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CAC Document No. 190
ROUTE SPECIFIC COST COMPARISONS:

UNIT TRAINS, COAL SLURRY PIPELINES AND
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
Michael Rieber and Shao Lee Soo

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
http://archive.org/details/routespecificcos190rieb
CAC Document No. 190
Final Report
ROUTE SPECIFIC COST COMPARISONS: UNIT TRAINS, COAL

SLURRY PIPELINES AND EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
by
Michael Rieber* and Shao Lee Soo*

with
L. Ballard, T. Leung, H. Perez-Bianco and D. D. Soo
prepared for t.
Science and Public Policy Program, University of Oklahoma

(Subcontract No. 158-376)
in support of
Technology Assessment of Western Energy Resource Development

(Transportation)
Environmental Protection Agency Contract 68-01-1916
Center for Advanced Computation project 46-26-17-350

(Draft Final Report March 1976)
May 1976
* The authors are, respectively, Research Professor, Center for

Advanced Computation and Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
College of Engineering, the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign. Unit train estimates are updated and revised from
J. A. Ferguson, "Unit Train Transportation of Coal," The Coal
Future: Economic and Technological Analysis of Initiatives and
Innovations to Secure Fuel Supply Independence CAC Document
,
No. 163, Appendix E.

DISCLAIMER
Hie work performed in this study is the responsibility of

the authors. The views, findings, reccmTiendations and
opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The Science and
Public Policy Program of the University of Oklahoma, or
the University of Illinois.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Problem Statement 1
1.2 Unit Trains 3
1.3 Coal Slurry Pipelines 10
1.4 Extra High Voltage (EHV) Electric Transmission 20
1.5 Right of Way Costs 21
References 24
SECTION II: UNIT TRAINS 27
2 . General 27
2.2 Capital Costs 27
2.3 Operating Costs 32
2.4 Cost Analyses and Results 36
2.5 Additional Considerations 48
2.5.1 Unit Train Characteristics 48

2.5.2 Car Requirements 48
2.5.3 Track Upgrading 52
2.5.4 The Steel Interface 53
2.5.5 Labor Requirements 55
2.5.6 Environment 55
References 57
Appendix - Computer Printout - Unit Trains:
Costs and Resources for Unit Train
Transportation (follows) 57
SECTION III: COAL SLURRY PIPELINES 59
3.1 General 59
3.2 Capital Cost Elements 61
3.3 Operating Costs 69
3.4 Cost Analysis and Results 69
References 84
Appendix - Computer Printout - Costs and

Resources for Slurry Pipelines (follows) 85
Page
SECTION IV: EXTRA HIGH TOLTAGE TRANSMISSION 87

4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Extra High Voltage Transmission - AC-EX! Comparison 87
4.3 The EHV Cost Model 92
4.4 Results 94
References 105
Appendix A - EHV Transmission Safety and Environment (follows) 106
Appendix B - EHV Transmission - Comparative Data (follows) 106
SECTION V: CONCLUSIONS 107

5.1 General 107
5.2 Slurry Pipeline and Unit Train 108
5.3 Comparative Studies 110
Appendix A - Comparative Data - Coal Slurry Pipelines
and Unit Trains: Bechtel and Stanford Research
Institute (follows) 113
Appendix B - Comparative Data - EBASCO and Bechtel (follows) 113
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.1 Parameters for Coal Transport System 5
1.2 Onshore Pipeline Right of Way and Damage Costs 23

2.1 Unit Train Routes 30
2.2 Sample Route and Capacity Specification 33
2.3 Sample Detail of Labor Requirements 34
2.4 Sample Detail of Supplies 35
2.5 Basic Items - Costs and Resources 37

2.6 Estimated Car Requirements 51
3.1 Coal Slurry Pipeline Routes 62
3.2 Itemized Capital Costs of Black Mesa and

Wyoming-Arkansas Coal Slurry Pipelines 64
3.3 Coal Slurry Pipeline 70
3.4 Manpower Required for Operation of Energy Facilities 71

3.5 Major Items Required for Operation and
Maintenance of Energy Facilities 72
3.6 Basic Items - Costs and Resources 74
3.7 Summary of Selected Catmercial Slurry Pipelines 78
3.8 Changes in Costs per 1000-Mile Pipeline Designed

for 5 mph Flow at 5 mph and 3.5 mph Compared
to One Designed for 3.5 mph 82
4.1 High-voltage direct-current power transmission

projects in commission and planned 89
4.2 Estimated Investment Costs of 765 kv AC Double

Circuit Transmission Line 96
4.3 Estimated Investment 1000 Mile EHV

Transmission of 3000 MW 97
4.4 Cost Analysis of 765 kv AC Transmission System 98
4.5 Cost Analysis of 600 kv DC Transmission System 99
4.6 Estimating Assumptions 100
4.7 EHV Source to Load Transmission System Specifications 102
4.8 Route Specific Costs 103

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1.1 Route Analysis 4
2.1
(a) -(c) Unit Costs at Various Capacities - Unit Trains 41
2.2 Unit Cost - Unit Trains 44
2.3 Employment - Unit Train Operation 45
2.4 Resource Conmitment 47
3.1 Unit Cost - Slurry Pipelines 76a
4.1 Electric Transmission Routes 88
4.2 Estimated Unit Cost of EHV Transmission of 3000 NWe 95
5.1
(a)-(c) Unit Costs at Various Capacities - Unit
Train and Slurry Pipelines 111-113
.
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
The comparative economics of three modes of coal-

energy transport are studied. These include: unit trains,
coal slurry pipelines and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission
from mine mouth generating plants. The basis for comparison is
cost rather than price. To facilitate the use of the data,
costs are presented on the following bases: cents/ton-mile,
dollars/ton, cents/MMBtu transported, and cents /MMBtu-mi le
For each mode of transport, a generalized statement
of components, component costs and parameters is presented.
From this, route specific analyses are developed. These are
based on the movement of 25 million tons of coal per year
except for electric transmission which is based on an input of
3 000 MW. It should be noted, however, that 25 million tons
per year may imply a possible input of almost 5 000 MW at the
supply end. The following routes are analyzed:
(1) Farmington, New Mexico to Los Angeles, California

a. Unit trains.
b. Coal slurry pipeline.
c. EHV transmission (3000 MW)
(2) Gillete, Wyoming to Chicago, Illinois

a. Unit trains.
c. EHV transmission (3000 MW)
(3) Gillete, Wyoming to Houston, Texas

a. Unit trains.
(4) Cols trip, Montana to Houston, Texas

a. Unit train.
- 1 -
- 2 -
(5) Colstrip, Montana to Seattle, Washington

a. Unit trains.
(6) Electric transmission, EHV transmission (3000 MW)

a. Kaiparowits, Utah to Los Angeles, California.
b. Beulah, North Dakota to Chicago, Illinois.
c. Colstrip, Montana to Chicago, Illinois.
Coal transport from Gillette, Wyoming to New York

City via unit trains has been excluded from the detailed
analysis. This is based on a number of factors. First, the
state of the tracks east of Chicago are considerably more
deteriorated than those further west. The cost of rebuilding
to accomodate the shipments would be very much higher than our
estimates for western roads. While rehabilitation would
affect all rail transport, the cost basis would be added to the
unit train movement east of Chicago. Therefore, the western
roads cite a lack of cooperation in rate making and joint ship-
ment possibilities as one moves east. The problem appears to
be who would get what part of the joint rate and how high would
it be. Second, the population density moving east rapidly
increases. There is little room for the rerouting of right of
way to avoid noise and surface traffic problems. This may
render the exercise improbable. Rail traffic densities in the
east only exacerbate the problem. A general cost estimate for
this route has been provided assuming a route through northern
Indiana and Ohio, the northwest corner of Pennsylvania,
southern New York to a point east of the Appalachians, then
southeast through Pennsylvania and east across New Jersey to
New York City. An alternative would be from about Buffalo to
the Hudson River and then south on the east bank to New York
City.
Because Case 5 anticipates coal export as well as
local usage, no provision for evaporating or dumping coal
slurry water after dewatering has been made. Therefore, the
.
- 3 -
analysis includes the costs of returning the water to the

point of origin. This reduces the water requirement, after
the first line fill, to make-up water. The specific routes
and transport modes are shown in Figure 1.1. An abbreviated
parameter format is presented in Table 1.1.
The remainder of this introduction is devoted to the
background of each mode. This will provide an understanding
of the system under consideration, the current controversies,
and the non-cost items which have been included.
1.2 Unit Trains
A unit train is a single purpose dedicated, inte-

grated train for hauling one commodity, in this case coal. It
is composed of special purpose cars which haul continuously
from mine to consumer. Due to different definitions of the
term "unit train," it is difficult to say exactly what percen-
tage of rail coal moves by this method; estimates for 1972
vary from one-third to one-half of total coal rail traffic [1]
Given current technology and forecast consumer demand, unit
trains will become even more important for hauling projected
high volume coal shipments.
Unit trains were first used in 1957, when the Reserve
Mining Company transported iron ore over a 50-mile private
section of track to a processing plant at Silver Bay, Minnesota
[2] . Utilization of the unit train for carrying coal first
became prominent in the mid-1960' s. The unit coal train con-
cept was refined in the late 1960's. Further improvements
have been made since then. From the very beginning, its
successful initiation has almost always depended upon close
cooperation between the mining company, the railroad, and an
electric utility company. Typically, long term contracts,
sometimes of ten years or more, are made so that large capital
investments for equipment can be justified. This includes the
- 4 -
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t-i iH
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- 5 -
Transport System
Parameters for Coal
Tab le 1.1
Receiving Point
Transport Facility
Supply Point
pr-imary Parameters Tons/Day

Tons/Day and Distance
Tons /Day
1. utilization
1. Terrain
2. Labor
2. Labor
3 Power and Fuel
(Speed)
Railroads Unloading Facility
3.
4 Rails
5. Loading Facility 4. Storage
5 Locomotives
6. Supplies 5. Pulverizing in
6. Cars Power Plants
7 . Stations
(Flow Velocity)
Stirred Storage
Pipeline
Separation Facility
4
5. Slurry Preparation
Mills 5. Pumping Stations to Centrifuge
Storage Tanks 6. Supplies Coal and Water,
Agitators Water Disposal
6 Pumping
7. Water Supply
8. Supplies
EHV Transmission ? voltage Condition-;

3 Distribution
4 Transmission *
Ing and
5. Voltage Step-up '
Lines and Towers
6 Rectification
- 6 -
unit train itself as well as coal handling facilities at both

ends of the haul. It should be noted, however, that the long
term contracts do not extend to unit train rates. These must
be set annually. Early operations were typified by railroad
owned coal cars and locomotives, primarily because they
already owned the equipment. When freight cars specifically
suited to coal hauling and larger locomotives became the rule
rather than the exception, it often became preferrable for
the utility companies to own their own trains, both as part of
their investment and to insure continuity of delivery in times
of car shortages. However, all train crews and most maintenance
are provided by the railroads. Traditionally, mining companies
have been more hesitant to assume unit train ownership, probably
because they have less to gain than either the utility companies
or the railroads. However, the associated contracts do provide
a guaranteed scheduled outlet for the mine's coal which may
lower costs. Furthermore unit trains often lower the delivered
cost of coal sufficiently to encourage increased coal usage.
For the railroads, unit trains provide better equipment and
plant utilization than do other rail modes. For the coal
burning utility companies, they lower fuel expenditures and
establish a stable fuel supply [1] Schedule receipts also
.
lower inventory costs. Lowering transport costs, by increasing

the net-back at the mine, increases economically recoverable
coal reserves; mines may go deeper, recovery percentages may
increase and the time before mine closure may be effectively
prolonged.
A unit train operation involves much more than merely
the locomotive and hopper cars to haul the coal. Successful
operation is dependent upon concentrated usage of equipment
so that the train spends as much time as possible on the road.
To do this, high rate loading and unloading facilities as well
as significant storage capability must be installed to supple-
- 7 -
less than
equipment and handling are, however
^difional fragmented
11 incurred in the movement
of similar but
from several locates
on ag sTic-d uP
in multi/le car lots.
and delivered to and
This follows fro,
in** factor associated with
^"^^
a unit tram.
^^
a load
ciency and often no stopping even
one cargo, one orxgxn,
yard tx*e make . up
unloadxng, an no
for loading or a y,
averagxng 60 miles per
time, instead of xs hxghly
over 800 miles per day. However, thxs
average
conditions.
dependent upon track raxlroad d
and/or maintaxnxng a
The cost of building
train costs. Because of
be factored into unit
1= o he
must also
revenues (due to the loss oi
^ producing
declining
diversification of son. railroads.
freight haulage) and the
^ roads have spent a mini
Taintenance and the building
on track and right of
of new mileage.
way
In general but
moving west to
specifically, deterioration becomes worse
not
allow speeds of only
east" sole sections of track
definitely hampering the efficiency of a unxt
per hour, utxlxzatxon.
schedule and reducing total
train on a tight time average
and tie replacements are presently at below
Rail
conditions areê-xoratxng
recxation rales so that track
either a new
at best, staying the same. Eventually,
or, track
be made to develop labor savxng methods of
effort must of
or a totally new concept
construction and maintenance
design must be **"***
track, tie and roadbed
appear to have set rates
in the past, railroads
to the
which
n"-' did not have a unique relationship
(orices)
(prices)
In a 1963 reportort to the Secretary
underlying cost estimates.
follows.
of Conferee [3],
this was expressed as
- 8 -
"Pricing must depend upon knowledge of cost and

components of cost. Until sufficient cost data
are available, rates quoted by the railroads
cannot accomplish their purpose of effective
competition at a profitable price. The rail-
roads have never instituted cost-finding
procedures as a reference for pricing services.
Although several different sets of books have
been kept traditionally to meet the separate
requirements of the ICC, the IRS, the various
state reporting criteria and for responsibility
accounting, none of the bookkeeping operations
offers a basis for costing service."
To some extent this has changed since 1963, but with respect
to unit train operations, pricing of the service still retains
a strong element of charging what the market will bear based
on estimates of the cost of service of competing lines or
transport modes, if any. Estimation of the economic cost of
services not only provides a calculation of resource alloca-
tion, but it can provide an open examination of the rate
basis.
Probably the major catalyst to the formation of unit
trains and the corresponding reduction of railroad rates on
these one-commodity trains was incipient competition from a
coal slurry pipeline in the east north central region, and,
on the East coast, the reduction of crude and residual oil
prices in the late 1950' s and early 1960's. Some large coal
users had felt an urgent need to reduce transportation costs
and had financed the construction of a coal slurry pipeline
in Ohio [4] . This pipeline posed a severe threat to the
railroads as their largest volume commodity was coal and the
proposed slurry rates were far lower than their single car
- 9 -
coal shipment rates. A 1962 Department of Interior publi-

cation, "Report to the Panel on Civilian Technology on Coal
Slurry Pipelines" [5] , predicted the impact of slurry pipe-
lines:
"Since coal traffic is so important to the

earnings of the railroads, especially in the
East, we believe that they can ill afford to
watch even a single new pipeline built without
making every effort to minimize their own costs
and adjust their own services in such a way as
to meet the competition effectively, before the
traffic is lost."
After a very short period of thought and a re-evaluation of

their techniques and profits, the railroads, in cooperation
with the electric utilities and coal mines, initiated the
unit train concept. Driven by the instinct for survival,
the railroads undercut the delivered coal price of the slurry
pipeline and put it out of business in a few years. The
Ohio slurry line was shut down. It was later proposed that
it be reopened for the purpose of moving garbage from
Cleveland. Currently, the only successful coal slurry line
in the United States is the 27 3 mile Black Mesa line in the
Southwest. It is by far the longest coal slurry, or any
slurry, line in the world. One reason for its selection
over unit train transportation was that the alternative was
the construction of a 150-mile section of new track over
rough terrain to serve the mine-to-powerplant route [6].
The unit train concept is not without its disadvan-
tages, even when the track is already there. The trains are
noisy, occupy significant track mileage and create hazards
on level crossings. Rerouting and building new track to
- 10 -
avoid cities and towns may become a necessity if any signi-

ficant increase in their use occurs. Double tracking will
serve to alleviate the traffic problem. Bridging and under-
passes should eliminate the hazards. It may also become
necessary to fence a signficant number of miles. These
solutions are feasible but costly.
1.3 Coal Slurry Pipelines
The growing energy problem has resulted in research

and development into new methods of utilizing current energy
resources more efficiently. Among the recent energy trans-
portation systems under study is the coal slurry pipeline.
In the past, this method has had little support or publicity
from either public or governmental agencies. Now, it is being
acclaimed as one of the major energy breakthroughs. The
actual success of this method, however, has not been entirely
validated.
The idea of the coal slurry process was patented in
1891 [9] . Initially, the coal is mined and then sent by
truck or conveyor to the slurrification plant. There, the
coal is screened to remove oversize chunks. Subsequently,
it is sent to a bin where it is crushed to a fine powder of
sufficiently small particle size so that it can be suspended
in water. Next the powdered coal is blown into a mixer where
it is combined with a quantity of fresh water until a desired
consistency is obtained. The slurry is then stored in tanks
or delivered directly to electric power plant by pipeline.
On arrival, the coal slurry is pushed through a centrifuge
which is rotated at high speeds. There, the coal particles
are separated from most of the water leaving 2 5 percent total
moisture. Further dewatering by thermal drying (using very
high temperatures) more filtration, and direct evaporation
,
.
- 11 -
in open air storage tanks [7] has been suggested, but is

deemed unnecessary in power plant applications. (Twenty-five
percent moisture means an average of 2 percent heat loss.)
The most important aspect of the entire coal slurry
process is the pipeline. The first coal slurry pipeline was
built in 1914 to bring coal to London, England [9]. Since
then, the United States has built approximately 3 81 miles of
pipeline, with a capacity of almost 6 million tons of coal
per year [8] . This includes the 273 mile pipeline, built in
1972 by the Southern Pacific Transportation Co., which runs
from the Black Mesa coal fields in Arizona to the Mohave
power plant below the Davis Dam on the Colorado River. The
1036 mile pipeline planned by Energy Transportation Systems,
Inc., (ETSI) to deliver 25 million tons of coal per year from
the coal fields near Gillette, Wyoming, in part to Middle
South Utilities' power plants in White Bluff, Arkansas and in
part to whichever other utilities are willing to enter into
long term contracts, is the furthest advanced among several
long distance coal slurry pipeline proposals. It is this
recently proposed slurry pipeline which has suddenly erupted
into a major controversy. Involved are railroads, ETSI,
environmentalists, Congressmen, state legislatures, economists
and engineers
Both the Black Mesa and the proposed Wyoming to
Arkansas pipeline basically involve the same mechanism.
Along the Black Mesa pipeline there are four electrically
powered pumping stations located 65 miles apart. Coal slurry
is pumped through a pipeline 18 inches in diameter at about
3.5 miles per hour. This speed is slow enough to prevent
erosion of the pipes from coal particles but fast enough so
that the coal will not settle out of suspension in the pipeline
It takes three days for a particle of coal to travel the
entire 273 miles.
- 12 -
At maximum capacity, the pipeline contains 46,000

tons of coal [6] A fresh water pump is situated at each
.
station in case there is a breakdown and flushing of the

line is necessary. There are also additional fresh water
storage ponds and an emergency dump pond at each pump
station.
The Wyoming to Arkansas line is based on a similar
scheme. The pipe is 38 inches in diameter. The entire pipe-
line will be below ground except for the 10 pumping stations
located 100 miles apart and for river crossings, ravines and
difficult terrain. It is a 12 day 9 hour trip for a particle
of coal. At maximum capacity the pipeline contains 855,000
tons of coal [7] All other characteristics are generally
.
similar to those of the Black Mesa line. The pipeline route

was chosen to provide as much downhill grade as possible, a
factor which eases the strain on the pumps and reduces cost.
The route from the Black Mesa mine to Davis Dam has an over-
all decent of 1,592 feet. The Wyoming to Arkansas route has
a similar, but milder decent [8].
Over particular routes, the coal slurry pipeline
has several advantages over other forms of coal transportation
For example, the Black Mesa coal mines are located 120 miles
north of the nearest railroad. Davis Dam is located 30 miles
north of the nearest railroad. Had the coal been shipped by
rail, the total distance would have amounted to 400 miles,
including 150 miles of new rail facility [6], or 127 miles
more than the pipeline. It is important to note that the
distance advantage here is of the order of 2:3. Water needs
for the Black Mesa pipeline appear adequate; the underground
wells are regularly replenished. However, there has been no
environmental impact statement. In addition, the coal slurry
provides almost 15 percent of the coolina water required by
the Mohave power plant [8]. Overall, the pipeline is
located in an ideal environment.
- 13 -
Some coal officials have observed this pipeline

and are convinced that coal slurry lines are more beneficial
than railroads as a method of transporting coal. Carl E. Bagge,
president of the National Coal Association says:
"The railroads already have a hopper car shortage

and we anticipate that coal production will be up
by 17.5 million tons next year." [9]
The seemingly ideal conditions that exist for the

Black Mesa pipeline are in many respects not reproducible on
the Wyoming to Arkansas pipeline. One of the primary concerns
in Wyoming and South Dakota is the coal slurry water require-
ment. The entire slurry pipeline would require 10,000 gallons
of water per minute, excluding additional water for emergency
purposes which might be tapped at the head and/or along the
route. This would have to be tapped from the Madison forma-
tion, an underground reservoir which extends into Wyoming,
Montana, and North and South Dakota or transported about 2 00
miles from the river. ETSI claims that the water would be
replenished by seepage from snows and streams [11] . Neverthe-
less, their assurances do not convince everyone. U.S.
Congressman Teno Roncalio has stated:
"Wyoming can't afford to export its water."
U.S. Senator William C. Rector has expressed a similar view:
"The idea of taking our precious water table, which

we really know very little about, and sending it to
Arkansas is a very bad concept." [10]
Roy H. Guess, an advisor to the Wyoming legislature has said

that he is not opposed to the slurry concept, but he doesn't
.
- 14 -
want Wyoming water used. Opposition is also coming from

local municipalities which obtain their water only from the
reservoir. Additional opposition comes from farmers, who
claim that the water is needed for agricultural purposes and
from a coalition of western governors who do not want their
share of the water reservoir taken. Despite this political
opposition, ETSI already has been provided with a go ahead.
In 1974, the Wyoming House of Representatives granted it
permits to test drill for water. Now, however, some of the
Representatives are trying to get the permits revoked [11]
ETSI has claimed that they would install a return
line to recycle the water used after dewatering the slurry.
However, a return line would have to move the water on an
uphill grade, causing the pumps to consume a large amount of
power. In turn, this would increase costs by 3 percent and
make the entire project much less attractive.
The advent of any new industrial concept invariably
brings with it the cries of the environmentalists. The case
of the coal slurry pipeline from Wyoming to Arkansas is no
exception. At this point in time, however, the environmentalists
are undecided as to whether the slurry pipeline is good or bad.
ETSI claims it would be the "least environmentally damaging
system to bring Wyoming coal to Arkansas" [11]. However, many
oppose the pipeline (as they would a rail extension) contending
,
that it would stimulate increasingly massive strip mining of

Wyoming land. Still others prefer the idea of a "clean,"
invisible pipeline to noisy trains and the ubiquitous railroad
tracks.
The greatest objection to the Wyoming-Arkansas slurry
pipeline comes from the railroad companies. Their counter-
arguments include the increased job opportunities they provide
and the favorable comparative costs of railroad improvement.
To build the line, ETSI is seeking the right of eminent domain
- 15 -
in order to permit it to dig beneath 49 sets of railroad tracks

owned by the Burlington Northern, the principal railroad company
competing in the proposed ETSI area, and other companies. Con-
gressional action is expected in the coming year. Ironically,
the railroads have also used this right, at the state level,
during their expansion. The orginal western development, how-
ever, was based on what were, in effect, land grants.
The railroads have much at stake in the pipeline
dispute. The possible effect on transport prices is obvious.
If the line is developed, railroad rates for coal transport
must be dropped if they are to remain competitive. Even more
important to the railroads, however, is that coal traffic
constitutes their most important source of future expansion
and present stability. Coal movement currently constitutes
about 25 percent of total freight business. For specific
railroads, the percentage is significantly higher. Given
their fixed costs, the loss of coal traffic might require
higher charges on their remaining business if they are to
remain solvent. In many traffic categories this will prove
impossible as shippers employ alternate modes including trucks
and barges. The resultant increase in these modes will bring
their own problems: highway and waterway congestion, air and
water pollution, additional road building, the construction of
more dams and locks, and the loss of transport flexibility as
well as the defense related strength that the railroads
represent. It may be cogently argued that much of this could
be, and could have been, avoided if the railroads instead of
raising prices to compensate for lost revenues lowered them to
compete for lost business. Aside from the cash flow problem,
which is teleologically local, the reality of the current
situation is that railroads do not think this way unless
forced to do so in the extremis of major competition. In this
they are supported by the weight of past ICC decisions and the
National Transportation Act.
.
- 16 -
Executives of the Burlington Northern have claimed

that the slurry pipeline would cost their company nearly
$225 million in lost revenue each year [11] They claim that
.
by granting ETSI the right of eminent domain, and thus the

ability to build the line without seeking eminent domain on a
state by state basis, Congress would accelerate the destruction

of the already economically troubled railroad industry [13]
Second, that the proposed pipeline would supply a basically
fixed amount of coal to only a few chosen contract customers
on a take or pay basis whereas the railroads are common carriers,
required by law to serve all customers [13] While the pipeline
.
would, under regulation, be required to serve new entrants, by

prorating capacity if necessary, the railroads fear that the
contract provisions will foreclose them from a significant
segment of the market for the contract period. Third, it is
claimed that the pipeline would threaten the needed improvements
on existing lines. The improvements could be justified only by
the anticipation of continued and increasing large coal ship-
ments [13] .
The railroads offer few alternatives although they

have not, as yet, joined the eastern roads in rate increases.
In response to the Bagge statement (cited above) , they argue
that there is no longer the hopper car shortage that existed
in the past. Furthermore, they are sure that they will have
the capacity to increase coal shipments from the current level
of 16 million tons per year to the anticipated 140-150 million
tons required within the necessary time period. But they
suggest that this can only be done if the pipeline does not
divert steel from the railroads [10] and if the cream of the
coal shipments is not skimmed by exclusive contracts.
The steel requirement for the slurry line is not insig-
nificant. Up to a million tons of steel would be required for
a 1000 mile 25 million ton per year pipeline. The steel would
- 17 -
not be recycled. A typical unit train requires 3 0,000 tons of

steel. To ship a similar amount of coal 1000 miles by unit
train would require about 500,000 tons of steel, most of which
can be recycled.
There are still a number of uncertainties connected
with pipeline efficiency. For example, the Black Mesa line
must always operate at its full 64,000 ton capacity. The
operating speed cannot fall below 3 miles per hour. Its
design speed is 3.5 mph. If the load falls below 65 percent
of capacity, it is claimed that the entire pipeline operation
becomes uneconomic [6] . (Reducing capacity to this level can
be accomplished by reducing line flow to mph and increasing
3
water use to 6 3 percent of volume. Unit costs increase by

about 50 percent. If 75 percent capacity is assumed, unit
cost increases are about 20 percent.) As this definition of
economic rests on a rail price comparison rather than engineer-
ing efficiency it is possible that, with lower rail rates, the
range of permissible throughput decrease is much less (say
only 75 percent of capacity) before the line becomes uneconomic
or pipeline tariffs must be raised.
The possibility of pipeline breakage and power outage
is another matter of concern. In the event of pipeline break-
age, all the slurry behind the break point would have to be
dumped (the coal slurry itself is virtually unstoppable; it
might be said that it has the consistency of a "black tooth-
paste"). Suction created by pumps downstream of the break
point might not be able to pull the remaining slurry through,
depending on where the break is located. A power failure at
any one of the pump stations would result in the dumping of
all the slurry immediately ahead of the disabled pump station.
Actually, each station would have an emergency dumping pond.
However, any slurry dumped into these ponds could not be
easily reclaimed and subsequently reintroduced into the pipeline
- 18 -
These ponds would be completely useless for pipeline breaks

between pumping stations. Any attempt to stop the slurry
could result in a massive plugging of the line [12].
Perhaps the greatest hurdle facing the slurry pipe-
line is its cost. It has been reported that the initial cost
is $750 million (in 1974 dollars) or $1034 million in 1975
dollars. (This estimate may be low as the index for U.S.
pipeline construction from 1972 through 1974 has risen by 58
points, 221 to 279 with 1947 = 100. The high of the construc-
tion cost trend range for 3 6 inch pipe including right of way,
labor, materials, etc., has increased an average of 94 percent
between 1974 and 1975.) Operation and maintenance charges
would amount to $180.6 million annually (also in 1975 dollars).
This may be compared to the $298 million (1975 dollars)
required to upgrade existing railroads to handle the same
tonnage of coal shipments [12] . Depreciation charges against
a unit train are estimated at 8.6 percent of operating cost
while those of the pipeline are 27.4 percent [12]. This points
up a significant financial problem. To operate, a pipeline
must be in place. The major costs are front ended. Any sub-
sequent operating problems or decrease in coal supply or
demand affects the highly capital intensive pipeline far more
than it does the railroads. For insurance, this would have
to be factored into the anticipated pipeline tariff.
It has been estimated that to pulverize, slurry,
and ship the coal by pipeline would cost 1.1 cents/ton-mile
compared to 0.8 cents/ton-mile by rail [14], Additionally,
the railroads haul a wide variety of freight and have sub-
statial flexibility in throughput. With respect to coal
alone, crushing, grinding and benef iciation could be done at
the consuming end, avoiding water problems, and, as the opera-
tion can be tailored, serving a wide range of customers. It
- 19 -
is more likely that preliminary crushing to 2x0" or larger

size followed by washing would be accomplished before loading.
Upon delivery by unit trains, this would be pulverized to
23 mesh size. By comparison, the pulverized coal shipped
by slurry pipelines, [19] would be crushed to a 20 mesh size
and washed before loading. However, as washing must be done
at larger coal size, this requires a two stage crushing
process. After drying at the receiving end the moisture con-
tent leaves it in the form of a damp clay which must be
pulverized to achieve particle size for boilers. It is not
suitable at this size for present coal gasification plants.
The logical question is why the promoters are
interested in its construction. One answer, of course, is
that they sincerely believe that the pipeline will prove to be
the low cost operation. Another answer is provided by eastern
U.S. railroad history in the first third of the 1800' s. It
will be recalled that railroads then were built by construction
companies backed by promoters who sold railroad bonds and
stocks (often with the full faith and credit of the states
involved) to individuals and investment houses here and abroad
as well as to the cities and towns through which the railroad
was to pass. The construction companies were paid as the work
progressed, the promoters earned commissions on the securities
sold. By and large these early roads went bankrupt as did
those who operated on them. Nine states defaulted on their
full faith and credit obligations after a vain appeal to the
federal government which invoked a form of state's rights.
An engineering-construction company is not an obvious candidate
to sink a very large sum of money into a project with a payout
period of 30 years and a rate of return governed by a regula-
tory agency. They can do better than that. A well known
investment house is an even more unlikely candidate. A
probable scenario if the line is built is the almost immediate
- 20 -
divestiture of the Bechtel-Lehman Brothers interest in ETSI

by the issuance of public shares. Both then will have capi-
talized their investment. And, history may repeat itself.
The pipeline is relatively capital intensive, the
railroads are relatively labor intensive. The latter may
change with different work rules and with unit train operation,
the former cannot. The result is that the former may be a
victim of its fixed charges, throughput, and debt structure
and the latter to inflation. Aside from this, however, it
should be noted that in a less than full employment economy,
and one in which conservation is becoming more important, an
industry which is relatively labor intensive, which recycles
a portion of its fixed real capital input, and which is
flexible as to time of purchase and disposition of its equip-
ment, may not be all bad. When operating, the pipeline would
employ 245 people in the direct labor category; the railroad
1500. Railroad construction and maintenance can use people
who already live in the area and will continue to do so.
Pipeline construction is largely a specialists job. It
carries its own breed of migrant workers, creating boom town
conditions and problems along the route of the line with only
the boom town clean up after the line has been buried. It is
simply not clear where the labor advantage lies; much depends
upon the stance of the observer.
1.4 Extra High Voltage (EHV) Electric Transmission
An alternative method of coal transportation involves

the production of mine mouth electric power with subsequent
transmission of large blocks of power on a point to point
basis. Two methods are available: AC and DC transmission.
The former appears to be best suited for distances of less
than 500-60 miles and for systems in which the trunk line is
- 21 -
tapped at intermediate points. For longer distances and

single origin-destination pairs, DC transmission appears to
be more economic.
This study is limited to 3000 Mw transmission
lines. Both AC and DC lines are compared. A general analysis
is presented for both followed by a route specific analysis of
five origin-destination pairs. The output in this part of the
study is considered more tentative than that for slurry pipe-
lines and unit trains because the cost data are more unreliable.
1.5 Right of Way Costs
Where a right of way has not already been established

(slurry pipelines, transmission lines, and new rail routes or
diversions) , right of way costs are only speculative. Rail
routes involve the total alienation of land from other uses
although the corridor so provided might be used by other trans-
port modes. Pipelines and electric transmission do not alienate
land completely but rather require easements on property. In
electric transmission, about 90 percent of all rights of way
are easement purchases. The remainder include land in fee,
eminent domain condemnation, and leased land obtained from
other utilities or the government. The easement involves a
one time payment for a perpetual agreement and may include any
of a large number of special stipulations. The payment tends
to run about 100-150 percent of the current land value. Pro-
vision is usually made for damage payments if the easement
must be utilized to repair facilities. For electric trans-
mission, danger tree rights are also obtained. Payments are
usually at cord wood or pulp wood prices.
Widths of right of way vary considerably. However,
the basic need for both a slurry line and a transmission line
include safe width and provision for a construction road.
Where a line can be built along an existing roadway, costs are
suitably reduced.
- 22 -
In this study, nominal right of way costs are used,

however, an indication of the variation is given in Table 1.2
While the table is specific for crude oil and product pipe-
lines it should be sufficiently indicative for both slurry
lines and EHV transmission. With respect to the latter,
however, it may be noted that a 765 kvAC line corridor may
be from 225-250 feet wide while a 600 kvDC corridor may be
only 175-200 feet. Problems of electrical discharge may
suggest a right of way of 300 feet for both.
Table 1.2
ONSHORE PIPELINE RIGHT OF WAY AND DAMAGE COSTS

(dollars/mile)
Region High Low Average Range
North East 58275 8028 25660 8028-58275

(Pa, Mass, NJ)
South East & Central 11667 6476 6542 1621-16211

(La, Ark, Miss, Term)
Mid-Atlantic 5702 5006 5465 2039- 7974

(WVa, Ky)
E. North Central 23889 3828 14753 250-33509

(Ohio, 111, Ind)
Central 4884 1399 3123 1188- 9200

(Okla, Neb, Kan)
South Central 1910 1727 1818 793- 3027

(Tex, I^fex)
North Tier (East) 11137 11137 11137 11137

(Wise)
Mountain 1995 1489 1742 634- 4017

(Mont, NDak, Colo, Wyo)
West Coast 21735 14121 17928 14121-21735

(Wash, Ore)
New Individual Projects ($/mi)

W.Va. - 6168
La. - 25700
Okla. - 800
Iowa - 4087
Mich. - 111. - Ind. - 50,633
B.C. - Calif. - 8340
Source: Oil and Gas Journal, August 18, 1975.
- 23 -
REFERENCES
Section I
1. National Petroleum Council, Coal Task Group, Other

Energy Resources Subcommittee, U.S. Energy Outlook
(Coal Availability), for the U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1973.
2. Jensen, H. M. (Commonwealth Edison Co.), "Unit Train

Coal Delivery," Combustion Vol. 36, No. 1, July 19 64,
,
pp. 23-28.
3. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council,

Committee on Science and Technology in the Railroad
Industry, Science and Technology in the Railroad Industry ,
Report to Secretary of Commerce, August 1963.
4. Stover, J. F. The Life and Decline of the American

,
Railroad Oxford University Press, New York, 1970.

,
5. U.S. Department of the Interior, Report to the Panel on

Civilian Technology, Coal Slurry Pipelines May 1, 1962,
,
Appendix III, p. 52.
6. Ellis, J. J. and P. Bacchetti, "Pipeline Transport of

Liquid Coal," Technology and Use of Lignite Bureau of ,
Mines, IC 8543, 1972, pp."TF-IuT
7. Wasp, E. J., "Procession Steps to Successful Slurry

Pipeline Systems," Chemical Engineering 79 , ,
February 7, 1972, pp. 58-62.
8. Wasp, E. J. and T. L. Thompson, "Slurry Pipelines. . .energy

movers of the future," The Oil and Gas Journal,
December 24, 1973, pp. 44-50.
9. "Fight Over Moving Coal by Pipeline," Business Week ,
July 27, 1974, pp. 36-7.
10. Aug, M. "Coal Slurry Pipeline Plant Threatens Rails Best

,
Hope for New. Revenue, " Washington Star October 5, 1975,

,
p. 8.
11. Lichtenstein, G., "A Wyoming Coal Pipeline Starts New

Energy Clash," The New York Times May 25, 1975, p. 34.
,
12. Rieber, Michael, S. L. Soo and J. Stukel, "The Coal Future

Economic and Technological Analysis of Initiatives and
Innovations to Secure Fuel Supply Independence," NSF Grant
No. GI 3 5821 (A) 1, Center for Advanced Computation, The
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, CAC Document
No. 163, May 1975.
13. "Flurry Over Slurry," Forbes , 116, July 15, 1975, 44.
14. "Mine to Market Efficiency," Coal Age , 76, October 1971,

pp. 150-61.
- 25 -
SECTION II
UNIT TRAINS
2.1 General .
The route specific analysis of unit trains is

principally a function of the terrain. For example, traffic
bottlenecks along routes to the west can be caused by winding
roads which reduce speed along the sections involved. As a
result, for a given rate of coal shipment, expressed in
millions of tons per year (MMTY) , an increased number of
trains must be used. Alternatively, operational flexibility
can be purchased at a higher than route design cost. If
utilization decreases, rolling stock may be leased (at a
reduced rate); if it increases, additional stock may be
rented (at a premium) . Increased shipments over time can
be accomplished with the same number of trains by upgrading
the road condition to accomodate higher train speeds. The
upgrading can be undertaken over an optimal time horizon
determined by a dynamic (rather than a static) analysis.
2.2 Capital Costs .
Traffic congestion along a double tracked railroad

is not a problem if the annual capacity is less than 70 MMTY.
Train spacing of one hour can be maintained assuming 105 car
trains carrying 10500 tons per train. The assumption of only
25 MMTY allows more than 2.5 hour spacing which permits ship-
ments of other commodities. We have assumed that even this
spacing calls for the building of by-passes around population
centers and the building of additional bridges and highway
crossings. On the western routes strengthening trestles and
- 27 -
- 28 -
straightening some of the curves is needed to reduce the

bottlenecks. However, there are fewer towns to get around
and highways to cross than on the eastern routes. We have
used an average of 15 percent for new railroad to be built
for each route. This requires a new 300 ft. right of way
at an estimated average cost of $1000/mile. Land values may,
however, range from $30 0/acre in scrub areas with relatively
low population density to $2500/acre for central Illinois
farmland. Rerouting would avoid populated suburbs for the
same noise and traffic reasons that preclude the use of unit
trains through cities and towns.
Except for the facilities, distribution is not
considered an important cost factor in unit train operation.
The trains unload directly at the point of consumption.
However, we have assumed that at the gathering end the mines
may require an equivalent of 10 miles of upgraded railroad
plus fifty 125 ton trucks.
The proposed upgrading of the right of way includes
replacement, over a three year period, with 155 lb/yd tracks
(132 lb/yd track is currently used by the Burlington Northern)
and 6200 ties/mile. Subsequent replacement is indicated in
the replacement schedule. The steel is assumed to be carbon
steel of 0.69-0.82 percent carbon and below 0.04 percent
phosphorous (to prevent "cold" shortness) and below 0.5 percent
sulfur (to prevent "hot" shortness) This upgrading, although
.
charged to coal shipment alone in the present analysis, will

aid general shipments and by increasing unit train costs tends
to render our estimates and coal slurry comparisons conservative
Replacement of all ties along a 1000 mile double tracked route
implies 47 million feet (total length) of No. 5 wooden ties
(9"x7"x8.5' ) . These are placed on 21.5" centers. This amounts
to over one million trees per year over the three year period.
While wood ties are generally available, because of environ-
mental or other factors, they may be replaced in the long run
- 29 -
by concrete ties which would be mass produced. About 800,000

tons of concrete would be needed per 1000 miles of double track.
The resiliency of concrete ties can be improved by using flyash
in the mix as in the building of airport runways. Detailed
costing, given in the previous analysis by Ferguson [1] , has
been escalated for the present analysis. Here it may simply
be noted that the issue of concrete vs. wood ties is not closed.
Concrete ties are used on European and at least one southern
U.S. road, although for relatively light loads. The Canadian
National proposed to use them in the double tracking of some of
their sections. Even their failure in the Black Mesa operation
is inconclusive. There the cars used were 12 5 ton rather than
100 ton. Questions have been raised concerning their contact
with the roadbed and their initial condition. Finally, not all
of the concrete ties have been replaced. Wood ties have been
substituted on the curves.
The unit train routes specified in Sec. 1.1 are
detailed in Table 2.1 which shows for each route the miles of
new road needed, miles of road upgraded, plus an equivalent of
100 miles of upgraded gathering road. Bottlenecks occur when
sections of track do not permit the scheduled speeds on
upgraded track. It can be seen in Table 2.1 that the incentive
to maintain fast trains over a given route decreases as the
bottlenecks increase. This is of particular concern on the
westward routes. We have expressed the bottlenecks for the
30-60 mph (30 mph loaded and 60 mph empty return) and the
50-60 mph operation in terms of percentages of the total
distance which must be travelled at 10 mph and the corresponding
number of trains needed for the shipment of 25 MMTY of coal.
More trains increase capital costs while slower speeds increase
labor costs.
Locomotives are assumed to be 3000 hp diesel electric
costing $350,000 each. The hopper cars are 100 ton cars costing
$27,000 each. Both are in 1975 dollars. The estimates are
Table 2.1
UNIT TRAIN ROUTES
New Road Number of Trains

Upgraded
Route* Miles Miles Bottlenecks 30-60 50-60
(1) Farmington, NM to
Los Angeles , CA. 100 750 18 14
Coal: 11630 Btu/lb(dry) 10 24 21
8600 Btu/lb(as 20 30 28
mined, 16.3% moisture)
(2) Gillette, WY to
Chicago, IL. 165 935 22 17
Coal: 10080 Btu/lb(dry) 10 29 25
7770-12780 Btu/lb (as 20 36 34
(2a) Gillette, WY to Chicago

and on to New York. 300 1720 39 29
10 52 44
20 65 58
(3) Gillette, WY to
Houston, TX. 210 119 28 21
Coal: 10080 Btu/lb (dry) 10 36 31
7770-12780 Btu/lb (as 20 44 42
(4) Colstrip, MT to
Houston, TX 240 1360 31 23
Coal: 10550 Btu/lb (dry) 10 41 35
8600 Btu/lb (as 20 50 47
(5) Colstrip, MT to
Seattle, WA. 158 892 21 16
Coal: 10550 Btu/lb (dry) 10 28 24
8600 Btu/lb (as 20 34 32
*For each route 100 miles of upgraded gathering road has been added to give the
total distance.
- 30 -
- 31 -
consistent with those provided by the Association of American

Railroads, the Burlington-Northern and the Chessie system.
The number of trains are estimated on the basis of 274 days
of operation per year with a 5 percent reserve. As an alter-
native, the railroads suggest a 10 percent car and 15 percent
locomotive reserve. The number of trains for each operation
may be compared with the national total (July 1, 197 5) of
306 unit trains of which 191 or 62 percent carried coal.
Annual fixed charges are based on funding with 60
percent debt and 40 percent equity, assuming 9 percent interest
on debt and 15 percent on equity. During construction, com-
pensation by interest on uncommitted capital is available.
Depreciation for roadbed, right of way and structures is taken
over 30 years, the life of the project. However, average life
of cars may be taken at 15 years with minimal maintenance and
20 years with adequate scheduled maintenance. This implies
the scheduled purchase of new cars. Locomotives may be
expected to last the entire 30 year period, excluding obsoles-
cence. Depreciation is therefore taken over 20 years on cars
and locomotives and 30 years on other facilities. It is
assumed that additional rolling stock is purchased as necessary.
The gross difference in the treatment amounts to less than
2 percent of total costs.
If, for any reason, operations should fall below full
capacity, it would be possible to lease both cars and locomotives.
Alternatively, at over capacity, both may be leased for route
use. The former may result in as little as 50 percent capital
recovery, while the latter may result in a doubling of rolling
stock costs. Coupled with the debt burden on right of way,
which would be spread over asmaller revenue, unit costs would
be increased. We feel that our assumptions are too wide and
thus, for comparative purposes, conservative.
2
- 32 -
A sample route and capacity specification for

Farmington to Los Angeles is shown in Tables 2.2-2.4. Here
the assumptions are full capacity, 30-60 mph speeds [2] and
no bottlenecks.
2.3 Operating Costs .
The operating costs may be summarized in terms of

fuel, labor and supplies.
The fuel is equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil, although
it may be somewhat heavier. For comparison purposes, No.
fuel oil contains 5.90 MMBtu/bbl, distillate fuel oil contains
5.96 MMBtu/bbl, and railroad diesel contains 6.06 MMBtu/bbl.
The heavier the grade, the more Btu's, the fewer the barrels
needed, and the lower is the degree of refinery severity
needed. It should be noted that the railroad-automotive
diesel range extends from about 5.6 MMBtu/bbl (44 API -
.806 sp.gr. - 7.08 bbls/ton) to almost 6.4 MMBtu/bbl (14 API -

.972 sp.gr. - 5.87 bbls/ton). We have assumed a price of
30 cents/gallon. Mid-continent spot prices for No. 2 distillate
are currently 28.50-31.85 cents/gallon and for No. 5 oil (Chicag*
one percent sulfur guarantee) are 29.76 cents/gallon. Spot pri
are higher than contract prices and heavier grades are cheaper
than lighter grades, hence, our estimate is high (conservative)
Fuel costs should be escalated at about 7 percent per annum.
Table 2.3 shows a sample detail of labor require-
ments for the case presented in Table 2.2. The basic procedure
in Ferguson was used for this and for the 1975 costing. It
compares closely with SRI and Burlington Northern trends.
Table 2.4 shows a sample detail of the supplies estimate for
the same case.
The average current (1975) cost, including capital,
can be accounted for by an assumed rate of 7 percent escalation
Table 2.2
SAMPLE ROUTE AND CAPACITY SPECIFICATION
Route: Farmington, NM to Los Angeles, CA

(850 miles plus 100 miles gathering)
Facility Name: Coal Unit Train and Rail Line
Prime Input: 25 million tons medium rank bituminous/year
Other Input: Electricity, diesel oil
Prime Output: 25 million tons medium rank bituminous/year
Other Output: Shipment - 30 mph loaded, 60 mph empty (30-60)
DaysAear of Normal Operation: 274
Description and Size:
'
10,500 ton unit trains. (18 trains)
*
Each train made up of 105 hopper cars each with a capacity
of 100 tons.
*
Coal storage area, feeders, conveyors, and loadout bin and
chute with loading capacity of 3,200 tons/hour.
*
Round trip distance: 850 miles (100 mile gathering)
*
Normal round trip cycle time: 48.5 hours.
5 3,000 hp diesel locomotives per train.
- 33 -
Table 2.3
SAMPLE DETAIL OF LABOR REQUIREMENTS
Detail Labor
A. Nonmanual B. Manual
1. Technical 1. Operating Labor

Supervisors Engineers 109
& Managers 60 Firemen, Breakmen,
(Executives, Flagmen, Signalmen 540
foremen) 649
2. Maintenance Labor
2. Nontechnical 15 Electrician 60
(Drivers, Carpenters & masons 256
Dispatchers) Blacksmith 24
Machinist 36
Laborer, cleaner 155
A. Total 75 Other 350
883
B. Total 1532
- 34 -
Table 2.4
SAMPLE DETAIL OF SUPPLIES
(Case in Table 2.2)
Detail - Supplies Million Dollars
Locomotive repair (9 8) 2.15

Car repair (1890) 1.80
Road and Shops and Machinery:
1. Road and Buildings:
Ties 0.62
Bridges, trestles 0.36
Building, Shops 0.20
Fence and Signals . 05
1.23
2. Stationary 0.02
3. Chemicals and Track 0.41
4. Stone, glass, ballast 0.20
5. Metal Products:
Rail 0.20
Tools . 01
0.84
6. Miscellaneous Supplies 0.20
7. Shop Machinery 0.15
8. Electrical Equipment 0.26
9. Roadway Machines 0.16
10. Signal and Interlock 0.30
11. Miscellaneous Repairs 0.04
12. Power, Light, Water .05
1.16
Total R&S&M 3.23
Total Supplies 7.18
- 35 -
- 36 -
from the date of the original estimates. The confidence

level of the overall unit cost estimate is 5 percent to
10 percent.
2.4 Cost Analyses and Results .
Table 2.5 and notes show the basic items of costs

and resources for a specific route and for a given set of
operating parameters. Also included in the notes are the
cost base at over and under capacity.
The results of computations for specific routes
are given in the computer printouts included in the Appendix
to this section. A typical plot of curves is shown in
Figure 2.1 for various routes in dollars/ton at various
capacities and speeds of 30-60 and 50-60 mph. The analysis
shows that:
(1) Ten to twenty percent over capacity may give

a lower shipping cost than at full capacity
by increasing operating days to 32 8 per year
from 274 days per year. This means, however,
operation without reserve and cannot be
sustained over a long duration. Traffic
problems involving other commodities may also
be expected.
(2) With more than 10 percent of 10 mph bottlenecks

along the road, there is no incentive to operate
the road at 50 mph loaded rather than 30 mph
loaded for a shipment of 25 MMTY.
(3) As long as the road condition is upgraded to

sustain a 5 0-60 mph operation, an increase in
capacity can be achieved by leasing additional
Table 2.5
Basic Items
Costs and Resources
(costs in million dollars)
25 MMTY - miles one way, HV Btu/lb

Route: ; -60; % bottlenecks; % Capacity
Actual tonnage: 25 MMTY(1 % Capacity)
CAPITAL COSTS:
Road
Gathering at mines, trucks & hoppers 15.5 (1)
New right of way (2)
New road (3)
Upgraded (4)
Equipment
Locomotives & cars (5)
Loading & maintenance facilities (6)
Total capital costs, sum (1) through (6) (7)
ANNUAL FIXED CHARGE ON DEBT:

Average rate base (8)
Debt retirement (9)
Federal Tax (10)
Depreciation (11)
Total annual fixed charge on

debt, sum of (9) (10) (11) (12)
OPERATING COSTS:
Fuel costs (13)
Labor costs (14)
Supplies costs (15)
Total operating cost, sum of (13) (14) (15) (16)
Total annual cost, sum of (12) and (16) (17)
UNIT COSTS:
Dollars/ton = (17) /Actual r*CY (18)
Cents/ton-mile = 100 (18)/ (miles one way) (19)

5
Cents/HMBtu = (18) 10 /2 (HV) (20)
Cents/^MBtu-mile = (20) /(miles one way) (21)
- 37 -
:
Table 2.5 Continued
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS:
Locomotives hp (22)
Million bbl of fuel (23)
Steel required: cars (24)
locomotives (25)
rails (26)
Options: wood, ties, feet (27)
concrete, ties, tons (28)
EMPLOYMENT
Railroad (29)
Capital per worker (30)
Related industries (31)
Notes:
(1) Eased on 125 ton trucks at $300,000 each.
(2) 300* wide right of way to bypass cities or to straighten out curves.
(3) Include bypass of towns, crossing, bridges in eastward shipments;
less of these in westward routes but straightening of winding ways
and trestles will balance out costs.
(3) , (4) Include 6200 ties per mile, wood or concrete.
(9) 30 year amortization, 60% debt and 40% equity; 9% interest on debt
and 15% on equity. Inflation rate may be used for cost escalation.
During construction, compensation by interest on uncommitted
capital is expected.
(13) 30C per gallon escalation at 7% per annum.
(14) 40% operating, 55% maintenance, for 30-60 miles per hour.
37% operating, 58% maintenance, for 50-60 mph operation.
5% administration.
(15) 45% an road, 30% on locomotives, 25% on cars for 30-60.

48% on road, 33% on locomotives, 20% on cars for 50-60.
Operating at reduced capacity of -20, -40, -60% include leasing out of

equipment, recover conservatively h of the capital cost and full cost of
maintenance and lay-off of 15, 30, and 45% of labor force.
Operating at over capacity:
+20% work 328 days with same equipment, increase maintenance plus
overtime. This generally will lead to more economical operation
momentarily but without reserve.
+40% include renting of equipment at double of own cost plus overtime
on labor.
- 3fi -
24
OBTAIN S/MMBTU
OBTAIN $/MMBTU 10 MPH
BOTTLENECKS
22
20
cc
o
>-
18
I GO
- 10% O LU
I
<: s:
o o
i-i
16
(_>o
CM
I
a<> cs
14
12
10
o
<:
o
o s
LU
o
O
CD
J I I I L j I
40 60 80 100 120 140
% CAPACITY
FIGURE 2.1(b) UNIT COST AT VARIOUS CAPACITIES - UNIT TRAINS

12 i i r-
FARMINGTON TO L.A. 850 MILES

30 - 60
50-60
10
OBTAIN $/MMBTU
OBTAIN S/MMBTU
</>
10 MPH BOTTLENECK
J l l
40 60 80 100 120 140
% CAPACITY
"\ 1
1 1 1
GILLETTE, WY. TO HOUSTON 1400 MILES

x
16
30 - 60
\ 50-60
OBTAIN $/MMBTU
OBTAIN $/MMBTU
14
10 MPH BOTTLENECK
12
b^- 20%
10 10%
i= 0%
J I L I I i
40 60 80 100 120 140
% CAPACITY
FIGURE 2.1(a) UNIT COSTS AT VARIOUS CAPACITIES - UNIT TRAIN

- 39 -
locomotives alone. By increasing the number

of locomotives by 140 percent in the case of
10 percent bottlenecks at 10 mph, the freight
hauled can be increased to 117 percent with
the same number of days of operation, and to
140 percent by working 328 days/yr. No addi-
tional cars are needed. Thus, the increase in
capacity can be achieved by obtaining the best
cost balance between cars and locomotives or
for locomotives alone.
(4) The flexibility of rails is seen in that the

costs in dollars/ton vary over 15 percent
between the present 80 percent and 140 percent
capacity levels.
(5) Increasing capacity from 5 to 25 MMTY over a

1000-mile two-way route is readily achieved
in 3 years by scheduling such as:
No. of Road Condition

* Trains (Average) >MTY
First year 8 65 percent 10 mph,

the rest 40 mph 5
Second year 12 25 percent 10 mph,

the rest 40 mph 12
Third year 20 100 percent

average 40 mph 25
There is an optimum time schedule for upgrading

the road and simultaneously upgrading the fleet
of trains for a specific system. Such an optimum
can be determined in a future study. Such
scheduling prevents costs from increasing unevenly.
- 40 -
The choice of 30-60 or 50-60 miles per hour is a

matter of balance of locomotive cost to car cost as well as
labor cost. For a 105 car unit train, the break even is at
a ratio of 1.53 in the number of trains at 30-6 mph to that
of 50-60 mph based on the costs of locomotives and cars only.
This ratio is rarely achieved, but the net saving in labor
decreases this ratio to 1.17. Figures 2.1(a) to (c) further
shows the effect of low speed bottlenecks, of say 10 mph. For
shipment to the west coast, it can be seen that 50-60 mph does
not have a great deal of cost advantage over a 30-60 mph rate.
Prominent in the cost of 50-60 mph operation is the
cost of locomotives. This suggests that there is nothing
sacred about 3000 hp or 3500 hp as a standard capacity for
locomotives. For unit trains, the preferred single locomotive
capacity would be at the 10,000 hp level and the number requirec
would be about two for 30-60 and four for 50-60 mph operation.
This is a desirable development toward the utilization of
higher speeds (50-60) achieving greater saving at such speeds.
Some trend can be seen in the unit costs, in cents/
ton-mile on various routes. Figure 2.2 shows that, because of
the inclusion of 15 percent new railroad line, this cost
increases with distance and the bottleneck percentage along
the road. The increase is prominent for distances over 1100
miles. This differs from the cost of the single upgrading mode
discussed in earlier studies [1-3] which showed that the
,
cost in cents/ton-mile is nearly constant for distances over

500 miles. Both Figure 2.1(b) and Figure 2.2 show that shipmenl
over a distance and route such as that from Wyoming to New York
is hardly practical.
In Figures 2.1 and 2.2, multipliers are included to
give unit costs in dollars/MMBtu (million Btu) and cents/MMBtu-
mile on a 'dry 1
(D) as well as an 'as mined' (M) basis. Coal,
22
\
i i i
i
30 - 60
.\
50-60
\
xO.0474 TO OBTAIN S/MMBTU (DRY)
~
20 \ \ xO.0582 TO OBTAIN J/MMBTU (AS MINED)
\ \
A x
\ -
18 \\
\
V \ \
-
\\ \ \
V V \ \
16
\ V \ \ -
\\ \\ \ X
14
-
\\
N
\\\
v\ v
/
/
"
20%
12
\
\
\> \
\\\
\\ X ^
X\\ \. "--- \ /
f
/
/
JV
j
/
io%
o
i
CO
Z3 CO
O
i
LU
=E -1
o
I
s:
o
\ \ o. o
\\ \ / / i
i \o
CC r
h-
CO
\\\ \ _l
o
v\ y o%
10
\ \\ //
\ v\
\ \ v\
- ^SLURRY -^ ^ ^ -
LU
j 20%
<
UJ
co
LU
CO _l
^ 10%
O
Q. LO
I
CC
O
r
I
^V^^ 1
-r
0% CO
_l
o
o
i i i i i ^^^T-* f ***i
40 60 80 100 120 140
% CAPACITY
FIGURE 2.1(c) UNIT COSTS AT VARIOUS CAPACITIES - UNIT TRAINS

<
24
OBTAIN S/MMBTU
OBTAIN $/MMBTU 10 MPH
BOTTLENECKS
22
20
o
>-
LU
18
I CO
UJ
- 10% C
t3
-J

O
t-H
16
o CM
o
*** tS
14
12
10
o
o
<
o oo
1
X LU
o HH
_J
o
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J I I L J L J L
40 60 80 100 120 140
% CAPACITY

. 2000
I- o
>- Q
O
_l
UJ
h-
CL <
S -1
UJ UJ
a:
t^-
12000
10000
8000
>-
o
6000
4000
2000
J L J I I L
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
MILES
FIGURE 2.3 EMPLOYMENT - UNIT TRAIN OPERATION

>- ^.^ - -
Q OO
Q<
^***^
^r
r-^
<o
CTv
<>
CTi
<3-
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*t 3"
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i i UJ o z z z uo
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zoo
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z: ( .*-.
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i z: h- Q

1 1 1
a.
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UJ Q. Q.
H- HH CM
zCI>

ro co
uo tj-
oc oo *r
1 lO UJ OO
H- d-
UJ U3
a: co
1 UO I *
z: o o
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OO
_l
-Jo o 1
-J
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OO
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O OO
_J
O
<c o c oX
o
o oX o oX o
O oX
1
L X X
CJ3
i
HH O OX
<-J
1.0
0.9 _
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
MILES
FIGURE 2.2 UNIT COST - UNIT TRAINS

1.5
STEEL AT COMPLETE UPGRADING
00
u_
o 1.0
to
z
o
o
0.5
u
2.0 r
OR CONCRETE
1.0
QQ
g 1.5
z
o %
u
^<sr
P 1.0 CO
o
o J% J
0.5
u 0.5
9r
TIMBER
4 r
FUEL MILLION BBL PER YEAR

3
CQ 2
CQ
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
MILES
FIGURE 2.4 RESOURCE COMMITMENT

- 46 -
as mined, may contain up to 30 percent moisture, depending on

the particular mine. During above ground storage and shipment,
moisture may be lost by evaporation. It may also be gained by
exposure. Therefore both bases are given for comparison. Much
depends upon the moisture content of the coal prior to loading
onto the unit train.
Items included in the utilization of resources are
employment, fuels, and materials. Figure 2.3 shows the level
of employment for various modes of operation of unit trains
for shipping 25 MMTY over various routes and the employment in
related industries needed to sustain such an operation. Note
that if all routes under consideration are activated, the
increase in employment due to the unit train operation alone
would be over 30,0 00, not counting those required for upgrading
which would be at the 15,0 00 level, over a 3-year period. Other
data from the Appendix, on various resource commitments, are
shown in Figure 2.4. Of particular interest is timber consump-
tion if wooden ties are used in replacement. This amount to
the cutting of one million firs per year, over three years,
for each 1000 miles of double track road. If concrete ties
are used, there is a significant indirect fuel requirement.
Together with other uses, a round figure would be one million
tons of concrete per thousand miles of road, or three hundred
thousand tons of cement. The steel committed for complete
upgrading, especially the bulk of the rails, is subject to
recycling in the course of replacement. Full consideration of
resource needs confirms the previously mentioned desirability
of an overall time dependent supply analysis designed to avoid
shortages and uneven demand schedules.
1.5
STEEL AT COMPLETE UPGRADING

LU
00
-
1.0
z
o
o
0.5
u
2.0 r
" 1.0 <*
OR CONCRETE CQ
S
z 1.5 2:
^
y.-~&~
>
o
u
= 1.0 oo
o
o - - V - 0.5
1
0.5 TIMBER
"
4
FUEL MILLION BBL PER YEAR

-
3
FIGURE 2.4 RESOURCE COMMITMENT

- 48 -
2.5 Additional Considerations .
2.5.1Unit Train Characteristics According to the

.
Assocation of American Railroads, based on a sample of 191 unit

coal trains operating on July 1, 1975, about 60 percent of
these trains operate under contracts of 10 years or longer. A
minimum annual tonnage requirement is specified for 80 percent
of the trains. As a whole, these trains carry about 16 8 MTY
of coal or about 73 billion ton miles. The average load is
87 7,0 00 T/Y/train; the highest being about 5.6 MTY. Average
yearly train mileage is estimated to be 90,000 miles/year with
235,000 the maximum. Individual car mileages are somewhat
lower due to out of service maintenance and repair time. The
average round trip distance may be estimated at 1226 miles
with maximum of 2944 miles. An average of 86 cars makes up
a
a train with a maximum of 131. Most of the cars are designed
for 100 ton capacity. The average train payload is estimated
to be 8502 tons with a maximum of 13,100 tons. Excluding an
unknown number of spare cars to provide maintenance time, the
191 trains required 16,392 cars. Of these, 68 percent were
open top hopper cars and 32 percent were high side gondolas.
Hopper cars were 68 percent railroad and 32 percent owned or
leased by others. The gondola cars were 39 percent railroad
and 61 percent owned or leased by others. The railroad owned
hopper and gondola cars were, respectively, 93 and 100 percent
in dedicated service; all of the other leased and owned cars
were in dedicated service. However, only 19 percent of the
trains had dedicated power. Maximum operating speeds ranged
from 25-60 mph empty and 10-60 mph loaded.
2.5.2 Car Requirements . While the ownership data

would seem to imply that the less specialized cars are left
for non-railroad lessors and owners, the sheer numbers suggest
that, particularly as the number of unit coal trains have
- 49 -
accelerated recently, car and steel shortages may be a problem

in future expansion.
The railroads have claimed that the shortage in hopper
cars beginning in 197 3 was at least partly due to accelerated
scrapping schedules in 1972-3. At that time, due to a decline
in coal traffic, reported 25-30,000 car surplus existed.
a
While of historic interest, this is not entirely germane. What
counts is the ability of the railroads to obtain sufficient
cars to haul anticipated coal. In this, hopper and gondola
cars compete with backlog orders of other cars. This is true
whether the cars are purchased (e.g., from Pullman-Standard
and/or Bethlehem Steel) or are built in the railroads' own work-
shops. Given a three year build-up period (from 1976) , recession
or slow general growth (which slows orders for other cars) , and
the more than 17,850 new hopper cars delivered between January
1974 and August 1975, it does not appear that car shortages will
be critical to coal development. Similarly, there does not
appear to be a potential shortage of locomotives. Both numbers
and horsepower have been increasing.
The total car situation, based on Association of
American Railroads data for December 1, 19 75, was as follows:
Serviceable Heavy Bad

Owned Order Total
Open Hopper 328403 13542 341945
Gondola 160132 13616 173748
Total 488535 27158 515693
Forecast needs for hopper and gondola cars have been

estimated by the American Railway Car Institute, "Long-Term
Freight Car Forecast, 1980/1985." Unfortunately, the estimates
are based primarily on GNP assumptions rather than estimates of
potential specific demand. For coal this is apt to lead to a
- 50 -
low estimate. However, since the coal tonnage is supplied in

the estimates, a handle on car needs with respect to other
scenarios can be estimated. The study estimates that coal
carried on Class I railroads was 390.0 MMT in 1974 and will be
555 MMT and 655 MMT (net) per year in 1980 and 1985, respectively
Recent FEA estimates for 19 80 and 19 85 are 799 MMT and 1039 MMT
respectively. The average capacity of hopper cars is expected
to rise from 78.5 tons in 1974 to 90.0 tons in 1980 and 95.4
tons in 1985. The respective figures for gondola cars are:
80.3 tons, 88.5 tons, and 9 5.8 tons. This growth reflects
primarily the scrapping of older smaller cars and replacement
with the 100 ton variety. It does indicate that progressively
more coal can be carried without proportionately lengthening
trains or increasing the number of cars.
The 1975 adjusted age distribution of open hopper
cars is reported to be 29 percent less than 10 years old,
39 percent 11-20 years old, 22 percent 21-30 years old, 9 per-
cent 31-40 years old and 1 percent over 40 years old. Gondola
cars show a similar distribution but with more cluster in the
21-30 year category. Thus, our cost estimates based on a
20-year retirement cycle is conservative (high cost) compared
to practice. Of the 357,000 hopper cars forming the basis for
the distribution, 82,000 are expected to be retired and/or
destroyed between 1975 and 1980. A total of 94,000 more will
be retired and destroyed from 1981-1985. Thus, of the
357,000 hopper cars, 49 percent will be permanently out of
service by 1985. For gondola cars, the similar comparison is
187,000 cars initially with a total of 105,000 or 56 percent
permanently out of service by 19 85. To carry the same coal
traffic, however, it should again be pointed out that increasin
car size reduces the number of cars needed. Some forecast
results for both open hopper and open gondola cars (both
potential coal carriers) are provided in Table 2.6. Again it
Table 2.6
Estimated Car Requirements
1974 1980 1985

H' G** H H
Tens Originated (10 ) 612.3 197.9 780.1 224.4 891.0 237.6

Car Capacity (tons) 78.5 80.3 90.0 88.5 95.4 95.8
Load Factor (%) 96.3 82.3 95.0 85.5 95.0 90.8
Average Tans/Car 75.6 66.1 85.5 75.7 90.6 87.0
Serviceable Cars
Required (000) 294 150 326 143 333 120
Actual Fleet (000) 357 187 383 169 392 141
Fleet Required (12/31/80 and

12/31/85) (000) 383.4 168.5 392.2 141.5
New Car Demand 1975/80,
1981/85 (000) 109.3 33.1 103.1 27.5
New Car Demand per
year (000) 18.2 5.5 20.6 5.5
1980 and 1985 Forecasts

(GNP basis)
Low (000) 15.1 4.6 20.6 5.5
Control (000) 18.2 5.5 20.6 5.5
High (000) 22.2 6.7 21.4 5.7
*Hopper cars
**Gondola cars
Source: American Railway Car Institute, Long-Term Freight Car

Forecast, 1980/1985 (1973).
- 51 -
- 52 -
must be noted that these estimates are GNP based. Additionally,

they were developed in 197 3. The above estimates were based
on assumptions concerning retirements, the age distribution of
the current fleet, load factors, size, utilization, prediction
of 555 MTY and 65 5 MTY of coal moved in 19 80 and 19 85 respective
and a mix of commodities which use gondolas and open hopper cars
As noted above, FEA estimates of coal produced in 1980 and 1985
are 799 MTY and 1039 MTY, respectively. Mot all will be moved
by rail. If we assume to be conservative (high) that 90 percent
will be moved by rail, then coal rail movements will be 30
percent more in 1980 and 43 percent more in 1985 than those
predictions which formed the basis for this estimate. If we
further assume that all other uses of gondola and hopper cars
are GNP based, that these were estimated correctly, and that
they constitute 37 percent of the use of both types of cars in
19 80 and 52 percent in 19 85, then the estimated total of these
cars used for coal in 19 80 and 198 5 based on the GNP estimates
will be 347,700 and 256,200. The reduced number in 1985 reflect
increased average car size, utilization and load factors.
Inflating the coal fleet proportionately to meet the FEA estimates
suggest a fleet size for coal of 452,000 cars in 1980 and
366,400 in 1985. To this may be added 204,200 and 277,500 in
each year, used for other service. This results in a required
fleet estimate (gondolas and hoppers) of 20 percent more than
the tabled estimate. Because retirements can be delayed, this
need not be directly translated into new car demand forecasts.
2.5.3 Track Upgrading . In addition to car and loco-

motive requirements, resources will be required to upgrade and
maintain the railroads. These have been noted in previous
subsections. The diversity of railway track materials may
be found in the Steel Products Manual of these materials publishd
by the American Iron and Steel Institute (October 1975) . The
53 -
physical condition of the railroads was the subject of a

recent (November 1975) study by U.S. Comptroller General,
"Information Available on Estimated Costs to Rehabilitate
the Nation's Railroad Track and a Summary of Federal Assistance
to the Industry," Report to the Subcommittee on Federal Spending
Practices, Efficiency, and Open Government, Committee on
Government Operations, U.S. Senate. After reviewing recent
studies by the Federal Railway Association, the Interstate
Commerce Commission, the Association of American Railroads,
and the U.S. Railway Association, it is concluded that, "No
comprehensive studies existed which objectively and quantita-
tively described the existing condition of track on a nation-
wide basis. None of the available cost estimates to repair
or replace deteriorated track provided a complete, reliable
assessment of the long-term financial resources that might be
required...". While the problem areas appear to be northeastern
and midwestern, in general, to be done properly, the analysis
must be on a system by system basis. To the extent that a
given movement covers more than one system, an evaluation of
condition must be made for all.
2.5.4 The Steel Interface . Between the forecast

demand for new cars and the necessity of rail upgrading, a
considerable burden will be placed on the steel industry. This
is the subject of a current General Accounting Office study.
The results should be available in 3-4 months. An earlier
study (March 1975) prepared by the Association of American
Railroads," Report on Steel in Relation to Railroad Needs,"
came to the following conclusions.
(1) Despite recent improvements in track and car

deliveries, shortages exist in forgings, castings,
plate and track materials.
- 54 -
(2) Locomotive parts and wheels are in particularly

short supply.
(3) The five overage mills supplying track are

particularly critical.
(4) Lead time status in 1975 had risen by 67 percent

for freight car material (6.75 weeks normal
average) by 121 percent for maintenance of
,
right of way material (14.75 weeks normal average)

and 105 percent for miscellaneous items (5.44
weeks normal average). Only locomotive material,
4.4 week normal average, remained constant.
(5) At least part of the problem is steel industry

inputs. Another is erratic railroad demand.
(6) FEA Project Independence estimates of rail

industry steel requirements by 1985 are 10.7
million tons, or about one third of the total
amount needed for transportation alone. No
shortages of hopper cars or locomotives are
anticipated but particular parts may be in
short supply.
(7) Competition among suppliers is low. There are

two locomotive companies, three U.S. rail
producers (plus two more embargoed Canadian
producers), six domestic wheel sources, eighteen
car companies (in addition to the ten railroads
that build some of their own) and a large number
of producers of foundry products, car and loco-
motive parts, and producers of miscellany.
t .
- 55 -
The steel industry is not known for its speed,

adaptability, or as the cutting edge of technology. Given
the age of the industry, it is probable that environmental
regulations will tend to reduce overall output over the
short-term. While a slow growth in GNP would relieve some
of the competitive demand for steel, it would also reduce the
demand for railroad equipment, though not necessarily for coal
carrying equipment. In the short-term, critical shortages,
known in advance, could be handled by imports, though at a
higher price. Furthermore, aluminum sided cars could spread
the impact across two industries. These cars have been in
service since 1960. They have a higher initial cost and,
apparently, a shorter life. Against this must be placed their
saving in weight. This can be translated into fuel savings
which increase with distance, tons carried, and the increasing
price of diesel oil. For average runs, the weight saving is
on the order of 8-10 percent. Other savings can be achieved
through standardization of specifications, negotiation with
respect to standards and cooperative buying and demand forecasts
2.5.5 Labor Requirements . Unit trains need not be

crewed at the same level as general freight. An early study [4]
pointed out the elimination of associated labor in yards,

switching, accounting and administration. In addition they
indicate potential crew change savings due to a reduction in
trip time. The possibility of crew reduction from five members
to total automation is also explored. Given the added costs
required for safety equipment, this last seems improbable except
on special, unimpeded, runs. However, a shift from 5 to 3 crew
members per train crew does not appear unwarranted.
2.5.6 Envi ronmen . Noise, route density, dirt, land

alienation, and aesthetics are the principal environmental
hazards. Excluding aesthetics, we have accounted for both noise
- 56 -
and route density by assuming double tracking and route

diversion. This involves land alienation. The data are
provided in earlier subsections. The range of land values
may be inferred from Section I. It must be noted, however,
that railroad utilization is total, pipelines and transmission
lines have only easements. However, a railroad corridor
could be used for other transport modes.
,
REFERENCES
Section II
1. Ferguson, A. J., "Unit Train Transportation of Coal/ 1
Appendix E of M. Rieber, S. L. Soo and J. Stukel, The

Coal Future University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
,
CAC Document No. 16 3, May 1975.
2. Soo, S. L. and L. Ballard, "Cost of Transportation of

Coal: Rail vs. Slurry Pipeline," in Appendix F of
M. Rieber, S. L. Soo and J. Stukel, The Coal Future,

No. 163, May 19 75.
3. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, "Unit

Train Transportation of Coal," IC 8444 (1970).
4. Railway Systems and Management Association, Unit Train

Operations January 1967.
,
- 57 -
SECTION III
COAL SLURRY PIPELINES
3.1 General .
Slurry pipelines are less route specific than

railroads. Terrain is relatively unimportant in terms of
pumping distance, but the terrain affects the cost of
construction, the pipeline operating pressure, and the
pumping power required; greater distance might have to be
tolerated to avoid extremes in the other parameters.
Existing pipelines do not return the water to the origin
after dewatering at the receiving end. Thus, the availability,
and to a lesser extent, the cost, of water can be a problem, iuckausi
T BACK
hr rrmfip 1. -7 t
-
ri
nn^/d y pf coal fines might be re l eased to th e soo
C
g-t-mngphprp for a F^^p^nnf f 7n mmtv no control has been

,-,-
,
considered by ETSI. If the coal transported is to be

exported after dewatering, this water will lack evaporation
facilities. Returning the water by pumping it back to the
mine area after adding the make-up water means an added cost
of piping and pumping but solves the problem of water avail-
ability. The condition under which returning the water to
the mine area is justifiable is one of the items analyzed in
this study. It was shown in our earlier study that slurry
pipeline is superior if new railroad must be built for
shipping coal alone over a distance of shipment of more than
about 200 miles.
The lack of flexibility in economic shipping
capacity is an important feature of the slurry pipeline.
A line designed for 3.5 mph flow velocity cannot be safely
operated at a velocity below 3 mph without plugging. Operation
at 5 mph requires a design providing for double the horsepower,
peak pressure, and wear.
- 59 -
- 60 -
The capital costs of a slurry line are completely

front ended. percent escalation of cost is used as an
A 7
average, although 4 percent was proposed by ETSI in view of

the low operating labor component. Given maintenance, repair,
partial replacement and possible plugging, the labor component
may not be the proper criterion.
The cost per unit commodity capacity mile at
reduced capacity increases by the inverse of the fraction
of full load; an 80 percent load factor increases the unit
cost by 25 percent. The upper limit of capacity is usually
the safest and most economic operating condition for a slurry
pipeline. A part load in a slurry pipeline is not feasible
although a line designed for 5 mph operation can be operated
at 3.5 mph though at much higher unit cost. A slurry line can
be branched if there is steady flow at both the inlet and the
delivery points, but variables dispatching is not feasible
because the trunk lines have to be operated within a narrow
speed range. Delivery points and inlet points can be
switched following a rigid schedule but cannot be tapped
and fed at will. A stopped line can be flushed with water,
but trunk line flow cannot be fed through, say, one of 5
branch lines with arbitrary closing off of the others.

A number of falacies concerning the slurry pipeline
have been propagated on both sides of the argument. A listing
based on facts and experience, is desirable. The areas to be
covered include the following:
(1) The statement that the Black Mesa line uses

10.4 MMCFD of gas for coal drying and flame
stabilization for 4.8 MTY is untrue. That
allegation assumes the use of gas for drying
coal rather than mechanical dewatering.
- 61 -
(2) Two hundred mesh coal in the slurry may settle

out in 36 hours. This is the confidence limit
for stopping the line without flushing.
(3) The output slurry is to be stored in holding

tanks with continuous stirring.
(4) The abrasion and wear on pipes is nearly

uniform because of the density of water.
Design safety factors include provision
against line break.
(5) Short term shut downs of less than 3 days

have been shown to be allowable.
(6) Low points are to be avoided whenever

possible. Stream crossings are best handled
by overground pipes.
(7) Pipe cost is proportional to 0.65 power of

the pipe diameter. Based on unit flow
throughput small pipes cost more in both
material and pumping power.
(8) Distribution lines should follow the above

formula.
(9) More water is not needed for branching but

rigid requirements of operation is a real
problem.
3.2 Capital Cost Elements .
The pipeline routes specified in Section 1.1 are

given in detail in Table 3.1 which shows for each route the
number of miles for the shortest practical route for each
Table 3.1
COAL SLURRY PIPELINE ROUTES
Slurry Pipeline:
(1) Farmington, NM to Los Angeles, CA

M = 660 Miles HV = 10080
W/O & W/ return water
Water cost, W = 1, 2.50 $/gallon
3 cases.
(2) Gillette, WY to Chicago, IL

M = 1000 Miles HV = 10080
3 cases.
(3) Gillette, WY to Houston, TX

M = 1210 Miles HV = 10080
3 cases.
(4) Colstrip, MT to Seattle, WA

M = 840 Miles HV = 10080
W/O W/ return water
&

3 cases.
- 62 -
- 63 -
given topography. This gives rise to the curvature of the

pipelines shown in Figure 1.1, although there are fewer
twists and turns than for rails, giving the pipeline an
advantage in westward shipments.
The different nature of the coal slurry line from
crude oil pipelines renders cost estimates based on crude
oil lines too low. The ETSI data for 1974, when escalated
at 7 percent is 13 percent higher than 1975 crude oil pipeline
data because of significantly different pumping facilities.
The costs of preparation equipment and wells, the
pipeline and pumping stations, and the dewatering facilities
for the Black Mesa pipeline (5 MMTY) as well as for the
Wyoming to Arkansas pipeline (25 MMTY), based on ETSI estimates,
are escalated to produce 1975 prices and to show the details of
capital costs. Additional details are given in the notes to
items in Table 3.2. Next, additional assumptions concerning
capital cost estimates are noted.
One caveat must be noted. When a private line is
built it is often impossible to say how much of the capital
cost (if any) has been absorbed by the companies at either
end and not debited to the pipeline. Similarly, shipment
costs become akin to transfer prices. The strict analogy is
that between the "costs" of company owned oil tankers and
those chartered on the open market (not spot rates) . There
is no unique connection between the two. The Black Mesa line
fits this description.
The Black Mesa pipeline consists of one mine supply-
ing one destination by a 273 mile, 18 inch pipeline. It
supplies million tons of coal per year to the Mohave
5
Generating Station. A 38 inch Wyoming to Arkansas pipeline

of 1,040 miles would supply 25 million tons of coal per year.
More than one mine will be needed to provide the 25 million
tons of coal. Five with coal preparation facilities like
.
Table 3.2
ITEMIZED CAPITAL COSTS OF BLACK MESA AND

WYOMING- ARKANSAS COAL SLURRY PIPELINES
Black Mesa Wyaning-Arkansas

273 miles 1,040 miles
Preparation 5 x 10 tons/yr 25 x 10 tons/yr
1. Transport from mine 1.5 7.5

2. Truck hopper 0.05 0.25
3. Initial crushing and cleaning 1.0 5.0
4. Stocking conveyor 0.2 1.0
5. In-active storage 1.0 5.0
6. Raw storage 0.68 3.4
7. Active storage 1.0 5.0
8. Dozers and scrapers 0.6 3.0
9. Conveyor transfer tower 0.2 1.0
10. Transfer tcwer 0.3 1.5
11. Conveyor to bunkers 0.15 0.75
12. Bunkers and feeders 0.15 0.75
13. Operating plant 1.0 5.0
14. Vibrator 0.2 1.0
15. Impactor 0.5 2.5
16. Rod mill 1.5 7.5
17. Vibrator 0.15 0.75
18. Slurry holding tank 0.6 3.0
19. Slurry test loop 0.05 0.25
20. Land 0.05 0.25
21. Wells and water pumps 1.25 6.25
22 Water working storage . 35 1.75
23. Water reservoir and pipe 0.3 1.5
24. Water piping and rust inhibitor injectors 0.1 0.5
25. First pumping station 5.0 25.0
TOTAL: Preparation 17.88 89.4
Pipeline
26(a) Mainline 45.6 26(b) 700

27. Collecting and branch lines 190
28 (a) Coal in pipelines 0.23 28(b) 4.4
TOTAL: Pipeline 45.83 RSM.-'i
- 64 -
.
Table 3.2 Continued
Black Mesa Wyoming-Arkansas

273 miles If 040 miles
Separation 5 x 10 tons/yr 25 > 10
: tons/yr
29 (a) Permanent storage 4.8 29(b) 13.0

30. Holding tanks 2.1 10.5
31. Dewatering centrifuges 4.0 18
32 Pulverizers 0.9 4.5
33. Flocculating tanks 0.7 3.5
34 Piping 0.15 0.75
TOTAL: Separation 12.65 50.25
TOTAL CAPITAL COST 76.36 1034.0
Notes to Table 3.2:
1. Five 125-ton trucks for transport from the mine @ $30,000 each.
2. Truck hopper @ $50,000
3. Two 28 ft by 14 ft diameter rotary breakers, $l,000/ton/hr x 660 ton/hr
x 1.5 [4a]
4. Movable stacking conveyor, $800/ft x 250 ft [4b]
5. 200,000 tans coal @ $5/ton in-active storage
6. 35,000 tons coal @ $5/ton raw storage + feeder and site development @
$500,000 [4c, 5]
7. 38,000 tons coal @ $5/ton active storage + rotary plow, structure above,
and site development @ $810,000 [4c, 5]
8. Four bulldozers or scrapers @ $150,000
9. 400 ft by 30 in. conveyor, $250/ft equipment x 400 ft x 1.28 labor and
material/material x 1.6 [4d,6a]
10. Transfer tower with 300 ton bin; coal sampled and weighed @ $300,000
11. 300 ft x 30 in. conveyor, $250/ft equipment x 300 ft x 1.28 labor and
material/materials x 1.6 [4d,6a]
12. Three 590 ton bunkers with feeders @ $50,000
13. Operating plant @ $1,000,000
2 0.58 2
14. Three 6 ft x 10 ft twindeck vibrators, 3 x $1,100 /ft x 60 ft x 1.32
installation x 2.4 stainless steel x 1.5 [6a] . ~
15. Three impactors, 290 tcns/hr, 3 x $85/tan/hr x 290 tons/hr x 1.57
installation x 1.5 [6a]
16. Three 18 ft x 13 ft I.D. rod mills, 1,500 hp, 150 tons of rods,
3(150 tons x 2,000 lb x $l/lb + $20,000/motor x 8.5 installation) [7.8]
17. Three 3.5 ft x 4 ft wedge wire screen vibrator, 3 x $900/ft 2 x 14 0,58 /ftr
x 1.32 installation x 2.4 stainless steel x 3 wedge wire x 1.5 [6a]
- 65 -

Table 3.2 Continued
18. Four 650,000 gallon tanks with 10 ft 125 hp agitator, 4($60,000/tank

x 1.75 inflation + $350/hp x 125 5 hp x 1.62 installation x 1.5
inflation) + $100,000 slurry tower
19. 206 ft test loop, 4,200 gpm @ $50,000
20. 100 acres @ $500/acre
21. Five 3,400 ft wells and pimps @ $250,000 [9]
22. 150 ft dianeter x 48 ft high, 6.3 x 10 6 gal water storage tank,
$200,000 x 1.75 [6b]
23. 3 x 10 6 gal plastic lined tank and 14 in., two-mile pipe, $150,000
x 1.75 + $40,000 pipe [6b]
24. Piping and rust inhibitor injectors @ $100,000
25. Three 1,750 hp, 330 tans/hr coal equivalent slurry pumps, 1,000 psi
discharge, 3 x $1,330,000 + $1,000,000 accessories [6c]
26a. $7,120,000 pumping x 5 x 10 6 tons/9 x 10 6 tons x 1.65 inflation
+ $37,590,000 mainline x 273 miles/344 miles x 5 x 10 6 /9 x 10 6 tons
x 2.1 inflation - $5,000,000 first pumping station [10]
26b. ($13,000,000 + $3,400,000) x 5 pipeline valuation in Niobrara and Goshen
Counties, Wyoming, x 1,040 miles/106 miles x 0.91 deflation - $25,000,000,
first pumping station [9]
27. ($20,800,000 + 3,600,000) x 5 collecting pipeline valuation in Campbell
and Converse Counties, Wyoming, x 2 destination supply lines as well as
collecting lines x 0.91 deflation [9]
28a. 46,000 tons coal in pipe @ $5/ton
28b. 875,000 tons coal in pipe @ $5/ton
29a. Two 36 x 10*> gal storage tanks in a ground plastic lined, 90 tons coal
each, 2 ($200,000 for 6 x 10 6 gal tank item 22 x 6 8 size factor x 1.75
inflation + 90,000 tans coal x $10/ton) [6b, 8]
29b. 1 x 10 6 tens coal hauled by train and stored dry @ $10/ton + $3,000,000
for facilities
30. Three 6 x 10 6 gal holding tanks, 15,500 tons of coal, 3($200,000/tank
x 1.75 inflation + $200,000 agitator and accessories + 15,500 tans x $10/ton
[6b, 8]
31. Twenty centrifuqes, 20 x $35,000/centrifuge x 3.1 process plant cost ratio
x 1.9 [8,11b]
32. Ten pulverizers, $520/lb x (660 tons/hr x 2,000 lb/ton) 0.35 x 1.59
installation x 1.8 [6a]
33. Two 200 ft I.D. tanks @ $350,000 [6b]
34. Piping @ $150,000
- 66 -
- 67 -
Black Mesas aro assumed. Five destinations are also assumed

because the Mo.iave Generating Station is the largest coal-
burning facility in the United States with a daily consumption
of 25,000 tons million tons per year) [2],
(9
The assumptions for coal preparation capital costs

are for Black Mesa. About five times that amount would be
required for the Wyoming- Arkansas pipeline. This linear
extrapolation is also assumed for the costing of separation
facilities because the pipeline can supply several power
stations. Additionally, linear extrapolation is used because
the largest equipment available was used at Black Mesa, yet
there was still a need for duplication of equipment for
preparation, separation, and pumping facilities. The cost
of developing larger equipment would probably offset any
economic advantage because it would have very limited appli-
cation.
The Black Mesa pipeline has a design peak pressure
of 1500 psi. The Wyoming to Arkansas line, due to gentle
terrain, was estimated by ETSI to have a peak pressure of
900 psi, but their estimates of 3/8" pipe wall thickness for
38" diameter pipe is close to critical design. For a trunk
line like Wyoming to Arkansas, the electricity used at the
pumping stations would be purchased locally or transmitted
from the power plant using the slurry, whichever costs less.
A power cost of less than 1.5 cents/Kwh cannot be expected.
If the water is to be returned to the mine area, a pipe
diameter of 27" will be needed for pairing with the 38" slurry
line. There will be additional costs for pumps and power
consumption. The ETSI estimate of $250 million for the
recycle line only covers the cost of the pipe.
Pumping stations on the Black Mesa pipeline are
each equipped with 3 slurry pumps, one of which is standby.
Speed can be raised to 4.3 mph when all of them are thrown
- 68 -
ti.es the
pressure increases to 1.5
into operation; peaK
mph flow.
desian pressure for 3.5
but were not tested
Holding ponds were mentioned
not deemed
Black Mesa site where local dumping was
at the
impermissible. According
to ETSI
4-
,
w
for the 25 MMTY shipment,
vTqi tor

â 4-n have a lined holding pond for
have a depth of
-ô
pond o, one acre should
by ETSI, dut:
Vw dredaing has been mentioned
ror r
estimate of 3.66 MM tt oacitv
holding pond of ten times this capacity
is correct, but a
Flushing water
might be T
neededLd at the aenv
deliveryy
point.
v
specifi-
be needed (the Eibi P
s
97 MM gallons
gaiio will
amounting to 27.4
*. 4
volum * of coal
volume
18.7 MM gallons does not include the
of
cation o
*ce r reservoir should
to be filled by water)
3 the 2 MM
3
estimate d by
MM ft instead of
also be 3.66 .
ETSI way for

*
of the right of
The purchase or lease
is similar to oil and gas
k
buried lines except at stations,

* lines,
crossings,
river
d rxvc
e
pipelines.
i

Manor
Ma 3 or
town must be bypassed,
towns
suspended
prpelrne passes
of the pipe. NO existing slurry
^^ annual fixed charges
Because i.*
almost an
all
Present comparison,
'^"or";
are estimated on the
same hasis as
the
tne <~^
^^^^
capital costs are front
enaea,
- 69 -
line is unusually sensitive to utilization, Coal throughput

may be dropped due to conditions at the supply end, the
demand end or line problems. For the first two, a significant
water flow might still be needed with little reduction in
electric usage.
3.3 Operating Costs .
Water is not a major cost item, but there is a

problem of availability and the environment. For a 25 MMTY
shipment 6.4 3 billion gallons of water per year are needed
(15VS^0 acre ft.). Costs of $1.00 per 1000 gallons to
$2.50 per 1000 gallons may be expected. Estimates by ETSI
that water costs of 20 times the cost for agricultural usage
of $5-10 per acre ft. means a water cost of only 25 cents
to 50 cents per thousand gallons. This is not believed to be
realistic, 25 cents/1000 gallons in Wyoming is a confiscation
level.
Table 3.3 (based on SRI estimates) shows a typical
operations and maintenance data sheet similar to that used by
Bechtel-ETSI . Their water requirement estimate was in error
by a factor of ten times too small and has been corrected.
Table 3.4 shows the operation and maintenance labor in man-
years. The material, power, water needs and costs are shown
in Table 3.5 which has been corrected for a water cost of $1
per thousand gallons and costs escalated to obtain a 1975 base
3.4 Cost Analysis and Results .
Table 3.6 shows the basic cost and resource items

for a specific route and for a given set of operating para-
meters. Cases include both one way slurry and water return,
and designs for both 3.5 mph and 5 mph velocity, and water
Table 3.3
COAL SLURRY PIPELINE

(includes slurry preparation and dewatering)
Prime Input: 25 million tons/year of fine coal (25 x 10 ton-miles/year)

6 9
Other Input: 1,267 x 10 /kWh/year electric power, 6.43 x 10 gals water/
year
Prime Output: 25 million tons/year of fine coal

9
Other Output: 6.43 x 10 gals water/year
DaysAear of Normal Operation: 357
Description and Size:
*
25 million tons/year
*
1,000 miles in length
'
38 inches in diameter
10 pump stations
*
Coal preparation and dewatering facilities.
- 70 -
Table 3.4
MANPOWER REQUIRED FOR OPERATION OF ENERGY FACILITIES

(Average Man-Years per Year)
Coal Slurry Pipeline

A. NONMANUAL B. MANUAL
1. Technical 1. Craftsmen
a. Engineers: a. Critical skills:

Chemical 1 Pipefitter/welder 8
Electrician 8
b. Designers and draftsmen
Operator, station
c. Supervisors and managers 4 engineer, pumpman 16
Mechanic helper 16
d. Other technical:
Mechanic 72
Office employees 2
Subtotal 120
e. Total technical 7 b. Other
c. Total craftsmen 120

2. Nontechnical:
Foreman 52 2. Teamsters and laborers 32
3. Nanmanual, TOTAL 59 3. Manual, TOTAL 152
- 71 -
: :
Table 3.5
MAJOR ITEMS REQUIRED FOR OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE OF ENERGY FACILITIES
(Quantities per Year)
COAL SLURRY PIPELINE

Thousands
I. MATERIALS of Dollars
A. Major Raw Materials, Volume, Energy Content:

25 x 10
L0 tons fine coal/year; 405 x lO 1 ^ Btus/year
10^2 Btus/yec
B. Other Materials and Supplies

1. Lumber and Wood Products (20,21) :* Lumber 122
2. Paper and Paper Products (24-26) 31
3. Chemicals and Allied Materials (27-32)

Corrosion retardants 1,378
Other 62
Subtotal 1,440
4. Stone, Clay, and Glass Products (35, 36)
Negligible
5. Ncnferrous metals (38) : Aluminum, copper products 122
6. Metal Products (39-42) : Pipe, valves, and fittings 298
7. Miscellaneous: Negligible
8. TOTAL 2,013
II. MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
1. Nonelectrical machinery (43-50, 52) : Negligible

2. Electrical Equipment (53-58) : Negligible
3. Transporation Equipment (59-61) : Negligible
*Bureau of Economic Analysis industry category numbers are in parentheses.
- 72 -
: :
Table 3.5 Continued
Thousands
of Dollars
4. Instruments and Controls (62, 63) : Negligible

5. Miscellaneous (64)
Machinery (pumps, pulverizers, etc.);

controls, electrical instruments,
communication equipment 2,986
6. TOTAL 2,986
III. UTILITIES
1. Power and Light (68)

(1.5/kWh)
6
Coal preparation 420 x 10 kWh (49,020 WW) 6,300
Pipeline movement 847 x 10 kWh (98,856 kW) 12,700 i*5?r./r
2. Fuel (68) :
9
3. Water (68): 6.43 x 10 gal ($1/1000 gal) 6.43 x 10
4. TOTAL 19,161
- 73 -
Table 3.6
BASIC ITEMS - COSTS AND RESOURCES
25 MMTY Slurry Pipeline

One way - 3.5 nph - w/o return water
Million Dollars
CAPITAL COSTS:
A. Gathering 15.5
Preparation 81.9
97.4 (1)
B. Piping = 0.86M (2)
C. Separation Plant & Water Disposal 50.3 (3)
TOTAL Capital Cost (l) + (2) + (3) (4)
ANNUAL COSTS:
A. Annual fixed charge on debt
Average rate base (5)
Debt Retirement (30 yrs)

Rate base: (6)
Federal tax: (7)
State tax: (8)
Depreciation: (9)
Total debt retirement (6) + (7) + (8) + (9) (10)
OPERATING COSTS:
B. Operating Labor (11)

Administrative (12)
C. Material (13)
D. Power (14)
E. Water (15)
Total Annual Operating Cost (11) +(12) +(13) +(14) +(15) (16)
Total Annual Cost (10)+ (16) (17)
- 74 -
Table 3.6 Continued
(18)
F. a. $/ton = (17)/25 (i9)

/M
b. /ton-mile = 100 (17)
1Q 6
c. C/MMBtu
= (18)
2^lH7)
(21)
(20)
d. CAMBtu mile = -
"~ SSS3 SLS^SSS--

design capacity.
Prcpcrtica! to aesi^
caî^.
. .reparatic cost ai^ctly
I It. (13)
- H,
*
-
case of design
case or
for 5 *h. 25%
^Jflj
dewatermg power increase
uy
additional cost.
- ~ ^
'
is dolled.
hen water is reamed, P-pi^ P=-r
*Ui- *U~
.
(IS) m case of S *,
is
ater
wfcer.water
*x- will be
-
9 .26
cost
I No water cost in low water
negligible when acquired
- 75 -
.
- 76 -
costs of both $1 and $2.50, per 1000 gallons. Computational

results for various routes and parameters are given in the
computer printouts in the Appendix to this section.
Figure 3.1 shows the route specific costs in dollars/
ton for each slurry pipeline assuming water costs of $1 per
1000 gallons and $2.50 per 1000 gallons and for both cases of
no return and where the water is returned including piping
and pumping equipment cost at both the low level of $240,000
per mile (denoted RL in Figures 3.1 and 2.1 (a)- (c) in
Section 2 for comparison) for the 2 7" diameter pipe and
$480, 000/mile as a conservative high value (RH) . The figure
of $240,000 per mile was close to that suggested by Bechtel
and is believed to be the lowest possible cost including
pipes and pumps, motors but no new excavation or other route
preparation. Depending on current prices of equipment, this
figure might buy only the pipe. The figure of $480, 000/mile
would account for the necessary uphill pumping and a pump
designed to handle inky water after separation of the coal
from the slurry. When water is returned, the unit cost in
cents/ton-mile (Figure 3.1) does not decrease over distance
as much as in those cases when water is not returned. Also
included in Figure 3.1 are the multipliers for converting the
unit costs in tons to unit costs per million Btu (MMBtu)
Two multipliers are provided for each source, the 'dry 1
basis
(D) and the 'as mined' basis Because 'as mined' coal
(M) .
includes up to 30 percent moisture by weight, the MMBtu trans-

mitted is close to the 'dry' basis because less water is added
to form the slurry. At the delivery end, the moisture left in
the cake after dewatering is at least 25 percent. The moisture
causes a loss of approximately 2.5 percent of the heating value
based on the weight of dry coal fired.
1.0
0.9
o 0.8 -
0.7 " 5c
0.6
12
RH
RETURN WATER
CONSERV. COST
10
RL
RETURN WATER
on oo
OPTIMISTIC COST
oo
?-$2. 5/1000
gal:
1000 GAL.
600 800 1000 1200 1400
t t t t MILES
NM TO LA MT TO WA WY TO WY TO TX
CHI
FIGURE 3.1 UNIT COST - SLURRY PIPELINES

,
- 77 -
Slurry pipelines have a narrow range of operating

flexibility even when operating economy is sacrificed. The
lower limit of a watery sludge is approximately 6 5 percent
load capacity where the slurry is 38 percent coal. The
part load condition is included in the modal comparisons in
Section 5.
There is considerable argument concerning water
requirements for the slurry pipeline. The often quoted
estimate of 15,000 acre feet per year is only for steady
state operation of the 25 MMTY pipeline. Flushing of the
pipeline with water in 12*5 days requires a short-term
increase of the pumping rate to 28,800 acre feet/year.
Long distance, large diameter slurry pipelines are
not a completely proven technology. The following table
contains a list of selected slurry lines but one which
includes all of the coal slurry lines; past, present and
anticipated. The Consolidation line (Cleveland-Cadiz, Ohio)
as late as August 1963, just before shut-down, was referred
to as experimental in a joint report by the Consolidation
Coal Company and the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company.
More important, the proposed ETSI lines represents an increase
by a factor of two in diameter and about 3.8 in length. The
remaining operational lines are short distance, small diameter
and low tonnage. Serious problems with much larger, longer,
lines are not inconceivable.
Discussions and concern with respect to slurry
pipeline shutdown and spillage may be found in: J. Ellis and
P. Bacchetti (both of Peabody Coal Co.), "Pipeline Transport
of Liquid Coal," Bureau of Mines, IC 8543 (1972). See also
E. Wasp, T. Aude, J. Kenny, R. Seiter (all of Bechtel) , and
R. Jacques (of Black Mesa Pipelines), "Deposition Velocities,
Transition Velocities, and Spatial Distribution of Solids in
Slurry Pipelines," Hydrotransport 1 First International
,
Table 3.7
SUMMARY OF SELECTED COMMERCIAL SLURRY PIPE LINES
Annual thruput
System or Length Diameter (million Initial
Slurry material location (miles) (inches) tons/year) operation
Existing
Coal Consolidation 108 10 1.3 1957

Black Mesa 273 18 4.8 1970
Limestone Calaveras 17 7 1.5 1971
Rugby 57 10 1.7 1964

Trinidad 6 8 0.6 1959
Colombia 17 7 0.4 1944
Copper concentrate Bougainville 17 8 1.0 1972
West Irian 69 4 0.3 1972
KBI Turkey 38 5 1.0
Pinto Valley 11 4 0.4 1974

Magnetite concentrate Tasmania 53 9 2.3 1967
Waipipi (land) 4 8 1.0 1971
Waipipi (offshore) 1.8 12 1.0 1971
Pena Colorada 30 3 1.8 1974
Gilsonite American Gilsonite 72 6 0.4 1957
Tails Japan 44 12 0.6 1968
Nickel refinery tailings Western Mining 4.3 4 0.1 1970
In Progress
Coal Nevada Power
Utah/Nevada 180 24 10
Energy Transportation
Systems, Inc.
Wyo./Ark. 1,036 38 25
Magnetite and Hematite Sierra Grande 20 8 2.1
Brazil 250 20 12
Mexico 17 10 1.5
Planned
Coal Houston Natural Gas

Colo, to Tex. 750 22 9
Gulf Interstate -
Northwest Pipeline 800 30 16
Phosphate Australia 200 16-22 4.0-6.0

Sulphur/hydrocarbon Canada 800 12-16
Magnetite and hematite Africa 350 18 6.6
Brazil 240 20 12.0
India 36 20-22 10.0
Mexico 17 10 1.5
Australia 44 8 0.9
- 78 -
- 79 -
Conference on the Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Pipes,

September 1-4, 1970. Plugging was cited by the Peabody
Coal operators during the June 1975 visit of one of our
researchers. See also: T. Aude, N. Cowper, T. Thompson
and E. Wasp (all of Bechtel) , "Slurry Piping Systems:
Trends, Design Methods, Guidelines," Chemical Engineering ,
June 28, 19 72, for further discussion of the potential

problems. More discussion of the plugging problem can be
found in E. Wasp and T. Thompson (both of Bechtel) "Slurry,
Pipelines. .energy movers of the future," Oil and Gas

.
Journal, December 24, 19 73. During our researcher's visit

to Black Mesa, Peabody Coal people spoke of having to dig
up the plugged line after locating the plug. Part of the
line was replaced. In testimony and questioning before
the Subcommittee on Energy Research, Development and Demon-
stration, Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House
of Representatives, January 1976, E. Wasp (Bechtel/ETSI)
admitted having to drill out the plug.
The seriousness of the plugging of a slurry
pipeline may be visualized as follows: when a plug is noted
between two stations along a 100 mile line, with station
spacing of 100 miles, each station will begin to dump the
slurry into a holding pond of one acre by 100 feet deep.
It will also begin to introduce water from a flushing pond
or other local water source by pumping water into the line.
For each branch, complete flushing takes 30 hours. In the
meantime, the plug is located within the 100 mile sector
followed by digging and plug removal. This process is
expected to take at least a week.
Subsequently, the slurry is reintroduced into the
pipeline from the supply point, while the flushing water is
returned to the ponds at each of the stations. The slurry
- 80 -
dumped at each station will not be reintroduced unless

special injection equipment is provided which, considering
the cost, is unlikely if 99 percent operating reliability
is practiced. After this new start, the coal supply will
reach the delivery point 12*5 days later thus giving a total
stoppage time of almost 3 weeks. The water from the last
branch of the pipe, amounting to 19 million gallons, has to
be disposed of. This water is too dirty to simply dump and
contains too little coal to warrant dewatering and subse-
quent use of the coal. Storage of slurry or "cake" against
such a contingency is costly and environmentally problematic;
a slurry holding pond of 10 acres by 200 feet will be needed.
Unless treated, the holding ponds themselves may constitute
health hazards. If the ponds are not lined, the water per-
colates into the soil and/or evaporates and the now dried
coal may wind drift. If the ponds are lined a non-environ-
mentally hazardous method must be found for disposal.
If slurry line shutdown involves the purchase of power at
the receiving end, such power is more costly than "own"
produced power. If the purchase involves the use of the
network, a "wheeling charge" (service charge) of about 10
percent of the cost is added by each utility through which
the power is bumped. Finally, while the water flow rate
during operation amounts to 15,000 acre- feet/year, the
flushing rate, throughout its duration, amounts to about
28,000 acre-feet/year. Far more serious than the additional
water usage is the environmental problem of the disposal of
the flushing water; a very dilute unuseable suspension of
coal in a large volume of water. A line break has all of
the problems suggested above, but the break is unlikely to
be considerately near a dump pond. No provision has been
reported for breakage. Leaks and breaks in oil and gas lines
are familiar to all of us.
- 81 -
The return of the water is desirable where the

use of the water for the slurry poses a serious problem to
the local economy and/or the environment. Even when water
is available to agriculture at cents/1000 gallons ($10 per
3
acre-foot) ,the willingness of the slurry pipeline operators

to pay $2.50/1000 gallons may not be a sufficient reason
to deprive the farm sector of 6 billion gallons of water per
year. A case in which water has to be returned to the mine
area occurs when the slurry is to be dewatered for export,
because, without a power plant sited at the delivery end,
there is no means for evaporating the ink after dewatering.
The undesirability of operating a pipeline
designed for 3.5 mph at 5 mph is seen in the doubling of
pumping power and a pipeline pressure at 143 percent of
design capacity. Since each pumping station on the Black
Mesa pipeline is equipped with 3 pumps with one as a spare,
if this practice is applied, operating at 122 percent
capacity is feasible provided the line can take a 50 percent
increase in operating pressure. In this case the unit trans-
portation cost will be reduced by 18 percent. Similarly,
operating at the minimum flow velocity of 3 mph gives a
transfer capacity of 86 percent for the same slurry at 75
percent of the power need. In this case, unit costs are
increased by 15 percent.
One option is to design a pipeline for 5 mph
thus giving the flexibility of a reduced load at 3.5 inph or
3 mph.For purposes of comparison, a case was calculated
(Table 3.8), showing changes in costs for such a pipeline
operating at 3.5 mph. Note that while a pipeline designed
for mph may have a unit cost of only 5 percent higher than
5
a 3.5 mph line, when the former is operated at 3.5 mph the
unit cost will be 40 percent higher, for a 40 percent capacity
Table 3.8
CHANGES IN COSTS PER 1000-MILE PIPELINE DESIGNED FOR

5 MPH FLOW AT 5 MPH AND 3.5 MPH AS COMPARED TO
ONE DESIGNED FOR 3.5 MPH
(in million dollars)
Design 5 nph Line 3.5 mph Line

Operating Flew 5 mph 3.5 mph 3.5 mph
Operating Capacity, MMTY 36 25 25
Capital Costs:
Gathering 22.3 22.3 15.5
Preparation 117.9 117.9 81.9
Piping & Pumping 1300 1300 860
Separation 72.4 72.4 50.3
Total 1512.6 1512.6 1007.7
Annual Costs:
Fixed Charges
Rate Base 93.8 93.8 62.5
Federal Tax 26.3 26.3 17.5
State Tax 30.3 30.3 20.1
Depreciation 50.4 50.4 33.6
Total 200.8 200.8 133.7
Operating Costs
Labor 6.9 6.9 6.9
Material 6.25 5 5
Power 34.1 19 19
Water ($1/1000 gal) 9.3 6.4 6.4
Total Annual Cost 258.6 239.3 171.0
Unit Cost:
$/ton 7.18 9.57 6.85
C/ton-mile .72 .96 .69
C/MMBtu 36 48 33.9
C/MMBtu/mile .036 .048 .034
- 82 -
- 83 -
range. Note also that a unit train system has a unit cost
range of only 15 percent for a capacity range of 6 percent.
The proposed slurry pipeline for shipping coal from
New Mexico and Colorado to Houston with deliveries along
the way is an example of a pipeline with gathering and
branching. The costs cited in their proposal show general
agreement with our estimates. Note, however, that successful
operation calls for a nearly steady flow; delivery must be
maintained even if a power plant along the way is shut down.
,
REFERENCES
Section III
1. National Petroleum Council, Coal Task Group, Other Energy

Resources Subcommittee, Committee on U.S. Energy Outlook,
U.S. Energy Outlook (Coal Availability) for the U.S.
,
Department of the Interior, 1973, p. 126.
2. Wolff, A., "Showdown at Four Corners," Saturday Review of

Society, June 3, 1972, p. 29.
3. Golenpanl, A. Information Please Almanac

, , Atlas , and
Yearbook 1975, p. 76.
,
4. Rieber, M. and S. L. Soo, The Feasibility of Coal Mine

Cooperatives: A Preliminary Report and Analysis report ,
prepared for the Energy Resource Development, Office of

Coal Federal Energy Administration, CAC Document No. 157P,
April 1975, (a) p. 57; (b) p. 92; (c) p. 96; and (d) p. 64.
5. Kube, W. R. "Technology and Use of Lignite," Proceedings

,
of the Bureau of Mines University of North Dakota

,
Symposium Bismark, N.D., May 12-13, 1971, U.S. Department

of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 1972, p. 19.
6. Guthrie, K. M. "Capital Cost Estimating," Chemical

,
Engineering March 24, 1969, (a) p. 132-3, (b) p. 140,

,
and Tel p. 127.
7. Link, J. M. N. J. Larringia, and R. R. Faddick, "The

,
Economic Selection of a Slurry Pipeline," Paper K3,

Hydrotransport 3, Third International Conference on the
Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Pipes, May 15-17, 1974,
p. K-17.
8. Jelen, F. C, Cost and Optimization Engineering , McGraw-

Hill Book Co., 1970, p. 315-317.
9. Energy Transportation Systems, Inc., "Facts Concerning

Proposed Coal Slurry Pipeline from Wyoming to Arkansas,"
(Post Office Box 3965, San Francisco, CA 94119)
February 21, 1974.
10. Department of Interior, Report to the Panel on Civilian

Technology on Coal Slurry Pipelines May 1, 1962, Table II-5
,
- 84 -
. ,
- 85 -
11. Smith, C. J., "Cost and Performance of Centrifuges,"

Data on Methods for Cost Estimation, Part 1: A Collection
of Articles from Chemical Engineering McGraw-Hill Book Co.
,
1952, (a) pp. 82-83 and (b) p. 77.
12. Musey, M. J., Jr., Controller, Black Mesa Pipeline, Inc.,

Annual Report Year ended December 31, 1973.
,
13. Canadian Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources,

Transport of Solids in Pipelines with Special Reference
to Mineral Ores Concentrates, and Unconsolidated Deposits
, ,
October 1969^ Ta Literature Survey)
14. Federal Energy Administration, "Coal Slurry Pipeline,"

Final Task Force Report on the Project Independence System
Integration Model for the Transport of Energy Materials,
Volume II, Chapter VII, November 1974.
15. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, "Pipeline

Transport of Liquid Coal," Technology
'""""' and Use of Lignite ,
May 1971.
16. Aude, T. C. T. L. Thompson, and E. J. Wasp, "Economics of

,
Slurry Pipeline Systems," Proceedings of the Transportation

Research Forum, Vol. XV, No. I, 19 74.
APPENDIX SECTION
COSTS AND RESOURCES FOR SLURRY PIPELINES

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SECTION IV
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
4 . Introduction .
Coal, as electrical energy in large blocks, can be

transported from mine mouth generating plants to distant load
centers. Particularly in more densely populated areas, if
environmental issues can be surmounted, this form of transport
may be the least costly.
While for economic reasons, the emphasis here is
on DC rather than AC transmission, both alternatives are
compared. Five routes are investigated. These are to
Los Angeles from Kaiprowits, Utah (1-6) and Farmington
New Mexico (2-6); and to Chicago from Beulah, North Dakota (3-7),
from Gillette, Wyoming (4-7), and from Colstrip, Montana (5-7).
A general cost analysis is also presented.
4.2 Extra High Voltage Transmission - AC-DC Comparison
In its earlier development, power demand was primarily

from isolated places or individual industrial plants, and load
was fed locally. Therefore, voltages were low, distances were
short, and direct current was exclusively transmitted. The
development of AC transformers offered advantages in the use
of high voltage to compensate for distance. Therefore, AC
usage superseded DC. AC transmission is again being challenged
because transmission voltages have reached levels which are so
high that reactive compensation is too costly and line losses
are very high. Economics is dictating a switch back to DC
transmission. Currently, there are eleven major HVDC lines
in operation (see following table) with more in the final
planning stage.
- 87 -
- 88 -
- 89 -
Table 4.1
Table 1: High-voltage direct-current power

transmission projects in commission and planned
Service Voltage to Length Rating

date Status ground (kv) (mi) (Mw)
In service
1954 & 70 Gotland-Mainland - submarine 150 61 30
1961 Cross-channel - submarine 100 40 160
1965 New Zealand 0/H & submarine -
250 382 600
1965 Japan (frequency changer) 2 + 125 300
1965 Konti-Skan 0/H & submarine 250 107 250
. 1965 U.S.S.R. (Volgograd-Oonbass) - 0/H 400 295 750
1967 Sardinia - Italy - 0/H & submarine 200 252 200
1968-1970 Vancouver Island 0/H & submarine 260 43 312
1970 NW-SW Pacific Intertie 0/H - 400 846 1.440
1972 New Brunswick asynchronous tie 2-1-80 320
1973-1976 Nelson River Winnipeg 0/H -
450(1976) 600 800-1.620
1973 Kingsnorth - London U/G
266 51 640
Not in service
Const Cabora Bassa - 0/H 533 845 1.920

Design Zaire -0/H 500 1.116 1.120
Design Skagerak H & submarine
/ 250 138 500
Design Hokkaido 0/H & submarine
-
250 236 300
Design Ekibastuz Center -0/H 750 1.500 6.000
Design North Dakota Minneapolis - O/H 450 402 1.000
Design Center - Duluth - 0/H 250 460 500
Source: Electric World , p. 44, July 1, 1974.

.
- 90 -
Theoretically, HVDC systems have some advantages

over equivalent AC counterparts. Most important, they have a
much higher power density within a given right of way than an
AC system. This provides economic and environmental advantages.
Furthermore, in transmitting the same amount of power over the
same size conductor at the same peak load gradient for the
same distance line losses are smaller with direct current.
AC line losses are about 33 percent greater than those for DC.
The following calculation represents the basis of comparison
between AC and DC power transmission:
Line Loss ratio for equal power transmitted.

';
Assume: '
'
".
3-Phase AC
Bipolar DC
Same conductor resistance per mile, RLA p = Rl-
DC
Same crest voltage stress on
insulation and clearance.
E = Voltage; I = Current; P = Power,

rms = root mean square.
where,
P AC =V3 Erms I rms
~"
DC ^DC *DC
Erms = -:*-= En crest (AC)

V2
E DC = 2En crest (DC)

- 91 -
Therefore/
AC DC
vT Erms Irms = E DC I
DC
v/3
-* En crest Irms = 2En crest \ nr
T 2vT
Irms = _j*l_ TIdc
Line Loss:
2
2
LLAC = 3l rms R L = 3(1^ J^J pL Q_ = Line Loss
\
2
= 2
DC DC
\\
2
LL
AC
3(2-^)
"

3
LL DC
Therefore, neglecting the AC skin effect, AC line losses are

33 percent greater than DC losses for the same conductor voltage
stresses and the same power transmitted.
Among the advantages of DC power generation are the
following:
1. Greater power per conductor.

2. Lighter and simpler line and tower construction,
reducing cost and secondary impacts.
3. A ground return can be used. Hence, each con-
ductor can be operated as an independent circuit.
- 92 -
4. No charging current.
5. No skin effect.
6. The cables can be worked at a higher voltage
gradient.
7. The line power factor is always unity; the
line does not require reactive compensation.
8. There is less corona loss and radio inter-
ference than for AC transmission, especially
in bad weather, for given conductor diameter
and rms voltage.
9. Synchronous operation is not required. There-
fore, distance is not limited by stability.
10. A DC system may interconnect with AC systems
of different frequencies.
11. There is low short circuit current on a DC
line. It does not contribute to short
circuit on an AC line.
12. Tie-line power is easily controlled.
The chief drawback to the use of DC for electric

power transmission is the high cost of HVDC terminal equip-
ment. In the early 1960 's cost estimates for terminals
were about $25/kw [12] [13] . Even though the development of
solid-state valves has helped to hold down costs, this seems
to have had little effect on the overall cost reduction of
these major items.
4.3 The EHV Cost Model .
The costing, but not the technical, analysis in

this section must be considered more tentative than that
developed for unit trains and slurry pipelines. This situa-
tion may be remedied in the next 3-4 months with the publica-
tion by EPRI, of a commissioned study by Commonwealth Asso-
ciates which will include an analysis of 765 kv overhead
line.
- 93 -
Comparisons between the total costs of DC trans-

mission with those of conventional AC transmission are
difficult because of the lack of a proper definition of
equivalence of systems and because of the diversity of
outdated published cost information for both systems.
The range of results of various studies made in the past
vary widely [8] , [9and introduce some doubt as
] , [13] ,
to the accuracy of the conclusions which may be drawn from

them. Unless account is taken of the continual changes
which are taking place in equipment design, manufacturing
techniques, market prices and the expected utilization of
the line over a long period of time, it is difficult to
utilize studies made at different times.
Given current operating and equipment limitations
for DC facilities, comparisons between AC and DC transmission
are based on point to point lines, with complete terminal
facilities at each end, for a range of loads and distances.
The systems are non- comparable if either one has more
intermediate line terminals or line taps than the other.
Estimated total costs for each system includes
fixed charges on investment, operating and maintenance costs,
and both line and terminal equipment losses. These data
are used to determine the breakeven distances at which DC
costs equal AC costs for any given value of power delivered
to the receiving terminal of the transmission system. A
cost model for extra-high voltage transmission is formulated
to evaluate the economics of an EHV transmission line for
source to load long distance electrical energy transfer. It
it also used to formulate and demonstrate the economic com-
parison between EHV-AC and EHV-DC transmission.
-94-
4.3 Results .
The cost model is self-described by the data

presented in Tables 4.2 - 4.5. Pertinent assumptions are
given in Tables 4.6 - 4.7. Route specific data are shown
in Table 4.8. Figure 4.2 indicates the breakeven point
for AC and DC transmission for the relevant voltage.
Given the facilities description, it is estimated
that for a double circuit HVDC transmission line, the
weight of self-supporting steel towers ranges from 61-112
tons/mile. Guyed steel or aluminum towers would weigh
4 5-67 tons/mile. In general, the AC towers use 1.67 times
the material used in DC towers.
For AC transmission, conductor requirements are
estimated from 62-89 tons/mile of steel reinforced aluminum
wire. DC transmission requires about 54 tons/mile.
- 95 -
o
o

o
o
la
m
-J
CN in
Hi
o
u
en
to ^r * 94
(V3W&& SV) H*9i/STJtH

Table 4.2
+
ESTIMATED INVESTMENT COSTS OF
765-KV AC DOUBLE CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINE'
Self-Supporting
Tower Guyed Tower
Materials Labor Materials Labor
Tower & Foundation
Tower Structure 72,500 92,000 53,000 65,800
Foundation 11,200 38,200 5,600 3,100
Guys 5,600 3,100
Guys Anchors 2,800 5,600
Subtotal: Tower & Foundation 83,700 130,200 67,000 77,600
Conductors & Hardwares

Insulators & Hardwares 16,600 7,770 16,600 7,770
Conductors & Spacers 77,700 47,300 77,700 47,300
Shield Wires & Assemblies 5,100 6,800 5,100 6,800
Grounding 340 1,350 340 1,350
Subtotal: Conductors & Hardware 99,740 63,220 99,740 63,220
MATERIALS & LABOR : Total 376,860 307,560
Engineering & Overhead (15%) 56,530 46,130
Total Line Cost Per Mile* 433,390 353,690
1975 Dollars.
1025 Ft. Span.
Excluding rights of way.
- 96 -
Table 4.3
ESTIMATED INVESTMENT OF 1000 MILE EHV
TRANSMISSION OF 3000 MW
(1975 dollars)
765 kv AC Transmission
SENDING SUBSTATION:
Building & Site Development 800,000
Structures 2,027,500
765 kv Terminals with Breakers 13,246,000
Generator Step-up Transformer 22/765 kv 14,261,400
Transformer Connections with Breakers 5,745,000
Total: Sending Substation 36,079,900
RECEIVING SUBSTATION:
Building & Site Development 800,000
Structures 2,027,500
Auto-Transformers, 3-10-765/345 kv 17,551,200
Transformer Connections with Breakers 5,745,000
Total: Receiving Substation 41,735,200
COMPENSATION FACILITIES:
Series Capacitors ($14.0/kvar) 59,500,000
Shunt Reactors ($24.2-$13.0/kvar) 102,850,000 55,250,000
Shunt Capacitors ($11.4-$9.9/kvar) 16,530,000 14,355,000
Total: ComDensation Facilities 178,880,000 - 129,105,000
TRANSMISSION FACILITIES:
Line & Tower (Double Circuit) (Self-Support) 433,390,000
(Guyed) 353,690,000
Rights of Way (Including Clearing)
(225 Ft Row, $1500/acre) 40,500,000
Total: 473,890,000 - 394,190,000
600 kv DC Transmission
SENDING SUBSTATION: 123,000,000

RECEIVING SUBSTATION 118,712,000
TRANSMISSION FACILITIES 236,000,000
RIGHTS OF WAY (Including Clearing)
(175 Ft Row, $1500/acre) 31,500,000
- 97 -
Table 4.4
+
COST ANALYSIS OF 765 KV EHV AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
(1975 dollars)
(3000 MW, 1000 Mile)
I. CAPITAL INVESTMENTS :
A. Sending Substation 35,651,600

B. Receiving Substation 41,306,900
C. Compensation
CI. Series Capacitors @ $14.0 Avar 59,500,000
C2. Shunt Reactors @ $18. 6 Avar 79,050,000
C3. Shunt Capacitors @ $10.65Avar 15,442,500
D. Transmission Line Facilities
@ $353,690/mile 353,690,000
E. Right of Way @ $1500/acre 40,500,000
Total Capital Costs: 625,141,000
II. ANNUAL FIXED COSTS :*
A. Sending Substation @ 13.9% of IA 4,955,572

B. Receiving Substation @ 13.9% of IB 5,741,659
C. Compensation @ 13.9% of IC 21,404,961
D. Transmission Facilities @ 13.5% of ID 47,748,167
Total Annual Fixed Costs: 79,850,339
III. ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS :**
A. Sending Substation @ 2.34% of IA 834,247

C. Compensation @ 1.3% of IC 2,001,902
D. Transmission Facilities @ 1.3% of ID 4,597,968
E. Electrical Energy Losses: 37,928
El. Energy Losses @ ICAwh
E2. Power Losses @ $180Aw & 13.9% fixed chgs
Total Annual Operating Costs: 8,546,024
IV. ANNUAL COSTS : (II + III) 88,396,363
V. UNIT COSTS :
A. Mills/ton-mile of equivalent coal 7.641

B. Mills Aw-hr received power 3.843
2*I2 c. Investment $/to**kr^ received power 27.2
itt CHAM"
M BACH Of
"
^
BOOK
Double circuit is used.

*
Based on FPC P-38 Annual fixed charge rate.
*
Includes administrative and general expenses @ 3.0% of their operating costs.
- 98 -
Table 4.5
COST ANALYSIS OF 600 KV EHV-DC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

(1975 dollars)
(3000 MW, 1000 Mile)
I. CAPITAL INVESTMENTS :
A. Sending Substation @ $41 Aw 123,000,000

B. Receiving Substation @ $44/kw 118,712,000
C. Transmission Facilities @ $236,000/faLle 236,000,000
D. Right of Way @ $1500/acre 31,500,000
Total Capital Costs: 509,212,000
II. ANNUAL FIXED COSTS :

C. Transmission Facilities @ 13.5% of IC 31,860,000
Total Annual Fixed Costs:
HI. ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS :

C. Transmission Facilities @ 1.30% of IC 3,068,000
D. Electrical Energy Losses: 30,600
Dl. Energy Losses @ lC/kwh
D2. Power Losses @ $180 Aw & 13.9% fixed chgs
Total Annual Operating Costs: 9,063,300
IV. TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS : 74,521,300
V. UNIT COSTS :
A. Mills/ton-mile of equivalent coal 6.269

B. Mills Aw-hr received power 3.153
C. Investment $A*''te- received power 21.5
BACK Of
M
ôO"1
- 99 -
.
Table 4.6
ESTIMATING ASSUMPTIONS
A. Assumptions applying to both AC and DC transmission

calculations:
1. From source to load point-to-point transmission

is assumed.
2. Investment costs for transmission lines and sub-

station facilities are taken from our estimation
of a typical unit.
3. For the purpose of estimation and comparison, annual

fixed charges, as a percentage of investments are
assumed to be 13.9 percent for substations and
facilities, and 13.5 percent for steel tower trans-
mission lines (from data released by FPC)
4. Annual operating and maintenance costs as a percentage

of total investment, are assumed to be 1.8 percent
for sending substation, 2 percent for receiving
stations, and 1 percent for transmission lines and
compensatory facilities.
5. The cost of energy losses is assumed to be lC/kwh.
6. Power loss is calculated to cost $150 per kilowatt

and annual fixed charge of 13.9 percent.
7. Annual load factor of 100 percent is assumed.
B. Assumptions applying only to AC transmission calculations
1. Series compensation is used to raise the power

loading of the AC line for long distance electric
transmission. The amount of series compensation,
where needed, is estimated [11] and is considered
a good approximation of optimum economic applica-
tion.
- 100 -
.
Table 4.6 Continued
2. The sending-end voltage is 105 percent of rated

voltage.
3. Shunt capacitors are installed on the transformer

tertiary at the receiving terminals as required
to provide 100 percent voltage at the EHV bus with
a load of unity power factor at the low voltage
bus.
6. The high values of charging current met with in

765 kv lines necessitate the use of shunt reactors
These act as a very effective means of reducing
excessive reactive current and energy losses at
low load.
7. All reactors are connected directly to the trans-

mission line and are assumed to be in service
under all conditions, except when disconnected
for maintenance.
8. All auto-transformers are assumed to be stepped

down to 345 kv at the receiving end.
9. AC line loss calculations are estimated from

"Best Case" formula [10]
10. Only transformer losses which constitute the

major part of terminal equipment losses are
accounted for and are assumed to be 0.9 percent
of the power rating.
- 101 -
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REFERENCES
Section IV
1. Rattien, S, et al, Electric Power and Development; A

Feasibility Study of the Development of A Large Scale
Mine-Mouth Electric Power Export Industry for Northern
West Virginia EP-"3, Graduate School of Public and
f
International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, 1971.
2. Olmsted, L. M. , "Special report on Transmission," Electric

World June
, 1, 1972, pp. 35-44.
3. "30,000 Coal Cars in Six Years?" Power Engineering ,
August 19 75, p. 7.
4. National Academy of Engineering, U.S. Energy P rospect:

An Engineering Viewpoint Task Force on Energy, 1974.
,
5. Mutschler, P. H., R. J. Evans and G. M. Larwood, "Compara-

tive Transportation Costs of Supply Low-Sulfur Fuels to
Midwest and Eastern Domestic Energy Markets," IC 8614,
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1973.
6. Ferguson, J. A., "Unit Train Transportation of Coal,"

M. Rieber, S. L. Soo and J. Stukel, The Coal Future ,

No. 16 3, Appendix E, May 19 75.
7. Soo, S. L., Private Communication.
8. Federal Power Commission, Advisory Committee Report No. 20,

"High-Voltage DC Transmission," National Power Survey ,
Partll, pp. 289-313, 1969.
9. Federal Power Commission, Advisory Committee on Underground

Transmission, "Underground Power Transmission," April 1966.
10. Nagarvala, P. J. , et al, Clean Coal Energy: Source-to-

Use Economics , Bechtel Corp., San Francisco, January 1976.
11. Federal Power Commission, "EHV AC Transmission Line Com-

pensation," Advisory Committee Report No. 14, National
Power Survey Part II, pp. 141-172, Washington, October 1964
,
- 105 -
- 106 -
Washington, October

Eco nomio
700 kv H
7 K "Transmission Above 44 . 49j
February 1965.
^
Transmission
"
American
T ..Technical Studies
^^
Ho5coêrence,
D
*el
^?rPP.
.
?"f
,
^"
..^roêedinajL of
tAn Ec onomic
the
Study of
High Voltage 695 Qux

i "" ,
01
'
19566..
195
'
Vol.
VCl 75, PP-
Power Survey.,
The National
on Th^ -
Federal Power
Commission, T^, and Development
Mvisory Coîttee
Report ,
^

juiy , 4< u
a " fr the Electric * Research.
Energy Distr ibution
Report:
b Task Force
December 1973. Research,"
Report: Enviironme ntal
c Task Force
January 1974.
The 1970 ^tioâl
E-er ^2X
Commission,
17 . Federal Power 1971.
August
Part IV, on utilities,
w ^" 9 g|si|evt^
, Power cotrm-ission, f toS e
Council on Recr
19 . El ectric Fewer
Rese-h
Transmission
Council,i mi;
-s-tuÊX^
Flec tric
^&^ Research
Above 1975.
/
APPENDIX A TO SECTION IV
EHV TRANSMISSION SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

. .
APPENDIX A TO SECTION IV
SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
Concern over extra high voltage transmission

lines centers around line leakage, physiological effects
due to proximity, noise, odor, radio and television and
other communication interference and aesthetics. Signifi-
cant material has been developed under EPRI auspices [19]
concerning corona phenomena on AC transmission lines, radio
and television interference, corona loss, and the electro-
static effects of overhead transmission lines and stations.
Studies are currently underway in EPA and EPRI among others
There appear to be few additional tangible results.
The following excerpts are reproduced from
Federal Power Commission sources [17] [16B]
This material has been omitted. See sections 3.1 through

3.4 of reference [17] and sections 2.5, 6.3.11, and 6.3.12
of reference [16b]
IVA-1
APPENDIX B TO SECTION IV
EHV TRANSMISSION COMPARATIVE DATA

APPENDIX B TO SECTION IV
COMPARATIVE DATA:
765 KV AC AND 6 00 DC
Data obtained from the Missouri Public Service

Commission, based on an analysis by Commonwealth Associates,
Inc., included the following points of reference.
(1) Total per mile costs for 765 kv AC trans-

mission are estimated at $300,000.
(2) For equal mileage, line losses for a 765 kv

AC line are 10 percent of those for a 345 kv
AC line.
(3) For "equal" lines, the cost per mile for DC

transmission is approximately two-thirds that
for AC.
(4) DC transmission can ship more power per unit

right of way than AC. A further advantage
is that it can be operated at half capacity
during some equipment troubles.
(5) Present estimates of terminal costs are

about $4 0/kw for a DC line.
(6) There are no currently available breakers

to sectionalize a DC line.
(7) For the 456 mile HVDC line currently being

constructed between Center, North Dakota and
Duluth, Minnesota, the connecting DC trans-
mission line is estimated at $25 million,
the two terminals will cost over $45 million.
Data supplied by the Bonneville Power Administra-

tion included the following:
IVB-1
IVB-2
(1) The cost of d-c converter stations depends

on a number of factors, the major ones being
the capacity, the nature of the a-c systems
to which they are connected, availability
requirements, d-c voltage levels and location.
(2) Generally, the cost of the terminal in terms

of dollars per KW goes down with higher
capacity. Excluding the cost of land for
the terminal, cost of a-c system additions,
spares and utility overhead, installed cost
of HVDC terminals of 1500-3000-MW capacity
would be in the range of $37 to $32 per kW
per terminal.
(3) Modern HVDC terminals are based on solid-state

converter technology and are typically made up
of 12-pulse converters. In general, the
minimum cost terminal would have only one
12-pulse converter group per pole. However,
depending on the system reliability require-
ments, it might be desired to have at least
two 12-pulse converter groups per pole. In
this case, the cost of the terminal will go up
by about ten percent of the figures quoted
above.
(4) The cost of integrating the d-c terminal with

the power system depends on the existing a-c
systems. Apart from the cost of facilities
needed to connect the d-c terminals to the
a-c system, the voltage level of the a-c
supply to the converters can influence the
cost. The figures quoted above are typical
for 23 0- or 34 5-kV systems. Higher voltage,
500-kV or 760kV, a-c supply would increase
the cost.
(5) The cost of the d-c line varies with voltage

level, conductor size and terrain.
(6) For typical + 400-kV d-c line, some of our

recent preliminary cost estimates indicated
a price range of $115,000 to $130,000 per mile
depending on conductor size. These figures do
not include cost of land and administrative
IVB-3
overhead. Smooth terrain was assumed.

Similar cost estimates for + 600-kV line
ranged from $165,000 to $200,000 per mile
depending on conductor size.
(7) A typical + 400-kV line could be constructed

of two Thrasher (2312 kcmil) conductors per
pole. Cost of this configuration based on
the assumptions given above would be about
$127,000 per mile. These would be single-
circuit steel structures requiring approxi-
mately 31 tons of steel per mile. A similar
typical + 6 00-kV line could use 3 Chukar
(178 kcmil) conductors per pole and would
require about 44 tons of steel per mile. The
cost of this line excluding land and overhead
would be about $180,000. These designs are
based on grillage footings whose steel amounts
are included in the above figures As to .
conductor weights, a Thrasher condcutor weighs

2.53 lb/ft. and Chukar 2.076 lb/ft.
(8) Depending on the assumptions regarding average

span, terrain and wind loading, the right-of-
way for the + 400-kV line would be in the
range of 110 ft. -140 ft. and for the + 600-kV
line in the range of 130 ft. -160 ft.
In its draft final Report to ERDA, Clean Coal

Energy; Source- to-Use Economics , Vol. 1, "Model, Data, and
Results," January 1976, the Bechtel Corporation has presented
some generalized data which are reproduced below.
This material has been omitted. See pages 2-50, 2-51, and
2-52 of the reference cited above.
SECTION V
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 General .
Western coal is not necessarily low sulfur coal.

In the designated supply regions there is often a consider-
able difference between the sulfur content of the coal as
mined and the sulfur content of the coal on the Btu basis
which must be used to meet EPA regulations. The standardized
basis selected for comparison is 22.6 MMBtu/ton, the 1970
utility average. A comparison for each of the supply loca-
tions follows:
Sulfur Content
Source As Mined Btu Adjusted
(%) (%)
Kaiparowits 0.52 0.55

Farmington 0.70 0.92
Gillette .3 - 0.8 0.26 - 1.16
Colstrip .8 - 1.2 0.98 - 1.72
Beulah .7 - 0.9 1.12 - 1.49
If the coal must be desulfurized anyway, one may question the

validity of shipping this coal to regions which have local
suppliers which, on a Btu adjusted sulfur basis, are not
much more polluting or which could be desulfurized. The saving
in transport costs by any mode, due to shorter distance, could
be applied to desulfurization.
It must be emphasized that, with respect to unit train-
coal slurry pipeline comparisons, a worst case comparison has
been developed. Unit train costs are too high; slurry pipe-
line costs, even though they have been inflated, are based on
- 107 -
- 108 -
Black Mesa data, which pertain to a much smaller line, and

on ETSI-Bechtel preliminary engineering estimates for a line
in which they have a vested interest. The value of coal
inventories and pipeline holdup have also been kept arbi-
trarily low. On the other hand, all railroad right of way
upgrading, even though this benefits all freight movement,
has been assigned to unit coal train costs. No credits are
taken for the movement of other freight, which is impossible
with respect to the pipeline, a major factor favoring the
railroads. Furthermore, emphasis has been placed on an
artibrarily low bottleneck speed of 10 mph over various
percentages of the route. Had the bottleneck speed been
higher, say 20 mph, all of the comparative unit train cost
functions would have shifted downward. This must be kept
firmly in mind when reading the discussion or examining the
figures in this Section.
5.2 Slurry Pipeline and Unit Trains .
Over all the routes under consideration, the slurry

pipeline, without water return, is competitive with unit
trains if the railroad has bottlenecks of a 10 mph speed
limit to the equivalent of 10 percent of the distance. In
addition, there is usually a greater railroad distance between
points. The best pipeline case can be made for the Colstrip,
Montana to Seattle, Washington route, where the terrain may
yield a bottleneck of more than 2 percent of the distance
at 10 mph speed limit. There, the return of the water after
slurry dewatering may become feasible if the return pipe and
pumping equipment costs an average of only $240,000 per mile;
although a more conservative estimate is $480,000 per mile.
When a slurry pipeline is built especially for exporting coal,
- 109 -
the higher price of $480,000 per mile might be justified

because the coal is readily loaded into ships designed for
carrying bulk material and there is a convenience factor
involved in unloading at the destination.
The slurry pipeline can be written off on the basis
of a 25- or 30-year take or pay sales contract for the coal
from a given mine are. For example, at 25 MMTY and $12 per
ton as mined, annual costs ($ million) are:
Slurry Pipeline Unit Train
Coal (dry basis) 300 315

Shipping 208 185
Pulverizing 5
Total 508 505
This is because rail shipped coal may have on the average of

about 5 percent moisture even with wind drying after mining.
The above differential is within the accuracy of our esti-
mates. A higher cost of the slurry pipeline might be
expected if environmental factors work against export ship-
ments .
The value added by delivering coal in pulverized form

is not a major factor in a decision among modes of transport
One reason is that benef iciation of coal by removing ash via
washing is usually done at a size range above 1x0" prior to
pulverizing. This is readily done for both unit train and
slurry pipeline shipment. This was not done at the Black
Mesa where the coal, as mined, has a heating value of up to
13,0 00 Btu/lb. A second reason is that dewatering produces
slurry cakes which must be repulverized in, for example,
Raymond bowl mills before feeding into the boiler furnace.
Depending on the grindability of the coal, pulverizing the
- 110 -
coal after shipment by unit trains may mean an additional

cost of $0.18 to $0.20 per ton.
After mechanical drying the coal slurry retains 25
percent moisture in the coal cake. This means an average
decrease of 250 Btu/lb. in the heating value for coals of
about 10,000 Btu/lb. Hence, the loss is not serious. Drying
by heating is certainly not justifiable. An increase of the
air preheating temperature can be accomplished in any case
via a suitable air preheater. Moreover, some coal, as mined,
may contain up to 30 percent moisture.
The unit costs are given in Sections II and III respec-
tively, for unit trains and slurry pipelines. Comparisons
of their operation at various capacities are given in
Fig. 5.1(a) (b) (c) for a range of normal design flexibility.
Figure 5.1(b) shows a comparison of a slurry pipeline designed
for a 5 mph flow with unit trains on the Gillette to Chicago
route.
Unit train costs might be adjusted according to the
moisture content of the coal shipped; the slurry pipeline
mix should include the moisture content of the coal used in
forming the slurry at the design condition.
Analysis leads to our previous conclusion that a slurry
pipeline is definitely superior where a railroad is not
available. However, even if 15 percent new road is to be
built and operation includes a 10 percent bottleneck at a
10 mph speed limit and a mileage saving less than 30 percent,
the unit train is still likely to be the cost effective choice
5.3 Comparative Studies .
Several recent studies by other investigators are pro-

duced in Appendices to this Section. Not all have been
explicitly analyzed here.
12 r~ T- 1
1 r
FARMINGTON TO L.A. 850 MILES

--A SLURRY PIPELINE
\ 30 - 60
50 - 60
10
OBTAIN $/MMBTU
OBTAIN $/MMBTU (AS MINED)
10 MPH
BOTTLENECK
**=*
I
l j L i 1
" -1
100 120 140
60 80
40
% CAPACITY
T
1400 MI.
GILLETTE, WY. TO HOUSTON, TX.
\ #..
-A SLURRY PIPELINE
30 - 60
\
50 - 60
(DRY)
\ xO.0496 TO OBTAIN $/MMBTU
\ X *0.064 TO OBTAIN $/MMBTU (AS
MINED)
\\ \ S
\ + INCR. WATER 10 MPH
\ \\ \ \ ^3 MPH SLURRY BOTTLENECK
80 100
% CAPACITY
CAPACITIES - UNIT TRAIN * SLURRY

FIGURE 5 1(a) UNIT COSTS AT VARIOUS
PIPELINES
10 MPH
BOTTLENECKS
80 100
% CAPACITY

22
\
9 A SLURRY
h\ 30 - 60
\
- - 50-60
20 xO.0474 TO OBTAIN $/MMBTU (DRY)
xO.0582 TO OBTAIN $/MMBTU (AS
18
16
20%
5 14
o
O UJ
12
10% 2:
Q.
o
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o
10 - 0%
/ 20%
SEAT1
ILES
*" 10% TO M
1050
RIP
1
0% 00
i
40 60 80 100 120 140

% CAPACITY
FIGURE 5.1(c) UNIT COSTS AT VARIOUS CAPACITIES - UNIT TRAINS AND SLURRY PIPELINE
APPENDIX SECTION 2
UNIT TRAINS
COSTS AND RESOURCES FOR UNIT TRAIN TRANSPORTATION

< ' 11
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APPENDIX A TO SECTION V
COMPARATIVE DATA - COAL SLURRY

PIPELINES AND UNIT TRAINS: BECHTEL
AND STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
APPENDIX A TO SECTION V
COMPARATIVE DATA: COAL SLURRY PIPELINES AND

UNIT TRAINS - BECHTEL AND STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The most recent of these data sources is a study by

the Bechtel Corporation (a 40 percent owner of ETSI) , Clean
Coal Energy; Source- to-Use Economics , Final Report (Draft) to
ERDA, Contract No. E (49-18) -1552 , January 1976.
Coal transport prices (not costs) were based on con-
ventional rail rates estimated from the 1972 Carload Waybill
Statistics (a sample) published by the Federal Railroad
Administration [2-33] . A national average rate equation
(rather than a route specific analysis) was used for all con-
ventional rail shipments of coal [2-36] . The estimating
equation used was C = PD where C is the conventional rail
rate in mills/ton/mile, D is the rail distance, and P,Q are
hyperbolic parameters. The extent of the differences (price
not cost based) can be seen in the range between western and
southwestern routes, respectively: C = 47.7D -0 242 and *
,
0,543
C = 394. 3D" The average U.S. rate was C = 179. 5D -0,446
.
[2-34] .
For unit train prices (again not costs) a nominal

train of 100 cars carrying 10,000 tons was assumed. Price
estimates (1974 dollars) for western railroads were estimated
for one way distances of 100-1500 miles. These ranged from
20 to 7 mills/ton/mile, respectively. For 1000 miles, the
rate was estimated at mills/ton/mile [2-37 and 40]
8 Existing .
ICC rates were reported to range between 4 and 13 mills/ton/mile

at 1973 prices [2-39] The trend equation used by Bechtel to
.
generate average western 1974 prices was C = 122. 45D

They note, however, that real prices are tailored by each move-
VA-1
.
VA-2
ment and vary depending on degree of competition, annual

tonnage, train and car size, type of car, loading and unload-
ing method, terrain, and track conditions.
To forecast both conventional and unit train prices,
they extrapolate the historical index of railroad material
and wage rate for use as the base case [2-40] . This blurs
the difference between unit train movements and those of all
other freight. Unit trains do not use the same component
values and have had the benefit of some technological improve-
ments. Based on the general historic data, Bechtel uses an
inflation rate of 7.5 percent in current dollars or 2.5 percent
in constant dollars. Between 1967 and 1973 (the end of their
series, they note that the combined index for material and
labor for all rails and for all types of shipment (neither
costs, nor route specific, nor by commodity, nor by unit train)
rose from an index of 100 to 163.5, and at an accelerated rate.
Between 1973 and 1985 they appear to rely on a generalized
(again the caveats should be noted) model indicating an average
annual increase in material costs of 5.8 percent and labor
costs of 8.3 percent [2-41].
Based on a unit train of 100 cars (capacity 10,000
tons/train), a total of 8-10 hours for loading and unloading,
and (for our purposes most important) an average train speed
of 20-25 mph, Bechtel estimates the number of trains per day
on a double track route at 6 for unsignalled routes, 120 for
automatic block routes and 160 for routes with centralized
traffic control. If the routes are single tracked, these fall
to 20-40-60 trains, respectively [2-42].
For slurry pipelines, Bechtel shifts to an analysis
based on costs (not prices) which includes under capital costs
only preparation, line storage, dewatering and transport.
Water supply and water cleaning facilities are excluded [2-57]
The analysis is subdivided into fixed (capacity dependent) and
VA-3
variable costs (capacity and length dependent) [2-57] . Hypothe-

sized cost inflation for both is dependent on the gross national
product implicit price deflator index (which is comparable to
the 2.5 percent constant dollar index noted above for rails
rather than the 7.5 percent escalation factor) [2-58] . They
claim that elevation differences, terrain, and soil conditions
affect costs by less than 10 percent, while economic factors
such as interest on debt and the amortization period also
affect costs by less than 10 percent [2-58 and 59] Load .
factors are claimed to have a substantial effect on fixed and

a negligible effect on variable costs but all estimates were
made assuming a 100 percent load factor [2-59].
Their general conclusion, based on the above, is
that in 1974 dollars, for slurry pipelines carrying 5x10 TPY,
costs are consistently above unit train prices (not costs) on
a mills/ton/mile basis, but the unit train tonnage basis is
not specified. At 10x10 TPY, slurry pipeline costs are below
unit train prices except for distances of less than about 100
miles or more than about 1200 miles. At 20x10 TPY, slurry
pipeline costs are shown to be significantly below (about 0.2
cents/ton/mile at 1000 miles) unit train prices over the entire
range of distance [2-6 0] A mixed cost-price comparison is
.
untenable. The other anomalies have been noted above.

Bechtel suggests that their analysis should be inter-
faced with their model, developed for NSF, and called the
NSF/Bechtel Energy Supply Planning Model for manpower, materials
and capital requirements [7-17] . The original data for unit
trains and slurry pipelines was developed and prepared for
Bechtel (in support of Contract NSF-C-87) by the Stanford
Research Institute, Manpower , Materials , Equipment, and
Utilities Required to Operate and Maintain Energy Facilities ,
March 1975. These estimates are appended. In particular, it

VA-4
should be noted that the estimates for slurry pipelines are

heavily dependent on the Black Mesa line [references 1 and 4
page 247] Bechtel [reference 3 page 247]
, and ETSI/Bechtel
,
[reference 5 With respect to unit trains, the

page 247] .
differences in the assumptions [p. 237] should be explicitly

noted, in particular distance, trip time, shipment size and
an eastern rather than a western route. All of these imply
high cost. Again, prices (tariffs) are used for rails [p. 242]
but costs are used for the slurry pipeline [p. 249] for the
final comparison.
The draft final report of the NSF/Bechtel study, The
Energy Supply Planning Model , July 1975, specifies the use of
nominal facilities (SRI) and average haul length. These,
however, are the basis for the interregional transport analysis
[4-22 and 23] except that,
"The use of certain modes between 0-D pairs

(origin-destination) must be explicitly
specified by the user because of the rarity of
use of the mode (e.g., 400kVDC electric trans-
mission lines and coal slurry pipelines. In
these cases, the user must specify the
percentage of flow between 0-D pairs to be
transported by these modes. The remainder of
the flow is handled by one of the other
algorithms...." [4-24].
In short, slurry pipelines have a unique position in this

study, [see also 4-28] The NSF/Bechtel limitations regarding
.
rail analyses are documented and their results are deemed only
indicative [4-25] . Nevertheless, it is stated that,
"...the Interregional Transportation Facilities

Generator converts regional fuel flow networks
VA-5
to transportation facility requirements, based

on a great deal of transportation system data
(haul lengths, regional shares, carrying
capacities, etc.) ,and user-specified (or
default) regional transportation modal-split
coefficients. The modal-split coefficients
specify the fractions of a particular fuel's
incremental flow (positive or negative) over
a particular origin-destination combination
that is to be assigned to the various com-
peting transportation modes" [5-25] .
Thus, the analyses, and problems in the SRI-Bechtel analyses,

cited above, as well as the asymetric inclusion of the slurry
pipeline engenders problems in the conclusions. If the user
tries the default coefficients, he may not even know of the
biases.
The NSF/Bechtel estimated facility data comparisons
[Table G-3] , upon which their conclusions are based, include
the following: (1) Coal train at 10,500 short ton capacity
have capital costs of $4.6 million. (2) The coal slurry pipe-
line at 70,000 short tons per day has capital costs of $412
million with preparation and dewatering capital costs of
$138 million at a capacity of 68,600 short tons per day. The
approximate accuracy range is given in the following table:
Detailed Major Total

Data Subtotals Capital Cost
Coal Train % % 10%
Coal Slurry Pipeline 25 20 10
Slurry Prep, and Dewater. 25 20 10
It is stated [Table G-5] that the coal train estimates are

accurate and compare to ICC and USBM reports (a price basis)
VA-6
and are
the coal slurry pipeline estimates are accurate
while
Mesa, slurry line "*>
compared to a shorter (Black
pipeline in the NSF/
The inclusion of the slurry
h,Hi It is not
n mentioned in either
Bechtel study is not obvious.
<-
s 1975
document where the President
Section 7 or 8 of the ^cussed-
possible scenarios are
energy statement and the schedule
(H-51,
It may be found in
the Appendix H printout ,
for con-
major materials and equipment required
of selected
facilities required to supply
struction of all transportation of the Union
mix as required in the President's 1975 State
f uel
(Iowa,
west north central area
Message, for region 6, the
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota and
Kansas,
that the numbe o
South Dakota, . There it will be observed
1000 hp are zero from
1"" 76
'
compressors and drives of over

1978, ten in 1979, and
zero again
three in 1977, thirteen in
from 1980 through 1985. __,,. mis _
coal transportation costs are misstated or
If
location,
be mined in the wrong
understood, not only may ooal
it may move by the
wrong mode.
Material Omitted
For comparative data see: Stanford Research Institute,

Manpower , Materials , Equipment , and Utilities Required
to Operate and Maintain Energy Facilities , March 1975,
pages 247-249.
APPENDIX B TO SECTION V
COMPARATIVE DATA
EBASCO AND BECHTEL
APPENDIX B TO SECTION V
A. J. BANKS, "ENERGY TRANSPORTATION,"

PRESENTED AT THE EBASCO CONFERENCE
PHOENIX, ARIZONA, OCTOBER 19 75
For comparison with EHV transmission and slurry pipe-

line costs, this study explicitly counterpoises unit train
prices (tariffs). Therefore, this review will concentrate
on the first two modes.
1. Electric Transmission, 765 kv AC and 600 kv DC .
Bundled conductor configurations, single circuit con-

struction, double line, and series and shunt compensation
are assumed for AC transmission. The cost figures include
the increase in investment and fuel costs, where needed, to
2
account for I R losses.
Specific assumptions include:
(1) To levelize annual cost figures, a 10.9 percent

discount rate was used.
(2) Amortization is over a 30 year period.
(3) Annual escalation equals 6 percent.
(4) American utility experience provided the basis

for 7 65 kv AC costing.
(5) The 600 kv DC line, using a bundle of four 954 kvmil

conductors was estimated at 75 percent of the cost
of similar 765 kv AC lines.
(6) DC line voltage and conductor configurations were

extrapolated from (5) by Peterson's formula.
VB-1
VB-2
* re based on
manufacturers'
S S are ground elec-
ei tH an allorance for
(7 '
SSfSffiS
trodes.
<
hum BSRirffiSU^s."
access, etc.
depreciable
Fixed charges equal 16 percent of
t9)
items and 20 percent
of non deprec
utilities
^.^
Financing was at
UW^.-*.
*,. l Qon ooeration escalated
nt CO StS fO r
(10) Inves
r c n
percent of investment
e r
costs.
are one
OOSts
approximate percen Lr an g e_ofannual e
(U) The a S
S with
S
is due to?
2
H losses which vary
v frirt!on
load and distance.
dl. two
+fi no kv DC *- circuit line transmitting
For a sample
i 600
a4 a1v .
.
fnwnt costs
cos ts w
($ 000) are approximately.
3,200 MW, investment
,500/acre $"1,000
Eight of way at $2
380,000
Power line terminals
534,000
Power line
$1,045,000
Total
in
comparable facilities described
Tne results, for
the following table.
our study are shown in
)
TRANSMISSION LINE TRANSPORTATION COSTS,

TWO CIRCUITS* 1980 INITIAL OPERATION
3,200 MW DELIVERED LOAD
Optimum Distance Line Loss Investment Levelized Annual

Voltage (miles) (MW) ($ 000) Cost ($ 000)
765 AC 500 130 618,000 155,710

600 DC 900 187 1,045,000 252,400
600 DC 1500 312 1,518,000 376,390
* 600 kv DC Conductor bundles 4-954 kcmil.

765 kv AC Conductor bundles 4-954 kcmil.
ANNUAL LEVELIZED UTILITY OVWING AND OPERATING COSTS

($ 000)
Distance (mi les 500 900 1500

Capacity (MW) 3200 3200 3200
765 kv AC 600 kv DC 600 kv DC
Fixed Charges 101,940 172,510 251,720

Operating 53,770 79,890 124,570
Total 155,710 252,400 376,390
VE-3
:
VB-4
2. Coal Slurry Pipelines .
The general configuration assumed for this mode

includes a 50-50 coal-water slurry, pipeline pressure
1200 psi which on level terrain drops to 100 psi at
70 miles, 70 mile pumping station spacing each with dump
ponds capable of accomodating the upstream segment, a
velocity of 4.0 9 mph, and water treatment after removal
to eliminate fine dust, the water to be used for in-plant
services. The pipe size for the movement of 2 5 MMTY is
40". Water evaluation is not undertaken.
Specific assumptions include:
(1) EBASCO estimation of costs.
(2) Fixed charges based on 80/20 percent debt/

equity financing are 14 percent.
(3) Energy costs at utility rates.
(4) Material costs escalated at 6 percent/year

and labor costs at 8 percent/year to obtain
1980 costs.
(5) The approximate percent of annual costs

subject to escalation equals 27.1.
A sample 900 mile pipeline delivering 9 MMTY for 19 80

operation is estimated at {$ 000)
Coal slurry preparation plant $ 92,000

Coal pipeline 348,000
Pumping stations (12) 155,000
Dewatering plant 115 , 000
Total $710,000
The results, for comparable facilities described in our

study are shown in the following table.
PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION COSTS, 1980 OPERATION,
25 MMTY nET.TVERY
Distance Pipe Diameter Investment Levelized Annual

(miles) (inches) ($ 000) Cost ($ 000)
900 40 2,090,000 401,530

1500 40 2,660,000 511,030
ANNUAL LEVELIZED OWJTNG AND OPERATING COSTS

($ 000)
Distance (miles) 900 1500

Fixed Charges 292,600 372,400
Operating 108,926 138,633
Total 401,526 511,033
VB-5
VB-6
P. J. NAGARVALA, G. C. FERRELL AND L. A. OLVER,

CLEAN COAL ENERGY: SOURCE -TO- USE ECONOMICS ,
VOL. 1, MODEL, DATA AND RESULTS

DRAFT, JANUARY 19 76, THE BECHTEL
CORPORATION FOR ESERDA
CONTRACT NO. E 49-18 -1552
(
)
Bechtel's sketch of the slurry pipeline basis is

presented from their report along with their slurry-unit
train comparisons.
This material has been omitted. See pages 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, and
2-60 of the cited report.

Insert for CAC Document No. 190:
ERRATA
ROUTE SPECIFIC COST COMPARISONS: UNIT TRAINS, COAL

SLURRY PIPELINES AND EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
by
Michael Rieber and Shao Lee Soo
Page 59, paragraph 1 The fourth sentence should read:
Thus, the availability, and to

a lesser extent, the cost of water
can be a problem. Evaporation of
the water after dewatering by feed-
ing into cooling towers can also be
a problem since 1.7 tons/day of coal
fines might be released to the atmo-
sphere for a shipment of 2 5 MMTY.
Page 69, paragraph 2, line 4 Instead of (15,000 acre

ft. ) : ead:
(19,700 acre ft.)
Page 73, III. Utilities The cost figure for [2. Fuel (68)]
was omitted. Please insert the number 161.
Page 91 The two equations following the

words "Line Loss:" should read:
1JT~
LL_
ac
= SL^rms RL = 3(~
v
3
\
I, )y 2 RL
dc
LL, = Line Loss = 2l| rl

dc dc
Page 98, line V.C. and Page 99, line V.C. should read:
Investment $/annual MWH received

power.
Center for Advanced Computation

University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign
Urbana, Illinois 6l801

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UNIVERSItt^QF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT CHAMPAIGN

CAC Document No. 190

ROUTE SPECIFIC COST COMPARISONS:

Michael Rieber and Shao Lee Soo

ROUTE SPECIFIC COST COMPARISONS: UNIT TRAINS, COAL

Michael Rieber* and Shao Lee Soo*

Science and Public Policy Program, University of Oklahoma

Technology Assessment of Western Energy Resource Development

Center for Advanced Computation project 46-26-17-350

* The authors are, respectively, Research Professor, Center for

No. 163, Appendix E.

Hie work performed in this study is the responsibility of

SECTION II: UNIT TRAINS 27

2.5.1 Unit Train Characteristics 48

SECTION III: COAL SLURRY PIPELINES 59

Appendix - Computer Printout - Costs and

SECTION IV: EXTRA HIGH TOLTAGE TRANSMISSION 87

SECTION V: CONCLUSIONS 107

1.1 Parameters for Coal Transport System 5

1.2 Onshore Pipeline Right of Way and Damage Costs 23

2.3 Sample Detail of Labor Requirements 34

2.4 Sample Detail of Supplies 35

2.5 Basic Items - Costs and Resources 37

3.2 Itemized Capital Costs of Black Mesa and

3.3 Coal Slurry Pipeline 70

3.4 Manpower Required for Operation of Energy Facilities 71

3.6 Basic Items - Costs and Resources 74

3.7 Summary of Selected Catmercial Slurry Pipelines 78

3.8 Changes in Costs per 1000-Mile Pipeline Designed

4.1 High-voltage direct-current power transmission

4.2 Estimated Investment Costs of 765 kv AC Double

4.3 Estimated Investment 1000 Mile EHV

4.5 Cost Analysis of 600 kv DC Transmission System 99

4.6 Estimating Assumptions 100

4.7 EHV Source to Load Transmission System Specifications 102

4.8 Route Specific Costs 103

1.1 Route Analysis 4

2.2 Unit Cost - Unit Trains 44

2.3 Employment - Unit Train Operation 45

2.4 Resource Conmitment 47

3.1 Unit Cost - Slurry Pipelines 76a

4.1 Electric Transmission Routes 88

4.2 Estimated Unit Cost of EHV Transmission of 3000 NWe 95

1.1 Problem Statement

The comparative economics of three modes of coal-

(1) Farmington, New Mexico to Los Angeles, California

(2) Gillete, Wyoming to Chicago, Illinois

(3) Gillete, Wyoming to Houston, Texas

(4) Cols trip, Montana to Houston, Texas

(5) Colstrip, Montana to Seattle, Washington

(6) Electric transmission, EHV transmission (3000 MW)

Coal transport from Gillette, Wyoming to New York

analysis includes the costs of returning the water to the

1.2 Unit Trains

A unit train is a single purpose dedicated, inte-

pr-imary Parameters Tons/Day

EHV Transmission ? voltage Condition-;

unit train itself as well as coal handling facilities at both

lower inventory costs. Lowering transport costs, by increasing

"Pricing must depend upon knowledge of cost and

coal shipment rates. A 1962 Department of Interior publi-

"Since coal traffic is so important to the