are described in the
following sections:

1. Availability of Charging Infrastructure: One of the major issues which is highlighted by

researches on range anxiety is lack or insufficient number of public charging stations. Although
the charging process mostly happens during the night at home or in parking lots during the day,
availability of public charging stations is an important factor in penetration of EVs. Therefore
deployment of widely distributed networks of fast charging stations will provide flexibility to
EVOs in planning long trips. However the long charging time in compared to Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE) is still an issue. Thus some researchers suggest to provide battery
swapping stations or Charging While Driving (CWD) systems. While battery swapping might
take as much time as it takes to fill the tank in ICE vehicles, CWD systems, in which the driver
does not need to worry about charging station and spending long time to charge up the EV , will
increase the driving range, and provide convenience and safety to EVOs. Even though the CWD
system using electrified roadways and wireless power transfer methods may have a great impact
on range anxiety of EVOs, until then development of current CI is required to encourage drivers
to switch to EVs.
2. Routing and Simulating Energy Consumption: Besides availability of CI, efficient route
selection can also address range anxiety. In the analysis of the impact of a distributed CI on the
EVs range shows that daily EVs range can be extended if suitable CI exists along the planned
route therefore the range anxiety can be reduced. Also smart phone applications to plan efficient
routes have been introduced. Topography of the route, wind speed, weight of EV, real-time road
traffic, historical consumption of energy by EV, historical EVOs driving behavior, speed,
temperature, operation of the air conditioner/heater, accurate State of Charge (SoC) of the
battery, driving time, and the availability of CI are important factors while planning an efficient
route and estimating consumption rate.
3. SoC Estimation: EV battery is an important element in an EV with direct effects on performance
and rapid development of EVs. Since batteries are sensitive to deep charge and discharge and in
order to avoid it, a BMS capable of estimating accurate SoC is required. Researchers approve
that estimating the remaining power of the battery and displaying it to the user is important for
effective EV use.
 Nevertheless, SoC and range estimation are only valid under certain conditions, therefore
improvement in estimation algorithms is required to make it more accurate. On the other hand
in the authors suggest that displaying error-prone information ambiguously might be
advantageous rather than hiding them from users. In fact the knowledge of error-prone
information can lead to improvements in driving experience, behavior and trust towards the EV
and it might consequently decrease range anxiety. Although displaying SoC information to EVO
is critical, the user also needs to be informed about the appropriate methods of maximizing EVs
range. This can be interpreted as providing instructions to the EVO in order to adapt his/her
driving style or to reduce using of auxiliary in-vehicle devices. Therefore increasing actual
range of an EV might be less important than providing the EVOs with reliable information and
educate them on how to use that information to control and manage the remaining range. For
that reason in and the authors shows that current range of EVs might be enough for daily travels
of EVOs if they understand the fact that run-until-empty followed by a fill-up-to-full at a
public gas station is not how EVs will be used. Therefore in their opinion, availability of public
fast chargers might not be an issue.
4. In- Vehicle Energy Management: Although knowing the SoC and planning a suitable route with
public fast charging stations might make the EVO convenient enough to drive an EV,
researchers suggest to improve the efficiency of in-vehicle components and manage the energy
consumption in order to maximize the global efficiency, minimize energy loss, extend the range,
and reduce range anxiety. While in vehicle energy management might help, using of range
extenders is also considered as another solution for reducing range anxiety.

PART 2-ANTI-COLLISION SYSTEMS

Not so long ago, it would have seemed incredible that your car would be able to see other vehicles
or pedestrians, anticipate collisions, and automatically apply the brakes or take corrective steering
actions. But more and more cars can do that to some degree, thanks to a growing list of collision-
avoidance systems.

Some of these capabilities, such as forward-collision warning systems, have been around for a few
years, mostly on high-end luxury cars. Others, like steering assist, are just getting ready for prime
time. The good news is that the collision-avoidance systems are getting better and are spreading to
mainstream cars.

The potential for these systems is so great that the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety has added
collision-avoidance system testing to its suite of safety evaluations. The IIHS has determined that
some of these collision-avoidance systems could prevent or mitigate many crashes. Now, to win top
overall safety scores from the IIHS, a car needs to have a forward-collision warning system with
automatic braking. In addition, any autobrake system has to function effectively in formal track tests
that the IIHS conducts. The cost of collision-avoidance systems can still be an obstacle. Most
advanced systems today come only as part of a large options package or on a models higher, more
expensive trim versions. Jumping to the trim line where the safety goodies are offered can add
thousands of dollars to a vehicles price.

Lasers, Radar, and Cameras

These cutting-edge active safety systems rely on a number of sensors, cameras, lasers, and short-
and long-range radar. They monitor what is going on around the vehiclevehicles, pedestrians,
cyclists, and even road signsas well as the vehicle itself. Inputs are processed by computers,
which then prompt some action from the car or the driver. Those actions may start with attention-
grabbers, such as a beep, a flashing dashboard icon, a tug from the seatbelt, or a vibration in the seat
or steering wheel. If the driver doesnt respond, the more advanced systems then apply partial or full
braking force.

In our ongoing evaluations weve found that theres a fine line between a helpful electronic co-pilot
and a computerized backseat driver. If a warning system emits too many inappropriate alerts, then
there is an increasing temptation to switch it off. Not every system on the market today is top-notch.
The IIHS has found that some autonomous braking systems are more effective than others. But they
conclude theres a net benefit regardless. A 2009 study conducted by the IIHS found a 7 percent
reduction in crashes for vehicles with a basic forward-collision warning system, and a 14 to 15
percent reduction for those with automatic braking.

In the end, these systems can do a lot of good in preventing crashes from happening in the first
place. But its important for drivers to realize that none of these aids reduces the need to stay alert.

Current Active Safety Systems

Manufacturers routinely use unique, marketing-friendly names for their various systems. This makes
it confusing to know the systems full capabilities. When you are shopping for a new car, make sure
to ask what the safety feature does.

Advanced version of Anti collision applications

Rear cross-traffic alert Cross-traffic alert warns you of traffic approaching from the sides as
you reverse. The warning usually consists of an audible chirp and a visual cue in either the
outside mirror or the rear cameras dash display. The more advanced systems can also pick out
bicycles and pedestrians.
 Blind-spot monitoring (BSM) and assist A blind-spot monitoring system uses radars or
cameras to scan the areas beside and behind you, looking for vehicles entering or lurking in your
blind zones. When such a vehicle is detected, an illuminated icon appears in or near the
appropriate side-view mirror. If you signal a turn while a car is in your blind zone, some systems
send a stronger alert, such as a blinking light or louder chirps. More advanced systems help keep
you in your own lane by applying the brakes on one side of the vehicle.
Pedestrian detection and braking Pioneered by Volvo and now offered by others, pedestrian
detection can recognize a person straying into a vehicles path. Some will automatically apply
the brakes, if needed, sometimes partially and sometimes to a complete stop. Some newer
systems can also detect bicyclists.
Adaptive headlights As you turn the steering wheel adaptive headlights will swivel, which
helps illuminate the road when going around curves. A 2014 IIHS study found that adaptive
headlights improved drivers reaction times by about a third of a second. That could be just
enough to avoid, say, hitting a parked car on a dark road.
Lane departure warning (LDW) and assist LDW These systems use a camera, along with
various sensors, to identify lane markers and monitor your distance from them. If you stray over
the line without signaling, youll hear a warning tone or perhaps a physical alert like a vibration
in the steering wheel or seat. More advanced lane keeping assist (LKA) systems selectively
apply brakes or nudge the steering to guide you back if youre wandering.
Drowsiness detection Various methods are used to detect if a driver is tired or falling asleep.
Mercedes-Benz pioneered one of the first, which uses a computer algorithm that compares a
drivers steering behavior with those recorded at the start of the trip. Other systems monitor the
cars position within its lane of travel, looking for erratic maneuvers indicative of inattention.
Some also track the drivers eye movements with an in-car camera, noting rapid or prolonged
eye blinks. Alerts may include a chime, a dab on the brakes, a tug on the shoulder belt, and/or an
illuminated cup-of-coffee icon on the instrument panel.
Automatic park assist The system will identify a parallel or perpendicular parking space your
car can fit into. Once found, the system steers the car into the space; some can also exit from
parallel parking spaces. The driver still does the braking and has to follow commands from the
system.
Rear cameras and parking assist Rear-view cameras will be mandatory with the 2018 model
year. They can help prevent a back-over accident, such as hitting a child who wanders behind
your car. Parking assist sensor systems notify you with progressively louder and quicker beeps as
you close in on an obstacle.
 CHAPTER 3 COMPONENTS

1) Battery (12V 7AH)

A lead acid battery consists of a negative electrode made of spongy or porous lead. The lead is
porous to facilitate the formation and dissolution of lead. The positive electrode consists of lead
oxide. Both electrodes are immersed in a electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid and water. In case the
electrodes come into contact with each other through physical movement of the battery or through
changes in thickness of the electrodes, an electrically insulating, but chemically permeable
membrane separates the two electrodes. This membrane also prevents electrical shorting through the
electrolyte. Lead acid batteries store energy by the reversible chemical reaction shown below.
The overall chemical reaction is:

At the negative terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

At the positive terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

As the above equations show, discharging a battery causes the formation of lead sulfate crystals at
both the negative and positive terminals, as well as the release of electrons due to the change in
valence charge of the lead. The formation of this lead sulfate uses sulfate from the sulfuric acid
electrolyte surrounding the battery. As a result the electrolyte becomes less concentrated. Full
discharge would result in both electrodes being covered with lead sulfate and water rather than
sulfuric acid surrounding the electrodes. At full discharge the two electrodes are the same material,
and there is no chemical potential or voltage between the two electrodes. In practice, however,
discharging stops at the cutoff voltage, long before this point. The battery should not therefore be
discharged below this voltage.

In between the fully discharged and charged states, a lead acid battery will experience a gradual
reduction in the voltage. Voltage level is commonly used to indicate a battery's state of charge. The
dependence of the battery on the battery state of charge is shown in the figure below. If the battery is
left at low states of charge for extended periods of time, large lead sulfate crystals can grow, which
permanently reduces battery capacity. These larger crystals are unlike the typical multicrystalline or
porous structure of the lead electrode, and are difficult to convert back into lead.
 Figure 3.1-Voltage per battery cell

Voltage of lead acid battery upon charging.

The charging reaction converts the lead sulfate at the negative electrode to lead. At the positive
terminal the reaction converts the lead to lead oxide. As a by-product of this reaction, hydrogen is
evolved. During the first part of the charging cycle, the conversion of lead sulfate to lead and lead
oxide is the dominant reaction. However, as charging proceeds and most of the lead sulfate is
converted to either lead or lead dioxide, the charging current electrolyzes the water from the
electrolyte and both hydrogen and oxygen gas are evolved, a process known as the "gassing" of the
battery. If current is being provided to the battery faster than lead sulfate can be converted, then
gassing begins before all the lead sulfate is converted, that is, before the battery is fully charged.
Gassing introduces several problems into a lead acid battery. Not only does the gassing of the battery
raise safety concerns, due to the explosive nature of the hydrogen produced, but gassing also reduces
the water in the battery, which must be manually replaced, introducing a maintenance component
into the system. In addition, gassing may cause the shedding of active material from the electrolyte,
thereby permanently reducing battery capacity. For these reasons, the battery should not regularly be
charged above the voltage which causes gassing. The voltage across the battery and the gassing
voltage.

2) Buck Converter
The Buck Converter is used in SMPS circuits where the DC output voltage needs to be lower than
the DC input voltage. The DC input can be derived from rectified AC or from any DC supply. It is
useful where electrical isolation is not needed between the switching circuit and the output, but
where the input is from a rectified AC source, isolation between the AC source and the rectifier
could be provided by a mains isolating transformer.
The switching transistor between the input and output of the Buck Converter continually switches on
and off at high frequency. To maintain a continuous output, the circuit uses the energy stored in
the inductor L, during the on periods of the switching transistor, to continue supplying the load
during the off periods. The circuit operation depends on what is sometimes also called a Flywheel
Circuit. This is because the circuit acts rather like a mechanical flywheel that, given regularly spaced
pulses of energy keeps spinning smoothly (outputting energy) at a steady rate.
The buck converter is a form of DC to DC converter that can take an input directly from a DC
source, such as a battery. The input could also be DC derived from the AC mains (line) via a
rectifier/reservoir capacitor circuit. The AC input to the rectifier circuit could be AC at high voltage
directly from the AC mains supply, or alternatively at a lower voltage via a step down transformer.
However the DC applied to the Buck Converter is obtained, it is then converted to a high frequency
AC, using a switching or chopper transistor, driven by a (usually pulse width modulated) square
wave. This results in a high frequency AC wave, which can then be re-converted to DC in a much
more efficient manner than would be possible in the circuits.

3) Relays ( 6V DC 10 A)
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate
a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another
circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other
loads is called a contactor.

Figure 3.2- Relay circuit diagram

Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device
to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one direction, and
another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same input have no effect.
Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted power should not be able to
transition the contacts.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay will
operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the polarity is
reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the contacts will
transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes to
differentiate between operate and reset commands.

Figure 3.3- Relay used in the project

4) Arduino NANO
Figure 3.4- Arduino Nano

The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly

Figure 3.5-board basedspecs
Technical on the
of ATmega328
Arduino
(Arduino Nano 3.0) or ATmega168 (Arduino Nano 2.x). It has more or less the same functionality of
the Arduino Duemilanove, but in a different package. It lacks only a DC power jack, and works with
a Mini-B USB cable instead of a standard one. The Nano was designed and is being produced by
Gravitech.
Input and Output
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Nano can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive
a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions: Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX)
and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the FTDI
USB-to-TTL Serial chip. External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt()
function for details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write () function.
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication, which,
although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino language.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED
is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
The Nano has 8 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different
values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper
end of their range using the analog Reference() function. Additionally, some pins have specialized
functionality:
I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library
(documentation on the Wiring website).
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference().
Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to
shields which block the one on the board.
See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega168 ports.

Communication
The Arduino Nano has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another Arduino,
or other microcontrollers. The ATmega168 and ATmega328 provide UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An FTDI FT232RL on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and the FTDI drivers (included with the
Arduino software) provide a virtual com port to software on the computer. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board.
The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the FTDI chip and
USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Nano's digital pins.
The ATmega168 and ATmega328 also support I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. To
use the SPI communication, please see the ATmega168 or ATmega328 datasheet.

5) LCD DISPLAY

Figure 3.6- LCD display

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical

device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light
directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. LCDs are
available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images with
low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-
segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary
images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in
portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones,
including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD
players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray
tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen
sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital
watches to huge, big-screen television sets.
Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when a static image is
displayed on a screen for a long time (e.g., the table frame for an aircraft schedule on an indoor
sign). LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy-
efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By
2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the
CRT became obsolete for most purposes.

7) Capacitors ( 2200uF and 470uF)

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric
field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While capacitance exists between any two
electrical conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is specifically designed
to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of practical applications by consideration of size,
shape, and positioning of closely spaced conductors, and the intervening dielectric material. A
capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor types are
in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of thin

Figure 3.7- Circuit diagram of a capacitor Figure 3.8- Capacitors used in the project
film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte.
The non conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly
used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an
ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is attached
across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive charge to
collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows
through the dielectric, however, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition
is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. However, if a time-
varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing
current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units (SI) is
the farad (F), defined as one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical capacitors for
use in general electronics range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates (conductors) and
inversely related to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current. It has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass.

8) Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04

An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by using sound waves. It
measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a specific frequency and listening for that sound
wave to bounce back. By recording the elapsed time between the sound wave being generated and
the sound wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance between the sonar sensor and
the object.

Figure 3.9-Diagram of the basic ultrasonic sensor operation

Since it is known that sound travels through air at about 344 m/s (1129 ft/s), you can take the time
for the sound wave to return and multiply it by 344 meters (or 1129 feet) to find the total round-trip
distance of the sound wave. Round-trip means that the sound wave traveled 2 times the distance to

the object before it was detected by the sensor; it includes the 'trip' from the sonar sensor to the
object AND the 'trip' from the object to the Ultrasonic sensor (after the sound wave bounced off the
object). To find the distance to the object, simply divide the round-trip distance in half.
It is important to understand that some objects might not be detected by ultrasonic sensors. This is
because some objects are shaped or positioned in such a way that the sound wave bounces off the
object, but are deflected away from the Ultrasonic sensor. It is also possible for the object to be too
small to reflect enough of the sound wave back to the sensor to be detected. Other objects can absorb
the sound wave all together (cloth, carpeting, etc), which means that there is no way for the sensor to
detect them accurately. These are important factors to consider when designing and programming a
robot using an ultrasonic sensor.

9) Current Sensor

Figure 3.10- Current Sensor

Measuring a voltage in any system is a passive activity as it can be done easily at any point in the
system without affecting the system performance. However, current measurement is intrusive as it
demands insertion of some type of sensor which introduces a risk of affecting system performance.
Current measurement is of vital importance in many power and instrumentation systems.
Traditionally, current sensing was primarily for circuit protection and control. However, with the
advancement in technology, current sensing has emerged as a method to monitor and enhance
performance.Knowing the amount of current being delivered to the load can be useful for wide
variety of applications. Current sensing is used in wide range of electronic systems, viz., Battery life
indicators and chargers, 4-20 mA systems, over-current protection and supervising circuits, current
and voltage regulators, DC/DC converters, ground fault detectors, programmable current sources,
linear and switch-mode power supplies, communications devices , automotive power electronics,
motor speed controls and overload protection, etc.

CURRENT SENSING PRINCIPLES

A current sensor is a device that detects and converts current to an easily measured output voltage,
which is proportional to the current through the measured path. When a current flows through a wire
or in a circuit, voltage drop occurs. Also, a magnetic field is generated surrounding the current
carrying conductor. Both of these phenomena are made use of in the design of current sensors. Thus,
there are two types of current sensing: direct and indirect. Direct sensing is based on Ohms law,
while indirect sensing is based on Faradays and Amperes law.
Direct Sensing involves measuring the voltage drop associated with the current passing through
passive electrical components.
Indirect Sensing involves measurement of the magnetic field surrounding a conductor through which
current passes.

Figure 3.11-Generated magnetic fields

Generated magnetic field is then used to induce proportional voltage or current which is then
transformed to a form suitable for measurement and/or control system.

PASSIVE ELEMENT BASED CURRENT SENSING TECHNIQUES

1. Sense Resistors
Current sensing means developing a voltage signal which is representative of the current flowing at
the particular place of interest inthe circuit. The traditional way of current sensing introduces a
resistor in the path of the current to be sensed. The sense resistor can be placed in series with the
inductor, switches, and the load.Thus, a current sensing resistor should be considered as a current-to-
voltage converter.

The current sensing resistor should have following attributes

Low value in order to minimize power losses
Value of the current sense resistors primarily depend upon the voltage threshold of the following
circuitry which is going to operate based upon the sensed current information. In circuits where
amplification is available, emphasis is to minimize the voltage drop across the resistor.
Typical resistance values utilized in various control ICs are 20m to 25m .
Low inductance because of high di/dt.
Any inductance in the resistor, when exposed to high slew rate (di/dt), an inductive step voltage is
superimposed upon the sense voltage and may be a cause of concern in many circuits. Hence sense
resistors should have very low inductance.

Tight tolerance
For maximizing the current supply within the limit of acceptable current, the tolerance of the sense
resistor must be 1% or tighter.
Low temperature coefficient for accuracy
Normally specified in units of parts per million per degree centigrade (ppm/C), temperature
coefficient of resistance (TCR) is an important parameter for accuracy. Resistors with TCRs closer
to zero, in the entire operating range should be used.
High peak power rating to handle short duration high current pulses.
Power rating is a driving factor for the selection of appropriate technology for sense resistors.
Though the device may be intended to sense DC current, it may often experience transients.
Power derating curve provides allowable power at different temperatures. But peak power
capability is a function of energy; hence energy rating curve should be taken into account.
 CHAPTER 4 WORKING

CONNECTIONS AND WORKING OF THE VEHICLE

Figure 4.1-Circuit diagram of the project

The Prototype comprises of the components mentioned in the previous chapter.

The above diagram shows the connections and interfacing with Arduino Nano. The Vehicle also has
an anti-collision system with the help of an ultra-sonic sensor attached at the front end.
The Battery (12V) is first connected in series to a Current sensor. The Current sensor is used to
monitor the current changes drawn from the battery based on load variation. If there is heavy load,
the battery delivers more current which is monitored by the current sensor with the help of a Hall
Sensor in it.

Figure 4.2- Connections and Interfacing with Arduino Nano

The Current sensor output is connected to the Arduino Nano on pin A2. It is then connected to a
Buck converter which regulates the voltage for the Arduino Nano, LCD, Ultra Sonic Sensor, Relays.
The interfacing of LCD 16X2 with Arduino Nano is shown below:
The Interfacing with the LCD Display is done on the digital pins D7 to D12.
An ultrasonic sensor is connected at the front end of the vehicle and has 4 Pins (Vcc , Ground , Echo
and Trigger). Echo and trigger pins are connected to the Arduino Pins D5 and D7. The ultrasonic
sensor is used to avoid collision. It checks if there is an obstacle or not and gives input accordingly
to the Arduino Nano.
Relays connected to the Arduino at pin D2 is used to control the 12V motors. When the distance is
less than 20cms, the Arduino takes the input from the ultrasonic sensor and instructs the relays to
switch off the motors. Relays generate back emf from their coils, and can reset the Arduino. To
avoid this, 2 capacitors 2200 uF and 470uF are connected to the relays.
A Potential divider has been used to calculate the state of charge of the battery.
Figure 4.3-Calculation of state of charge

The Potential Divider output is connected to the Arduino Nano and the Input is from the battery.
CALCULATIONS
Wheels of the vehicle have a radius of 5cm. The circumference is 2*3.14*5 = 0.314m.
The motor rotates at 60 r.p.m , so in one minute the motor covers 60*0.314=18.84m
Testing done to find the total distance the vehicle completes for practical application: 3500m
Time: 3500/18.84 = 184.77 mins (approx. 3 hours on full charge)
Distance will vary according to the load.
Hence the above parameters help in calculating the run distance.
 A rd
C u rr u in
ent oN
P o tSe en n s ano U ltr
t i a lo r ason
D iM v id L C i
er o R D en so
t el D is r
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Fig 4.4- Simplified Block Diagram for Working
 CHAPTER 5 - FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Green living and green concepts are the new buzzwords in our age, and use of electric cars is
gaining popularity in the green town. For most people, use of electric cars is an alien or a new
concept, but it is not that these cars never existed, or were never tried. Though fuel powered vehicles
may be sweeping the automobile industry for now, we must understand that life comes in full circle
the rising concerns for environment and excessive pollution caused by Internal Combustion
Engines have forced humans to look again at Electric Cars as an alternative.

Because we focus on energy efficiency and a lot on the greening space, we get this question many
times that what is our take on the latest buzz around EVs (Electric Vehicles), and how do we see the
future. India Spark presents the pros and cons of electric cars as a mode of transport and at the end
also presents a vision for the future of electric cars.
In India, most of the fuel is imported (both coal and petroleum), thus moving to electric cars and
improving efficiencies certainly provides a lot of advantage in terms of energy efficiency.

Below mentioned are some top benefits in using electric cars:

Electric cars have very less moving parts, thus, these cars provide very quiet and smooth
operation and also act as a means of cost saving on maintenance.
They have automatic transmission, which makes them very convenient for a city ride, which
is mostly stop-and-go.
While gasoline (or petrol) cars consume petrol even when the car is standing and the engine
is on, an electric car does not consume any electricity during those moments. EVs save a lot
of energy during heavy traffic as they do not consume any electricity during their idle state
and hence, make it a great option for people mostly having city drive. More importantly, it
prevents pollution by a considerable extent.

The future looks quite promising for Electric Cars. There is lot of research happening in this space.
Speeds of electric cars have already improved significantly and there is no doubt that it cannot
improve further (as trains in many countries already run on electric motors).

Storage and Charging remain the major area of focus for the future. Charging is one of the
major concerns for batteries as it takes quite some time to get fully charged. But there are
many companies working to solve this challenging problem. We already see cars with
 batteries that can make them run for 160 to 320 KMs. Then there are companies like Better
Place that are trying to design switchable batteries and switching stations. Better Place has
designed a system where empty batteries of electric cars will be replaced with a fully charged
battery in a few minutes. To do this they are trying to setup a network of switching stations.
They have already testing the concept in countries like Israel, Japan, China and Western
European countries.
Research is on to develop quick charging batteries, and the day is not far when electricity
distribution companies will set up their charging posts on highways, with all such posts
connected to the electricity grid (or smart grid). Charging will be quick and will be as simple
as charging a mobile phone with payments made by swiping a card on a machine connected
to the Internet, or we hope so.

So in conclusion, we think eventually electric vehicles will be successful in India. The word here is
eventually. When the right time for a peak in the EV industry is hard to guess but its within the
next twenty years.
CHAPTER 6 - SUGGESTIONS/DIFFICULTIESFACED

Every Novel idea no matter how vital, encounters a few road blocks on its way.

The biggest challenge with electric cars is their energy (or electricity) storage
capacity. This was one of the main reasons why gasoline (or petrol) cars got
prominence in early 1900s. And it still remains an issue. Although a lot of research is
going on for this. The Mahindra Reva E2O in India runs for about 100 kms with a
full charge. Latest technologies available internationally make cars capable of
running for about 160 to 320 km per full charge.
Charging of the batteries is another concern as it takes about 4 to 8 hours to charge
the batteries fully. Even a quick charge to 80% capacity takes about 30 mins.
Currently there is no infrastructure to charge the batteries on highways, although one
can charge the battery anywhere where electric point is available.
Many people in India worry about speed of electric cars and they do so mostly
because electric vehicles available in India in the past were quite slow. But Mahindra
Reva offers a top speed of 104 km/hr and the fastest electric car in the world Tesla
Model S can go up to the speed of about 200 km/hr.

Main issue is to deal with the problem of the driver range anxiety by creating a visual tool
where the driver can see on a map the current location and where we can reach with the
present charging level of EV, so we can use google maps to get a route with the available
amount of battery so as to charge the vehicle.

Range anxiety mainly depends of 3 factors:

Car dependency( SOC Level,Car model, battery type, battery life)
Driver dependency(Acceleration, Speed,Weight,Charge behaviour,Driving
direction)
Environment dependency(Traffic flow,Temperature,Wind,Altitude,Charge
infrastructure,Street consistency)

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Public Transportation information integration and availability on mobile devices could
create conditions/incentives for drivers use less their own car, by giving guidance and
suggestions for others transportation systems, like public transportation, bike sharing, car
sharing or even car pooling
Mobile devices and real time information will play an important role in this century, and
associated with the new bet in Electric Vehicles (EV) will contribute to the expansion of the
Electric Mobility, improving the life quality of the citizens and the cities.
There are several issues related with Public Charging Station. Infrastructure creation,
standardization, energy network distribution (high power) and the time that charging will
take. So by investing in highly efficient Public charging stations the problem can be solved

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CHAPTER-7 REFERENCES

1. https://www.savemoneycutcarbon.com/learn-and-save/types-of-electric-vehicles-evs/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_anxiety
3. http://www.ehcar.net/library/rapport/rapport074.pdf
4. http://www.natef.org/NATEF/media/NATEFMedia/VW%20Files/820233-Electric-
Drives-7_9_2013_sm-(2).pdf
5. http://www.emic-bg.org/files/Battery_Electric_Vehicles.pdf
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_car
7. http://www.drive-electric.co.uk/electric-car-leasing/
8. https://www.ee.iitb.ac.in/uma/~wel/wel45/public_html/edl09a/dd06.pdf
9. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1212.5440.pdf
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_avoidance_system
11. https://plugndrive.ca/range-anxiety
12. https://www.inverse.com/article/16980-how-future-tesla-owners-will-escape-range-
anxiety
13. https://www.kth.se/polopoly_fs/1.372134!/Menu/general/column-
content/attachment/ALundstrom_TrafiknatSthlm_120611.pdf
14. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:626048/FULLTEXT01.pdf
15. http://www.irdindia.in/journal_ijtarme/pdf/vol2_iss1/17.pdf
16. https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml
17. https://www.nissan.co.uk/range/electric-cars.html
18. http://fortune.com/2017/05/08/volkswagen-tesla-electric-cars/

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