Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a common disease worldwide and is associated with high rates of
morbidity and mortality. This review discusses several aspects of the relationship between gender and
CKD. While the prevalence of CKD tends to be higher in women, the disease is more severe in men, who
also have a higher prevalence of end-stage renal disease. Most of the evidence in the current literature
suggests a higher progression rate and mortality risk of CKD in men compared with women, except in
post-menopausal women and diabetic patients. However, the decrease in glomerular filtration rate and
the increase in the level of albuminuria are more prominent mortality risk factors among women. Sex
hormones are thought to play a major role in the biological mechanisms associated with variability in
CKD prevalence and characteristics between men and women. Animal studies have demonstrated the
harmful influence of testosterone and protective influence of oestrogen on several biological processes
that are involved in kidney injury. However, the role of sex hormones in explaining gender-related
differences in CKD in humans has not yet been established. In summary, gender has an important
influence on several aspects of CKD. Further research is needed to find additional gender-related
characteristics in CKD and to identify the mechanisms of sexual dimorphism in CKD.
Keywords: Renal failure, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), sex hormones, end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
*The reported data is the incidence of CKD (but not cumulative incidence).
ESRD: end-stage renal disease.
REFERENCES
1. Foley RN et al. Chronic kidney disease Transplant. 2004;19(8):2044-52. development of incipient and overt
and the risk for cardiovascular disease, 12. Cohen E et al. A longitudinal diabetic nephropathy in patients with
renal replacement, and death in the United assessment of the natural rate of decline non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus:
States Medicare population, 1998 to 1999. in renal function with age. J Nephrol. prospective, observational study. BMJ.
J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(2):489-95. 2014;27(6):635-41. 1997;314(7083):783.
2. Pounds LL, Teodorescu VJ. Chronic 13. Berg UB. Differences in decline in GFR 24. Ravid M et al. Main risk factors for
kidney disease and dialysis access in with age between males and females. nephropathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus
women. J Vasc Surg. 2013;57(4 Suppl): Reference data on clearances of inulin and are plasma cholesterol levels, mean blood
49-53S. PAH in potential kidney donors. Nephrol pressure, and hyperglycemia. Arch Intern
3. United States Renal Data System. 2015 Dial Transplant. 2006;21(9):2577-82. Med. 1998;158(9):998-1004.
USRDS annual data report: Epidemiology 14. Barai S et al. Do healthy potential 25. Jacobsen P et al. Progression of
of kidney disease in the United States. kidney donors in India have an average diabetic nephropathy in normotensive
National Institutes of Health, National glomerular filtration rate of 81.4ml/min? type 1 diabetic patients. Kidney Int.
Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Nephron Physiol. 2005;101(1):21-6. 1999;56:S101-5.
Kidney Diseases. 2015. Available at: http:// 15. Neugarten J et al. Effect of gender 26. Laron-Kenet T et al. Mortality of
www.usrds.org/adr.aspx. Last accessed: 9 on the progression of nondiabetic renal patients with childhood onset (017 years)
February 2016. disease a meta-analysis. J Am Soc Type I diabetes in Israel: a population-
4. Jungers P et al. Age and gender- Nephrol. 2000;11(2):319-29. based study. Diabetologia. 2001;44(Suppl
related incidence of chronic renal failure 3):B81-6.
16. Evans M et al. The natural history of
in a French urban area: a prospective chronic renal failure: results from an 27. Zoppini G et al. Higher HDL cholesterol
epidemiologic study. Nephrol Dial unselected, population-based, inception levels are associated with a lower
Transplant. 1996;11(8):1542-6. cohort in Sweden. Am J of Kidney Dis. incidence of chronic kidney disease in
5. Zhang L et al. Prevalence and factors 2005;46(5):863-70. patients with type 2 diabetes. Nutr Metab
associated with CKD: a population 17. Eriksen BO, Ingebretsen OC. The Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;19(8):580-6.
study from Beijing. Am J of Kidney Dis. progression of chronic kidney disease: 28. Monti MC et al. Familial risk factors
2008;51(3):373-84. a 10-year population-based study of the for microvascular complications and
6. Werner KB et al. Male sex and vascular effects of gender and age. Kidney Int. differential male-female risk in a large
risk factors affect cystatin C-derived renal 2006;69(2):375-82. cohort of American families with type
function in older people without diabetes 18. Levin A et al. Variability and risk 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
or overt vascular disease. Age Ageing. factors for kidney disease progression 2007;92(12):4650-5.
2014;43(3):411-7. and death following attainment of stage 29. Rossing P et al. Risk factors
7. Culleton BF et al. Cardiovascular 4 CKD in a referred cohort. Am J Kidney for development of incipient and
disease and mortality in a community- Dis. 2008;52(4):661-71. overt diabetic nephropathy in type 1
based cohort with mild renal insufficiency. 19. Coggins CH et al. Differences diabetic patients a 10-year prospective
Kidney Int. 1999;56(6):2214-9. between women and men with chronic observational study. Diabetes Care.
renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;25(5):859-64.
8. Li ZY et al. Prevalence of chronic
kidney disease in a middle and old-aged 1998;13(6):1430-7. 30. Yu MK et al. Associations between sex
population of Beijing. Clin Chim Acta. 20. Jafar TH et al. The rate of progression and incident chronic kidney disease in a
2006;366(1):209-15. of renal disease may not be slower in prospective diabetic cohort. Nephrology.
women compared with men: a patient- 2015;20(7):451-8.
9. Kastarinen M et al. Risk factors for
end-stage renal disease in a community- level meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial 31. Yu MK et al. Risk factor, age and
based population: 26-year follow-up of 25 Transplant. 2003;18(10):2047-53. sex differences in chronic kidney
821 men and women in eastern Finland. J 21. Van Pottelbergh G et al. The evolution disease prevalence in a diabetic cohort:
Intern Med. 2010;267(6):612-20. of renal function and the incidence the pathways study. Am J Nephrol.
of end-stage renal disease in patients 2012;36(3):245-51.
10. Haroun MK et al. Risk factors for
chronic kidney disease: a prospective aged 50 year. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 32. Maric C. Sex, diabetes and the
study of 23,534 men and women in 2012;27(6):2297-303. kidney. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.
Washington County, Maryland. J Am Soc 22. Nitsch D et al. Associations of 2009;296(4):F680-8.
Nephrol. 2003;14(11):2934-41. estimated glomerular filtration rate and 33. Roderick PJ et al. CKD and mortality
11. Wakai K et al. Trends in incidence of albuminuria with mortality and renal risk in older people: a community-based
end-stage renal disease in Japan, 1983 failure by sex: a meta-analysis. BMJ. population study in the United Kingdom.
2000: age-adjusted and age-specific 2013;f324. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009;53(6):950-60.
rates by gender and cause. Nephrol Dial 23. Gall MA et al. Risk factors for 34. John R et al. Unreferred chronic