Chapter 4: Reproduction

4.1: Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

1. Reproduction is the production of a new generation of individuals (offspring) from pre-existing one
(parents).
2. The importance of reproduction is to ensure the continuity of the species.
3. There are two types of reproductions:
(a) Asexual reproduction
(b) Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. Most simple organisms reproduce asexually.
2. There are five type of asexual reproduction:
(a) Binary Fission
- A parent cell dividing itself into two new offspring.
- Examples are amoeba, paramecium, bacteria, Euglena.

(b) Budding
- The parent produces a bud which detached to become a new individual.
- Examples are yeast and Hydra.

(c) Spore Formation

- The spores are formed in spore-bearing structure called sporangium.
-Spores are generally very small and light so they can be easily dispersed by wind and water.
-When the condition is suitable, sporangium released the spores to form new organisms.
- Examples are fungi, mosses, fern, mucor.

A mushroom A fern

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Chapter 4: Reproduction

(d) Regeneration / Rejuvenation

- Pieces of organism that is detached can grow and develop into a new individual.
- Examples are flatworm, starfish, and sponges.

(e) Vegetative Reproduction

- Parts of plant (root, stem, leaves) detach and grow into a new plant.
- Examples are:

Bryophyllum: reproduce by leaves Carrot: reproduce by tap root

Sexual reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring by the fusion of gametes (reproductive cells).
2. The male gamete (sperm) will fuses with the female gamete (ovum) by a process known as
fertilisation.
3. This results in the formation of zygote. The zygote develops into a new individual.

Fertilisation
4. There are two types of fertilisation, internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.
5. In internal fertilisation, the sperms are deposited in the female reproductive tract and fertilisation
occurs within the body of the female.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
6. In external fertilisation, sperms and eggs are shed into the water in great numbers simultaneously.
Only a small number of eggs are fertilised by the sperms. External fertilisation occurs in most fish,
amphibians and aquatic plants.

External Fertilisation
7. The differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.

Characteristics Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Number of parent Two One
Genetic make-up of offspring Difference from parent Identical to parent
Number of offspring Few Many
Speed of reproduction Slow Rapid
Gamete involved Yes No

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.2: Male and Female Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System

1. The function of the parts of male reproductive system

Structure Function
Testis -Produces sperms and male sex hormones.
Penis -Delivers sperms into the vagina of the female.
Scrotum -A bag which holds the testes outside the body and protects them.
Sperm duct -A tube which channel sperms from testes to urethra.
Seminal vesicle -A sex gland which produces fluid that provides nutrients for sperms.
Prostate gland -A sex gland which produce fluid that provide medium for the sperms to swim in.
Urethra -A tube which carries sperms and urine out of the body.

2. Sperms are the male gametes (male sex cells). Sperms carry genetic information from the male parent
in their nuclei.
3. Each sperm consists of a head, a middle piece and a long tail.
4. The structure of the sperm

5. The role of the sperm is fertilised the female gamete (ovum) to form zygote.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Female Reproductive System
1. Female reproductive system

2. The structures and functions of the female reproductive system.

Structure Function
Ovary -Produces ovum and female sex hormones.
Fallopian Tube -Carries ovum from ovary to the uterus.
(oviduct) -It is the place where fertilisation takes place.
Uterus (womb) -A structure where the embryo develops during pregnancy.
Cervix -A ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina.
Vagina -A muscular tube that opens to the outside of the female body.
-Birth canal
-Place where sperms are deposited
3. Ovum is the female sex cell or female gamete.
4. The ovum is larger than the sperm and it is spherical-shaped.
5. The ovum fuses with the sperm to form a zygote during fertilisation.
6. The structure of an ovum.

7. The ovum stores some food in its cytoplasm. The food is used to nourish the embryo which develops
from the zygote.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
8. The differences between the ovum and the sperm

Aspects Sperm Ovum

Size Smallest cell in male body (about Biggest cell in the female body
0.05mm). (about 0.1mm).
Mobility Move actively. Does not move.
Number produced Millions of sperm produced. One ovum per month.
Life About 72 hours. About 24 hours.

Changes in males and females during puberty

1. Changes in the male during puberty.
(a) Production of the sperms and male sex hormone by the testes.
(b) Voice box enlarges and voice becomes deeper.
(c) Growth of hair on the face, armpits, pubic region and maybe the chest.
(d) Height increases rapidly.
(e) Body becomes more muscular.
(f) The penis, scrotum and prostate become larger.
(g) Mental and emotional changes, e.g. greater interest in females.
2. Changes of the female during the puberty.
(a) Ovary produces ova and female sex hormones.
(b) Height increases rapidly.
(c) Hair grows at the pubic region and the armpits.
(d) Menstruation starts.
(e) Breast enlarges, hip become wider.
(f) Emotional and mental changes, e.g. greater interest in males.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.3: Menstrual Cycle
1. Menstruation (period) is the discharge of disintegrated uterus lining together with the dead ovum and
blood through the vagina.
2. A menstrual cycle is the repeated cycle which normally takes about 28 days.
3. A menstrual cycle can be divided into 4 phases, they are
(a) Menstruation phase (1st to 5th day)
Discharge of disintegrated uterus lining, dead ovum and blood through vagina.
(b) Repair phase (6th to 10th day)
Uterus wall grows and becomes thick again.
(c) Fertile phase (11th to 17th day)
Mature ovum is released from the ovary on 14th day.
- The process of releasing a mature ovum is called ovulation.
- A woman may become pregnant if she has an intercourse during fertile phase.
(d) Premenstrual phase (18th to 28th day)
Uterus is prepared for the implantation of the fertilised ovum.
- Ovum will disintegrate if it is not fertilised.

Menstrual phase

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.4: Fertilisation and Pregnancy
1. During ovulation, an ovum is released from the ovary.
2. If the woman is having an intercourse, millions of sperms are transferred to the vagina. The sperm
swim through the cervix and up to the fallopian tube. In the fallopian tube, one sperm will enter the
ovum and fertilised the ovum through the process called fertilisation.
3. After fertilisation, the zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo as it travels along the fallopian
tube towards the uterus.
4. When the embryo reaches the uterus, it attaches itself to the uterus wall. This is called implantation.
5. The female with the implanted embryo is now pregnant.

Pregnancy
1. During the early stage of pregnancy, the embryo obtains its supply of nutrients from ovum and uterus
lining.
2. The surfaces of the embryo and the uterus lining bind firmly
to form a large disc called the placenta.
3. The implanted embryo will then get its supply of nutrients
and oxygen from its mother through placenta.
4. By eight weeks after the fertilisation, the developing
embryo becomes clearly human and is called a foetus.
5. The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The foetus obtains nutrients and oxygen
from the mothers blood through umbilical cord while waste materials, such as urea and carbon
dioxide, pass along the same umbilical cord into the mothers blood.
6. The foetus is completely surrounded by a membrane called the amnion.
7. The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus against shock.
8. The time for the full development of a foetus is forty weeks. This is often referred to as the gestation
period.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
9. In human being, the stages in childbirth are as follows:
(a) Muscles in uterus contract rhythmically and slowly.
(b) Sac of amniotic fluid break.
(c) Foetus rotates the body until the head points toward cervix.
(d) Cervix expands.
(e) Strong contraction of uterus.
(f) Placenta and umbilical cord expel from mothers body.

4.5: Prenatal Care

1. Prenatal care refers to the care given or taken by a pregnant female.
2. Prenatal care is important because it ensures the good health of the expectant mother and healthy
development of the foetus.
3. In pregnancy, the mother has to provide necessary nutrients for the growth of her foetus.
(a) Protein is required for the rapid growth of the foetus and extra tissues in the mother such as
the placenta, uterus and blood.
(b) Calcium and phosphorus are essential for the formation of foetus bones and teeth.
(c) Iron and folic acid are needed for the formation of foetal blood.
4. The harmful substances to expectant mother.
(a) Cigarette smoke cause premature birth, low birth weight and miscarriage.
(b) When a woman drinks heavily during pregnancy, the baby may be born with Foetal
Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). FAS babies have mental retardation, small brain, hyperactive and
poor concentration.
(c) The foetus is very sensitive to drugs such as cocaine and heroin. If a mother is addicted to one
of these drugs, her foetus is likely to become addicted and will show withdrawal symptoms
after birth.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.6: Research in Human Reproductive System
1. Two main issues of concern in human reproduction are sterility and birth control.
2. Sterility is the inability to reproduce.
3. Some causes of sterility in males and their treatment:
Causes of sterility Treatment
Blocked sperm duct Remove any blockage in the tubes between the testes and the seminal
vesicles.
Low sperm count Stop smoking, reduce stress and stop taking alcoholic drinks.
Abnormal sperms Take hormonal pills
Impotence/ erectile dysfunction Take drugs that are prescribed by the doctor.

4. Some causes of sterility in females and their treatment:

Causes of sterility
Failure to ovulate
Blocked fallopian tube
Antibodies against sperm
Failure to implantation of
embryo into the uterus.
Treatment
Take hormonal pills or fertility drugs that aid ovulation.
Surgically cut off the blocked portion of the fallopian tubes and rejoin the
unblocked tubes.
Take drugs that suppress antibodies that act against sperms
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF)

In-vitro fertilisation (IVF)

In-vitro fertilisation is fertilisation that occurs outside the female body.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Birth control
1. Birth control allows married couples to decide whether they would want to have children. It also
allows them to choose the number of children and the time to have them.
2. This is done by contraception.
3. Methods of birth control:

Birth control method Example Explanation

Natural method Rhythm or safe method Avoid copulation during the fertile phase.
Barrier method Condom A thin rubber sheath that prevent the sperms from
entering the vagina.
Diaphragm or cap A circular rubber cap with a metal spring round it
that fits over the entrance of the uterus. Sperms are
blocked from entering the cervix by the diaphragm.
Mechanical method Intrauterine contraceptive A plastic coil or metal loop placed into the uterus by
device, IUCD doctor. It prevents the implantation of an embryo in
the uterus.
Hormonal method Contraceptive pills Contain female sex hormones that prevent
ovulation.
Chemical method Spermicides Chemicals that kill sperm.
Surgical method Vasectomy (male An operation in which the sperm ducts are cut and
sterilisation) tied.
Ligation (female An operation in which the fallopian tubes are cut
sterilisation) and tied.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.7: Sexual Reproduction System of Flowering Plants
1. Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of flowering plants.
2. The part of a flower.

3. The male part of the flower is called stamen. Stamen consists of anther and filament.
4. The female part of the flower is called pistil. Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.
5. Parts of the flower and their function.

Parts Function
Sepal Protect the young flower in the bud stage.
Petal Attract animal pollinators by their colour and scent.
Stigma Receive pollen grains.
Style Connect stigma to ovary.
Ovary - Produces ovules.
- Develops into fruit after fertilization.
Ovule - Contain female gamete.
- Develops into seeds after fertilization.
Anther Produce male gametes (pollen grains).
Filament Supports the anther.
6. There are two types of flowers:
(a) Unisexual flowers contain either the stamens or the pistils. Examples are papaya and corn.
(b) Bisexual flowers contain both the stamens and the pistils. Examples are hibiscus and morning glory.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.8: Pollination
1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma.
2. There are two types of pollination.

3. In self-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to
the stigma of another flower on the same plant.
4. In cross-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther of a flower of one plant to the
stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species.
5. Advantages of the cross-pollination:
(a) Produces new plants which are healthier and more resistance to bad weather and diseases.
(b) Produces a great variety of new plants.
(c) The new plant produces better yield.
6. Flowers can be pollinated by pollinating agents such as:
(a) Insects (bee, butterfly)
(b) Wind Examples are lalang, maize and paddy
(c) Water Example is duckweed
(d) Animal (humming bird, bat)
7. Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flower:

Characteristics Insect-pollinated flowers Wind-pollinated flowers

Flower

Size Large Small

Colour of petal Brightly coloured Dull coloured
Scent and nectar Present Absent
Stigma Small, sticky, inside the flower Long, feathery, protrude outside the flower
Style Short, strong Long, slender
Anther Inside the flower Outside the flower
Filament Short, strong Long, slender
Pollen grains Large, sticky, rough surface, small Small, light, smooth surface, large quantities
quantities are produced. are produced.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.9: The Development of Fruits and Seeds
1. Fertilisation of plant.

2. After fertilisation,
(a) Fertilised ovule develops into a seed.
(b) Ovary develops into the fruit.
(c) Sepals, petals, stigma and stamen will wither and drop off.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.10: Germination of Seeds
The structure of seeds

Dicotyledonous seed Monocotyledonous seed

1. After fertilisation, the ovules of a flower will develop into seeds.

2. The embryo in the seeds consists of:
(a) a young root called the radicles,
(b) a young shoot called the plumule, and
(c) one or two cotyledons.
3. Seeds with one cotyledon are called monocotyledonous seeds and seeds with two cotyledons are
called dicotyledonous seeds.
4. A seed is covered by a tough coat called testa.
5. Food for the embryo is stored either inside the cotyledons or in the endosperm.
6. The scar on the testa is called the hilum, which is the point where the seed is attached to the ovary
wall.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
Germination

1. Germination is the growth of the embryo in a seed into a seedling.

2. When a seed germinate, the seed absorb the water through the micropyle.
3. The cotyledons swell and the testa rupture.
4. The radicle emerges and grows downwards into the soil. The young root develops root hairs to absorb
water and minerals from the soil.
5. The plumule grows upwards and develops the first leaves.
6. The cotyledons shrink as their food reserve is used up and the leaves take over the role of food
production.
7. The conditions required for germination are:
(a) Water Enzyme in cotyledons need water to become active.
(b) Air (Oxygen) Energy is released when oxygen reacts with glucose during cell respiration.
(c) Suitable temperature Enzyme in cotyledons need suitable temperature to function.

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4.11: Vegetative Reproduction in Flowering Plant
1. Vegetative reproduction is asexual reproduction that involves the developments of the vegetative
parts of a plant into a new plant.
2. Flowering plants which reproduce vegetatively are often classified according to the vegetative parts
such as roots, stems and leaves.
3. Examples of vegetative reproduction:

Vegetative parts Examples

Roots

Stems
-underground stems

Stems that run

horizontally or runners

Modified stem or bulb

Leaves

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Chapter 4: Reproduction
4. Advantages of vegetative reproduction:
(a) Flowers or fruits can be obtained in much less time through vegetative reproduction.
(b) The quality and quantity of plants that will be produced are known in advance.

Application of research on vegetative reproduction in agriculture

1. Biotechnology is defined as the application of biological processes to improve human health and food
production.
2. Research in vegetative reproduction is one aspect of biotechnology.
3. The application of vegetative reproduction include:
(a) Stem-cutting
In stem-cutting, a new plant is produced by cutting off a portion of the stem of a plant of good quality
and planting it in soil.

(b) Tissue culture

-Tissue culture is the cloning involves the growth of cells of a plant in nutrient medium.
-Some pieces of tissue or a few cells are removed from the parent plant of good quality and transferred
to a medium containing nutrients.
-These nutrients make the cell divide and grow into new plants.
-The plants are then transferred and grown in pots.

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