IOI Agricultural Policy (Revised July05)

IOI CORPORATION BERHAD
OIL PALM
AGRICULTURAL POLICIES
Last Revised : July 2005

IOI AGRICULTURAL POLICIES
INTRODUCTION
This policy is formulated by the Technical Committee and serves as a

guideline to ensure that all executive planting staff are aware of and
conform to such policies. In case of doubts, please refer to the Plantation
Controller for advice/approval.
This policy is distributed to each and every individual executive planting

staff. The Manager is to retain the policy book when the executive is on
transfer or leaves employment.
Amendments will be issued for updating purpose through the Controller of

Research and Development. The replaced text should be returned to the
Controller of Research and Development for cancellation.
i
OIL PALM AGRICULTURAL POLICY
CONTENTS
SECTION NO. PAGE
1.0 LAND CLEARING, PREPARATION AND PLANTING 1
1.1 RUBBER TO PALM REPLANTING 1
1.2 PALM TO PALM REPLANTING 3
1.3 JUNGLE TO PALM PLANTING 4
1.4 REPLANTING IN AREAS WITH CONTOUR TERRACES 8
2.0 NURSERY PRACTICES 9
2.1 CHOICE OF SITE 11
2.2 SEED AND SEEDLING REQUIREMENT 11
2.3 SINGLE STAGE NURSERY 11
2.4 TWO STAGE NURSERY 20
2.5 PESTS AND DISEASES 26
2.6 TIME OF FIELD PLANTING 26
2.7 TURNING OF POLYBAGS 26
3.0 PLANTING DENSITY AND PLANTING TECHNIQUE 27
3.1 RECOMMENDED PLANTING DENSITY 27
3.2 PLANTING PATTERN 28
3.3 PLANTING TECHNIQUE 31
4.0 SOIL CONSERVATION AND TERRACING 33
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SLOPES 33
ii
SECTION NO. PAGE
5.0 ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF 37

LEGUME COVERS
5.1 CONVENTIONAL LEGUMES 37
5.2 MUCUNA BRACTEATA 46
6.0 WEEDING: WEED CONTROL 51
6.1 IMMATURE AREAS 51
6.2 MATURE AREAS 52
6.3 RECOMMENDED HERBICIDES FOR MATURE PALMS 53
6.4 CROP SAFETY AND WEEDICIDE PHYTOTOXICITY 53
6.5 SPRAYING: CALIBRATION AND SAFETY 61
7.0 ABLATION 66
7.1 ADVANTAGES OF ABLATION 66
7.2 ABLATION POLICY 66
8.0 MANURING 69
8.1a NURSERY MANURING 69
8.1b LEGUME MANURING 71
8.2 FIELD MANURING - IMMATURE PALMS 71
8.3 FIELD MANURING - MATURE PALMS 72
8.4 APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 72
8.5 FERTILIZER APPLICATION 77
8.6 FERTILIZER HANDLING AND STORAGE 79
8.7 FERTILIZER SAMPLING FOR ANALYSIS 83
8.8 UTILIZATION OF OIL PALM BY-PRODUCTS 87
iii
SECTION NO. PAGE
9.0 PESTS AND DISEASES 99
9.1 PESTS 99
9.2 DISEASES 112
9.3 TREATMENT OF GANODERMA INFECTED PALMS 115
10.0 ROADS 122
12.1 LAYOUT 122
11.0 PRUNING 124
11.1 PRUNING STANDARDS 124
11.2 FREQUENCY OF PRUNING 125
11.3 PLACEMENT OF FRONDS 125
12.0 HARVESTING 126
12.1 PRE-HARVESTING OPERATIONS 126
12.2 COMMENCEMENT OF HARVESTING 126
12.3 HARVESTING INTERVAL 127
12.4 HARVESTING STANDARDS 127
12.5 HARVESTING ORGANISATION 127
12.6 CONTROL OF HARVESTING 128
12.7 MONITORING OF FFB QUALITY 128
12.8 BUFFALO ASSISTED COLLECTION 136
iv
TABLES PAGE
TABLE 3.1 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE RECOMMENDED 28

PLANTING DENSITIES AND DISTANCES
BETWEEN THE PALMS
TABLE 3.2 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE RECOMMENDED 29

PLANTING DENSITIES AND DISTANCES
BETWEEN THE PALMS ON TERRACE
TABLE 6.1 NOXIOUS WEEDS UNDER OIL PALM 54
TABLE 6.2 GENERAL GUIDELINES: HERBICIDES MIXTURES 58

FOR CIRCLES AND PATHS UNDER SHADE
TABLE 6.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES: HERBICIDES/MIXTURES 60

FOR TARGET WEEDS
TABLE 8.1 GENERALISED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAW 94

AND POND DIGESTED POME
TABLE 8.2 QUANTITIES OF NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZER 95

EQUIVALENTS IN 1 CM RAIN EQUIVALENT OF POME
APPLIED OVER 1 HECTARE
TABLE 9.1 NURSERY PESTS OF OIL PALM 100
FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1 RUBBER TO OIL PALM REPLANT: 2

STACKING AND PLANTING POINTS FOR
DENSITY 148/HA
FIGURE 1.2 MODIFIED DOUBLE COMPRESSED BAND 5

METHOD OF LEGUMINOUS COVER CROP
SEED SOWING ON UNDULATING TO
FLAT TERRAIN
FIGURE 1.3 MODIFIED DOUBLE COMPRESSED BAND 6

METHOD OF LEGUMINOUS COVER CROP
SOWING ON TERRACES
FIGURE 2.1 GROWTH OF GERMINATING OIL PALM SEED 14
FIGURE 2.2 GERMINATING SEEDS INFECTED BY BROWN GERM 14
FIGURE 2.3 ORIENTATION & DEPTH OF SEED AT PLANTING 15
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FIGURES PAGE
FIGURE 2.4 TRANSPLANTING SEEDLING FROM SMALL 25

POLYBAG TO BIG POLYBAG
FIGURE 2.5 LAYOUT OF IRRIGATION FOR OIL PALM NURSERY 25
FIGURE 3.1 EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR PLANTING 28
FIGURE 3.2 TERRACE PLANTING 29
FIGURE 3.3 STAGGERED PLANTING POINTS ON TERRACE 30
FIGURE 3.4 PRUNING OF SUPPLY PLANTING MATERIAL 32
FIGURE 4.1 TERRACE CONSTRUCTION 35
FIGURE 4.2 PLANTING PLATFORM 35
FIGURE 4.3 LOCATION OF SILT PITS 36
FIGURE 5.1 LEGUME DRILLS FOR LEGUMINOUS COVER CROP 41

FOR PLANTING DENSITY OF 148/HA
FIGURE 5.2 DOUBLE COMPRESSED BANDS ON TERRACE 42
FIGURE 5.3 CLIPPED M. BRACTEATA SEED 46
FIGURE 5.4 PLANTING DENSITY AND PLANTING PATTERN OF 48

M. BRACTEATA ON LEVEL AND UNDULATING
TERRAIN WITH STRAIGHT PLANTING
FIGURE 5.5 PLANTING DENSITY AND PLANTING PATTERN OF 48

M. BRACTEATA ON TERRACES
FIGURE 7.1 ABLATION CHISEL COMMONLY USED IN ESTATES 68
FIGURE 8.1 LABELING OF FERTILIZER BAG 86
FIGURE 9.1 SOIL MOUNDING OF GANODERMA INFECTED 121

PALMS
FIGURE 10.1 MAIN ROAD/DRAIN LAYOUT 122
FIGURE 10.2 COLLECTION ROAD/DRAIN LAYOUT 123
FIGURES SKETCH OF CART FOR BUFFALO HARVESTING 138-140

12.1a-e
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PLATES PAGE
PLATE 2.1 ABNORMAL SEEDLINGS AT FOURTH MONTH 18
PLATE 2.2 ABNORMAL SEEDLINGS AT EIGHTH MONTH 19

AND ABOVE
PLATE 6.1a NOXIOUS WEEDS - GRASSES 55
PLATE 6.1b NOXIOUS WEEDS - BROAD LEAVES 56
PLATE 6.1c NOXIOUS WEEDS - BROAD LEAVES, SEDGES 57

AND FERNS
PLATE 9.1a BAGWORMS (METISA PLANA, CREMASTOPSYCHE 101

PENDULA, MAHASENA CORBETTI)
PLATE 9.1b NETTLE CATERPILLARS (SETORA NITENS, 101

THOSEA ASIGNA, DARNA TRIMA AND
PLONETA DIDUCTA)
PLATE 9.1c LEAF DAMAGE BY LEAF-EATING CATERPILLARS 101
PLATE 9.2a GRASSHOPPER (VALANGA NIGRICORNIS) 104
PLATE 9.2b LIFE CYCLE OF RHINOCEROS BEETLES 104

(ORYCTES RHINOCEROS)
PLATES 9.3a-c RODENT PESTS (RATS: RATTUS TIOMANICUS 111

RATTUS ARGENTIVENTER & RATTUS DIARDII)
PLATE 9.4 COMMON NURSERY LEAF DISEASES 114
PLATE 9.5 BASAL STEM ROT (BSR) BY GANODERMA SP. 116
PLATES 12.1a-b OIL PALM BUNCH CLASSIFICATION 132-133
vii
SCHEDULES PAGE
SCHEDULE 2.1 SINGLE STAGE NURSERY: MANURING 142
SCHEDULE 2.2 DOUBLE STAGE NURSERY: 143

PRE-NURSERY MANURING
SCHEDULE 2.3 DOUBLE STAGE NURSERIES: 144

MAIN NURSERY MANURING
SCHEDULE 5.1 FERTILIZER SCHEDULE FOR LEGUMINOUS COVER 145
SCHEDULE 8.1a-c MANURING PROGRAMME FOR IMMATURE 146-148

PALMS (PENINSULAR MALAYSIA)
SCHEDULE 8.2 MANURING PROGRAMME FOR IMMATURE 149

OIL PALMS (SABAH)
SCHEDULE 8.3 MANURING PROGRAMME FOR IMMATURE 150

PALMS IN PEAT SOILS
FORMS
FORM 2.1 IOI OIL PALM NURSERY (CULLING) 151
FORM 8.1 OPERATION COST SHEET: MANURING 152
FORM 8.2 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS FERTILIZATION 153

PROGRAM - MATURE AREA
FORM 8.3 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS FERTILIZATION 154

PROGRAM - IMMATURE AREA
FORM 9.1 RAT BAITING RECORDS 155
FORM 9.2 FORMAT FOR TIRATHABA CENSUS 156-157
FORM 12.1 IC 1: DAILY INFIELD FFB GRADING REPORT 158
FORM 12.2 IC 2: DAILY INFIELD FFB GRADING REPORT 159
FORM 12.3 FFB ASSESSMENT REPORT 160
viii
APPENDICES PAGE
APPENDIX 6.1 THE MAIN SPECIES OF WEEDS IN THE 161

PLANTATIONS
APPENDIX 6.2 LIST OF SOME COMMON REGISTERED HERBICIDES 162
APPENDIX 9.1 LIST OF SOME COMMON REGISTERED 163-164

INSECTICIDES
APPENDIX 9.2 LIST OF SOME REGISTERED FUNGICIDES 165-166
APPENDIX 9.3 CENSUS TECHNIQUE FOR POPULATION 167-172
APPENDIX 9.4 MAJOR BAGWORMS AND NETTLE CATERPILLAR 173-176

PEST SPECIES IN MALAYSIA
APPENDIX 9.5 ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY 177

TIRATHABA MUNDELLA
APPENDIX 9.6 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF RAT POPULATION 178-187

USING BARN OWLS
ix
1.0 LAND CLEARING, PREPARATION AND PLANTING
1.0.1 INTRODUCTION
Three main categories of clearing in oil palm cultivation are:
a) Rubber to Palm Replanting
b) Palm to Palm Replanting
c) Jungle to Palm Planting
1.0.2 Consideration should be made to size fields to around 40 ha using

natural boundaries (e.g. roads, rivers, etc.), wherever possible. Where
unusual indentations in existing boundaries occur, the Plantation
Controller should be consulted over possible adjustments.
1.1 RUBBER TO PALM REPLANTING
1.1.1 Pre-Clearing Activities
i) Where fields have been reasonably well maintained, weeding

should be continued until felling. Where weeding has been
discontinued 12 months before felling, the weeding programme
should be carried out with the consultation of the Plantation
Controller.
ii) LALLANG SHOULD BE WELL CONTROLLED RIGHT UP TO

FELLING.
1.1.2 Mechanical Clearing
A. Flat to Undulating Areas
i) Bulldoze or excavate old rubber trees, allow to dry for about 4 to

6 weeks (or until bark cracks).
ii) The felled old rubber trees are re-stacked into windrows within
an area of 3.06 m (10) wide along alternate inter-rows as
shown in Figure 1.1.
1 7/05
iii) Where there is an abundant unsuitable wood material, the
stacking heaps can be higher.
iv) Chainsaw can be used to cut branches obstructing the planting

points.
v) Where burning is practiced, approval must be sought from

Department of Environment (D.O.E.)
O O O O O O
2.27m
Branch and Twig Stacking Areas 3.06m
2.27m
O O O O O
New Planting Points 7.60m
O O O O O 0
2.27m
Branch and Twig Stacking Areas 3.06m
2.27m
O O O O O O
Figure 1.1 Rubber to Oil Palm Replant: Stacking and

planting points for density 148/ha.
B. Hilly Areas
i) Felling is done by chainsaw.
ii) Where new terraces are to be constructed, the tree remnants

need to be pushed and stacked along the old terraces.
iii) There is a need to cut and reduce longer branches to 3.06 m

(10) or less. This would make stacking along old terraces and
slopes easier.
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iv) The cut stumps should be poisoned with Garlon: Diesel mixture
(1 : 8 parts) and the cut surface should be treated with
Creosote.
v) In steep to very steep hills (>45o), where new terraces cannot

be constructed, the trees are to be felled using chainsaw.
vi) Any obstruction along old terraces should be cleared using

chainsaw. Damaged terraces should be repaired.
1.1.3 Soil Conservation
Refer to Section 4.0, page 33.
1.1.4 Lining
Pre-lining is essential prior to the stacking of remnants along inter-rows.

Wooden stakes of 1.8 m (6) should be pegged into the ground at 12.2 m
(40) interval indicating the areas for stacking. Line for planting. Refer
Section 3.0, page 27.
1.1.5 Cover Establishment
1.2 PALM TO PALM REPLANTING
1.2.1 Pre-Clearing Activities
Refer to Section 1.1.1, page 1.
1.2.2 Mechanical Shredding
A. Replanting on Flat to Undulating Areas
i) Rajah lining should be carried out prior to commencement of

felling and shredding. Ensure that shredded palm material is
properly placed in between the new planting rows as shown in
Figure 1.1, page 2.
ii) Shredding - Fell the individual palms mechanically. Excavate

any remnants of the bole and root mass around the bole and
level off the depression.
Shred the palm into chips of not more than 10 cm (4") thick and
pile [with width not exceeding 2.5 m (8')] in between the new
planting rows (Figure 1.2, page 6).
3 7/05
iii) Spraying - The surviving growing noxious woodies should be
eradicated at least two rounds of spraying.
iv) Lining - Line for planting. Refer to Section 3.0, page 27.
v) Cover establishment - To accommodate the residual shredded

palm materials in the inter-row, use the double-compressed
band method. (Figure 1.2, page 5 and Figure 1.3, page 6, for
undulating to flat terrain and hilly terrain, respectively.) For
details on establishment and maintenance of legume covers,
refer to Section 5.0, page 37.
B. Replanting on Hilly Areas
i) Where the mechanical felling is not possible, the old stand

should be poisoned with Paraquat (120 ml per palm).
ii) The chemical should be applied into the hole drilled at an angle
of 5o to 10o.
iii) The hole can be made using a drill attached to a chainsaw.
1.3 JUNGLE TO PALM PLANTING
i) Felling and Extraction of Timber
Obtain clearance certificate from the Forestry Department

before commencement of felling. All timber of commercial value
should be extracted prior to felling. After logging, all under-
growth should be uprooted mechanically.
ii) Boundaries
Prior to the commencement of clearing, the perimeter

boundaries should be clearly marked and the area accurately
surveyed. Sub-division fields of approximately 40 ha each
should be divided using roads, streams, drains or other natural
boundaries.
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O
3.0m (9.9) O
O 9.2m (30)
2.6 m
2.0m 0.6m 2.7m (9) 0.6m 2.0m
(6.6) (2.0)
7.9 m
(26 )
O = New palm
= Shredded palm materials
= Pueraria javanica, Calopogonium mucunoides
= Calopogonium caeruleum
Figure 1.2 Modified double compressed band method of

leguminous cover crop seed sowing on undulating
to flat terrain
5 7/05
(5)
1.5m
0.6m (2 )
0.6m (2)
Double compressed band
Oil palm
Shredded palm
materials
Mixed
legumes
Figure 1.3 Modified double compressed band method of

leguminous cover crop seed sowing on terraces.
6 7/05
1.3.1 Complete Mechanised Method
i) Uprooting by bulldozers
a) All trees and undergrowth should be uprooted and

removed by bulldozers except those trees considered too
large for felling in this manner. Trees too large for
mechanical felling [>150 cm (5') diameter] should be
chainsaw felled at a height not exceeding 1.8 m (6') from
ground level. All dead trees should be felled as well.
b) All felled timber and other debris fallen across or into any
river, stream or drainage channel should be removed and
stacked well clear at the contractor's expense.
ii) Stacking in windrows
a) All logs and underbrush should be stacked in windrows at

interval of not less than 18 m (60') apart.
b) When the slope of the land exceeds 10o, all windrows

should be stacked on contours.
1.3.2 Partial Mechanised Method
This shall only be carried out in swamps where bulldozers cannot

operate.
i) Underbrushing
All undergrowth of any description up to 10 cm (4") diameter

should be cut to at a height not exceeding 15 cm (6) above
ground level.
ii) Chainsaw felling
All remaining trees should be felled by chainsaw in accordance

with the following specifications: -
a) Trees of between 28-60 cm (11-24") diameter at height not

exceeding 45 cm to 75 cm (18-30") above ground level.
b) Trees of between 60-100 cm (24-40) diameter at height

not exceeding 90-120 cm (36-48") above ground level.
7 7/05
c) Trees above 100 cm (40") diameter at height not
exceeding 180 cm (72") above ground level.
All dead and broken trees should be felled to the above

specification.
iii) Clearing debris from watercourses
All felled timber and other debris fallen across or into any river
stream or drainage channel should be removed and stacked,
well clear at the contractor's expense.
iv) Restacking (manual)
Logs should be cut and stacked in heaps.
v) Restacking (mechanical)
All remaining timber should be stacked mechanically in heaps

on windrows.
1.3.3 Soil Conservation
1.3.4 Lining
1.3.5 Cover Establishment
1.4 REPLANTING IN AREAS WITH CONTOUR TERRACES
i) Shredding - As in Section 1.2.2, page 3.
8 7/05
2.0 NURSERY PRACTICES
2.0.1 INTRODUCTION
i) The importance of good nursery practices cannot be over-

emphasized. The nursery should be maintained at the highest
standard to ensure production of healthy, vigorous and uniform
palms for field planting.
ii) All estates should have their own nurseries, subject to

approval from the Plantation Controller.
iii) Double stage polybag nursery is generally preferred and any

deviation Plantation Controller must be consulted. Some
comparisons are made below: -
2.0.2 SINGLE / DOUBLE STAGE NURSERIES
1. DOUBLE STAGE NURSERY
a) CONVENTIONAL SMALL POLYBAG METHOD
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Filling of small polybags can 1. Growth will be behind by 2

be organised much more easily months.
and takes less time.
2. Culling at 12-14 weeks just 2. Additional labour needed

before transplanting into large during transplanting.
polybags is easier.
3. Relatively higher cost compared
to the single stage nursery.
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7/05
b) POT TRAY METHOD
1. High density planting for 1. Growth will be behind by

economically space saves in 2months.
nursery.
2. The plot tray is re-cycleable and 2. Additional labour needed

use less planting media. during transplanting.
3. Take lesser time and easier to

organize compare to
conventional polybag method.
4. Easier to handle and save time

to transport seedling.
5. Enable to maintain the highest

standard to produce healthy,
vigorous and uniform palms to
the estate.
6. Enable varies agronomic trials

to be carried out.
2. SINGLE STAGE NURSERY
1. Materials will be available for 1. Earlier preparation is required.

field planting 2 months ahead
of double stage.
2. Less labour requirement as 2. Culling will leave 20-30% empty

transplanting is not required. points in nursery; therefore for
uniformity, earlier preparation of
30% seeds into small polybags
may be necessary.
10
7/05
2.1 CHOICE OF SITE
The basic requirements for a polybag nursery are as follows:
2.1.1 Level to undulating (0-6o) site, well drained and not prone to flooding.
2.1.2 An adequate supply of "clean" water available throughout the year.

Precautions must be taken to prevent chemical contamination of the
water supply. . Good natural vegetation should be maintained
between the nursery site and watercourse i.e. maintain a riparian strip
of 40 meter wide.
2.1.3 A site as near as possible to the area proposed for planting, where
practical, taking into consideration transportation, security, source of
soil and other relevant factors.
2.1.4 All nursery sites must be fenced, and chemical store kept locked at all
times.
2.2 SEED AND SEEDLING REQUIREMENT
2.2.1 To allow for planting failure and supplying, the number of seed and
seedling required should be 30% and 15% respectively in excess of
the actual field requirement.
Planting density Seed Seedling

per hectare required required
148 193 170

160 208 184
2.2.2 Orders through IOI Research Centre with copy extended to

Administration, Head Quarters, should be placed well in advance, at
least 6 months for seedling and 12 months for seed prior to the
required delivery date.
2.2.3 Timing for delivery of seedling and germinated seed should be 7

months and 12 months respectively prior to the anticipated date of
field planting.
2.3 SINGLE STAGE NURSERY
2.3.1 Polybags
Large 35 cm x 40 cm (14" x 16") lay-flat black perforated polybags of

500 gauge should be used. For supply palms kept for longer period
up to 18 - 24 months in the nursery (normally about 5%), larger
polybags of 45 cm x 60 cm (18" x 24") and 600 gauge should be
used.
11
7/05
2.3.2 Soil Mixture
i) The best available topsoil of good stable structure should be

used. Sandy clay loam to good structured clay soils of
Rengam, Bungor, Jerangau, Munchong, Rumidi, Kretam,
Lungmanis, Maliau, Dalit and Siput series are suitable for oil
palm growth.
ii) Mix soil with approximately 25% (by volume) palm oil mill
effluent (POME) sludge cake (where available) and 50 g Rock
Phosphate per polybag. Where soil is too clayey, mixture with
river sand should be considered.
iii) Polybags should be filled at least one week before sowing and
well watered to allow soil consolidation. The soil surface after
settling should not be less than 2.5 cm (1") from the lip of the
bag. A lorry load of soil of 4 cubic metres should fill
approximately 220 polybags.
iv) Avoid filling polybags with soil from Ganoderma infested area.
2.3.3 Layout
i) The polybags should be arranged at 90 cm (3') triangular

spacing for seedlings to be retained in the nursery for 10 - 12
months.
ii) At 90 cm (3') triangular spacing, it will give a stand of

approximately 12,000 polybags per hectare.
2.3.4 Shade
Shade is not necessary.
2.3.5 Planting
i) Seeds should be carefully checked for defects upon receipt

from the supplier(s). The growth of germinating oil palm seed
is shown in Figure 2.1 (page 14). The main defects are:
a) Overgrown seeds - These normally become apparent

after 14 days from germination and are characterised by
the appearance of a leaf sheath on the plumule and many
rootlets on the radicle (Figure 2.1d, page 14).
b) Late germinators - These seeds are characterised mainly

by their very thin plumule, early appearance of the leaf
sheath and the presence of an increased number of
adventitious roots (Figure 2.1c, page 14).
c) Damaged seeds - Seeds with physical damage like
broken or shriveled radicle.
12
7/05
d) Brown germ - Germinating oil palm seeds infected by
brown germ are shown in figure 2.2, page 12. Seeds
affected by brown germ normally have a stubby radicle
with brown lesions mostly midway between the plumule
and radicle.
ii) Seeds should be planted approximately 1 cm below the soil

surface (Figure 2.3, page 15). SEEDS MUST NEVER BE
PLANTED UPSIDE DOWN OR TOO DEEP. Upside down
planting can lead to twisted leaf.
iii) After planting, a layer of mulch should be applied. Broken

shells and cyclone fibre from the oil mill are suitable mulching
materials.
iv) Doubletons - In a normal seed consignment there is always a

small percentage of seeds that produce two or three shoots.
These are referred to as doubletons and should be planted in
smaller polybags (Refer Section 2.4.1.5, page 21).
2.3.6 Watering Large Polybags in the Main Nursery
This is the most important single requirement in a polybag nursery.

Up to 4-leaf stage (3-4 months after planting), watering should be
carried out twice a day. About 0.5 litres per bag per application is
required. Thereafter, watering should be carried out daily at 1.5 litres
per bag. An accurate rain gauge placed in the nursery will prove
useful to ascertain whether watering is required. Where overnight
rainfall has been more than 8 mm, watering is not necessary.
A hard pan should not be allowed to form on the soil surface in the
bags. If it is encountered, a careful light forking should be carried out.
It is useful to know that mulching will prevent the formation of a hard
pan.
The construction and layout of irrigation systems for oil palm

nurseries preferably with sprinkler tube installed alternately for every
3 rows of polybag (Figure 2.5, page 25).
2.3.7 Weeding
Commence spot spraying immediately after arranging polybags in the

main nursery. Crop safety must be considered when selecting the
type of herbicide used. Spraying should not be carried out on
excessively windy days. Weeds inside the polybags MUST BE
REMOVED BY HAND.
13
7/05
To avoid phytotoxicity, spraying equipment and chemicals for foliar
application must be MARKED AND STORED SEPARATELY from
HERBICIDES. A spray guard fitted to a hand-lance or around a non-
drift nozzle would assist in minimising spray drift.
Since clone ramets are sensitive to chemical especially herbicide,

therefore weeding operation should strictly adhered to the general
guidelines.
germination
14
7/05
15
7/05
2.3.8 Manuring
i) Fertiliser should be applied at all times to an area around the

seedlings, approximately 5-7.5 cm away from the base of the
seedling. Care must be taken to avoid contact of the young
leaves with fertilisers, either directly or with fine fertiliser
particles from the workers' hands.
ii) The schedule for fertiliser applications is found in Schedule

2.1, page 142.
iii) The use of controlled release or slow release fertilisers (e.g.

Kokei, Nurseryace, Woodace, Agroblen, etc.) may be
considered in consultation with the Plantation Controller.
2.3.9 Census and Culling
i) Four rounds of census and culling must be carried out during

the growth period of seedlings in the nursery.
a) 1st census - at about 6 weeks after planting to determine

the percentage of planting success.
b) 2nd census - at 3 to 4 months after planting into

polybags.
c) 3rd and 4th census - at 8 months and again just before

field planting.
d) Losses at each stage should be recorded and submitted

through Form 2.1, page 151. CULLING SHOULD BE
CARRIED OUT BY EXPERIENCED STAFF.
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7/05
ii) The main types of abnormal (Plate 2.1, page 18) seedlings to
be culled at 3 to 4 months are:
a) Narrow leaf or grass leaf - narrow, erect grass-like leaf.

The lamina resembles a newly developed lalang shoot.
b) Twisted leaf - the leaf becomes coiled and twisted. The

main cause is due to upside down planting.
c) Crinkled leaf - the leaf is disfigured by lines of transverse

corrugation.
d) Rolled leaf - the leaf lamina is rolled along its long axis
and seldom open.
e) Collante - the leaf surface has a constricted appearance

as a result of the lamina failing to expand.
iii) The main types of abnormal seedlings (Plates 2.2, page 19) to
be culled at 8 months and before field planting are:
a) Runts - Seedlings are morphologically similar to palms of

the same age but are much smaller in size.
b) Upright or sterile seedlings - Palms are vigorous in

height and upright in appearance with rigid looking fronds.
c) Flat top - The seedlings have a distinct `flat top'

appearance with the newly developed fronds seldom
projecting beyond the older fronds.
d) Limp or flaccid form - The fronds have a limp look and

hang down instead of being erect. Normally this type of
seedling is quite short in comparison to the other
seedlings.
e) Juvenile form - The pinnae of the older fronds remain

undivided until the seedling is quite some months old.
Many such palms resemble sterile palms and should be
treated accordingly.
f) Short internode - The pinnae look compressed on the

rachis giving a crowded appearance.
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Healthy & Normal Seedling Narrow Leaf (Grass leaf) on right
Twisted shoot Crinkled Leaf
Rolled leaf Collante
Plate 2.1 Abnormal seedlings at fourth month
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Short internodes Wide internodes Narrow pinnae
Chimaera Healthy & Normal Seedling Runt (on right)
Barren
Flat-Top Limp
Juvenile
Plate 2.2 Abnormal seedlings at eighth month and above
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g) Wide internode - The distance between the pinnae is
abnormally wide giving the palm a very open appearance.
However, great care must be taken not to confuse this type
of palm with a palm suffering from etiolation due to
inadequate spacing. If such is the case, the palm will
produce normal fronds when spacing has been corrected
or at field planting.
h) Narrow pinnae - The pinnae are very narrow and sharply

pointed.
i) Chimaera - Palm displays chlorotic or white sections of

the lamina, which are devoid of chlorophyll.
2.4 TWO STAGE NURSERY
2.4.1 Pre-Nursery
2.4.1.1 Polybag
Small 15 cm x 23 cm (6" x 9") lay-flat black perforated polybags of

250 gauge (0.06 mm) should be used.
2.4.1.2 Soil mixture
As in single stage nursery but mix soil with approximately 10 % (by

volume) POME sludge cake (where available) and 25 g Rock
Phosphate per polybag.
For pot tray, mix soil with approximately a part of fine sand to three
part of top soil and 125g rock phosphate per tray. The tray should be
filled at least one week before sowing and well watered to allow soil
consolidation. The soil surface after settling should not be less than
1.5 cm from the lip of the tray.
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2.4.1.3 Layout
The layout should be on a bed basis. The dimensions recommended

are as follows:
Polybag Pot Tray

Width 120 cm ( 4 ) 65 cm ( 22 )
Length Variable 6-7 m ( 20-25) 6 m ( 20 )
Path 75 cm ( 26 ) between beds 75 cm ( 26 ) between beds

The bed surrounded by
Remarks
bricks
2.4.1.4 Shade
50% shade is preferable to be maintain for pot tray seedling and

clone ramets before transplanting to main nursery. Shade is not
necessary for commercial D x P seedling after transplanting.
2.4.1.5 Planting of germinated seeds into polybags
i) As in single stage nursery, Section 2.3.5, page 12.
ii) Planting of doubletons
a) Doubletons should be planted separately and clearly

marked.
b) At the 3-4 leaf stage, each seedling should be separated

from it's twin. Carefully cut the polybag into 2 halves in
between seedlings. Separated seedlings should be
transplanted into big polybags.
c) These seedlings should be kept separate from the other

seedlings as they will be slightly retarded initially before
developing into normal palms.
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2.4.1.6 Watering
Seedlings should be watered twice daily except on rainy days.

Ensure that the soil in the polybag is moist but not in a saturated
condition. Overhead sprinkler system or a watering hose attached
with a fine `rose' may be used.
2.4.1.7 Weeding
Regular hand weeding rounds should be carried out.
2.4.1.8 Manuring
2.4.1.8.1 Refer to Schedule 2.2, page 143 for commercial DxP

seedling.
2.4.1.8.2 Manuring schedule for clone ramets started base on the date
ramets were received from tissue culture lab. Foliar fertilizer at
the rate of 10ml / 10lit. water should be applied in the first and
third week. The manuring thereafter will refer to Schedule 2.3,
page 144.
2.4.1.9 Census and culling
Two round of census should be carried out during the pre-nursery

stage, viz.
i) 1st census - at about 6 weeks after planting, to determine the

percentage of planting success.
ii) 2nd census - at 3 to 4 months after planting (before

transplanting to the main nursery) to determine the culling rate.
iii) Losses at each stage should be recorded and submitted to the

Plantation Controller and Research Centre through Form 2.1,
page 113.
iv) Culling must be carried out before transplanting to main nursery.

CULLING SHOULD ONLY BE CARRIED OUT BY AN
EXPERIENCED STAFF.
v) For types of runts to be culled, refer to single stage nursery

culling at 3 - 4 month stage in (Plate 2.1, page 18).
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2.4.2 Main-Nursery
2.4.2.1 Polybag
As in single-stage Nursery in Section 2.3.1, page 11.
2.4.2.2 Soil Mixture
As for the Single-stage Nursery in Section 2.3.2, page 12.
2.4.2.3 Layout
As in Single-stage Nursery in Section 2.3.3, page 12.
2.4.2.4 Shade
Shade is not necessary
2.4.2.5 Transplanting
i) Seedlings from the pre-nursery should be transplanted to the

main nursery at the 3-4 leaf stage (around 12 to 16 weeks after
the seeds are first planted).
ii) The large polybags in the main nursery should be thoroughly

matured one day before transplanting.
iii) Just prior to transplanting, a hole [20cm (4) width x 15 cm (6)

depth] should be dug with center of the large polybag using a
hand auger. See Figure 2.4, page 25. The size of the hole as
follow:
a ) 10 cm ( 2 ) width x 10 cm ( 2 ) depth for seedling from pot

tray.
b) 20 cm ( 4 ) width x 15 cm ( 6 ) depth for ramets / seedling

from small polybag .
iv) Precaution should be taken when remove ramets / seedling

from small polybag or pot tray, to minimize root damages. The
suggested guide as follow :
a) Strip off the small polybag or
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b) Watering the pot tray to moist the soil media before soft
pressing at the bottom of each pot tray cavity to remove
seedling together with intact soil media.
After that place seedling with the soil core in a large polybag
half filled with soil . Compact the soil around the soil core by
tapping the side of the large polybag whilst keeping the seedling
in a firm upright position. Where necessary, soil from those
removed by hand auger could be used for topping up to a level
at 2.5cm (1) below the lip for the large polybag. Avoid breaking
the soil core or planting it too deeply.
v) The small polybag torn off earlier should be placed beside the
large polybag as a check.
vi) Water seedlings well after transplanting. Mulch with palm fibre
or kernel shells.
2.4.2.6 Watering
2.4.2.7 Weeding
2.4.2.8 Manuring
Refer to Schedule 2.3, page 144.
2.4.2.9 Culling
i) Two rounds of culling must be carried out in the main nursery,

i.e. around eight months from transplanting and again just
before planting out.
ii} Refer to Single-stage Nursery Culling in Section 2.3.9, page 16.
iii) Abnormal palms identified by an experienced staff must be

verified by an executive before being slashed down at the collar.
24
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15 cm
Hole dug by
hand auger
10 cm
Spoil from hole dug

Hand Auger with hand auger Holing done in
center of large
polybag
Figure 2.4 Transplanting seedling from small polybag to big polybag
Sprinkler Tube
Polybag
Figure 2.5 Layout of irrigation system for oil palm nursery
25
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2.5 PESTS AND DISEASES
For control of specific pests and diseases, refer to Section 9.0, page
99.
2.6 TIME OF FIELD PLANTING
The optimum age of seedlings for field planting is 10 to 12 months.
2.7 TURNING OF POLYBAGS
Two weeks prior to field planting the bags should be "rocked" and
turned 180o to break root contact with the ground. Seedlings must be
well watered after this exercise.
26
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3.0 PLANTING DENSITY AND PLANTING TECHNIQUE
3.01 INTRODUCTION
The choice of the right planting density in oil palm is important as it
affects the profitability of a planting. This policy gives the planting
density and pattern for the Group estates.
3.1 RECOMMENDED PLANTING DENSITY
Terrain/soil Density of planting

Per ha Per ac
A. Flat to gently undulating:-
Peninsular Malaysia Sabah

i. a) Coastal clay soils Riverine alluvium
e.g. Selangor, Briah, e.g. Kinabatangan, 148 60
Kangkong series Luangmanis, Silabukan,
Tuaran, Tanjung Aru,
Sook.
b) Coastal clay soil with Ganoderma problem in previous 148 60

planting
ii. a) Good inland soils

e.g. Rengam, Munchong, e.g. Rumidi, Kertam, Maliau, 148 60
Prang, Segamat series. Sipit, Dalit
b) Good inland soils with Ganoderma problem in previous 148 60

planting
iii. a) Marginal inland soils and peat soils

e.g. Melaka, Batu Anam, e.g. Bidu-bidu, Lokan, 148-160 60-65
Durian series Sualog, Perancangan
b) Marginal inland soils (Ganoderma problem) and peat 148-160 60-65

soils.
e.g. Melaka e.g. Sapi (peat), Kilas (peat), 148-160 60-67
Sipitang (peat), Weston
(Sulphidic alluvial)
B. Hilly areas depending on soil type 148-160 60-65
C. Swamps and Ravines 148 60
D. Areas with potential for development (near towns) 165 67
Note: For each replant, the planting density should be discussed and agreed
with the Plantation Controller
27
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3.2 PLANTING PATTERN
3.2.1 On Flat to Undulating Terrain
Planting points should be in an equilateral triangular planting

(Figure 3.1). The relationship of the planting distances for various
densities is shown in Table 3.1.
O
O = planting point
a = distance between the palms
a h = vertical distance
h
O O
Figure 3.1. Equilateral triangular planting
Table 3.1 Relationships between the recommended planting densities and

the distances between the palms, a, and the vertical distances, h.
Stand per a = distance between palms h = vertical distance
Hectare Acre Meter Feet Meter Feet
148 60 8.8 29.0 7.6 25.0

155 63 8.6 28.2 7.5 24.6
160 65 8.5 27.8 7.4 24.3
165 67 8.3 27.2 7.1 23.3
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3.2.2 On Terraces of Hilly Terrain
The positions of the planting points in terrace planting are shown in

Figure 3.2 and the relationships of the planting distances for the
recommended densities in Table 3.2.
O
O = Planting point
h1 a1 = distance between the
a1 palms on the terrace
Terrace
h1 = distance between
terraces
O
Figure 3.2. Terrace planting
Table 3.2 Relationships between the recommended planting densities and

the distances between the palms on terrace, a1, and two
inter-terrace distances at 7.9 m (26 ft) and 9.2 m (30 ft)
a1= distance between h1= distance between

Stand per palms on terrace two terrace
Hectare Acre Meter Feet Meter Feet
148 60 8.6 28.1 )

155 63 8.2 26.8 ) 7.9 26
160 65 7.9 26.0 )
165 67 7.7 25.2 )
148 60 7.3 24.1 )

155 63 7.0 23.0 ) 9.2 30
160 65 6.8 22.3 )
165 67 6.6 21.6 )
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Palms should be planted 1.2 m (4') from the back of the terraces. In
order to achieve maximum sunlight assimilation in later years
"staggered" planting (Figure 3.3) between terraces is most
desirable.
Terrace lip
1.2 m (4)
4.3 m (14)
Terrace lip
Terrace lip
Note:
Planting hole
Figure 3.3 Staggered planting points on terrace
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3.3 PLANTING TECHNIQUE
3.3.1 Holing
i) Planting holes may be dug either manually or mechanically

by using a post-hole digger [60cm (24") auger]. Wherever
possible, mechanical holing should be practised.
ii) Where mechanical holing is carried out, holes should be dug

about 15 cm (6") deeper than the height of the soil core in
the polybag to assist initial root penetration.
iii) In heavy clay soils or very friable sandy soils, holes of 45 cm

x 45 cm x 50 cm (18" x 18" x 20") should be dug manually.
This also applies to areas inaccessible to tractors.
3.3.2 Pre-planting Operations in Nursery
i) The polybag seedlings should be thoroughly watered before

leaving the nursery.
ii) For over-aged seedlings (over 16 months), the etiolated

fronds and spear should be pruned with secateurs prior to
field planting to minimise transpiration losses and wind
damage through spear snapping. Care must be taken not to
over-prune seedlings. See Figure 3.4, page 32.
iii) Where necessary, fronds may be tied together in a bunch

before seedlings are transported.
3.3.3 Planting in the Field
i) To ensure good planting success, planting should coincide

with the rainy season.
ii) To minimise transplanting shock, special care should be

taken when handling polybag seedlings during distribution.
iii) Planting in the field should be carried out with minimum

delay, preferably on the same day they are removed from the
nursery. Where this is not possible due to unforeseen
circumstances, they must be watered daily.
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7/05
iv) The polybag must be carefully removed without damaging
the soil core. Rock phosphate at 500g should be
incorporated in the planting hole. Use only topsoil to fill the
planting hole; taking particular care to compact the filled soil
carefully without leaving cavities. The torn polybag should
be left beside the palm to allow checking.
v) Shortly after planting, all leaning palms should be

straightened and the base well consolidated.
3.3.4 Supplying
Abnormal, dead and severely pest-damaged palms must be

removed and supplied promptly during the first year of planting.
3.3.5 Planting bunds
In water-logged areas, planting bunds should be constructed to a

width of at least 3.6 m (12'). These bunds are constructed to
prevent seedlings from becoming continuously waterlogged.
Before Pruning After Pruning
Figure 3.4 Pruning of supply planting material
[Note: Young spear/spears are pruned to prevent damage in transport and from
strong winds]
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4.0 SOIL CONSERVATION AND TERRACING
4.01 INTRODUCTION
Soil conservation and terracing are necessary to ensure optimum palm

growth, to conserve soil and water and to facilitate FFB collection.
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SLOPES
Flat : Terrain less than 5o (1:12)
Gentle slope: Terrain with slopes between 5o - 8o (1:12 - 1:7)
Steep slope : Terrain with slopes more than 8o - 14o (1:7 - 1:4)
Very steep slope: Terrain with slopes more than 14o (1:4 or less)
4.1.1 Requirement on Flat Terrain
Soil conservation is not necessary.
4.1.2 Requirement on Gentle Slope
Conservation terraces of 2.5m (8') wide should be constructed

mechanically along the contours. The aim is to reduce the effective
length of slope and the speed of run-off. The length of the slope
between conservation terraces should be in the region of 30 - 40m (98-
131).
Planting platform (8x 6) should be constructed for gentle slopes

(Figure 4.2, page 35).
4.1.3 Requirement on Steep Slopes
i) On steep slopes where mechanical work is possible, planting

terraces should be constructed. Ideally, horizontal distances
between contour terraces are between 7.9m (26') and 9.2m
(30'). The terraces should not be blind and the lowest cut-off
point should be 6.5m (22'). Should any terraces be above 13m
(42') apart, a new terrace should be constructed.
33 7/05
ii) The terraces should be about 3.6m - 4.2m (12-14') wide and
with a backward slope of 60cm to allow for consolidation of the
spoil and to serve as a catchment area for run-off water (Figure
4.1, page 32). Stops (soil mounds) at approximately 20m (66')
intervals along the terraces are required.
iii) Terracing should be constructed after road construction, in order

to allow water from the roads to flow into the terraces. This is
because terraces can be made to end at just below the surface
of the road when they meet.
iv) Double terracing should be considered whenever mechanisation

is planned for vehicular movement.
4.1.4 Requirement on Very Steep Slopes
On very steep slopes where mechanical terracing is not possible, e.g.

sides of ravines, planting platform 2.4 x 1.8 m (8-6') with a back-slope
of not less than 0.3m (1') should be constructed (Figure 4.2, page 35).
4.1.5 Silt Pits
As a further measure to control soil erosion and surface runoff, silt pits
should be constructed on slopes of undulating areas. This should be
especially considered in areas with lateritic soils.
The recommended dimension of the silt pit (Figure 4.3, page 36) is 6m
(L) x 0.6m (W) x 0.6m (D). It is to be constructed along contours
across a slope at an interval of four palms down the slope and on the
frond heap rows. It can intrude into part of the harvesting path but
should not obstruct harvesting operations. On areas with terracing or
platforms, silt pits should be constructed when the terraces and
platforms show sign of levelling off. Silt pits should be maintained and
desilted about once every three years or earlier if necessary.
34 7/05
3.6 4.2 m
60 cm Spoil
hard
original land surface
Figure 4.1 Terrace construction
8 ft
6 ft
1 ft
Original slope
Figure 4.2 Planting platform
35 7/05
DIRECTION OF SLOPE
O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O
O O O O O O
Silt pits Harvesting paths

Palm
6m(L) x 0.6m(W) x 0.6m(D)
Figure 4.3 Location of Silt Pit
36 7/05
5.0 ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF LEGUME C0VERS
5.01 INTRODUCTION
The benefits of leguminous covers have been well established.

GROUP ESTATES SHOULD ESTABLISH PURE LEGUMINOUS
COVER IN ALL OIL PALM PLANTINGS AND MAINTAIN THEM
FREE FROM ALL WEEDS WITHIN ECONOMIC LIMITS. In
circumstances where legume covers cannot be successfully
established, such as in low-lying areas subject to seasonal flooding,
the Plantation Controller should be consulted.
5.1 CONVENTIONAL LEGUMES
5.1.1 Seeding Rate
The legume species and seeding rate for all areas are shown
below:
Legume species Rate (kg/ha)
Pueraria javanica 3.0
Calopogonium mucunoides 3.0
Calopogonium caeruleum 1.0
5.1.1.1 On steep terrain, it is recommended that natural indigenous

vegetation be retained.
5.1.1.2 Mucuna cochichinensis should be planted around the shredded

palm heaps at the rate of 2 kg/ha after consultation with the
Plantation Controller.
5.1.2 Supply
Seeds should be ordered early and received at the estate at least

one month before scheduled sowing. Only scarified seeds should
be ordered. In the case of C. caeruleum, scarified seeds may not
be available at all times. In such situations, the seed treatment
described under Section 5.1.2.2, page 38 should be carried out
one day before planting.
37 7/05
5.1.2.1 Purity
Seeds should be at least 98 % pure with minimum contamination

for dirt and other seed species.
5.1.2.2 Germination Test
On receipt of each consignment of seeds, a representative

sample should be sent to Research Centre for germination test.
The estate may also carry out the germination test for cross-
checking.
a) Method of sampling
Use a clean probe (as for sampling fertilisers). Untie the bag
and poke through the length of the bag diagonally. Collect
50 to 100 g of seeds per bag.
Intensity: Sample ALL bags of seeds.
Identification: Mark to identify all bags of seeds in the

consignment and label the samples accordingly.
b) Sample labelling
All seed samples sent to Research Centre should be clearly

labelled as follows:
Name of estate:
Type of seeds:
Date received by estate:
Size of consignment:
Supplier:
Supplier Delivery Order number:
c) Hot water treatment
The hot water treatment method is used for the germination

test:
Four replicate samples of 100 seeds should be used.
Two parts of boiling water should be mixed with one

part of tap water (giving a temperature of 65oC) and
immediately poured over the seeds.
The seeds should be left to soak in the warm water for 2

hours.
The seeds are then placed on blotting paper in a petri

dish and allowed to germinate for 14 days at room
temperature. The percentage of germinated seeds is
then recorded.
38 7/05
d) Minimum germination
Leguminous Species Minimum germination
P. javanica
C. mucunoides 60 %
C. pubescens
C. caeruleum 45 %
If the germination rate of the seeds from the first delivery is

low (on being informed by Research Centre) the Plantation
Manager should inform the supplier immediately for
replacement. If the germination rate of the replacement
seeds is still unacceptable, Research Centre will revise and
recommend a different seed composition or rate to
compensate for the poor germination.
5.1.2.3 Storage
To maintain viability, seeds should not be stored for more than

one month but if unavoidable, store in dry, well-ventilated room
and preferably on raised floor.
5.1.2.4 Seed Treatment
The germination success of cover crop seeds, viz. C. caeruleum,

C. mucunoides, and P. javanica have been found to increase with
HOT WATER TREATMENT BEFORE PLANTING. 50 % of the
seeds should be treated with hot water before sowing. For hot
water treatment, two parts of boiling water is mixed with one part
of tap water giving a temperature of 65oC. The amount of water
used should be just sufficient to cover the seeds and the water will
cool to a temperature of 50oC immediately upon pouring over the
seeds. The seeds are left to soak in the warm water for 2 hours,
before they are removed and mixed with the remaining half of the
seeds for planting.
Inoculation of seeds with RRIM Rhizobium strains is essential.

Correct strains must be obtained from RRIM by indicating the type
of legume cover crop to be planted when the orders are made.
The Rhizobium culture must always be stored in a refrigerator (not
freezer).
39 7/05
5.1.3 Land Preparation
i) Flat to undulating terrain
It is stressed that the intervals between ploughing and harrowing

operations should be adequately spaced out so as to allow for
germination of dormant weed seeds and their subsequent
eradication by turning them over.
Leguminous cover crop (LCC) should be established as soon as

ground preparation and lining have been completed and
regenerated weeds eliminated.
ii) Steep terrain
On steep terrain, leguminous cover crop (LCC) should be

established as soon as terrace preparation has been completed. It
is recommended that natural indigenous vegetation be retained.
Under certain circumstances, chemical eradication of existing
vegetation should be carried out after consulting with Plantation
Controller, which will vary with the condition of the ground
vegetation and steepness of the slope.
5.1.3.1 Method of Establishment
a) Double compressed bands - this method is suitable for oil palm

planted on flat to hilly land.
i) On flat and undulating land
Cover seeds should be sown by drilling. Two double drills

at 0.6 m (2') apart leave a space of about 1.8 m (6') between
the two double drills (Figure 5.1 page 41).
ii) On hilly terrain
Where terrace planting is implemented, cover seeds should

be sown in a compressed band of the legume drills are
sown on the lip of the terrace. The distance between the two
drills within the band is 0.6 m (2) apart (Figure 5.2 page 42)
40 7/05
Compressed bands of two legumes
drills for cover crop mixture
0.6 m 0.6 m
(2) (2)
9.2 m
Palm O
2.3m 1.8 m 2.3m
(6)
7.6 m
Figure 5.1: Legume drills for leguminous cover crop for planting
density of 148 palms/ha
41 7/05
Double compressed band of two
legume drills
3.6 4.2 m
0.6 m
(2)
Back slope
Spoil soil 60 cm
Palm
Original slope
1.2 m
(4)
Double compressed
band of two legume
drills
1.2 m (4)
0.6 m (2)
O
Palm
Back slope
Figure 5.2: Double compressed band on terrace
42 7/05
5.1.3.2 Sowing - Seeds should be sown after ground preparation and lining
have been completed and regenerated weeds eliminated. Sowing
depth of about 1.5 cm (0.6") is recommended to prevent exposure and
loss of seeds. Deep sowing will inhibit germination and emergence.
If the initial establishment of legume covers is not up to expectation, re-

sowing should be carried out after consulting the Plantation controller.
5.1.4 Maintenance Of Legume Covers
Establishment and subsequent maintenance of legume covers will not

be successful if application of fertilisers and other necessary inputs like
weeding, spot spraying and prompt follow-up, pest and disease control
are not given sufficient attention.
5.1.4.1 Manuring
The manuring programme for leguminous covers is given in Schedule

5.1, page 145.
If the legume covers are not growing up to expectation and are showing
symptoms of mineral deficiencies, Research Centre should be
consulted.
5.1.4.2 Weed Control
Chemical weeding is advocated. Only selected herbicides should be

used for weed control. The guidelines are as follows:
i) Within a week after sowing, apply a round of pre-emergence

herbicide e.g. Pursuit in a broad strip of 1.0 - 1.5 m (3-5') wide over
the seed drills. The recommended rate is 3-4 litres/ha.
This should help to minimise hand weeding in the initial stage of

legume establishment. DELAY IN SPRAYING CAN CAUSE
DAMAGE TO THE GERMINATING LEGUME SEEDS.
ii) Strict selective weeding rounds should be maintained up to 6

months after establishment of the legume covers to keep out all
weeds. During the first two months, weeding should be carried out
at fortnightly intervals and thereafter at monthly intervals up to 6
months. By this time 100 % legume covers should be achieved or
the planting cannot be considered satisfactory.
After 6 months, decision on the extent of further legume purification

should be after the consultation with Plantation Controller.
43 7/05
iii) As a general guide, the chemicals recommended for spot spraying
are:
WEEDS CONTROL
Lalang 0.67% concentration of Glyphosate (e.g.
Roundup, Ken-up, Counter, Mastra) or
120 ml in 18 litres of water at spray
volume of 650 litres per ha.
Mikania species 29.6% a.i. of Fluoxypyr (e.g. Starane

200) 30ml/18 litres of water at spray
Asystasia 25 ml of Fluoxypyr (Starane) /18 litres of

species water at spray volume of 450 litres per
ha.
General Weed 0.67% concentration of Glyphosate (e.g.

Control (GWC) Roundup, Ken-up, Counter, Mastra) or
60 ml + 3g of Metsulfuron methyl (e.g.
Ally) in 18 litres of water at spray volume
of 450 litres per ha.
OR
0.44% concentration of paraquat

dichloride (e.g. Gramoxone PP 910) or
80 ml + 3g of Metsulfuron methyl (e.g.
Ally) in 18 litres of water at a spray
OR
0.33% concentration of Glufosinate

ammonium (e.g. Basta 15) or 60 ml + 3 g
of Metsulfuron methyl (e.g. Ally) in 18
litre water at a spray volume of 450 litres
per ha.
5.1.4.3 Pest And Disease Control
Legume covers are susceptible to pest and disease attack at all stages
of their growth cycle. In severe cases, the outbreak of pests and
diseases can bring about a complete failure in legume cover
establishment. Under such circumstances, chemical control may
become necessary. Any large-scale treatment should be done only after
consultation with the Plantation Controller.
44 7/05
The common pests and diseases of covers and their control measures
are:
Pests Treatment
a) Snails and slugs Snail baits e.g. Siputox and Metasan
50. These should be left in places of
attack.
b) Caterpillars e.g. Spray Trichlorfon SP. 95 @ 120 g

Nacoleia diamanalis,
Tiracolaplagiata
Bugs e.g.
Chauliops bisontula,
Halticus minutus
Bettles e.g.
Epilachna indica,
Pagria signata
c) Cockchafers' grubs Spray Trichlorfon SP 95 at 120 g in18

e.g. litres of water.
Holoatrichia
bidentata
d) Valanga nigricornis Spray Trichlorfon SP 95 at 120 g in 18

litres of water.
5.1.4.4 Diseases
Legume covers are relatively free of serious diseases. Rhizoctonia

solani is the most common disease in P. javanica during wet weather. It
can be controlled by spraying 0.2% Terrachlor. The recommended rate
would be 36 g of Terrachlor in 18 litres of water.
45 7/05
5.2 MUCUNA BRACTEATA
5.2.1 Seeding Rate
An individual M. bracteata seed weighed around 0.12 to 0.18 grams.

200g of M. bracteata seeds are required per hectare for oil palm stands
of 148 per hectare (refer section 1.3.2).
5.2.2 Supply And Treatment Of Seeds
None scarified M. bracteata seeds should be use.
5.2.2.1 Purity
Seeds should be at least 98% pure with minimum contamination for dirt
and other seed species.
5.2.2.2 Identification of Viable Seeds
Viable and non-viable seeds can be identified by looking at the

seed coat colour. The colour of viable seed coat is brownish in
colour and with light brownish variegation. Seeds of this colour but
with minor dent can also be used for field plantings. These seeds
will be able to give 80 to 100% germination.
5.2.2.3 Germination Test
On receipt of each consignment of seeds, a representative sample

should be taken for germination test in the estate.
a) Method of sampling
Untie the bags and randomly collect 50 to 100 seeds per bag.
Intensity: Sample ALL bags of seeds.
Identification: Mark to identify all bags of seeds in the

consignment and label the samples accordingly.
b) Clipping treatment
Viable seeds are separated as in Section 5.2.2.2 All viable seeds

for planting must be clipped. Part of the seed coat (testa) is
removed as illustrated in Figure 5.3, page 46.
Seed Clipped area with testa removed and cotyledon exposed
Hilum
Figure 5.3: Clipped M. bracteata Seed
46 7/05
For germination test, clipped seeds should be planted in polybags
and kept in the nursery. Plant one seed for each individual bag. The
percentage of germinated seeds is then recorded.
5.2.2.4 Storage
To maintain viability, seeds should not be stored for more than one
month but if unavoidable, store in dry, well-ventilated room and
preferably on raised floor.
5.2.2.5 Seed Treatment
All viable seed must be clipped as in Section 5.2.2.3(b) before

planting.
Inoculation of seeds with RRIM Rhizobium strains is essential.

Correct strains must be obtained from RRIM by indicating the type
of legume cover crop to be planted when the orders are made. The
Rhizobium culture must always be stored in a refrigerator (not
freezer).
5.2.3 Land Preparation
Ploughing and harrowing operations are not necessary.
5.2.3.1 Method of Establishment
M. bracteata seeds should be planted in pockets or points. 3 planting

points are recommended for M. bracteata planting in between two
palms. For example, 444 planting points is required per hectare for 148
stands of oil palm per hectare. Three seeds should be planted in each
hole. Clipped seeds should be used (as in Section 5.2.2.3b). Fresh
clipped seeds must be used for planting, do not keep clipped seeds
overnight.
a) Flat and Undulating Areas (without terraces)
The planting density of M. bracteata recommended is 3 planting

points in rows, between 2 palms. The planting rows of M. bracteata
will followed the oil palm planting rows and parallel to the stacking
rows. The planting density of M. bracteata recommended is 3
planting points in between 2 palms and near to the stacking row
(see Figure 5.4, page 48). This is to promote faster coverage of the
legume on the stacking rows, as well as the inter-rows.
47 7/05
stacking
row
0.5m
palm x x x
M. bracteata
points 1.0 m
x x
stacking row
Figure 5.4: Planting density and planting pattern of M. bracteata

on level and undulating terrain with straight planting
b) Terrace Areas
The planting density of M. bracteata recommended is 3 planting

points between 2 palms, at the lip of the terrace for terrace
plantings (see Figure 5.5). This is to promote faster coverage of the
legume on the slopes.
M. bracteata points
Figure 5.5: Planting density and planting pattern of M. bracteata

on terraces
c) Sowing
The seeds should be planted at a depth of about 1 centimetre.

Please ensure that sowing is done after heavy rain and during wet
weather, as the seedlings are sensitive to water stress and may die
back if this happens. Watering must be carried out if the planting
goes into dry periods after planting. When necessary, daily watering
must be carried out for at least 3 weeks to ensure well
establishment of the seedlings.
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An empty fertilizer bag is cut on two sides and then unfold to double
its original size will be placed on top of the planting hole (see
Figure 5.6). A 10 cm 10 cm hole should be cut in middle portion
of the fertilizer bag and on top of the planting hole. The fertilizer bag
will act as a mulch to provide temporarily weed free condition for the
M. bracteata to establish and will act as a mark to the sprayers to
avoid spraying the M. bracteata. The bags should be secure will soil
or other object to avoid being blown off by strong wind.
Two wooden or bamboo pegs should be placed near to the planting

hole of M. bracteata. This will allow it to climb above the weed at
initial growing stages, before the pegs rotten and collapse.
Wooden / bamboo peg
Stack row or Soil / rock /

terrace lip other
objects
Fertilizer bag
cut hole
Planting hole
Figure 5.6: Method of Planting M. bracteata
d) Supplying
Supplying should be made if there is no germinated point in between

two palms. M. bracteata seedlings for supplying should be raised in
the nursery first before transplanted to the field after 6 to 8 weeks in
the nursery. One seedling will be sufficient for one point in between
two palms.
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5.2.4 Maintenance Of Legume Covers
Establishment and subsequent maintenance of legume covers will not

be successful if application of fertilizers and other necessary inputs like
weeding, spot spraying and prompt follow-up, pest and disease control
are not given sufficient attention.
5.2.4.1 Manuring
The fertilizer recommendation for M. bracteata is given below. The

fertilizers to be applied at showing are expressed using per point /
hole basis as follows:
Rate of
Type of Fertilizer Fertilizer Time of Application
kg/ha g/hole
1. Floranid
Permanent 4 9 In planting hole
(15/9/15/2)
2. Rock phosphate 20 45 In planting hole
3. Ground magnesium
60 135 2 months after planting
limestone
4. Rock phosphate 200 450 3 months after planting
5. Compound 55
(15:15:6:4)
6. Ground magnesium
limestone
5.1.4.2 Weed Control
As per Section 5.1.4.2
5.2.4.3 Pest And Disease Control
Some damage by beetles can be observed on the foliage of M.

bracteata, but it may not warrant any treatment control to be
carried out.
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6.0 WEEDING: WEED CONTROL
6.01 INTRODUCTION
Weeds are generally any plant growing where it is not wanted,

competing with the planted crop and causing yield losses by clogging
drains, impeding loose fruit collection and/or taking up nutrients. The
objective is to keep ground conditions favourable for growth of the
palms and management operations at minimum cost.
A list of undesirable weeds commonly found on plantations is given in

Table 6.1, page 54, Plates 6.1a-c, pages 55-57).
6.1 IMMATURE AREAS
i) Circle maintenance
The palm circles should be kept free from weeds by chemical

weeding. Encroaching leguminous covers should be pulled
back and the periphery sprayed with appropriate herbicides e.g.
Basta and Paracol. Glyphosate can be used with extra caution
to prevent scorching.
Maintenance should be up to the drip circle with a maximum

radius of 1.8 m (6') from the base of the palm.
The number of rounds required for first year will depend on the
local conditions. In general, 8 rounds are adequate.
ii) Inter-row maintenance
Regular weeding should be carried out in the first 24 months to

ensure good establishment and growth of the legume covers.
Refer to Section 5, page 37 for Establishment and Maintenance
of Legume Covers.
Thereafter, soft low-growing grasses such as Ottochloa nodosa,

Paspalum conjugatum, Axonopus compressus, Cynodon
dactylon, Digitaria fuscense, etc. may be tolerated. All noxious
weeds and woody growth should be weeded.
It is important that Mikania micrantha should be eradicated.

Control can be achieved by spraying with flouroxpyr (Starane).
GREAT CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO ENSURE THAT
SPRAY DRIFT DOES NOT COME INTO CONTACT WITH THE
YOUNG PALMS. 2,4-D amine should not be used in young
areas (up to 48 months).
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iii) Host plants, which encourage a population of predators of leaf
eating pests (e.g. Mahasena corbetti, Setora nitens, etc.) should
be maintained. See Appendix 6.1, page 161.
6.2 MATURE AREAS
i) Circle maintenance
The palm circle should be maintained relatively weed free to

facilitate loose fruit collection. In general, a circle of
approximately 2.5m (8') radius, extending from base of palm to
frond tip, should be adequate. Chemical weeding with
appropriate herbicides is preferred. In older areas (> 15 years)
circle raking should be done at least once a year and always
after pruning.
ii) Inter-row maintenance
Selective weeding should be carried out as with immature

palms. Host plants that encourage a population of predators of
leaf eating pests (e.g. Mahasena corbetti, Setora nitens, etc.)
should be maintained. Examples of these include Euphorbia
heterophylla, Emilia sonchifolia, Ageratum spp., etc. Appendix
6.1, page 161.
iii) Harvesting paths
Harvesting paths [normally 2m (6') width] should be maintained

to ensure easy access. This can be economically maintained
by using an appropriate herbicide or herbicide cocktail.
A list of some common registered herbicides is summarised in

Appendix 6.2, page 162.
Where terrain is suitable, rotoslashing may be practised.
iv) Palm trunk maintenance
Undesirable woody growth on the trunks should be controlled

during selective weeding.
Where ground vegetation is sparse, no overall spraying of palm

trunk is permitted. This is to minimise the possible outbreak of
insect pests.
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6.3 RECOMMENDED HERBICIDES FOR MATURE PALMS
i) Herbicides for Circles and Path
No single herbicide applied at economic rates will kill all weed

species. In order to make an appropriate choice of herbicide
mixture to achieve the desired cost effectiveness, it is very
important to understand the properties of a herbicide mixture
and its mode and spectrum of weed control.
Herbicide mixtures for general weed control (circle and path

spraying) in mature oil palms, are summarised in Table 6.2,
page 58.
ii) Herbicides for Target Weeds
In order to achieve effective control of the selective spraying, it

is essential to carry out spraying at the suitable time and
weather and with the CORRECT SPRAY VOLUME to achieve
the required uniform coverage.
Follow-up rounds are necessary to achieve complete

eradication of noxious weeds. It is, therefore, essential to put
out a spraying programme before embarking on the field
operation so that the follow-up spraying could be carried out at
the correct intervals.
As a general guideline, the herbicides/mixtures recommended

for target weeds and their respective rates of application are
summarised in Table 6.3, page 60.
6.4 CROP SAFETY AND WEEDICIDE PHYTOTOXICITY
Crop injury normally results in stunted growth of seedlings in the

nursery and immature palms due to incorrect choice of weedicide,
improper spraying techniques and excessive spray drift. Excessive
spray drift of hormonal herbicides like 2, 4-D amine and tricloxpyr on oil
palm foliage can affect the normal growth of the palm. These
herbicides have been known to induce parthenocarpy and even cause
bunch abortion at a later developmental stage.
Safety to crops thus means that the herbicides used should have no
phytotoxic effects on palms. Some symptoms of phytotoxicity are:
Scorching of the lower fronds in young oil palm
Disorientation of the frond spiral
Collapse in the canopy of young oil palm
Twisting and bending of fronds
Breaking of fronds
Retardation of the growing shoots
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Table 6.1. Noxious Weeds Under Oil Palm
Botanical name Common name

a) Grass
Brachiaria mutica Giant Bamboo grass
Imperata cylindrica Lallang
Ischaemum muticum Bamboo grass
Ischaemum indicum Smut grass
Ischaemum timorense Centipede grass
Paspalum commersonii Bull paspalum
Paspalum picticulatum Giant paspalum
Pennisetum purpureum Elephant grass
Pennisetum polystachion Mission grass
b) Broad Leaf
Alocasia species Wild yam
Asystasia spp. Asystasia
Clidemia hirta Hairy Clidemia
Elettariopsis curtisii Wild ginger
Chromolaena odorata Siam weed
Hedyotis verticillata Woody Borreria
Lantana camara Prickly Lantana
Melastoma Straits Rhododendron
Mikania micrantha Mile-a-minute
Mimosa pigra Giant Mimosa
Mimosa invisa Giant sensitive plant
Tetracera scandens Fire weed
Tetracera indica Fire weed
Hevea seedlings Wild Rubber Seedling
c) Sedge
Cyperus digitatus Digitate Cyperus
Cyperus compressus Hedgehog Cyperus
Scleria sumatrensis Sumatran Scleria
d) Fern
Dicranopteris linearis Bracken
Stenochlaena palustris Giant fern
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Brachiaria mutica Imperata cylindrica Ischaemum muticum
Ischaemum indicum Ischaemum timorense Paspalum commersonii
Paspalum pictuculatum Pennisetum purpureum Pennisetum polystachyon
Plate 6.1a Noxious Weeds Grasses
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Alocasia macrorrhiza Asystasia coromandeliana Clidemia hirta
Elettariopsis curtisii Chromolaena odorata Hedyotis verticillata
Lantana camara Melastoma malabathricum Mikania micrantha
Plate 6.1b Noxious Weeds Broad Leaves
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Mimosa pigra Mimosa invisa Tetracera scandens
Tetracera indica Cyperus digitatus Cyperus compressus
Scleria sumatrensis Dicronopteris linearis Stenochlaena palustris
Plate 6.1c Noxious Weeds - Broad Leaves, Sedges and Ferns
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Table 6.2. General Guidelines of Herbicide Mixture
for circles and paths under shade
TARGET WEEDS ACTIVE INGREDIENTS HERBICIDES RATE PER HA

(TRADE NAME)
Soft Grasses Glyphosate Mastra/Round-up/etc 1.5 l
Grasses, Glyphosate + Mastra/Round-up/etc 1.5 l +

Broadleaf LCC Metsulfuron Methyl +Ally 20 DF 75 gm
Grasses, Glyphosate + Mastra/Round-up/etc 1.5 l

Broadleaves LCC Fluoxypyr + Starane 0.38 l
Broadspectrum Paraquat dichloride + Gramoxane + Ally 2.0 l + 50 g

(incl. Ferns, yams Metsulfuron methyl
sedges & bracken)
Broadspectrum Glyphosate + Starmix 2.0 l

(mostly grasses, Fluoxypyr
creepers, Asystasia
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Cont'd Table 6.2
Note:
i) Surfactants (surface active agents) which are commonly known as

wetting agents should be added to mixtures to enhance herbicidal
action thus improving the effectiveness of the herbicide application.
Surfactant not only reduces the surface tension to increase the area
of contact between spray droplets and the leaf surface but also
provides better penetration of herbicides into foliage.
Some of the commonly used surfactants are Pulse, Evenspray

1000, Lissapol and Teepol. However, care must be taken to ensure
that the surfactant incorporated is compatible to the
herbicide/mixture formulation. It is also important to note the
following points:
a) The wrong surfactant may break an emulsion or flocculate a

suspension.
b) The addition of large quantities of surfactant may cause

excessive "run-off" of the spray from weed foliage or assist
removal of the deposit by rain.
c) High concentration of surfactant may increase herbicidal activity

to such an extent that selectivity is lost.
d) The use of additional surfactant for herbicides and insecticides

where surfactant are already included in the chemicals solution
is unnecessary as their efficacy is difficult to establish.
Adjuvants have recently been introduced to enhance the

efficacy of chemicals (particularly systemics) by reducing the
time taken for absorbing into the plant tissue. These are more
expensive than surfactants.
ii) It should be reminded that when using low volume applicators e.g.
CP 15, Osatu, Mist Blower, Samurai, etc. the above rates should be
calculated according to the type of nozzle (determines the rate of
discharge) and the walking speed of the sprayer (determines the
coverage per unit volume) which are two equally important factors
that will affect the final spray volume per hectare.
It is emphasized that Paraquat mixture SHOULD NOT BE USED for

low volume spraying.
iii) The active ingredients of some common herbicides are summarised

in Appendix 6.2, page 162.
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Table 6.3. General Guideline of Herbicides/mixtures for target weeds
TARGET WEEDS ACTIVE INGREDIENTS RATE PER HA
Assystasia i) 2, 4-D Amine(60% a.i.) 0.25 l
Mikania micranta i) 2, 4-D Amine(60% a.i.) 1.25 l
ii) Fluoxypyr 0.375 l
Pennisetum spp. i) Glyphosate + Activator 1.5 l + 0.5 l

Paspalum spp.
ii) Glufosinate amm. + 1.25 l + 2.0 l
DSMA/2, 4-D Sod. Salt
Brushes e.g. i) Metsulfuron Methyl + 125-150 gm + 1.0 l

Clidemia, Hedyotis, Surfactant
Melastoma, etc.
ii) Metsulfuron Methyl + 75-100 gm + 2.0 l
Paraquat Dichloride + + 0.5 l
Surfactant
iii) Tricloxpyr + 0.5 l - 1.5 l

Paraquat Dichloride
iv) Tricloxpyr 1.25 l
Bracken & i) Metsulfuron Methyl 75-100 gm + 1.5 l

Stenochlaena + Paraquat Dichloride - 2.0 l + 0.5 l
+ Surfactant
ii) Gesapax Ametryne + 1.0 l - 1.5 l +

Paraquat Dichloride 1.5 l - 2.0 l +
+ Surfactant 1.0 l
Volunteer Oil Palm i) Paraquat Dichloride 2.8 l

Seedlings
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6.5 SPRAYING: CALIBRATION AND SAFETY
6.5.1 CALIBRATION
To ensure economical and effective use of expensive herbicides,

the output of individual sprayers must be checked at regular
intervals. This is often overlooked and taken for granted. With
the newer techniques of ULV spraying with CDA, accurate
calibration becomes critical in view of the high concentration of
chemicals used. Small errors in application would become
magnified which can lead to significant under-dose or overdose
of herbicides resulting in poor kill or wastage. Attention should,
therefore, be paid to three variables, which determine the volume
of spray applied to a given area - swathe, walking speed of
operator and spray pressure (flow-rate).
6.5.1.1 Swathe (or Spray Width)
Normally, herbicide spraying requires uniform spray application

to a 1.5 - 2.0 m wide strip of weeds in a single pass. The width
of strip actually treated depends on the angle of spray
discharged from the nozzle, the angle of forward projection of
spray to the ground and the height at which the nozzle is held.
Table 1 shows the effects of spray angle and heights of holding

the nozzle on swathe width. At 40 cm from the ground and a
spray angle of 120%, the swathe would be 1.39m. Normal
operating pressure is to be maintained for conventional
knapsack sprayer
Spray Angle Distance from nozzle orific (cm)

20 40 60 80
Theoretical Spray Width (cm)
65 % 25 51 76 102
80 % 34 67 101 134
95 % 44 87 131 175
120 % 69 139 208 277
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6.5.1.2 Speed
The speed an operator walks depends on the terrain, density of

vegetation and volume rates required.
An operator can maintain a walking speed of 3 kilometers an

hour in most estate situations. A quick check on the walking
speed of an operator can be obtained by measuring the distance
sprayed in 10 seconds. This walking speed must be kept
constant during spraying. Let this be say 8 m per 10 seconds or
48m/min.
6.5.1.3 Flowrate
This is dependent on the spray pressure and/or the size of the

nozzle orifice. However, as the output is proportional to the
square root of the pressure, only limited changes in output can
be achieved by small variations in pump pressure.
Nozzles should be discarded when they give an uneven spray

pattern, as their outputs would differ significantly from rated
outputs of new nozzles.
For a CKS pump, assuming its 18-litre solution is discharged in

20 minutes, the flow-rate would be 0.9 lit/min.
Thus in computing the required Spray Volume, FOUR factors

have to be considered (e.g. for circle and path spraying):
i) FLOWRATE (f) : LITRES PER MINUTE
ii) SPRAY WIDTH (w) : METERS
iii) TRAVEL SPEED (s) : METERS PER MINUTE
iv) CONSTANT (c) : METERS PER MINUTE : 10,000
Spray volume = Flowrate (1/min) x Constant

Swathe (m) x Speed (m/min)
= 0.9 x 10,000
1.39 x 48
= 135 l/ha or 7.5 spray pumps/ha.
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6.5.1.4 Spraying Control
Planning for the spraying leads to better control of costs and

effectiveness. Prior to spraying a field and assessment of the
major target weeds should be made. With this assessment the
type of herbicides to be used and application method can then
be decided upon. The amount of chemical, water and labour
requirements can be pre-determined and this information should
be used to monitor actual field operations.
Daily costing and regular field checks on spray operator's output

are essential.
6.5.2 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
The following guidelines should always be observed while dealing

with pesticides to prevent occurrence of undesirable accident.
6.5.2.1 Transportation
Avoid from transporting pesticides together with passengers,

animals and food. If inevitable, they should be isolated from the
pesticides.
The vehicle used to carry pesticides should always be washed upon

unloading pesticides to the store or field.
For pesticides with containers that easily break or leak, avoid

placing heavy object on them and dropping them from high level.
Sharp objects erected from vehicle used to transport pesticides

such as nails, iron and wood piece should be leveled out to avoid
them from piercing the herbicide containers.
6.5.2.2 Handling
In case of spillage or leakage of pesticides:
Prohibit Kindling of fire such as smoking near the place of incident.
Use sawn dust or soil to cover the leaked pesticides.
Make sure adequate protective gears are worn when carrying out
the cleaning work.
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6.5.2.3 Storage
Plan and purchase only the pesticides for use in a month.
Store pesticides in an individual and locked premises which is far

away from contacting with children, animals, food and other things
used by people.
Avoid using food and drink containers to store herbicides to avoid

confusion between pesticides and food.
Check routinely the containers used to keep herbicides to make

sure there is no damage that can cause leakage. In case of
damage and if the pesticides are still in good condition, repack the
herbicides and affix the new containers with the original label.
6.5.2.4 Spraying Equipment
All the equipment used to spray pesticides must be checked and

washed before and after being used.
Avoid using spraying equipment that is not in good order such as

leaking to avoid contacting with body and polluting environment.
Avoid using the same spraying equipment for herbicides and

insecticides to prevent contamination.
Frequently changed items such as washer, nozzle, rubber clip,

battery and tools such as spanner, screwdriver and pliers should
always be brought along while going for spraying work in the field.
6.5.2.5 Spraying of Herbicides
Make sure only trained workers are permitted to operate spraying

equipment.
Read through all the instructions on the label of the container to

check the recommended dosage, spraying method, precautionary
steps and so on for correct usage.
Use only appropriate and accurate equipment to measure the

volume of pesticides needed.
Avoid spraying against the wind direction.
Other people should not carry out their works in area where
spraying is in progress. No personal and animals should also be
allowed to enter an area where spraying has just be done.
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Avoid spilling and splashing of pesticides to the skin, eyes and shirt
when mixing is carried out. Make sure also the spraying equipment
is filled half with water before saturated pesticides is poured into it.
In case of spillage and splashing, sprayers should change the

contacted shirt as soon as possible and wash their bodies with
water and soap. The contacted shirt should also be washed
separately from other shirts using water and soap.
Do not blow the clogged nozzle using mouth. Wash it with water
and brush.
Do not always leave pesticides and spraying equipment

unattended.
6.5.2.6 Self Hygiene
Operators should not eat, drink and smoke when spraying

pesticides.
Do not touch the exposed skin with the gloves contaminated with
pesticides.
Wash hands and face with clean water and soap before eating,
drinking and smoking during rest time.
Operators should take shower after work and change their work
shirts everyday.
6.5.2.7 Work Attire
When spraying, operator should wear:
- Long trousers
- Long-sleeved shirts
- Plastic aprons from waist downward
- A simple face shield and mask
- Rubber gloves
- Rubber boots.
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7.0 ABLATION
7.01 INTRODUCTION
Ablation refers to the practice by which the young male and female
inflorescences are cut and removed prior to anthesis.
7.1 ADVANTAGES OF ABLATION
Ablation is carried out for the following reasons:-
i) To produce more economic-sized fruit bunches at the

commencement of harvesting.
ii) To conserve the assimilates and nutrients which would

otherwise go to produce uneconomic fruit bunches for the
benefit of vegetative growth.
iii) To promote a more uniform stand of palms with equal

uniformity in bunch development.
iv) To reduce the incidence of pests and diseases. The first

formed bunches, on the palms are usually small and poorly
developed. For economic reasons these bunches will not be
harvested. Such bunches will eventually rot and may result
in an outbreak of Marasmius bunch rot or infection by
Tirathaba caterpillars.
7.2 ABLATION POLICY
7.2.1 Timing
Ablation should commence at 14 months after field planting and

must be undertaken regularly each month but such intervals must
not be permitted to extend beyond 6 weeks.
The period of ablation will depend on the soil and rainfall pattern.
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A general guideline on the deviation of ablation is given below.
Month of commencement Duration Month at which

* Group from field planting of ablation ablation should cease
A 14 - -
B 14 10 months 24
C 14 16 months 30
*A - refers to areas with good soil and good rainfall distribution.

No ablation required
B - refers to marginal soils or areas with poor rainfall distribution
C - very poor areas where growth of palms appear

compromised (e.g. hilly and lateritic areas)
7.2.2 Method
A narrow chisel 4cm (1.5" blade), kuku kambing (Figure 7.1, page
68) should be used during the first few rounds of ablation when the
palms and the inflorescence are still small.
Care must be taken to avoid damage to the fronds subtending the

inflorescence during ablation. However, the inflorescence should
be completely removed, as an incomplete removal is liable to lead
to development of the inflorescence resulting in double work.
All male and female inflorescences should be removed during each

round. However, in areas where large block planting is carried out,
in order to encourage advance build-up of weevil population, the
male inflorescence should not be removed during the last two-
ablation rounds.
All inflorescence removed should be placed at the edge of the

weeded circle to facilitate inspection.
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1- 1 2- 4
Kuku Kambing Chisel Normal Chisel
Figure 7.1 Ablation chisels commonly used in estates
Note: The Kuku Kambing Chisel can be used during

the first few ablation rounds. For subsequent
rounds, the normal chisel is used. The width
of the blade depends on palm age and size of
inflorescence to be ablated.
7.2.3 Labour Requirement
The labour force required during each ablation round will vary
according to palm age. As a general guide, during the first 5
ablation rounds, one worker would be able to complete about 3
ha/day while in subsequent rounds the coverage would decrease to
about 2 - 2.5 ha/day.
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8.0 MANURING
8.01 INTRODUCTION
The management of fertilizer application is a crucial factor in relation

to the growth of the palm and fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production. As
the oil palm is a heavy nutrient feeder and fertilizer cost contributes
30-35% of the total production cost, manuring is an important
operation in oil palm cultivation.
To ensure healthy palm growth and sustained high yield, adequate

and balance nutrient is essential. This manual outlines the current
manuring practices in IOI Peninsular Estates, its proper
implementation and timeliness of fertilizer application. The manuring
practices include: -
- Nursery Manuring
- Legume Manuring
- Field Manuring for Immature Palms
- Field Manuring for Mature Palms
- Manuring Of Supplies
This manual also outlines the Groups practices in the Management of

Fertilizer Application, the Requisition and Delivery of Fertilizer and
Fertilizer Sampling.
8.1a NURSERY MANURING
I. Single Stage Nursery
Application schedule is given in Schedule 2.1, page 142
II. Double Stage - Pre-Nursery
Method A: Controlled Released Fertilizer (e.g. Agroblen,

Sumicoat)
Apply 5 gm of the fertilizer at 2.4 cm depth during planting of the

germinated seed. The fertilizer should be lightly covered with soil.
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Method B: Foliar Spray
This should commence immediately after the first leaves have

hardened. The seedlings should be sprayed in the early morning at
weekly intervals. The early morning foliar spray would allow for leaf
absorption of nutrients before the afternoon watering. The schedule
for Pre-Nursery Foliar Spray is tabulated in Schedule 2.2 (pg 143).
II. Double Stage Main Nursery
Method A: Controlled Released Fertilizer (e.g. Agroblen,

Sumicoat)
Core a hole in the centre of the soil- filled polybag. Transplant the
pre-nursery seedling with 2 4 cm of the pre- nursery soil above the
core-hole. Apply 50 gm of the controlled - released fertilizer around
the pre- nursery core. Top up with soil. The controlled - released
fertilizer will release the nutrients sufficiently for 30 weeks, after which
the normal fertilizer programme should be followed. If it be necessary
to keep palms in the nursery for longer periods, at 34 weeks after
transplanting, apply 30 gm soluble granular compounds. (eg.
Nitrophoska Yellow, Complesal, Rustica) to the polybag. The fertilizer
should be applied at the periphery of the polybag. Avoid scorching of
palms by contact or close application of the fertilizer to the base of
the seedling. This fertilizer should be applied at 4 weekly intervals
until the palms are planted in the field.
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Method B: Soluble Granular Compounds
Application schedule is given in Schedule 2.3, page 144.
8.1b LEGUME MANURING
A good legume establishment is the requirement for all our oil palm
replants. The treatment of the legume seeds and the timely
application of fertilizers are essential for the establishment of good
covers.
Fertilizer application for legume schedule is given in Schedule 5.1,

page 145.
In situation where palm growth is poor or LCC is poorly established,

supplementary manuring may be considered after consultation with
8.2 FIELD MANURING IMMATURE PALMS
The attainment of high early yields is important in all our estates. The
oil palm, a perennial tree crop has a relatively long immature and non-
productive period. The achievement of the high early yields will ensure
a faster return to investment. In this respect, proper field manuring for
immature palms and application of empty fruit bunch is essential for the
attainment of high early yields.
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General manuring schedule for Peninsular estates is given in
Schedule 8.1a-c, page 146-148.
General manuring schedule for Sabah estates is given in Schedule

8.2, page 149.
General manuring schedule for peat soil is given in Schedule 8.3,

page 150.
8.3 FIELD MANURING MATURE PALM
The objective in manuring is to supply the palms with sufficient

nutrients for healthy vegetative growth, maximum economic fruit
bunch yield and resistance to pests & diseases. The nutrient removed
in fruit bunches are replaced by the addition of fertilizer nutrient and
the recycling of organic residences.
8.3.1 Fertilizer Recommendation
Fertilizer recommendation will be formulated by Research Centre

based on the interpretation of foliar analytical results, taking into
consideration other available data such as site yield potential, existing
yield, rainfall, soil type and observations made during field inspection.
It is important that during their visits, those nutritional problematic

areas be highlighted so that corrective action can be taken.
8.3.2 Field prior to Replanting
Reduction of fertilizer will be based on the agronomists

recommendation which taking into consideration of palm vigor,
canopy and foliar analytical data.
8.4 APPLICATION OF FERTILISERS
8.4.1 A. General Guidelines on Timing of Application
The monthly rainfall trend will have a strong influence on the time of
application of fertilizer. Generally, fertilizers should not be applied
during heavy rainfall months to prevent losses due to excessive
runoff, especially on steep slopes and excessive leaching in sandy
soils. Low rainfall months may not be suitable for fertilizer application,
as fertilizer must be dissolved in soil solution before they could be
taken up by the plants. However due to constraints in completing the
manuring programme on scheduled, fertilizer application for RP,
Kieserite and GML could still be applied during periods of low rainfall.
As a general guide, fertilizers should not be applied during
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Periods of high rainfall of more than 250 mm per month and
low rainfalls of less than 25 mm.
Month with more than 15 rain days as soils would be saturated

with water.
The best months for fertilizer application would probably be when

100-200 mm of rain per month is expected.
Plantation management should pay particular attention to planning,

ordering and supplying of fertilizers to ensure timely application.
SHOULD ANY PROBLEM, ASSOCIATED WITH THE SUPPLY
AND/OR DELIVERY BE ENCOUNTERED, MANAGEMENT SHOULD
WRITE PROMPTLY TO MANAGER, ADMIN. AND HUMAN
RESOURCE WITH A COPY TO RESEARCH CENTRE.
B. Nutrient Antagonism
i) Antagonistic effect between Ammonium (N) and Alkaline

fertilizers
Ammonium fertilizers such as Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium

Chloride and Ammonium Nitrate should be applied approximately 4
weeks prior to the application of alkaline fertilizers such as Ground
Magnesium Limestone and Bunch Ash if application is over the
same ground area. Simultaneous application of these fertilizers
can result in considerable volatilisation losses of nitrogen. The
interval will not be necessary if the site of placement of the
ammonium and alkaline fertilisers are different.
ii) Antagonistic effect between Potassium (K) and Magnesium

(Mg) or Calcium (Ca) ratio
Potassium fertilizers such as Muriate of Potash and Bunch Ash

should not be applied together with magnesium such as Kieserite
or Ground Magnesium Limestone because of the antagonistic
effect between K and Mg, and K and Ca (Calcium is present in
GML). A minimum interval of about 3 weeks is required to
minimise this effect. Whenever possible, K should be applied first.
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8.4.2 Placement
I. Immature palms (1-3 years)
a. For the first two applications, the fertilizer should be applied

within 10 cm from the base of the palm, i.e. close to the planting
core to ensure maximum uptake of the fertilizers.
d. For subsequent application in the first year of planting, fertilizer

should be applied evenly from 10 cm to 50 cm of the collar of the
palm within the weeded circle around the palm.
e. For palms two to three years age, the fertilizer should be spread
evenly from 50 cm to 150 cm within the weeded circle around
the palm.
f. No GML should be applied within the palm circle. If this fertilizer

is recommended, it should be applied at 2.0 m 2.5 m away
from the palm base.
ii) Mature palms
a) For young palms (< 6 years), fertilizer should preferably be

broadcast evenly over the clean-weeded palm circle but away
from the palm base. The area of application should be extended
as the weeded palm circles become progressively enlarged, as
the palm gets older.
b) For older palms (> 6 years), fertilizers should be applied in the

frond heap. Fertilizers such as Bunch Ash and Ground
Magnesium Limestone should not be applied together with
Ammonium fertilizer. Alternatively, these fertilisers (bunch ash
and ground magnesium limestone) may also be applied to the
palm frond heaps.
c) For palm growing on sloping areas without terraces, which are

prone to surface wash-off of fertilizers, sub-soil placement of
fertilizers should be considered in the following manner.
i) Four holes of about 6 depth are made at four points

located around the periphery of the weeded circle.
ii) Fertilizers are then placed into the holes and the holes
covered up, e.g. if kg fertilizer is recommended per
palm, about 250 gm should be placed at each of the
four holes dug.
All fertilizers should be placed this way except for Borate and Rock
Phosphate. Rock Phosphate should be broadcast, as it is relatively
immobile in the soil, while Borate that is only recommended in a small
dosage should be applied around the weeded circle within 1.0 m from
the palm base.
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8.4.3 Manuring of supplies
To obtain maximum yields and economic returns, it is essential that a

uniform stand of well-grown palms at the designed planting density
should be raised. Losses and causalities due to pest damage, diseases
and poor nursery selection would require supplying of palms. Due to the
scattered nature of the supplies and the difficulty of ensuring normal
fertilization and circle upkeep, the AA + Mulch system with one years
supply of fertilizer is recommended.
The procedure in using AA + Mulch for supply palms is detailed below.
i) Ground Preparation
Prior to supplying, the palm circle area should be leveled to facilitate the
placement of AA + Mulch.
ii) One-Off Fertilizer Application
Immediately after planting the supplies, the total fertilizer requirement for
year 1 is broadcast in the area of application (see fig. 2). Broadcast the
fertilizer 10 cm from the base of the seedling to all over the area to be
covered by the plastic sheet.
iii) Placement of AA + Mulch
Two sheets of AA + Mulch are placed flat on the soil surface with the
palm in the centre (Fig. 3 & 4). The silver side of the mulch sheet should
face upwards.
iv) Pegging Down AA + Mulch
Using the various types of implements shown in (fig. 5), the two
overlapping sheets are first pegged down close to the palm base for
anchorage. Follow the sequential step illustrated in (fig. 4) in pegging
down the complete sheet.
v) Follow-up after Mulching
For the first two months after laying down AA + Mulch, two weekly field
checks would be necessary to rectify displaced AA + Mulch.
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8.4.4 Mechanical Application of Fertilizer
It has been proven that the turbo-spin tractor mounted fertilizer

spreader is ideal for applying fertilizer into palm rows. There is a
great reduction in overall spreading time and cost, as fertilizers are
thrown to a much greater distance.
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i) Method of application
a) Before mechanical application, mark out clearly those

areas not suitable for turbo-spin spreader by clear
demarcation using roads, streams or other logical
boundaries.
b) It is preferred to use a 4WD tractor to cover a large area

within a short period. Plan the route for mechanisation by
levelling the uneven ground.
c) Use the fertilizer screen to screen off hardened or caked-

up fertilizer and separate stones and other foreign
materials to prevent damage to the agitator, disc, hopper
and gearbox.
d) Use the calibration knob to set the rate of application.

Conduct trial runs and re-set the calibration until correct
rate of application is achieved.
e) Wash the turbo-spin spreader daily after use to prevent

rust.
8.4.5 Manuring of Problem Areas
i) The estate should identify the areas of poor growth in the field
for supplementary manuring. Backward patches should be
clearly demarcated with a white 7.5 cm (3") band on the base
of the trunk of perimeter palms.
ii) It is important that management brings to the attention of

Research Centre any nutritional problem areas so that
corrective action can be taken.
8.5 FERTILIZER APPLICATION
Prior to commencement of any fertilizer application, the Research

Centre should be informed of the estates following months manuring
programme. A copy of this programme should be forwarded to the
8.5.1 Field Supervision
The Assistant in-charge must be present at the start of the days

operation to ensure that all aspects of manuring is carried out properly
and in accordance with companys policy on manuring.
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Close supervision during application of fertilizers is of paramount
importance. The supervision of manuring MUST BE SUPPORTED BY A
FULL-TIME FIELD CONDUCTOR AND MANDORE. The staff and
mandore should have a through knowledge of each field and should
ensure that all palms receive their fertilizer as per the recommended
dose.
Executive Staff, both Assistants and Managers should walk thorough

the fields particularly, ravines, hill tops, low lying and other difficult to
reach areas where mistakes are most common. The old adage the best
fertilizer is the boots or footpaths of the Manager still hold true today.
8.5.2 Distribution of Fertilizer bags
In most of the estates, the fertilizer is transported on tractor-trailers and

should be logistically placed. Following the palm census done in early
2002, all estates should have a field map with the hectarages of each
sub-block determined. Fertilizer bags can be efficiently distributed to
ensure that no palm in too far away from a dropped bag. If the bags
were not placed logistically, there would be a possibility of palm being
under-dosed or in some cases of even not being fertilized. Estates with
a GPS map or own maps should utilize these tools for effective and
efficient distribution of fertilizers.
8.5.3 Tools for Fertilizer Application
Standard size containers should be supplied to workers. Fixed volume

container/bowls is recommended and the number of scoops to meet the
recommended dosage should be in simple multiple of scoops
preferably not more than two scoops per palm.
8.5.4 Empty Fertilizer Bags
At the end of the days manuring, all the empty bags should be counted
in the field and marked with an X. The total bags counted should tally
with the number of bags taken from the store. All the empty bags
should be returned to the estate store and recorded in the empty
fertilizer bag book. If the estate uses the empty bags for loose fruit
collection of other fieldwork, it should be recorded in the empty fertilizer
bag book.
8.5.5 Monthly Manuring Return
The estate has to complete the monthly manuring return. A copy of

this return should be sent to the Research Centre for monitoring
purpose.
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8.6 FERTILIZER HANDLING AND STORAGE
Large applications of fertilizers are required to achieve the high yield

potentials of oil palm grown on our generally infertile soils. In view of
the large tonnages per round in typical estates and the need to apply
the fertilizers on time, storage of the fertilizers on the estates is
required. The amount to be stored depends on the amounts; times of
application and availabilities of fertilizers used as well as transport
logistics and service from the suppliers. Excessive fertilizers and
storage time are discouraged due to possible deterioration as well as
money tied-up in stock.
In most P. Malaysian situations, it is unlikely that storage of more than

a months supply of fertilizers is required e.g. for an established 2000
ha oil palm estate, this would be about 350 t fertilizer at any one time,
assuming about eight suitable months of applications in a year. In view
of its importance to productivity and high value, a suitable fertilizer
store to hold the estimated quantity of fertilizers required should then
be built.
Fertilizers are usually highly concentrated salts or fine physical

powders and may pose health, safety and environmental problems if
not used or handled properly.
This subject of fertilizer handling and storage is therefore very

important and should receive due attention and be properly
implemented in our estates.
8.6.1 Handling and Storage of Fertilizers
The main factors to take into account are :-
a) Health and safety
b) Environment
c) Security
d) Fertilizer value and usage
A) Health and Safety
All fertilizer is a chemical and depending on their chemical

properties, they could be hazardous directly if improperly handled,
poisonous and harmful to animals and children if inhaled or ingested
or exposed excessively.
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Potential Health Hazards by common chemical fertilizers used in the
estates due to their chemical properties are: -
Cause eye irritation including stinging, watering

Eye contact
and redness.
Skin contact Cause irritation such as rash.
Cause irritation to nose, throat and respiratory

Inhalation : tract (especially fertilizers that are finely ground
(Breathing) and dusty such as rock phosphate and
limestone dust).
Ingestion : Cause irritation to the digestive tract.

(Swallowed) Can be lethal if taken in large amount.
Besides effects on health, most fertilizer are high in salt contents and
potentially corrosive to metals and metal structures. Additionally,
fertilizers like Ammonium nitrate are easily inflammable due to its
chemical properties as a strong oxidizing agent. Thus, handling and
storage of Ammonium nitrate must be very carefully done.
B. Environmental Issues
The principal concern in this case especially in the developed

countries now is the contamination of water used for drinking by
excessive nitrate from spillages or build-up through very high
nitrogen or organic fertilizer application over time. It is also thought
that contamination of fertilizers in the water-courses and catchments
may be harmful to fresh water aquatic species and to plants that are
not salt tolerant.
C. Security Issues
The main concerns to consider are: -
i. Theft
In the estate environment especially with many surrounding small

holders, there is temptation to pilfer fertilizers from the estates.
ii. Mischievous Intents
People with ill intentions should not be able to allow to steal any
materials from the store or fields and contaminate fertilizers etc.
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iii. Accidental Access
Accidental access by animals, children and visitors should also be

prevented.
iv. Fertilizer Value and Usage
All fertilizers must be kept dry and free flowing in order not to lose
their nutrient value and be easy to spread and apply the fertilizers
in the fields. Fertilizers particularly ammonium nitrate must be
kept in a dry area to avoid hardening/caking.
8.6.2 Fertilizer Stores Management
In the light of the above issues, the fertilizer stores in the estates
should have the following facilities and take adequate precautions and
measures as follows:-
Locked buildings within fenced areas for security purposes.
Adequate cover to keep the fertilizers dry but bright, airy and not
totally enclosed to avoid problems from dusty materials.
Impervious floors or raised floors e.g. wooden pallets to avoid

contact with bare soil or moisture seepage from the ground.
Construction and maintenance of store to avoid or reduce bag

tears, fertilizer spillage and other potential accidents in the store.
Ensure that the electric lights and wiring in the store are in good
order.
Drains and structures around the fertilizer store to prevent spillage

and leaks from flowing directly to water-ways and possible drinking
sources.
Keep a minimum distance of 150 m from possible sources of

drinking water (e.g. wells and streams including drinking water of
animals).
All inflammable materials e.g. petrol or combustible materials

should be stored separately and away from fertilizer store.
Fire-extinguishers should be available near-by in case of

emergencies.
The fertilizer store should have clear signs on No smoking and

No Trespassing in and outside the building in all the common
languages.
A list of the fertilizers in the store and their quantities should also be
available immediately to emergency personnel when required.
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8.6.3 First Aid and Fire Fighting Measures
A. First Aid Measures
Rinse affected eyes thoroughly with clean water for

Eye contact : at least 15 minutes. If symptoms persist, seek
medical attention.
Skin contact : Wash affected skin thoroughly with soap and water.
If respiratory difficulty symptoms develop, move

Inhalation :
victim away from source of exposure and into fresh
(Breathing)
air.
Ingestion : Rinse month out thoroughly and then drink plenty of

(Swallowed) water. If possible induce vomiting.
B. Fire Fighting Measures (Ammonium Nitrate)
Extinguishing Media : Water is effective in desensitizing the fire.

Do not use salt water, steam, carbon
dioxide or dry chemicals.
Fire Fighting Procedures : 1) Ventilate the building.
2) Direct large straight stream water

to the center of the fire to cool the
material quickly.
3) Operate from behind protective

barriers to protect one-self against
molten nitrate splashes when
applying water to the fire.
If the fire is out of control, the entire area should be evacuated.
8.6.4 Awareness
Manager
Manager should be fully aware of the properties and value of fertilizer in

the stores. Security and safety in storage of fertilizers that can be
potentially hazardous materials in certain situations must be uppermost
in the minds of managers.
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Staff and Workers
The staff and workers must be fully aware of the requirements for
proper and safe storage of fertilizer as well. Besides, staff should
always be aware of the stocks of fertilizer in the store and any
suspected shortage or missing fertilizers should be informed to the
managers and investigated immediately. If necessary, the proper
authorities should be informed immediately
8.7 FERTILIZER SAMPLING FOR ANALYSIS
8.7.1 Fertilizer sampling for analysis

In order to evaluate the nutrient and moisture contents for each
consignment of fertilizer, it would be necessary to carry out the fertilizer
sampling in an accurate manner at the estate level. As such, the
fertilizer sampling is amended as follows:
8.7.2 Definition of Fertilizer Consignment
All the estates are required to take fertilizer samples from every
consignment that arrives from the suppliers. A consignment of fertilizer
is defined as the total quantity of a specific fertilizer that is ordered for
field application in a particular scheduled month, as recommended by
IOI Research centre. For example, if the estate had ordered a total
quantity of 400mt of Ammonium Sulphate for field application in the
month of August 99, it is considered as one consignment.
8.7.3 Frequency of Fertilizer Sampling
a) One sample to be taken from every consignment (quantity ordered) of

up to 100 mt (equal to or less than 5 lorry loads). As a consignment
may consist of more than one lorry load, the samples must be taken
from every load (20 bags selected randomly per load) and bulked into
one composite sample before being despatched to Research Centre.
b) For any consignment with quantity ordered exceeding 100 mt or more
than 5 lorry loads, a second sample is required to be taken in the
same manner as described above. Similarly, a third sample is
necessary, if the consignment exceeds 200 mt (more than 10 lorry
loads).
8.7.4 Method of Fertilizer Sampling
a) From each lorry load, samples should be drawn from 20 bags at

random using a stainless steel or non-corrosive probe. From each
bag, take a full-length diagonal core of fertilizer sample using the
probe. The samples collected from the 20 bags of each lorry load
should be bulked together in a pail and transfer immediately to an air
tight plastic bag. This is to avoid increase in the moisture content of
some fertilizers through hygroscopic effect.
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b) The composite sample collected from the 5 consecutive lorries
should be mixed thoroughly, divided into 4 equal parts, first
quartering. One quarter of the sample from the first quartering
should be separated and collected. This would weigh about 2.5 to
3.0 Kg.
Important Note :
Checking on Physical Appearance of fertilizer
i) If the general appearance of the above fertilizer that

has been sampled is consistent in particle size, colour
etc, then all the samples taken from the consignment
of five lorries can be bulked together.
ii) If the general appearance of the fertilizer in a

consignment is unsatisfactory and inconsistent in
particle size, colour etc, then separate samples should
be collected and sent to Research Centre for analysis.
c) A quarter of the sample taken after the first quartering should be

further divided into 4 equal parts, (i.e. second quartering). A
quarter of the sample from the second quartering should be
separated and sent to the Research Centre for nutrient analysis.
This would weigh about 0.50 to 0.75 Kg per sample.
d) Another quarter of the sample should be retained in the estate

until satisfactory analytical results are obtained from the Research
Centre.
e) The procedures as mentioned from should be carried out for the

next 5 lorry loads of fertilizer (100 mt).
8.7.5 Fertilizer Sample Packing
a) A quarter of sample collected from the second quartering should

be wrapped in a clean plastic bag of size 37cm x 31cm x 0.2mm
and sealed air-tight.
b) Thereafter, insert the packed sample into another clean plastic

bag of the same size over.
c) The label should be inserted in between the 2 plastic bags. This

sample should be sent to the Research Centre for analysis.
d) The other quarter retained in the estate should also be packed

similarly.
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8.7.6 Fertilizer Sample Labelling
All the samples sent to Research Centre should be clearly labelled

as follows:
Name of the Estate: ) Samples Labelling.

Type of fertilizer: ) The label to be inserted in between
the two plastic bags.
Date received: )
Size of Consignment: )
No of lorries sampled/mt: )
Name of the supplier: )
8.7.7 Checking on Foreign Matter in the Fertilizer Bag
Random bags of 1 to 30 bags should be physically opened and

checked for foreign matters. Where the level of contaminants is found
to be high, the HQ and supplier should be informed immediately.
Under serious condition, such consignment of fertilizer should be
rejected.
8.7.8 Maintenance of Record Book for Fertilizer Arrival
a) A record book for fertilizer arrivals should also be maintained giving

the below details of:
i) Date
ii) Supplier
iii) Head Office Order No.
iv) Consignment No.
v) Weighbridge Chit No. and Weight
vi) No. of Samples taken for analysis at Research Centre
vii) No. of bags for physical check
viii) Remarks
ix) Checked by
b) The books should be made available for checking for General

Manager and Plantation Controller during their estate visits.
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8.7.9 LABELLING OF FERTILIZER BAGS BY SUPPLIER
All suppliers of fertilizers should customise their labelling of fertilizer

bags according to IOI specifications. The following information
should be clearly displayed on the fertilizer bags (Figure 8.1).
The Administration, HQ should be informed of any non-conformance

to the labelling specifications.
IOI LOGO
IOI GROUP
Estates code
ESTATE CODE: 123
YEAR : 1997 Year of delivery
MURIATE OF POTASH Type of fertilizer

(60% K2O) and composition
BERAT KASAR: 50 KG Weight of bag
DIEDAR OLEH:
CHOP LAM SOON Suppliers name
815, JLN BAKER, and address
8200 PONTIAN, J.B.
IOI PROPERTY IOI Property in Red
Figure 8.1. Labelling fertilizer bag
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8.8 UTILISATION OF OIL PALM BY-PRODUCTS
8.8.1 EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (EFB) MULCHING
8.8.1.1 Nutrient contents of EFB
The nutrient contents of the various types of EFB are shown in Table
1. The fertilizer equivalent in one tonne of fresh EFB of various types
are given in Table 2.
Table 1: Nutrient Contents of Various Types of EFB

Type of EFB
Dry matter content Whole Single Pressed Double Pressed
(%)
N 0.94 0.60 0.66
P2O5 0.20 0.16 0.15
K2O 2.91 1.85 1.76
MgO 0.83 0.83 0.16
Table 2: Fertilizer equivalent (Kg) in one tonne of fresh EFB of Various Types
Type of EFB
Type of Fertilizer
Whole Single Pressed Double Pressed
AS 17.90 11.43 12.56
RP 2.76 2.21 1.92
MOP 19.40 12.33 11.73
KIE 12.30 12.30 2.33
Note:
AS Ammonium Sulphate (21% N)

MOP Muriate of Potash (60% K2O)
RP Rock Phosphate (29% P2O5)
KIE Kieserite (27% MgO)
8.8.1.2 Areas of EFB mulching
The main factors to be considered for EFB mulching are soil types,
rainfall, palm growth and distance from mill.
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8.8.1.3 Rate and Frequency
Recommended EFB rate for: -
A. Immature Area (1-3years)
Recommended rate: 30t/ha/year (220kg/palm/year based on
136palms/ha)
220kg EFB contain Inorganic fertilizers to be

Type of EFB equivalent of: applied: (Kg/palm/yr)
(Kg) 1st Year 2nd & 3rd Year
Whole AS - 3.93 RP 2.50 IOI 28 3.00
RP - 0.61 RP - 2.00
MOP - 4.27 B - 0.005
KIE - 2.71
Single Pressed AS - 2.51 IOI 28 IOI 28 5.00
RP - 0.49 1.50 RP - 2.00
MOP - 2.71 RP B - 0.005
KIE - 2.71 2.50
Double Pressed AS - 2.77 IOI 28 IOI 28 5.00
RP - 0.42 1.50 RP - 2.00
MOP - 2.58 RP B - 0.005
KIE - 0.51 2.50
B. Mature Area (>3years)
Recommended rate: 40t/ha/year (300kg/palm/year based on
136palms/ha)
300kg EFB contain Inorganic fertilizers to be
Type of EFB equivalent of: applied: (Kg/palm/yr)
(Kg)
Whole AS - 5.37 AS - 2.00
RP - 0.83 RP - 1.50
MOP - 5.82
KIE - 3.69
Single Pressed AS - 3.43 AS - 2.00
RP - 0.66 RP - 2.00
MOP - 3.70 MOP - 2.00
KIE - 3.69
Double Pressed AS - 3.77 AS - 2.00
RP - 0.58 RP - 2.00
MOP - 3.52 MOP - 2.00
KIE - 0.70 KIE - 1.00
Note:
IOI 28 12:2.6:20:3
B Borate (48%B2O3)
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8.8.1.4 EFB Placement
A. Immature Area (1-3years)
Application in a single layer concentric ring with innermost ring should

start at a distance of 15 cm (6 inches) from palm bole. (Please refer
Figure 1)
B. Young Mature Area (4-6 years)
Application of two single layer bands at the distance of 1.5-2.0 m from

palm base depends on palm growth. (Please refer Figure 2)
C. Mature ( 7 years)
Applications in a single layer either side of the frond heap surrounding

four palms. (Please refer Figure 3)
* All EFB mulching must be carried out in SINGLE layer to avoid

breeding of Oryctes beetles.
Figure 1: Immature Figure 2: Young Figure 3: Mature

Mature
8.8.1.5 Timing of Application
EFB mulching must be carried out within one week from production
to avoid nutrient leaching.
8.8.1.6 Supplementary Fertilizers for EFB Mulched Areas
Leaf analysis will be carried out annually in EFB applied fields. Any
further supplementary fertilizers will be based on leaf analysis results.
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8.8.2 LAND APPLICATION OF DIGESTED PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENT
8.8.2.1 Introduction
Land application of digested palm oil mill effluent (POME) is

becoming more important in IOI Plantations, as the area receiving
effluent is expanding. Digested POME is a valuable organic
fertilizer that can replace inorganic. Its application to land in proper
amounts is economically and environmentally viable. This guideline
is to help in effective utilization of digested POME for land
application under mature palms.
8.8.2.2 Nutrient Content Of Digested Pome
The nutrient contents of the various types of POME are shown in Table
8.1. The quantities of nutrients and fertilizer equivalents in 1cm effluent
applied over one hectare surface are given in Table 8.2.
The nutrient status of pond supernatant is subject to environmental
variables, especially rainfall and solids settlement. POME sludge
pumped out from the bottom of the effluent treatment ponds using a
submersible pump, on the other hand, has a higher nutrient value.
8.8.2.3 Systems Of Land Application
Two methods of land application are generally used. The choice of

system depends mainly on the terrain of the area.
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A. The Longbed System
On flat areas, the longbed system is used. Longbeds are 1.53m (5)
wide (about 1/5 the interrow space) and extended from end to end of
a field (70-200m long). The depth is kept shallow (about 10cm) in
order to minimise root damage during construction and to ensure
that most of the nutrients are within reach of the feeder roots.
Construction is done with a mechanical backhoe. It is important that
the bottom of the longbeds be as flat as possible to avoid the applied
effluent from collecting at deeper points, or one end of the longbed.
Longbeds are placed in alternate interrow spaces. Each longbed is
bunded on all sides with the excavated soils to a height of 15cm as
shown in Figure 1. This is to minimise rainfall runoff from flowing
into the longbeds, and to reduce the chance of loose fruits from
falling in.
Since the longbeds occupy only 1/10 of the land area, for any
application rate required, 10 times this amount have to be applied
into the longbeds. With an application rate of 10cm rain equivalent
per year (rey), 100cm effluent have to be applied annually into the
longbeds. With 10cm effluent applied each time, 10 rounds of
applications would be required in a year. At this rate, no
supplementary inorganic fertilizer is needed, unless leaf analysis
shows deficient levels.
Optimising Application Through The Longbed System
To keep the applied effluent within the effective rooting zone of the
palms (taken to be a depth of 60cm), the amount of effluent applied
per application should not exceed 10cm. For ensuring even
application, it is recommended that the land application scheme be
divided up into plots each of which can be covered in 1 day. The
plots should be numbered to facilitate supervision.
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For a 150 ha land application scheme, to achieve 10 rounds of
applications per year in 300 working days, the plot size can be
calculated as :
Plot size = 150 x 10 = 5 ha

300
B. The Flatbed System
This system is used on sloping inland soils. The flatbed system

comprises a series of flattened bunded beds down the slope of a hill
(Figure. 2). Their breadth is about 1/3 of the space between palms,
along alternate interrows. Their length is dependent on the degree of
slope. In terraced areas, they are placed one per terrace. The beds
in each line are successively connected by channels, through which
effluent feeds from one flatbed to another down the slope.
As the lowest flatbed gets filled to the required depth, the

interconnecting channel is closed and the next up the slope filled, and
so on, until all the beds in the line have been filled.
Flatbeds should always be constructed to shallow depth, at about

10cm at the lower end. This will have to be deeper in the upward
slope direction in order to have a horizontal base, as shown in
Figure. 3. The flat bottom is to avoid the applied effluent from
gathering on one side of the bed. Flatbed is bunded on all sides with
the excavated soil to a height of 15cm to prevent effluent spillage
during application and loose fruits from falling in during harvesting.
Since the flatbeds occupy about 1/6 of the land area, for any
application rate required, 6 times the amount have to be applied into
the flatbeds. With an application rate of 10cm rey, 60cm effluent
have to be applied each time. 6 rounds of applications would be
required per year. At this rate, no supplementary inorganic fertilizer is
required, unless leaf analysis shows deficient levels.
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For ensuring even application, it is again recommended that the
scheme be divided up into small plots that can be applied in one day.
The plots should be numbered so that supervision is facilitated. For
example in a 150 ha land application, to achieve 6 rounds of
applications/year and assuming 300 working days, the plot size is
calculated as:
Plot size = 150 x 6 = 3 ha

300
8.8.2.4 Seasonal Variation In Effluent Production
Since the quantity of effluent produced each day varies with the crop
processed in the mill, the application time per day should be flexible to
ensure that the effluent produced is land-applied without a backlog.
The Mill Manager should inform the Estate Manager in advance of the
daily effluent production. Day to day variations, of course, can be
ironed out by a short-term storage sump.
8.8.2.5 Interference Of Rainfall And Periodic Flooding
The flood-prone areas (if any) of the land application schemes should
be marked out. Application should be concentrated on the flood-prone
areas during the dry seasons. Application on higher grounds can be
done during rainy seasons, with less inconvenience.
8.8.2.6 Ensuring Even Application
The sub-division of the scheme into small application plots, to ensure

even application and to facilitate supervision, is important. During peak
production periods, more than one plot can receive application each
day, to compensate for the rainy days when no application is possible.
To ensure a constant supply of nutrient to the palms, at least 6 rounds,
of more or less evenly spaced applications should be carried out in a
year.
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Localised high grounds, to which application is difficult, should be
demarcated. These isolated patches can either be mulched with EFB
or subject to normal estate inorganic fertilizers.
8.8.2.7 Maintenance Of The System
The pumps have to be serviced and the pump-sump desilted regularly.

Due to soil erosion, flatbeds and longbeds have to be desilted when
necessary.
Table 8.1 : Generalised Chemical Compositions* of Raw and Pond

Digested POME
Pond Digested
Raw
Parameter
POME
Bottom Sludge Supernatant
pH 3.85 7.25 7.60
BOD 35,836 3,053 328
COD 83,356 38,574 3,404
T.S. 67,932 50,952 7,269
S.S. 39,233 36,585 2,365
N 1,194 1,953 396
P 180 442 89
K 2,270 1,968 1,156
Mg 615 834 294
Ca 439 639 231
* Unit in mg/l (ppm) except pH
T.S. = Total Solid

S.S. = Suspended Solid
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Table 8.2 : Quantities of nutrients and fertilizer equivalents in 1 cm
rain equivalent of POME applied over 1 hectare (1 cm over
1 ha = 100,000 litres)
Nutrients Pond Digested

Raw
(kg) Bottom Sludge Supernatant
N 119.4 195.3 39.6
P 18.0 44.2 8.9
K 227.0 196.8 115.6
Mg 61.5 83.4 29.4
Ca 43.9 63.9 23.1
Fertilizer Equivalents
(kg)
AS 580 948 192
CIRP 116 284 57
MOP 454 394 231
KS 380 516 182
LSD 110 160 58
AS = Ammonium Sulphate (20.6% N)

CIRP = Christmas Island Rock Phosphate (35% P2O5)
MOP = Muriate of Potash (60% K2O)
KS = Kieserite (27% MgO)
LSD = Limestone Dust (56% CaO)
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9.0 PESTS AND DISEASES
9.01 INTRODUCTION
Oil palm is susceptible to damage by a number of pests and diseases.

This policy outlines some of the major pests and diseases found in oil
palm and their control measures. The list given is by no means
exhaustive. In all cases of pest and disease outbreak, Research
Centre and the respective Plantation Controller should be informed
immediately and appropriate corrective measures recommended
should be implemented without delay.
9.02 Safety Precautions
Manager(s) and staff should ensure that workers undertaking such

control measures are sensibly protected and this could be achieved by: -
a) Providing and ensuring that both estates and contractors

workers used the appropriate protective clothing (refer to the
chemical label instructions or guidelines) supplied to them.
b) Providing adequate basic training on the use of such pesticides

and also adequate supervision.
c) Ensuring the workers fulfill minimum personal hygiene standard

(which could be achieved by educating them frequently) at pre
and post treatment application period.
d) Correct method of application is being adopted and Research

Centre to be consulted on this matter.
9.1 PESTS
9.1.1 Nursery
Prophylactic spraying against insect pests is usually not

recommended. However, regular inspection for emergence of pests
should be carried out and, in the event of an attack, PROMPT ACTION
must be taken. Guidelines for control of some of the common pests
found in oil palm nurseries are given in Table 9.1, page 100.
A list of some common registered insecticides and fungicides are

summarised in Appendices 9.1, pages 163-164 and 9.2, pages 165-
166.
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Table 9.1. Nursery pests of oil palm
Pest Damage Brand Name Rate

(per 18 l H2O
where applicable)
1. Red spider Attack underside of 1. Morestan 25 WP 18 g

mites leaves resulting in 2. Mitac 20 EC 18 ml
minute chlorotic spots 3. Rogor 40 18 ml
2. Cockchafers Adults eat small holes 1. Tamaron Sp. 18 ml

- Apogonia/ through leaf lamina 2. Orthene 75 WP 25 g
Adoretus 3. Furadan 3G 10g / palm
3. Grasshopper Adults eat large 1. Tamaron Sp. 18 g

- Valanga portion of leaf 2. Orthene 75 WP 25 g
lamina from margin 3. Dipterex 95 SP 18 g
4. Caterpillars Feed on leaf tissue 1. Dipterex 95 SP 18 g

- Nettle/ leaving veins 2. Ripcord 505 25 ml
Looper 3. Tamaron Sp. 18 ml
5. Snails Attack leaf tissue Metaldehyde baits 20-30

between the veins (Siputox, Snailkill) pellets/sq ft
leaving frayed vascular
strands
6. Rats Damage to stem base Dyrat Around

Matikus periphery of
KG 22 nursery.
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Pteroma pendula
Metisa plana
Mahasena corbetti
Plate 9.1a Bagworms
Darna trima Setora nitens

Plate 9.1b Nettle Caterpillars
Plate 9.1c Leaf damage by leaf-eating caterpillars
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9.1.2 Field - Insect pests
IN THE EVENT OF INFESTATION OF ANY OF THE PESTS

LISTED BELOW, PLANTATION CONTROLLER AND
RESEARCH CENTRE SHOULD BE NOTIFIED IMMEDIATELY.
a) Bagworms (Metisa plana, Pteroma pendula, Mahasena corbetti)

(Plate 9.1a, page 101)
This is a serious pest of oil palm. The caterpillars feed on leaf

tissue and if present in large number, can practically defoliate a
palm. Outbreaks covering 500 - 1000 ha are not uncommon in
Malaysia. When an infestation is seen, contact the Plantation
Controller and Research Centre for immediate assessment of
damage. DO NOT CARRY OUT INDISCRIMINATE
INSECTICIDE SPRAYING.
Control - Trunk injection with metamidophos/Tamaron Special at

10 ml/palm. For trunk injection, chain saws with drill attachments
are essential. A 15 cm (6") deep hole of 15 mm (0.6") diameter
and inclined at an angle of about 45o should be bored at 60-90 cm
(24-36") from the base of the palm. The chemical is then injected
into the hole using an injector. The side of the hole should then
be plugged with bitumin or clay. In special circumstances, high
volume ground spray with 0.5% Dipterex 95 WP may be
recommended.
Aerial spraying may be considered if the area of infestation

exceeds 100 ha.
b) Nettle caterpillar (Setora nitens, Thosea asigna, Darna trima,

Ploneta diducta) (Plate 9.1b, page 101)
They are brightly coloured, have stinging spines and feed on oil
palm leaves. Severe damage can result in a total loss of foliage
(Plate 9.1c, page 101). Chemical control will be recommended
when the infestation level exceeds 5 active larvae per frond.
(See Appendices 9.3, pages 167-172 and 9.4, pages 173-176
for census method and habitat.)
Control - As in Bagworms
Chemical control should be carried out only during the larva

stage of the pest. During the pupa stage, chemical control is
not effective. In such situations chemical control should
commence when the next generation of larvae has emerged
(usually about 4 weeks later).
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c) Grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis) (Plate 9.2a, page 104)
This pest is usually found in young plantings and occasionally

may increase to the point of economic damage. The eggs are
laid in the ground and young nymphs feed on legumes and
other ground vegetation, but older nymphs and adults feed on
oil palm leaves.
Control - In case of high population, spraying with Tamaron

Special or Metamidophos at 40 ml/10 litres should be useful.
Control is more effective during the nymphal stages.
d) Rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros) (Plate 9.2b, page 104)

In palm to palm replanting where no complete clearing is
practised, Oryctes damage can be problematic. The adult
beetle usually bores through the soft tissue at the base of
unopened spear or young fronds causing spear/frond collapse.
In cases of continuous attack, death of palm will occur.
Control - Where massive palm chips have been left in situ, a

dense vegetative cover (preferably legumes) should be
encouraged to creep over them as a control measure against
Oryctes. To have maximum effect, the aim must be to establish
a complete leguminous cover over the area within 8-10 months
from the time of felling the old stand.
Where exposed heaps do exist, they should be inspected at

three-monthly intervals and where necessary drenched with
Karate (lambda-cyhalothrin) (20 ml/10 litres of water).
Pheromone trapping can be used to control beetle population in

young oil palm areas. Trap density should be determined in
consultation with Research Centre or Plantation Controller.
Hand collection of adult beetles using a stiff wire or beetle

winkling is another cultural control method but may be costly.
For areas where Oryctes infestation is significant (>10 % of the

palms with visible beetle damage), as a method of monitoring
adult beetle population, pheromone sachets (placed in black
painted vane into 18 ft bucket hung at 3 m above around) traps
@ 1 trap/2 Ha affected area boundary. Prophylactic spraying
using cypermethrin at 0.1% a.i solution on biweekly spray
interval at about 100 ml per palm for areas of high beetle
population. Direct spray at the spear and lower fronds. Avoid
non-target spraying.
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Plate 9.2a Valanga nigricornis
Eggs of rhinoceros Mature larva of rhinoceros
Adult rhinoceros beetle Pupae of rhinoceros beetle
Plate 9.2b Life cycle of rhinoceros beetle
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e) Bunch Moth (Tirathaba mundella)
Severe outbreaks of Tirathaba mundella can occur on young

plantings particularly in areas planted with oil palms for the first
time. Continuous chronic outbreaks of Tirathaba infestation
often occur in the first two years of harvesting, but thereafter
appear to decline.
Symptoms of attack and damage - T. mundella caterpillars are

known to attack inflorescences (both male and female) and
bunches at all stages of fruit development. The pest seems to
favour the male and
female inflorescences and young bunches of between 4 to 6
weeks after anthesis.
The first signs of pest activity can be detected by the scarring

and pitting of fruit surfaces and the development of hollow
centres in fruits due to destruction of the kernels. When these
two symptoms are noted, a closer examination of the
inflorescences, which are more susceptible, should be carried
out.
Presence of granular reddish frass (faeces) over the surface of

an infested inflorescence/bunch indicates recent pest activity.
Bunch abortion can result in cases of severe attack to the
inflorescences.
Assessment of Damage Refer to Appendix 9.5, page 177.
Control - A critical level at which control measures are

necessary would be when the features below prevail.
i) During first two years of harvesting, i.e. most sensitive

period of pest damage
a) a mean of 12 palms per hectare with moderate to
severe symptoms of damage on inflorescences
and/or bunches up to 6 weeks after anthesis; and/or
b) a mean of 3 caterpillars per bunch from census of

caterpillar count.
ii) During third and subsequent years of harvesting

a) a mean of 35 palms per hectare with moderate to
severe symptoms on inflorescence and/or bunches
up to 6 weeks after anthesis; and/or
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b) a mean of 5 caterpillars per bunch from census of
caterpillar count.
iii) Where control is required, spray with Thiodan 35 EC at
20 ml/18 litres of water. The insecticide should be
sprayed to run off at 150 to 300 ml per bunch on all
affected inflorescences and bunches up to 6 weeks after
anthesis. The black bunches (more than 6 weeks after
anthesis) with fully formed fruits need not be sprayed.
It is also advisable to remove all rotten/ unproductive

bunches from all the affected areas for disposal by burial.
9.1.3 Rat damage
Rats are a major persistent pest of oil palms and can cause
considerable damage and crop loss if not properly controlled.
Constant vigilance is therefore required against this pest.
i) Damage
In nursery palms, the apical meristematic tissues are eaten,

causing severe retardation or death to seedlings.
In immature plantings, rats usually gnaw through the lower
fronds and damage this until collapse. Occasionally, they
may even chew through to the bud of the palms, killing
them. Severely affected palms look like inverted folded
umbrellas. Marked effects on growth and future crop loss
result if no control measures are taken quickly. With the no-
burn techniques at replanting, there has been a marked
increase of rat activity in young palms areas.
Rat damage is usually most apparent and serious in mature

plantings. Ripe and unripe fruits are eaten. In addition,
loose fruits are carried away to less exposed parts in the
ground cover and frond heaps. Such fruits, although only
partially eaten are totally lost as they are hidden.
If left uncontrolled, rat population could quickly increase from

a tolerable level of 60 and below animals per hectare to 300
per hectare within a period of 6 months. Under such
infestations, 5 - 15 % of crop could be lost.
ii) Identification of rat species

Three main species of rats, i.e. Rattus tiomanicus, Rattus diardii
and Rattus argentiventer (Plate 9.3a-c, page 111) are
encountered in oil palm. Useful information pertaining to each
species is as follows:
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a) Rattus tiomanicus
Common name The wood or Malaysian field rat.

Identification Adult head and body (H & B) length
guide 140-175 mm. Tail 85-115% of H &
B. Dorsal fur is velvety brown with a
clear white, sometimes yellowish
venter. The tail is uniformly dark.
Special habits This rat is commonly found in forest
and pest status and plantations and is the main
infesting oil palm.
b) Rattus diardii
Common name The Malaysian house rat.
Identification Adult H & B length 140-190 mm.

guide Tail 95-115% of H & B. Dorsal fur,
harsh, dull brown but colour often
variable. Ventral coloration is light
grey to dull reddish brown with no
well defined flanks. Tail uniformly
dark.
Special habits This rat is traditionally most common

pest status in and pest human habitations but is
now increasingly found in
plantations, especially coastal ones.
Where they have replaced R.
tiomanicus, the species proves to be
more difficult to control.
c) Rattus argentiventer
Commnon name The ricefield rat.
Identification Adult H & B 150-190 mm with tail

guide 95-115% of H & B. Dorsal fur soft,
brown or pale brown, with a number
of bristles. Tail is uniformly dark.
Special habits This rat is commonest in open and

pest status fields but have been found to colonise
oil palm that are within their first 5 - 10
years of planting. When established
in such fields, their numbers can
become extremely high, causing
severe damage to bunches.
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iii) Chemical control of rat population
Regular rat baiting campaigns should be carried out in mature

oil palm areas in order to reduce damage and crop loss.
Staff must be trained to spot rat activity and presence including

damage to fruits and bunches, male inflorescences and palms
as well as nesting in the course of their normal activities on the
estates.
Rat baiting should commence when rat populations are high.

On evidence of rat activity and possible need to bait, a rat
census of the affected fields should be carried out. This usually
involves a 5% census of the palms (1 row in 20 rows) to check
for fresh rat damage on the bunches.
A common indicator of high rat population, which must be

reduce, is 5% fresh rat damage (on number of attacked palms
basis). Other signs or rat activity should be noted to provide
supporting evidence for the need to bait.
a) Baits The choice of rat poison should be based on the

species of rat present and also if biological control with barn
owls is practiced in the estate.
For Rattus tiomanicus areas, use first generation rat baits

e.g. warfarin, coumatetralyl. These baits are also preferred
where barn owls are present. Order baits well in advance of
date of requirement.
For Rattus diardii and Rattus argentiventer areas, it is

necessary to use the second generation rodenticides e.g.
brodifacoum, bromadialone, flocoumafen, etc. to have quick
effective control. These baits will be potent to barn owls as
well.
These poisons are also hazardous to other animals. The

estate and the staff and workers should be warned to take
the usual precautions in handling them especially the second
generation baits.
All workers applying the baits should wear protective gloves
and must wash their hands thoroughly after work.
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b) Baiting intensity and placement The baiting scheme should
take into account expected rat populations in the affected
fields as indicated by the percentage of rat damage seen.
1. 0-5% fresh damage. No baiting required. Assess

damage level again in one month if there are signs of
fresh damage.
2. 5-10% fresh damage. Apply one bait to every palm in the

first round. The bait should be placed at specific
positions beside the frond pile away from the palm base
facing the harvesting path so that it is easy for workers to
see whether the baits have been removed. Baits are
placed away from the palm base to reduce accidental
contamination of the crop during harvesting and loose
fruit collection.
c) Replacement of taken baits - Replace the baits in the palm

base area only every 4th day until acceptance rate falls
below 20% for 1st generation bait (Warfarin, diphacinone)
and 7th day for 2nd generation bait (Storm, Matikus,
Ebor2030). If acceptance rate at the end of the 4th round of
baiting is still above 20% inform Research Centre
immediately.
d) Minimum baiting rounds A minimum of TWO ROUNDS of

baiting to 20% acceptance will be necessary within each
campaign. The second round baiting should be carried out
only to replace the missing baits.
e) Minimum baiting area - Baited areas will be quickly

reinfested with rats if baiting has been carried out over too
small areas. Total area baited in each campaign should
therefore not be less than 80 ha size (covering adjoining
fields if necessary).
f) Baiting programme between estates Try to arrange baiting

campaigns to fit in with those of adjoining estates having
common oil palm field boundaries. The main sources of
reinfestation are oil palm areas that remain without control.
g) Immature oil palms Spot baiting is recommended for palms

where there is any evidence of fresh rat damage.
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h) Baiting records Baiting records FORM 9.1, page 155 must
be maintained and attached with the daily costing records in
the monthly progress report.
i) Storage Baits should be ordered fresh from the suppliers

and not be stored for more than two months before use to
ensure good acceptance by the rats.
i) Biological control of rat population
There is growing evidence that biological control of rat

population with the introduction of barn owls can assist in rat
control in the estate. In view of the high cost of rat control and
losses due to poor rat control, use of barn owls are encouraged.
Where barn owls have been introduced, this should be
maintained. All second generation baits (brodifacoum,
bromodialone, difenacoum, etc) should be avoided where
possible, as they are toxic to barn owls (through secondary
ingestion of poisoned rats). Please refer to Appendix 9.6, page
178 for further information on biological control of rat population
using barn owls.
Barn owls are effective as a control measure when rat

populations are low. If rat populations increase or when
populations are too high for the number of barn owls present for
some reasons, supplementary baiting with warfarin baits are
necessary to bring rat damage situation under control.
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Plate 9.3a Rattus tiomanicus (Malaysia Field Rat)
Plate 9.3b Rattus argentiventer (Malaysia Ricefield Rat)
Plate 9.3c Rattus diardii (Malaysia Home Rat)
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9.2 DISEASES
9.2.1 Pre-nursery
Prophylactic spraying with fungicide should be carried out at weekly

intervals using Antracol 70 WP (20 g in 10 litres of water) of alternating
with Dithane M45 (20 g in 10 litres water). Spraying should be carried
out after the seedlings have been watered.
9.2.2 Main nursery
Disease incidence is usually not very common. Chemical spraying

should be on a "as and when necessary" basis. However, when a
single stage nursery is considered, prophylactic spraying as in Section
9.2.1, page 112 should be carried out until the 10th week. Some of the
common diseases (Plate 9.4, page 114) and their control measures
are given below:
a) Nursery leaf spot
Causal organism - Curvularia

Symptoms - Dark brown lesions on leaves. Lesions have a
sunken centre and are surrounded by a bright yellow halo.
Control - Spray with 0.2% Antracol 70 WP at 7 -10 day intervals

until effectively controlled. Spraying should be thorough,
including the underside of the leaves.
b) Early leaf disease

Causal organisms - Botryodiplodia and Glomerella
Symptoms - Browning of leaflets spreading from leaf tip.
Sharply defined boundary between healthy and diseased tissue.
Control - Spray with 0.2% Thiram 75 WP at 5 - 7 day intervals

until effectively controlled.
c) Leaf spot
Causal organism - Helminthosporium

Symptoms - Dark brown spots surrounded by chlorotic halo
which gradually turns yellow. As lesions enlarge and coalesce
the leaf dies back from tip and margin.
Control - Spray with 0.2% Thiram 75 WP at 5 - 7 day intervals

until effectively controlled.
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d) Leaf rot
Causal organism - Corticum

Symptoms - Rows of dark brown lesions which dry out to
become grey to white in colour with purplish brown margins.
Control - Spray with 0.2% Thiram 75 WP at 5 - 7 day intervals.
e) Blast
Blast disease is the most serious of all nursery diseases.
Causal organisms - Pythium and Rhizoctonia

Symptoms - Dull foliage with moisture stress symptoms.
Leaves die progressively, older leaves first. Cortical tissues of
roots are rotted but central stole remains intact.
Control - There is no fungicidal cure at present.
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Nursery Leaf Spot Lesions of Nursery Leaf
by Curvularia
Early Leaf Disease by Early Leaf Disease by

Botryodiplodia Glomerella
Blast Disease by Rhizoctonia Leaf Rot by Corticum
Plate 9.4 Common Nursery Leaf Diseases
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9.2.3 Field
a) Crown disease
Cause - unknown
Symptoms - Affected palms usually show twisting of young
fronds. No action is to be taken as the palms will outgrow this
disorder.
b) Marasmius bunch rot
Causal organisms - Marasmius palmivorus and related species

Symptoms - Strands of mycelium initially spread over the bunch
surface and permeate between the individual fruits. In later
stages of development, the mycelium penetrates the mesocarp
to produce initially a wet rot which is light brown in colour and is
clearly differentiated from healthy tissues. Where diseased
bunches are left on palms, mycelium spreading from these to
other parts of the crown can often be seen until virtually all
developing bunches in the crown are attacked.
Control - In the event of an outbreak, remove all masses of

colonised tissues.
9.3 TREATMENT OF GANODERMA INFECTED PALMS
INTRODUCTION
Basal Stem Rot (BSR) caused by Ganoderma spp. (Plate 9.5, page
116) has been a serious problem of oil palm in coastal areas where
losses up to 80% during the first 12 years after planting have been
reported. In inland areas, there has been an increase in incidences
over the last few years. The disease is serious in older plantings but
young palms are also infected. Presently the only known method to
minimise the damage caused by the disease is to adopt appropriate
cultural practices.
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Vacant patch due to high incidence of
basal stem rot
Adult palm with advanced

stage of basal stem rot
Ganoderma fruiting bodies
Plate 9.5 Basal Stem Rot (BSR) by Ganoderma sp.
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9.3.1 PALM < 7 YEARS OLD
BSR on young palms occurs mainly in oil palm to oil palm replants.
9.3.1.1 Symptoms
i) Initially, symptoms appear similar to nitrogen deficiency but the

yellowing may be confined to one side of the crown while the
remaining fronds remain dark green.
ii) Growth of palms is usually affected and new emerging frond sizes
reduced compared to unaffected palms.
iii) In advanced situation, frond desiccation occurs on the yellow

fronds.
iv) Infected palms can be easily pushed down exposing rotted bole
tissues.
v) Fruiting bodies of the fungus are rarely seen.
9.3.1.2 Treatment
Infected palms should be replaced. Research Centre can assist in

identifying infected palms.
i) Excavate infected palm and all the bole and roots, chip up the
trunk and bole and place the palm remnants (with the diseased
tissues clearly exposed on the top) in the inter-row. It is important
that no remnants and parts of the rotted or infected tissues are
buried in the soil.
ii) If economic and feasible, in high risk situation e.g. alluvial soil
areas, replants or where high infection rates in field, burn the
dried diseased tissues.
iii) Dig a pit 1.5 m square and 90 cm deep to remove as much

infected tissue as possible.
iv) Fill the pit with soil from the inter-rows to plant up with a supply
palm.
v) Apply 0.5 kg of rock phosphate to the pit.
vi) Plant seedling and fill up pit using fresh soil from inter-row. (Do
not use the same soil removed from the pit).
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9.3.2 PALM > 7 YEARS OLD
9.3.2.1 Symptoms
i) Earliest symptoms usually occur on the foliage. The first foliar

symptom is the presence of an excessive number of unopened
spear leaves. Normal healthy palms usually have about 2 to 3
spears.
ii) Chlorosis (yellowing) of the canopy may also occur.
ii) Necrosis of older fronds leading to complete frond desiccation.
iii) Dead fronds either droop at the point of attachment to the trunk
or fracture at some point along the rachis and hang down to
encircle the trunk, forming a "skirt".
iv) Fruiting bodies of Ganoderma can be seen on the trunk base.
v) At advanced stage, the trunk of an infected palm fractures at

the base and the palm falls. The diseased tissues of the bole
however remain below the soil surface.
vi) In favorable growing conditions, foliar symptoms may not be

obvious on some palms. The canopy may appear healthy but
fruiting bodies can be seen on palm base.
9.3.2.2 Treatment
a) Palms < 10 years old
Census should be conducted when BSR is detected and should

be carried out every six months, even after the palms have
attained more than 10 years of age, to monitor the spread of the
disease.
In high risk areas (with high Ganoderma incidence in previous

stand, say >5 palms per ha) census should be 4-monthly. All
infected palms should be clearly marked for removal as soon as
possible and supplying carried out where likely to be beneficial.
Where supplying is still feasible, the replanting procedure as

described in Section 9.3.1.2, page 117 should be followed.
Where supplying of oil palm appears to be unsuitable, the
Plantation Controller should be consulted for alternatives.
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b) Palms > 10 years old
Severe cases
This refers to palms with multiple spears and hanging fronds.

These palms are severely affected and likely to be unproductive.
Such standing palms should be felled, chipped and pushed to the
inter-row as soon as possible.
The diseased bole and surrounding roots must also be excavated

and removed to the inter-rows. A 2.5m x 2.5m x 1m pit should be
dug at the point of the old stand. The objective is to hasten decay
of the infected trunk and tissues and minimize further spread of
BSR to the neighbouring palms. Palm replacement is usually not
recommended and all excavated points should be left exposed.
In situations where supplying is likely to be beneficial, the

excavated area should be treated similarly and up as in palms < 7
years old (Section 9.3.1.2), page 117
In general, it is inadvisable to allow severely infected palms to

remain standing in the field and such palms be identified, marked
and removed as early as possible.
Mild cases
This refers to palms having healthy large sized crowns but with
fruiting bodies present at the trunk base. These palms may be
allowed to stand in the fields to recover all possible crop until
obvious deterioration of the crown size or colour occurs.
When the latter occurs, the palms should be marked clearly in the
fields during the census rounds for earliest removal by the
technique described above.
Palm mounding to prolong the life is not recommended in high risk

areas where spread of the disease within the field may be
hastened.
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In low-risk areas, the economic life of such palms can be
prolonged by mounding the palm base with soil (Figure 9.1,page
121).
i) Surgery to remove infected tissue is not necessary.
ii) Heap soil at palm base to a height of 1 meter. The objective is

to promote new root formation thereby improving nutrient
uptake and anchorage.
iii) Incorporate about 1 kg of RP in soil during mounding.
iv) The soil can be taken from around the palm.
9.3.3 Land Preparation During Replanting
Preventive measures against BSR should be taken during replanting.
i) Twelve months prior to felling, identify all infected palms and

vacant points. These vacant points would most likely be
previous Ganoderma infected points with the bole still present
below the soil surface.
ii) The bole at the vacant points should be excavated and the soil
spread and exposed within the inter-row. This is important as
this should reduce the inoculum potential in subsequent planting.
iii) The area excavated should be 2.5m x 2.5m x 1m (8 x 8 x 3)
iv) During felling and shredding of infected palms, ensure that the
bole below ground and all diseased tissues are dug up, removed
from the soil and exposed by placing on the top of the chipped
stumps and other materials.
v) If economic and feasible, burn the dried diseased tissues.
vi) The new planting points should be lined to be as far away as

possible from the old planting points i.e. in the middle of the
inter-rows of the old stand or along the old rows but between the
old stands.
Replants with high Ganoderma incidence in the old stand should have
points maps indicating the infected palm areas for future reference and
guide to treatments required. This map should be prepared in
conjunction with the details palm census in the last year of the old
planting.
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10.0 ROADS
10.01 INTRODUCTION
Well-planned field boundaries and road system in term of road

density, road gradients, road loading, road safety, its impact upon
erosion, future mechanization of field operations and FFB
evacuation is essential . All these factors might affect the costs of
installation, the cost of harvesting and transport and the fact that
the road area reduces the productive area of the estate .
10.1 LAYOUT
In planning a road system, consideration should be given to the

terrain, drainage system, position of the mill, the length of
transport of the bunches to the nearest road the direction of future
harvesting paths, field boundaries and security of the area . The
actual density of roads will depend on the terrain and as a guide, a
road density of 120m-160m per hectare would be adequate. It is
preferable to design the field block in square blocks of 25-40 ha.
as this simplifies the road network .
A well designed road system consists of :
a) Main-roads - These are main haulage routes and are spaced

at 800m-1000m apart. They are all weather roads and should
be cambered and adequately surfaced with laterite or other
suitable material. The width of these roads should be 5.0m
and no palm should be planted within 3.0m from the edge of
the main-road. A cross sectional profile of an ideal main road
cum drainage is illustrated in Figure 10.1.
5.0m 0.6m
1.8
0.6m
Roadside drain Main Road
Figure 10.1 Main Road/Drain Layout
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b) Collection Roads - These are subsidiary roads which are
spaced not more than 200m apart. These roads should also
be cambered and adequately surfaced with laterite or other
suitable material. The recommended width of the collection
road should be 4.0m and no palm should be planted within
2.0m from the edge of the road. A cross-sectional profile of a
collection road cum drainage is shown in Figure 10.2.
4.0m 0.3m 1.4m
0.3m
Roadside Drain Collection Drain
Figure 10.2 Collection Road/Drain Layout
10.1.1 Flat to Gentle Undulating Terrain

A grid system of roads should be planned for flat to gentle
undulating terrain. The collection roads should be straight even if
shallow ravines are to be traversed and laid east-west, the palm
rows being north-south. They should connect with sub-main roads
running north-south, which in turn will lead to the main mill access
road .
For low-lying and peat soil areas, the spoil from the roadside drain
should be used for road construction. The road should then be
levelled and compacted before being surfaced with laterite, mining
ballast or any suitable material.
10.1.2 Hilly To Steep Terrain
In areas designated for terrace planting, roads should be

constructed before the commencement of terracing. This would
ensure that the terraces are below the level of the road, thus
facilitating surface run-off of water into the terraces.
Roads should be constructed with a gentle gradient to bisect as

many terraces as possible. Where mechanical assisted collection
is being considered, additional access terraces should be
constructed.
Roads should be cambered gently to ensure surface run-off of
water. Where a road curves, the road-bed should be banked
evenly from its outer edge into the curve. The tighter the curve,
the greater should be the gradient of the bank. On steep terrain,
gully erosion can be a serious problem and as such roadside
drains must be constructed with regular outlets to lead water onto
the terrains
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11.0 PRUNING
11.01 INTRODUCTION
Ideally, only senescent leaves should be removed and maintain

maximum number of green leaves and leaf area for maximum
photosynthetic activity. However, for practical harvesting and
sanitation purposes, pruning is necessary. On the other hand,
OVER-PRUNING IS UNDESIRABLE as it can result in a
marked increased production of male inflorescence, decline in
bunch weight and number which resulting in significantly lower
yield. To ensure adequate but not excessive pruning, the
following guidelines are recommended for the Group estates.
11.1 PRUNING STANDARDS
11.1.1 Immature phase
No pruning should be carried out throughout the period of

immaturity until about one month prior to commencement of the
first harvesting when only dead and senescent fronds are
removed. In order to ensure only dead fronds are removed, a
dedicated gang should be assigned to do the job under close
supervision.
11.1.2 Mature phase
a) Below 15 years old palms
No pruning should be carried out during the first year of

harvesting. Commence pruning when the lowest bunches are
about 3 feet above the ground.
As a general guide, two fronds immediately below the lowest

bunches should be retained and not to be pruned. Where
there is only one or two bunches, two whorls of fronds
immediately below the lowest bunch should not be pruned.
During the male phase and without bunches, as a guide,

there is an inclination to over prune. Such palms should not
be pruned. Resuming pruning only after the appearance of
black bunches and retains two fronds below the lowest
bunches or two whorls of fronds immediately below the lowest
bunch.
The above standard of pruning should be maintained up to the

15th year.
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b) Above 15 years old palms
It is important that pruning is up to date for palms of this

age. As a general guide, retain one frond (as opposed to
two in the younger palms) below the lowest bunches or one
whorl of fronds below the lowest bunch. Do not prune during
the complete male phase and resume pruning after
appearance of first black bunches.
c) Roadside Pruning
Minimise roadside pruning as palms on the roadsides are

exposed to the most sunlight. If it is necessary to carry out
roadside pruning, try to cut the distal ends of the fronds and
retain about half of two thirds.
11.2 FREQUENCY OF PRUNING
In estates with fixed tasks and a stable harvesting labour

situation, implementation of a progressive pruning policy with
excessive fronds cut off at the time of harvesting.
One complete pruning round per year should be allowed for

during the low cropping period. During this round and at all
other pruning rounds, only Frond 42 and older fronds should be
removed.
11.3 PLACEMENT OF FRONDS
Pruned fronds should be stacked neatly in the inter-lines in such

a way so as to minimise erosion and to enhance moisture
retention but at the same time do not restrict movement. Avoid
stacking newly cut fronds into heaps. Keep the palm circle area
free of fronds. Avoid hindering access to wheel borrow etc. by
keeping the basal end of fronds away from the harvesting path.
In areas planted on contour, fronds should be stacked on the

outer-lip of the terrace and along it to provide maximum soil
conservation but without obstructing field operations.
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12.0 HARVESTING
12.01 INTRODUCTION
Harvesting is the most important operation on an estate. It

includes the complete recovery of ripe bunches and loose fruits.
This manual outlines the various aspects of field practices and
monitoring of FFB quality.
12.1 PRE-HARVESTING OPERATIONS
12.1.1 Harvesting Paths
Constructed harvesting paths done earlier after planting or during

immature stage should be mowed or sprayed depending on type of
vegetation before commencement of scout harvesting. The path
should be accessible with sufficient foot bridges or bridges.
12.1.2 Pre-Harvesting Sanitation
In practical, a single sanitation round should be carried out prior to

commencement of harvesting. It involves the removal of dead or
moribund fronds and lowest fronds that hinder loose fruit collection.
12.1.3 Collection Platforms
To facilitate loading, collection platforms of 3 m x 3 m (10 ft x 10

ft) should be constructed along the road, preferably alternate
harvesting path. The platforms should be weed free and debris
free.
12.1.4 Scout Harvesting
Prior to palms coming to maturity, scout harvesting should be

done base on the observation if the field. It can be around or
more.
12.2 COMMENCEMENT OF HARVESTING
Depending on the vegetative growth of the palms, it will normally

be possible to start harvesting at about 30 36 months.
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12.3 HARVESTING INTERVAL
Harvesting interval of 10-12 days should be ideal. For young

mature palms and during through period, the ideal harvesting
interval should be maintained at 12 days. For older palms, ideal
harvesting interval should be maintained at 10 days to minimize
losses due to uncollected loose fruits.
12.4 HARVESTING STANDARDS
12.4.1 Minimum Ripeness Standards (MRS)
The minimum ripeness standard is as follows: -
Years in MRS before No. of fresh sockets

Harvesting Harvesting immediately after
harvesting
Within 2 years 3 loose fruits 10
2 years to 13 years 3 loose fruits 15
Above 13 years 3 loose fruits 15
12.5 HARVESTING ORGANISATION
This is done to ensure efficient use of manpower and good

control on harvesting standard.
12.5.1 Harvesting Gang
A harvesting gang should not be too small or too big. If it is too

small, there will be many blocks on harvesting in a day. This
creates problem on supervision and crop transportation. If it is
too big, the mandore could not cover all areas. The ideal size is
16-20 workers in a gang.
12.5.2 Allocation of Areas
A gang should be given areas with mixture of different age group

and reasonable number of tasks to sustain their income. Ratio
of harvesting area to a worker depends on age profile, terrain,
yield and method of infield collection, e.g. 1 worker:15 ha for
wheel barrow gang and 1:22 ha for buffalo gang.
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12.5.3 Task Size
A task should not be more than a hectare except buffalo

assisted collection where shifting task is inconvenient. The
reasons for maintaining small task for wheel barrow gang are for
supervision and transport efficiency.
12.5.4 Supervision
Mandore must be assigned to each gang regardless of checkroll

or contractor. A bunch checker will grade the harvested bunches
at the platform. A field conductor in-charged of harvesting will be
responsible of an area about 800 hectares.
12.6 CONTROL OF HARVESTING
To ensure maximum production of good quality oil, high

standards of harvesting must be maintained. The standards
are:
i) NO UNRIPE bunches should be harvested.

ii) All ripe bunches should not be missed.
iii) Harvesting intervals should not exceed 15 days.
iv) All loose fruits must be collected.
v) Stalk should be trimmed to a length not shorter than
bunch shoulder to avoid causing injury to the fruitlet.
Bunch stalk should be cut at palm base and the cut
stalks disposed off at frond stack.
vi) Care should be taken to ensure that dirt and trash are
not collected along with the loose fruits.
vii) Speedy transport of the FFB to the mill is vital and
should be delivered to the mill WITHIN 24 HOURS
AFTER HARVESTING.
12.7 MONITORING OF FFB QUALITY
To ensure FFB of the highest quality, it is necessary to regularly

assess and monitor the FFB harvested. Procedures for
assessment and monitoring of results are given below:
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12.7.1 Bunch Classifications
Fresh fruit bunch (FFB) can be classified and graded (Plate

12.1a-b, page 132-133) according to the following criteria: -
i. Ripe Bunch
Ripe bunch is a bunch, which has reddish orange colour

and the outer layer fruitlet's mesocarp is orange in colour.
This bunch has at least 15 fresh sockets of detached
fruitlets and more than fifty percent (50%) of the fruits still
attached to the bunch at the time of inspection at the mill.
The bunch and the loose fruits are to be sent to the mill
within 24 hours after harvesting.
ii. Underripe Bunch
Underripe bunch is a bunch, which has reddish orange or

purplish red colour and the outer layer fruitlet's mesocarp is
yellowish orange in colour. This bunch has less than 15
fresh sockets of detached fruitlets at the time of inspection
at the mill. The bunch and the loose fruits are to be sent to
the mill within 24 hours after harvesting.
iii. Unripe Bunch
Unripe bunch is a bunch, which has black or purplish black

fruits and the outer layer fruitlet's mesocarp is yellowish in
colour. This bunch does not have any fresh sockets of
detached fruitlets at the time of inspection at the mill. The
sockets (if any) on the bunch is not due to normal ripening
process.
iv. Overripe Bunch
Overripe bunch is a bunch which has darkish red-coloured

fruits and has more than fifty percent (50%) of detached
fruitlets but with at least ten percent (10%) of the fruits still
attached to the bunch at the time of inspection at the mill.
The bunch and the loose fruits are to be sent to the mills
within 24 hours after harvesting.
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v. Empty Bunch
Empty bunch is a bunch, which has more than ninety

percent (90%) of detached fruitlets at the time of inspection
at the mill.
vi. Rotten Bunch
Rotten bunch is a bunch partly or wholly empty and

together with its loose fruits, has turned blackish in colour,
rotten and mouldy.
vii. Long Stalk Bunch
Long stalk bunch is a bunch, which has a stalk of more

than 5 cm in length (measured from the lowest level of the
bunch stalk).
viii Unfresh
Unfresh bunch is a bunch, which has been harvested and

left at the field for more than 48 hours before being sent to
the mill. The whole fruit or part of it together with its stalk
has dried out. Normally, this type of bunch is dry and
blackish in colour.
ix. Old Bunch
Old bunch is a bunch, which has been harvested and left at

the field before being sent to the mill. The fruitlets still
remaining on the bunch are dry and brownish black in
colour. The stalk is also dry, soft, fibrous and blackish in
colour.
x. Dirty Bunch
Dirty bunch is a bunch with more than half of its surface

covered with mud, sand, other dirt particles and mixed with
stone or other foreign matters.
xi. Small Bunch
Small bunch is a bunch, which has small fruits and weigh

less than 2.3 kg (5 lbs).
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xii. Pest Damaged Bunch
Pest damaged bunch is a bunch with more than thirty

percent (30%) of its fruits damaged by pest attack such as
rats, etc.
xiii Diseased Bunch
Diseased bunch is a bunch, which has more than fifty

percent (50%) parthenocarpic fruits and is not normal in
terms of its size or its density.
xiv. Dura Bunch
Dura bunch has fruits with the followingcharacteristics:
a. Shell thickness 2-8 mm
b. Ratio of shell to fruit 25-50%
c. Ratio of mesocarp to fruit 20-60%
d. Ratio of kernel to fruit 4-20%
e. No fibre ring around the shell
xv. Loose Fruit
Loose fruit is a fruit detached from a fresh fruit bunch

because of ripeness and is reddish orange in colour. All
loose fruits have to be sent to the mill within 24 hours after
harvesting. As far as possible, all loose fruits should be
placed in empty fertilizer bag for collection on the platform.
xvi. Wet Bunch
Wet bunch refers to a consignment of fresh fruit bunches

(FFB) which has excessive free water.
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Unripe Bunch Under-ripe Bunch
Ripe Bunch Over-ripe Bunch
Empty Bunch Rotten Bunch
Plate 12.1a Oil Palm Bunch Classification
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Long stalk bunch Pest damaged bunch
Old Bunch
Unfresh Bunch
Dura Bunch
Dirty Bunch
Plate 12.1b Oil Palm Bunch Classification
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12.7.2 Uncollected Loose Fruits and Unharvested Bunches
Field supervising staff are to ensure that all loose fruits are
collected and all ripe bunches are harvested.
12.7.3 FFB In Field Checking System
Objective: The main aim of checking is to ensure good quality

FFB has been harvested.
i) FFB Checker
A person who had been trained on bunch classification and
appointed by Estate Management
ii) Documents required

Form 1C 1 (No. 12.1, page 158) - Infield check sheet
Form IC 2 (No. 12.2, page 159) - Checker's daily FFB
Quality Summary
iii) Grading procedure
a) FFB harvested must be checked and marked before

loading onto tractors or lorries.
b) FFB are classified and graded according to bunch

classification in Form IC 1, page 158.
c) FFB checker is to summarise daily data in Form IC2,

page 159, which is by harvester or block.
d) Discard any rotten/empty bunches on platform
iv) FFB quality management
Mandore
The responsibilities of mandore are:
i) Verify harvesters attendance in the field and

allocate the day vacant task.
ii) To make sure all works done according to
specification.
iii) To record harvesters with poor standard of work
in a record book for Assistant and Conductor to
take action.
FFB Checker
The duties of bunch checker are: -
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i) To check and ensure that all previous days crop
are transported.
ii) To grade FFB at platform using bunch chit and
stick the chit on graded platform.
iii) Discard rotten or empty bunches after knocking of
the fruitlets.
iv) To summarize bunch chits into daily FFB grading
report.
Conductor
Conductors in-charged of harvesting have to ensure

that high standard of harvesting and good quality oil is
obtained. Their duties in the field are: -
i) Train and educate harvester form time to time.

ii) Identify and take disciplinary action where
necessary on harvester with poor work attitude.
iii) Counter-check the accuracy of bunch grading.
iv) Check and ensure that all crop harvested in the
previous block are transported.
Assistant Manager
The roles of Assistant Manager are: -
i) Review mandores record book and daily FFB

grading report
ii) Identify harvesters with disciplinary problem and do
follow up in the field.
iii) Counter-check bunch grading in the field.
iv) To assess daily harvesting by completing the inspection
form.
Estate Manager
Estate Manager must be able to anticipate and foresee

problem before it happens. He is to formulate to maintain
and improve harvesting standard and produce good
quality bunches all year round.
i) During peak crop to mobilize additional harvesters

from the estate or from sister estates to maintain
short harvesting interval to minimize losses.
ii) Regular checking of difficult areas e.g. low-lying
and terrace area.
iii) Counter-check bunch grading result and inspection
form for FFB harvesting.
iv) Contractors and supervisors follow the manager at
least twice a month for harvesting standard.
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12.8 BUFFALO ASSISTED COLLECTION
Oil palm estates should consider the use of buffalo assisted FFB
collection. The benefits are: -
i) Reduce labour requirement by about 30%

ii) Reduce labour turnover with higher productivity and better
income for workers.
iii) Minimize extended harvesting interval during peak crop.
Normally the cutters productivity is limited by carriers ability to
evacuate crop in the conventional method.
iv) Minimum maintenance required as compare to machinery and
the value of buffalo appreciates.
12.8.1 Preparation Before Implementation
i) Accessibility Harvesting path musk be free from stump, ants

hill and have sufficient bridges.
ii) Retasking Harvesting task allocated should be big as compare
to wheel barrow where shifting task is inconvenient for buffalo. A
buffalo with two workers should be able to cover 4.0-5.0 ha a
day.
iii) Workers Since workers will be reduced by almost a third, only
good workers with interest in keeping and caring for the
buffaloes should be maintained.
iv) Buffalos cart Before the arrival of buffalo, the cart must be
ready. (Figure 12.1a-e, page 138-140)
v) Treatment crush The purpose of treatment crush is for treating
buffalos injury and for de-worming. A centralized crush for each
harvesting gang.
12.8.2 Selection of Buffaloes
The guidelines are:
i) The buffalo should be between 1-2 years old.

ii) The buffalo should be well built with thick neck, broad deep
chest and look muscular.
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12.8.3 Training
i) On arrival at the estate, the buffaloes are kept under the oil palm
tree where there is grass and water for two days.
ii) During the two days, the owners will hand feed the buffaloes
with salt, grass and water to get the human contact.
iii) Training can be conducted in open area or in the oil palm field to
be conducted by the owner.
iv) Training take about a week before the buffaloes can be used for
harvesting operation. It takes about a month to two months
before buffaloes familiarize itself with owners command, when
to move and stop, stranger and vehicle.
v) The best time to introduce buffalo is during low crop period. The
harvesting interval will be extended during training period till
buffalo familiarize with its work.
vi) The estate should implement buffalo in stages (gang by gang) in
order to maintain the harvesting interval.
12.8.4 Veterinary Service
i) Buffaloes are reasonably disease free. Routine vaccination and

de-worming should be carried out twice a year.
ii) The service of Pejabat Haiwan or local veterinary officer should
be called upon whenever necessary.
iii) Some plantation staff (conductor) should be trained to treat
minor buffalos injuries, vaccination and de-worming
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SCHEDULES 2.1-8.3
FORMS 2.1-12.3
APPENDICES 6.1-9.6
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Schedule 2.1
SINGLE STAGE NURSERY MANURING
Dose Weeks after Fertilizer Soil without POME sludge

seed planted Rate
1 3 Foliar 10 ml/10 l water
2 4
3 5 15:15:6:4 (Compound) 0.25% slurry
5 7 15:15:6:4 (Compound) 0.25% slurry
7 10 15:15:6:4 (Compound) 0.5% slurry
8 12
9 14 10 g/seedling
10 16
11 18
12 20
13 22 20 g/seedling
14 26
15 30
16 34 30 g/seedling
17 38
18 42
19 46
1) Bayfolan, Grofas, Welgro and Nutraphos are foliar fertilizers and may be
applied together with fungicides like Antracol or Benlate.
2) 15:15:6:4 (compound) refers only to water soluble compound, e.g.

Nitrophoska Yellow, Rustica yellow or Complesal yellow.
3) 0.25% or 0.5% slurry mix 25 g or 50 g of 15:15:6:4 (compound) in 10

litres of water, stir and leave overnight before application as slurry
solution. 10 litres solution should be sufficient for about 200 seedlings.
4) The slurry solution can be applied using a watering can with a fine rose
attached or a knapsack sprayer (for manuring only). Application should be
followed by a light watering to avoid possible leaf scorch.
5) Fertilizer should be applied evenly to an area around the seedling

approximately 5-7.5 cm (2-3) away from the seedling base.
6) Care must be taken to avoid scorching the young leaves with the fertilizer,
either directly or with fertilizer particles on the workers hands.
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Schedule 2.2
DOUBLE STAGE NURSERY

PRE-NURSERY MANURING
Weeks after
Dose seeds planted Fertilizer Rate
1 3 Foliar fertilizer 10 ml/10 l water
3 5 15:15:6:4 (compound) 0.25% slurry
5 7 15:15:6:4(compound) 0.25% slurry
7 10 15:15:6:4 (compound) 0.25% slurry
and thereafter at fortnightly 15:15:6:4 (compound) 0.25% slurry

intervals (if necessary).
1) Bayfolan and Wuxal are foliar fertilizers and may be applied together
with fungicides like Antracol or Benlate.
2) 15:15:6:4 (compound) refers only to water soluble compound, e.g.

Nitrophoska Yellow, Complesal and Rustica.
3) 0.25% or 0.5% slurry mix 25 g or 50 g of 15:15:6:4 (compound) in

10 litres of water, stir and leave overnight before application as slurry
solution. 10 litres solution should be sufficient for about 200
seedlings.
4) The slurry solution can be applied using a watering can with a fine
rose attached or a knapsack sprayer (for manuring only). Application
should be followed by a light watering to avoid possible leaf scorch.
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Schedule 2.3
DOUBLE STAGE NURSERY

MAIN NURSERY MANURING
Weeks after Rate

Dose seeds planted Fertilizer (g/seedling)
1 2 15:15:6:4 (compound) 10
2 4 10
3 6 10
4 8 10
5 10 20
6 14 20
7 18 20
8 22 30
9 26 30
10 30 30
11 34 30
12 38 30
13 42 30
1) 15:15:6:4 (compound) refers to only water soluble compound,

e.g. Nitrophoska Yellow, Complesal and Rustica.
2) Fertilizer should be applied evenly to an area around the seedling

approximately 5.0 - 7.5 cm (2-3) away from the seedling base.
3) Care must be taken to avoid scorching the young leaves with the
fertilizer, either directly or with fertilizer particles on the
workers hands.
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Schedule 5.1
FERTILIZER SCHEDULE FOR LEGUMINOUS COVER
Weeks from Treatment Type of Cultivated Nutrient

cover planting fertilizer Rate (N:P2O5:K2O:MgO)
(kg/ha)
At sowing Mixed with Rock
cover seeds phosphate 30 32% P2O5
Floranid 4 15:9:15:2
Permanent
2-3 weeks after Apply along IOI 28 50 12:2.6:20:3 + B

germination the drills
4 weeks after Broadcast Rock 300 32% P2O5

germination over cover phosphate
crop
6 weeks after Broadcast GML 1000 18% MgO + 34%

germination over cover CaO
crop
12 weeks after Broadcast Rock 200 32% P2O5

germination over cover phosphate
crop
Note: If the legumes are not growing up to expectation and are showing
symptoms of mineral deficiencies, contact Research Center.
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Schedule 8.1a
GENERAL MANURING PROGRAMME FOR IMMATURE PALMS IN IOI (PENINSULAR
ESTATES)
A. LIGHT SOIL
Year Month Dose Type of Fertilizer Fertilizer (kg/palm)

1 0 Planting Hole RP 0.50
0 1 IOI 28 0.15
1 2 RP 1.50
2 3 IOI 28 0.35
3 4 IOI 28 0.75
6 5 IOI 28 0.75
7 6 KIE 0.35
9 7 IOI 28 1.50
Total: 5.85
2 12 8 IOI 28 1.50
13 9 RP 2.25
15 10 IOI 28 2.00
16 11 KIE 0.75
18 12 IOI 28 2.50
21 13 IOI 28 2.50
Total: 11.50
3 24 14 IOI 28 2.50
25 15 KIE 0.75
26 16 RP 2.25
27 17 IOI 28 2.50
30 18 IOI 28 3.00
33 19 IOI 28 3.00
Total: 14.00
NOTE:
1. Fertilizer application will commence IMMEDIATELY or WITHIN 2 WEEKS which is possible at
MONTH 0.
2. Type of Fertilizer:
Nutrient Content
IOI 28= IOI Compound (12 : 2.6 : 20 : 3 : 0.24B)
RP= Jordanian Rock Phosphate (32% P2O5)
AN= Ammonium Nitrate (34% N)
KIE= Kieserite (27% MgO)
3. Fertilizer Placement:
Palm Age (yr) Type of Fertilizer Placement

1 All except GML Spread evenly over weeded circle from 10cm to 50cm around palm.
GML No GML should be applied within the palm circle. If recommended,
apply at 2m to 2.5m away from palm base.
2 and 3 All except GML Spread evenly over weeded circle from 10 cm to 150cm around
palm.
AA Mulch technique: Spread evenly in broadband of 30cm outside

the plastic Mulch around palm. Avoid application of any fertilizer on
the plastic mulch.
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Schedule 8.1b
B. HEAVY SOIL

0 1 IOI 28 0.15
1 2 RP 2.00
2 3 IOI 28 0.35
3 4 IOI 28 0.35
6 5 IOI 28 0.50
7 6 AN 0.30
9 7 IOI 28 1.50
Total: 5.65
2 12 8 IOI 28 1.50
13 9 RP 2.75
15 10 IOI 28 2.00
16 11 AN 0.75
18 12 IOI 28 2.00
21 13 IOI 28 2.50
Total: 11.50
3 24 14 IOI 28 2.00
25 15 AN 0.75
26 16 RP 2.75
27 17 IOI 28 2.00
30 18 IOI 28 2.50
33 19 IOI 28 2.50
Total: 12.50
NOTE:
MONTH 0.
Nutrient Content

palm.

the plastic mulch.
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Schedule 8.1c
C. LATERITE SOIL

0 1 IOI 28 0.15
1 2 RP 2.50
2 3 IOI 28 0.35
3 4 AN 0.50
6 5 IOI 28 0.75
7 6 AN 0.50
9 7 IOI 28 1.25
Total: 6.50
2 12 8 IOI 28 1.50
13 9 RP 2.75
15 10 IOI 28 2.00
16 11 AN 0.75
18 12 IOI 28 2.00
21 13 IOI 28 2.50
Total: 11.50
3 24 14 IOI 28 2.00
25 15 AN 0.75
26 16 RP 2.75
27 17 IOI 28 2.00
30 18 IOI 28 2.00
31 19 IOI 28 2.00
33 20 IOI 28 2.00
Total: 13.50
NOTE:
MONTH 0.
Nutrient Content

palm.

the plastic mulch.
148
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149
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150
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151
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152
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153
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154
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155
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FORM 9.2
FORMAT FOR TIRATHABA CENSUS
Field No. : Hectarage:
A. Census intensitya
B. Damage census
Palm Inflorescence Young bunchesb Black bunchesc

No. Nil/ Mode Nil/ Mode- Nil/ Mode-
Light - rate Severe Light rate Severe Light rate Severe
a: 10 rows of 20 palms distributed through field or 1 row in 20 rows or

otherwise.
b: Bunches 4 to 6 weeks after anthesis.
c: Bunches more than 6 weeks after anthesis, before ripening.
To be continued
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C. Caterpillar count continuation FORM 9.2
To be taken from a randomly selected 20 inflorescences/bunches 4 to 6

weeks after anthesis, moderately or severely damaged, from the above
field by removing spikelet by spikelet.
No. No. of Caterpillars
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Total: Mean/bunch:
157
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158
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159
7/05
160
7/05
161 7/05
Cynamid
162 7/05
Cynamid
Cynamid
163 7/05
Cynamid
Zuellig
Novartis
Zuellig
164 7/05
165 7/05
166 7/05
Appendix 9.3
Census Technique for Population Assessment of Leaf Eating

Caterpillars, eg. Bagworms and Nettle Caterpillars
1. Introduction
Regular assessments of pest populations can be of considerable

value on estates. They assist in identifying pest outbreaks at an
early stage. Successive census rounds can be very valuable in
determining whether the pests are increasing or decreasing and
whether or not to undertake control measures.
2. Locating Census Points
The census system for caterpillars depends on regular visits to a

number of points within the sampling unit (estate field). The points
are found by drawing a grid on a field plan, arranged so that there
is about one point to every 2.5 - 3.0 ha (6-8 acres) (see Plans 1, 2
and 3). Points are then located in the field by reference to the
plan, and the points themselves and the lines in which they occur
are indicated by permanent markings.
The following three examples illustrate how points are sited in

three fields which show an increasing degree of complication.
Example 1
A field of 40 ha (100 acres). Regularly shaped, with roads running

in a geometric pattern and planting rows running parallel to field
boundaries, see Plan 1.
Step 1. Determine the direction of planting lines in relation to

the field boundaries and roads.
Step 2. Calculate the approximate number of census points

required, based on approximately one point per 2.5-3
ha (6-8 acres) (say 7 acres for calculation). In this
instance, 100 7 = 14.3.
This field is long and narrow, and 15 points arranged on a 5 x 3

grid provide a reasonably even distribution of census points.
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168 7/05
169 7/05
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Step 3. Count the number of palms along the field boundaries.
In this example, there are 30 palms along the short
boundary and 150 along the long one.
Step 4. Calculate the position of the census points. There are

three rows of five points across the field, the three rows
being spaced at intervals along the short boundary of
30 palms. Three lines spaced evenly among 30 must
be 10 apart. In order to position the points within the
field, rather than along its edge, it is necessary to place
the first census row at the 5th row inside, then the
15th, and then the 25th, leaving 5 rows to the opposite
boundary. The distance between the rows of points
along the long boundary of the field is calculated in the
same way, viz. 150 5 = 30. Palms 15, 45, 75, 105,
and 135, in each row are then used for census, leaving
15 palms to the boundary.
Example 2
A field of 50 ha (120 acres). Regularly shaped, but roads running

haphazardly with respect to field boundaries, and planting rows not
parallel to any boundaries, see Plan 2.
Step 1. As Example 1.
Step 2. Number of points required 120 7 = 17.1

This field has sides, which are about equal and 16
points on a 4 x 4 grid is suitable.
Step 3. As Example 1.
Step 4. Note that the rows do not run parallel to the field
boundaries (Plan 2). In calculating the "centring" of the
census rows this has been taken into consideration by
arranging the grid rows along the lower boundary not at
10 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 10, but at 15 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 5.
Example 3
A field of 25 ha (60 acres). Irregular in shape, roads not in a

geometric pattern and rows not parallel with field boundaries, see
Plan 3.
The way in which the additional complications imposed by the

irregular shape have been taken into account in laying out the
census points can be seen by reference to Plan 3. The most
suitable boundary to work from must be chosen. In the plan this is
the top boundary.
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3. Counting
At each point the pests (bagworms, nettle caterpillars, etc.) are

counted on 3 fronds, comprising one on each of three adjacent
palms. These "pest count" palms do not include the marked
"point" palms. At any census they will be three palms some
distance to the North, South, East or West of the marked palms, a
different group of three being used at successive census rounds, so
as to exclude any possibility of counting fronds stripped of pests at
a previous inspection. The fronds chosen should be those inclining
at 45o (about No. 17 on the phyllotactic spiral). In shorter palms
these can be pulled down by means of a crooked stick, but in taller
ones it is necessary to remove them with a pruning knife.
Figures are averaged on a per-frond basis for each point and for
each sampling unit. As a routine, each field is visited about every
three months. If signs of developing infestation are noted, this can
be increased for the area in question to monthly (or even more
frequent) rounds, until control measures are taken and their effect
becomes apparent, or until the population declines naturally.
Field maps of the kind depicted in Plans 1, 2 and 3, which show the
position of census points, should be kept so that isolated pest
increases at one or two points can be easily located when census
figures are examined.
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Appendix 9.4
Major Bagworms and Nettle Caterpillar Pest Species in Malaysia
Scientific name Life cycle Nature of damage and habit
BAGWORMS Adult. Only the male is winged, greyish Young caterpillars tend to scrape the
Metisa plana brown in colour and spanning 15-17 mm. upper epidermis of leaves in more or
The female is wingless and legless, less circular patches around the
spending its entire lifecycle in the case. mother cocoon, these patches later
On emerging from the cocoon, the male turning brown.
seeks out the female in its bag to mate,
after which the male dies and the female Medium sized caterpillars eat through
follow suit after laying fertilized eggs. the leaf tissues leaving circular holes
resembling "shot holes".
Egg. The female lays about 100-300
eggs, which remain within the "bag". Larger caterpillars tend to chew in
They begin to hatch 2-3 weeks after from the leaf edges.
fertilization.
Such damage, in time coalesce with
Larva. The larva, on hatching, moves progressive necrosis of leaf tissues
out of the bag and constructs a case of leading to eventual skeletonisation.
its own. At full development, it is around
12 mm long and have a head capsule The caterpillars are noted to
which can be seen to be brown and concentrate on the more exposed
white with the naked eye. The larva is parts of shaded fronds, they gradually
known to actively feed for 8 weeks infesting younger fronds as the latter
before pupation. become skeletonised.
Pupa. The pupa is about 15 mm long Spread is by crawling to adjacent

and hangs from the leaf by means of a palms via touching fronds and wind
crook shaped attachment. The male current after suspending themselves
emerges in about 3-4 weeks. on silken threads.
Total life cycle. 3-4 months, with 8

weeks of active feeding.
Cremastopsyche Adult. Similar to that of M. plana except Same as for M. plana.

Pendula that the wingspan of the male is shorter,
i.e. about 11 mm.
Egg. About 65-220 eggs are laid with an

incubation period of 15 days.
Larva. Similar to M. plana except that

they are known to actively feed for 10-20
weeks.
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Mahasena Corbetti Pupa. The pupa is about 8-10 mm in Young caterpillars scrape the
length and differs from M. plana by it epidermis with holes being made as
being attached to the leaf via a thread- they mature.
like structure.
Older caterpillars eat large areas of
Total life cycle. 4-7 months with 18-20 leaf and use very big pieces to build
weeks of active feeding. their cases, stripping the leaf blades
almost completely.
Adult. Morphology and habit of the adult Defoliation is almost always severe
of both sexes is similar to the above during outbreak situations.
species except that they are larger in
size; the male possessing a larger wing- Dispersion is via touching frond tips,
span of about 20 mm, female on maturity wind being not expected to contribute
reaching 35-44 mm in length. significantly.
Outbreaks of the pest occur less

Egg. The female produces 2000-3000 frequently on the Peninsular than the
eggs, which are oviposited into the bag above two species.
24 hours after copulation. They hatch 2
weeks after this.
Larva. The young larva feed on dry

leaves attached to the mother bag and
start making its own bags with very tiny
scraps of these leaves before feeding on
green ones. The larval period lasts for
14-18 weeks, with active feeding
throughout. The larva reaches
maximum size of 25-30 mm.
Pupa. The pupa is enclosed in an untidy

bag made of leaf pieces of varying sizes
loosely attached to a silk lining. The
pupal period lasts for 3-6 weeks.
Total life cycle. 5-7 months with 14-16

weeks for active feeding.
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NETTLE
CATERPILLARS
Setora nitens Adult. The moth is of robust build with Young larvae scrape strips of
brown fore and pale brown hind-wings epidermis.
spanning 37 mm. Both male and
female are winged. They are difficult to
detect in the field. Mature larvae feed on the leaf blade,
commencing from the tip and
progressing backwards until the
Egg. Shiny yellow and translucent; laid entire lamina is devoured.
on the underside of leaflets in small
patches. Incubation period is about
1.5-3 weeks. In emerging situations, larvae are
concentrated on the underside of
lower fronds but as infestation
Larva. A greenish-yellow to green increases, they become evenly
caterpillar with characteristic spines. distributed throughout the crown.
Larval period is 2.5-4.0 weeks, with
active feeding throughout. A most common nettle caterpillar
pest of oil palm.
Pupa. Pupation takes place in a

spherical, smooth and light brown
cocoon with average diameter of 15
mm. The cocoon is found on the base
of the host palm or on axils of leaflets
on fronds. The pupal stage lasts for 2-4
weeks.
Total life cycle. 6-10 weeks with 2.5-

4.0 weeks of active feeding.
175 7/05
Darna trima Adult. Shape of the adult is similar to Similar to S. nitens except that the
that of S. nitens but is smaller. The leaflets are usually eaten from the
forewings are dark brown with a yellow margin, giving a serrated appearance.
mottle and four black stripes whilst the
hind wings are dark grey. Wingspan is
about 18 mm.
Egg. Laid in similar fashion as S.

nitens. However, egg stage lasts only
1 week.
Larva. Caterpillar is light brown with

orange markings when young,
becoming entirely chocolate brown on
the upper-side at maturity, the latter
stage measuring about 12 mm. The
entire stage lasts 2-4 weeks.
Pupa. The cocoon is similar to that of

S. nitens but differs in that they are
found mostly on the leaves. This stage
lasts about 1 week.
Total life cycle. 4-6 weeks with 2-4

weeks of active feeding.
Thosea asigna Life cycles of these species are not Members of these species can
Thosea bisura well worked out but generally follow the become extremely troublesome under
Ploneta aiducta sequence of S. nitens with either a outbreak situations but such
Susica pallida longer or shorter period being spent in occurrences are not as frequent as
each stage. for the above two species.
176 7/05
Appendix 9.5
Assessment of Damage Caused by Tirathaba mundella
Managers should check incidence of Tirathaba activity particularly in new

areas planted with oil palms for the first time. An essessment of the
situation should be arranged as soon as pest activity is detected.
The census system is based on the appearance of fresh frass and

percentage of fruits damaged on the bunch surface as there appears to
be a close relationship between the severity of damage and caterpillar
population. The system divides the severity of damage into four classes:-
a) Severe : More than 50% of fruits damaged and/or very

large amount of fresh frass on the surface
b) Moderate: 20 to 50% of fruits damaged and/or 1/4 to 1/2 of

fresh frass on the surface as (a)
c) Light : Less than 20% of fruits damaged and/or little

amount of fresh frass on the surface
d) Nil : No damage, no fresh frass
The census of damage can be best recorded in the format attached.
The caterpillar population in an inflorescence (male or female) or a bunch

4 to 6 weeks after anthesis with moderate or severe categories of
damage may exceed 20 in heavily infestated situations. Caterpillars are
seldom found in bunches more than 6 weeks after anthesis with about 1
to 2 caterpillars on the average when damage is severe.
A practical method of assessing the extent of infestation is to carry out the

above census on 10 rows of 20 palms distributed through the field/area
with incidences of fresh damage. Such census blocks should give
representative results for 40 hectares. In cases where large hectarage is
involved, the census may be taken on palms in every 20th row.
It is necessary to randomly select 20 inflorescences and/or bunches of 4

to 6 weeks after anthesis in palms with moderately or severely damaged
bunches for close examination and inspection for Tirathaba. The
inflorescences/bunches should be from the representative census block
and should be removed without removing the subtending fronds. One
inflorescence bunch per palm should be removed and the inflorescence
dissected spikelet by spikelet to inspect for damage and presence of the
caterpillars.
177 7/05
Appendix 9.6
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF RATS USING

BARN OWLS (TYO ALBA)
1. Identification of Barn Owls (Tyto alba)
1.1. The barn owl is the only owl specie with a heart-shaped facial disc.
1.2. It is lighter in colour than any of the other owls and when perched the
almost white front parts are diagnostic. The out wing feathers and
back are light golden brown when seen in day light. In flight at night
the bird appears almost totally white as it flies over displaying the very
light under-wing feathers and breast.
1.3 Adult birds stand about 35 cm in height and weigh between 500 to 650
g. Females are heavier than males.
1.4 Barn owls do not hoot and their usual call is a shriek. Young birds in
the nest hiss loudly when disturbed and this noise in attics and tree
stumps has often been mistaken for that of snakes.
2. Breeding and Habits of Barn Owls
2.1 Barn owls produce two and often three clutches per annum.
2.2 Average clutch size is 6.6 and the mean brood size 4.6.
2.3 The incubation period for eggs is 32 days and the young birds fledge at
8 or 9 weeks. The birds breed at an early age, 8-12 months.
2.4 The owls do have natural predators monitor lizards and snakes.
2.5 Barn owl diet in oil palms in Malaysia has been proven to consist of
99.9% rats.
2.6 Barn owls are not territorial in feeding ranges and considerable
overlapping takes place with no antagonism displayed
2.7 Each adult bird, weighs 500 650g consumes 80 130g of prey per
day. This is equivalent to 1 or 2 rats of the size common in the
plantation.
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2.8 Each breeding pair consumes 1,200 to 2,000 rats per annum
depending on brood size.
2.9 The birds form monogamous pairs though polygamy has been
reported in the USA.
2.10 All second generation baits (brodifacoum, bromodialone, difenacoum,

etc.) must be avoided as they are toxic to barn owls (through
secondary ingestion of poisoned rats).
2.11 Barn owls are sometime known as screech owl (make screeching
sound), white owl or monkey faced owl and are generally known
within its local range as burung pungguk jelapang which is believed to
originate in Java.
3. Survey for Presence of Barn Owl in the Estate
To set up a nest box scheme, firstly, determine if there are barn owls in
a radius of 5 km from your estate. Evidence of presence can be
determined from:
a) Actual observations using a strong torchlight at night in the palms

after 10 p.m.
b) Enquiries to all residents with houses with attics as to hissing or

screeching noises in those attics.
c) Near nesting sites in buildings or stumps, the pellets that the owl
regurgitate will be found, either fresh and complete or broken down
by rain. In the latter case rat bones and skulls will be exposed.
4. Construction of Barn Owl Boxes
The detailed design and plan for the construction of the owl box are
shown in Figures 1 - 5.
179 7/05
4.1 Material
a) One sheet of weatherproof 12mm thickness plywood of

standard size 1.2m x 2.4m will be adequate for 1 nest boxes
i.e. two sheets will make three nest boxes.
b) 2 pieces of Ms 2mm thickness flat bar 2.54 cm x 1.5m are

required as supports for each nest box.
c) A standard size 1.2m x 2.4m 28g zinc sheet will provide roofing
for three next boxes.
d) 3.5m of 4.5cm x 9cm timber for framing for base.
e) 2.3m of 2.5cm x 5cm timber for roof frame, ladder support

struts, etc.
f) Hard wood 19cm x 10cm x 6.5m pole for main upright.
g) 30 pieces 5cm nails for plywood.
h) 20 pieces 3.8cm nail for zinc sheet.
i) Rubber (from old motor tube) for hinges.
j) Cement - 1 kg )
Sand - 10 kg ) to pack and consolidate
Rubber - as required ) pole base
4.2 Construction
a) The box is constructed of weatherwood plywood (6mm thickness is

acceptable but 12mm ply will last considerably longer).
b) Roof is of flat zinc sheet (28 gauge).
c) There is a door for inspection and cleaning at one end with tyre
rubber used for hinges.
d) The entrance for the owls is on the long side of the box measuring
20 cm in height by 19cm width. When siting in the field this door
should face down the inter-row so that bird has a clear flight line
both into and out of the box.
180 7/05
e) A partition, half the width of the box and on the same side as the
entrance door is placed as indicated in the figure. This separates
the entrance from the nesting section, preventing chicks from falling
out and helps to darken the nest area.
f) The supporting pole should be minimum 10cm x 10cm hardwood

(although any other suitable material could be used) and should be
placed so that at least 1.2m is below ground and at least 5.5m
above ground. As the box is heavy it must be well supported in the
ground and we prepare a hole with a tractor mounted auger 0.5m to
0.6m diameter, place the pole centrally, fill with rubble then pour in
a cement mix.
g) When the cement is set the box is fitted to the top of the pole. Two
mild steel bars are used as struts to provide additional support.
h) A metal cowl is fitted to the pole to prevent possible predators such

as snakes or monitor lizards gaining access. In young plantings
this should be omitted as strong winds cause vibrations of the cowl
which deter the barn owls.
i) In setting up the box the floor must be dead level or the eggs will
roll into one corner and the adult will not be able to incubate them.
A light layer of fibrous material placed on the floor of the box initially
will help to prevent such egg movement.
5. Positioning and Utilisation of Nest Boxes
It is usually preferable to place nest boxes in the shade of mature

palms. Boxes are best erected in frond rows to minimise interference
with harvesting. The entrance hole should face down between the
palm rows. Any fronds interfering with the box should be removed or
pruned as this will help to keep any predators away. Collars of zinc
around the pole (1.5m from the top) provide protection against
predators, in particular monitor lizards or snakes. The base of the pole
should be clean and free from weeds particularly creepers.
Having determined that barn owls are present it would be most unwise
to provide nest boxes over the whole estate immediately as many of
these could remain unused for several years. Far better to set up 20 to
50 boxes initially to check on occupancy rate, which will give you a
good indication of owl population density. If the owls are around they
will quickly and naturally take up residence in the boxes, and further
boxes can then be introduced as population increases.
181 7/05
For the start, boxes can be spread over the plantation at the initial
densities of one per 20 ha and the densities would be increased to one
box per 10 ha once birds increase in numbers.
For the start, boxes can be spread over the plantation at the initial
densities of one per 20 ha and the densities would be increased to one
box per 10 ha once birds increase in numbers.
Attempts to physically introduce barn owls from outside are not

recommended, as such attempts are not often successful. This would
contravene the Wildlife Act if done without a licence. All birds breeding
in nest boxes are considered wild birds under the law and are
covered by all the Acts relating to these and protected species.
182 7/05
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187 7/05

IOI Agricultural Policy (Revised July05)

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IOI Agricultural Policy (Revised July05)

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IOI CORPORATION BERHAD

Last Revised : July 2005

This policy is formulated by the Technical Committee and serves as a

This policy is distributed to each and every individual executive planting

Amendments will be issued for updating purpose through the Controller of

SECTION NO. PAGE

1.0 LAND CLEARING, PREPARATION AND PLANTING 1

1.1 RUBBER TO PALM REPLANTING 1

1.2 PALM TO PALM REPLANTING 3

1.3 JUNGLE TO PALM PLANTING 4

1.4 REPLANTING IN AREAS WITH CONTOUR TERRACES 8

2.0 NURSERY PRACTICES 9

2.1 CHOICE OF SITE 11

2.2 SEED AND SEEDLING REQUIREMENT 11

2.3 SINGLE STAGE NURSERY 11

2.4 TWO STAGE NURSERY 20

2.5 PESTS AND DISEASES 26

2.6 TIME OF FIELD PLANTING 26

2.7 TURNING OF POLYBAGS 26

3.0 PLANTING DENSITY AND PLANTING TECHNIQUE 27

3.1 RECOMMENDED PLANTING DENSITY 27

3.2 PLANTING PATTERN 28

3.3 PLANTING TECHNIQUE 31

4.0 SOIL CONSERVATION AND TERRACING 33

4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SLOPES 33

5.0 ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF 37

5.1 CONVENTIONAL LEGUMES 37

5.2 MUCUNA BRACTEATA 46

6.0 WEEDING: WEED CONTROL 51

6.1 IMMATURE AREAS 51

6.2 MATURE AREAS 52

6.3 RECOMMENDED HERBICIDES FOR MATURE PALMS 53

6.4 CROP SAFETY AND WEEDICIDE PHYTOTOXICITY 53

6.5 SPRAYING: CALIBRATION AND SAFETY 61

7.1 ADVANTAGES OF ABLATION 66

7.2 ABLATION POLICY 66

8.1a NURSERY MANURING 69

8.1b LEGUME MANURING 71

8.2 FIELD MANURING - IMMATURE PALMS 71

8.3 FIELD MANURING - MATURE PALMS 72

8.4 APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS 72

8.5 FERTILIZER APPLICATION 77

8.6 FERTILIZER HANDLING AND STORAGE 79

8.7 FERTILIZER SAMPLING FOR ANALYSIS 83

8.8 UTILIZATION OF OIL PALM BY-PRODUCTS 87

9.0 PESTS AND DISEASES 99

9.2 DISEASES 112

9.3 TREATMENT OF GANODERMA INFECTED PALMS 115

10.0 ROADS 122

12.1 LAYOUT 122

11.0 PRUNING 124

11.1 PRUNING STANDARDS 124

11.2 FREQUENCY OF PRUNING 125

11.3 PLACEMENT OF FRONDS 125

12.0 HARVESTING 126

12.1 PRE-HARVESTING OPERATIONS 126

12.2 COMMENCEMENT OF HARVESTING 126

12.3 HARVESTING INTERVAL 127

12.4 HARVESTING STANDARDS 127

12.5 HARVESTING ORGANISATION 127

12.6 CONTROL OF HARVESTING 128

12.7 MONITORING OF FFB QUALITY 128

12.8 BUFFALO ASSISTED COLLECTION 136