FLR2564 Module 3

FUNDAMENTALS OF SUBSEA
ENGINEERING
MODULE 3
Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers
AUTHOR
John Preedy PhD

Associate, Azur Offshore Ltd
CONTENTS
Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................................... 4
1. Flowlines and Pipelines................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Pipeline/Flowline Route Selection ................................................................................ 6
1.3 Materials Selection .................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Pipeline Design ......................................................................................................... 8
1.4.1 Hydraulic Design ............................................................................................ 9
1.4.2 Structural Design ........................................................................................... 9
1.4.3 Operational Requirements Pigging ............................................................... 10
1.5 Lay Techniques ....................................................................................................... 10
1.5.1 Lay Barge and Lay Ship Installation ................................................................ 10
1.5.2 Reel Ship Installation .................................................................................... 14
1.5.3 J-Laying ................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Offshore Operations (Export Pipelines)....................................................................... 28
1.6.1 Flowline Bundles .......................................................................................... 28
1.6.2 Flexible Pipe ................................................................................................ 30
1.7 Pipeline Tie-ins ....................................................................................................... 31
1.7.1 Welding ...................................................................................................... 32
1.7.2 Flanged Connections..................................................................................... 32
1.7.3 Proprietary Mechanical Connection Systems .................................................... 33
1.8 Trenching ............................................................................................................... 34
1.8.1 Ploughs ....................................................................................................... 35
1.8.2 Mechanical Excavation .................................................................................. 36
1.8.3 Jetting ........................................................................................................ 36
1.8.4 Rock Dumping ............................................................................................. 37
1.9 Route Surveys (Refer Back to Figure 3.4)................................................................... 38
1.9.1 Design Surveys ............................................................................................ 38
1.9.2 Construction Surveys .................................................................................... 38
1.9.3 Operational Surveys ..................................................................................... 39
2. Rigid Risers (for Fixed Platforms) ................................................................................. 40
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 40
3. Risers For Floating Production Hosts Flexible/Catenary/ Hybrid Tower Risers .......... 44
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Design, Computer Simulations and Model Testing ....................................................... 45
3.3 Types of Pipe Structures and Main Manufacturers ........................................................ 46
3.4 Different Riser Configurations ................................................................................... 52
3.4.1 Free Hanging Riser ....................................................................................... 54
3.4.2 Lazy S ...................................................................................................... 54
3.4.3 Steep/Lazy Wave Configuration ..................................................................... 54
3.4.4 The Distributed Buoyancy Concept ................................................................. 54
3.4.5 Steep S .................................................................................................... 54
3.5 Operation, Maintenance and Advantages .................................................................... 55
3.6 Devices Connected or Attached to Flex Risers ............................................................. 55
3.7 Integrity Monitoring, Statutory Requirements and Codes.............................................. 56
3.8 New Flexible Risers for Deepwater............................................................................. 58
3.9 Field Examples of Flexible Dynamic Risers .................................................................. 59
3.10 Hybrid Riser Systems .............................................................................................. 61
3.10.1 Deepwater Tower ......................................................................................... 61
3.10.2 Hybrid Riser Tower for Girassol (1,400 m) ..................................................... 61
3.10.3 Other Hybrid Tower Concepts ........................................................................ 62
3.11 Steel Catenary Risers for Deepwater Developments..................................................... 64
2
Copyright IIR Limited 2015. All rights reserved.
These materials are protected by international copyright laws. This manual is only for the use of course
participants undertaking this course. Unauthorised use, distribution, reproduction or copying of these materials
either in whole or in part, in any shape or form or by any means electronically, mechanically, by photocopying,
recording or otherwise, including, without limitation, using the manual for any commercial purpose whatsoever is
strictly forbidden without prior written consent of IIR Limited.
This manual shall not affect the legal relationship or liability of IIR Limited with, or to, any third party and neither
shall such third party be entitled to rely upon it. All information and content in this manual is provided on an as
is basis and you assume total responsibility and risk for your use of such information and content. IIR Limited
shall have no liability for technical errors, editorial errors or omissions in this manual; nor any damage including
but not limited to direct, punitive, incidental or consequential damages resulting from or arising out of its use.
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learning Outcomes:
On completing this module you will have an understanding of:
The issues affecting the routeing of pipelines and flowlines.
How pipelines are connected.
The reasons why pipelines are set in trenches.
The purpose of riser systems and why they are of key importance to platform safety.
The five basic configurations of dynamic flexible risers and the reasons where and why
they might be used.
You will also be able to:

List the key factors in considering the selection of the materials for the pipelines.
List and explain the main steps in pipeline design.
Describe the different pipelay techniques, jointing and trenching.
List and explain the routeing survey methods.
List and explain the safety considerations that must be taken into account in riser
design.
List the economic advantages of flexible dynamic risers.
List and describe the key topics in a survey required for dynamic riser design.
List and describe the operational and maintenance advantages of dynamic flexible
risers.
List and describe the various hybrid riser systems.
You will also be able to:

Recognise and understand some of the acronyms and technical terms used in subsea
engineering.
Have experience of reading technical drawings and flow diagrams.
4
1. FLOWLINES AND PIPELINES
Figure 3.1: Summary of Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers as Part of Subsea Engineering
Components
Source J E & P Associates and Azur Offshore Ltd
1.1 Introduction
In terms of design, there is no difference in the calculations of a pipeline or a flowline and the two terms
are synonymous. In the industry, however, it is commonly understood that a flowline refers to an inter-
field or intra-field multiphase line whereas a pipeline means a pipe connecting the offshore field(s) to on-
shore based facilities for oil or gas export (that is, single pure phase gas or single pure phase oil).
Figure 3.2: Illustration of Subsea Engineering Components Showing flowlines, pipelines and
risers as part of a subsea field development
Source Fishsafe
5
Figure 3.3: In-field Flowlines and Export Pipelines
Note the in-field flowlines (trees to manifolds and manifolds to processing host) are usually of the
diameters 6 to 14. To protect these smaller size lines they are often buried, sometimes as single pipes
and other times in multiples. The export pipelines are often much larger diameter pipes (20 or larger)
which are not normally buried.
Source J E & P Associates
1.2 Pipeline/Flowline Route Selection
The routeing of a pipeline which transports the hydrocarbons from the field to an on-shore location is
much more involved and complicated than in-field flowlines. It is necessary to survey a number of
alternative routes in order to select an optimum route. Criteria needing consideration are:
Water depth.
Seabed roughness, rock outcrops, boulders and so on.
Crossing of existing pipelines.
Geotechnics of the seabed, hard or soft areas.
Iceberg movements.
Fishing.
Military movements.
Old minefields.
Shipwrecks.
Trenches.
Existing pipelines/structures.
Landfill.
Seismic activity.
Shore approaches.
Shipping activities.
Wave breaking and sediment movements near the shore approach.
6
Using survey ships with sophisticated soil analysis labs on board it is easy to carry out a total route
survey to establish both topographical, geomorphological and geotechnical data along the potential
routes before final selection.
Also the local factors such as tidal movements should be looked at. An ideal route is one as level as
possible with no sudden drops in level or sharp rock or hard soil outcrops sticking out creating sharp
supports or long free unsupported spans of the pipeline.
Figure 3.4: Pipeline/Flowline Route Survey

The potential routes for flowlines and pipelines must be surveyed to secure the best locations on the
seabed. The seabed is surveyed with a number of techniques, the most common is a sonar investigation.
From such surveys detailed maps are made showing contour levels and locations of other seabed items or
different rock types. This information is used to formulate a detailed construction map for the laying
process. Further surveys of the line will be carried out after laying and during the line life.
Source Wikimedia Commons and Cameron Singapore
Further surveys should be carried out during and after the pipe-laying phase. All records of the final as-
laid survey should be kept to compare them, as a benchmark, with the future surveys.
1.3 Materials Selection
The selection of materials for pipelines is very critical. It could affect the economics of a pipeline and
indeed the whole field development project. Key factors to be considered are the chemical properties of
the fluids to be transported, as well as pressures and temperatures during its operating life. Both rigid
and flexible pipes should be considered. The presence of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide would
affect pipe material selection as these products are highly corrosive. In conformity with the API 5L
specifications, the metallurgical composition of various carbon-manganese and Duplex stainless steels
should be modified to suit the presence of these elements. Use of clad or internally lined pipes should be
considered.
The required diameter of a pipe, continuous length, weldability, environmental conditions and so on may
also affect the material selection process. Carbon steel alloys with different elements, and by application
of various types of special treatments during the manufacture of steel plates and also during the
fabrication of pipe sections, the strength, toughness and chemical resistance of pipe can be improved.
These treatments are very expensive hence the material selection is a very critical step.
7
1.4 Pipeline Design
It is an iterative process. The main steps are:
Hydraulic Design:
o Single and multi-phase flow.
Structural Design:
o For internal pressures and temperatures.
o For external pressure.
o For free spanning including vortex induced vibrations.
o Handling during fabrication including reeling.
o Installation and laying.
o Using lay barge.
o Using reel ship.
o Towing single or bundled lines.
o Trenching and burying.
o Pipeline crossings.
o Upheaval buckling.
Figure 3.5: Summary of Pipeline/Flowline Design Requirements

Designing the flowline or pipeline will be carried out by a specialist design group (in-house or external)
using appropriate computer programs. The performance of the line both includes its strength
requirements to lay it on the seabed (that is, installation loadings) and its performance as a containment
pipe sized for the flow volumes and pressures of the reservoir fluids. Loss of material in the wall
thickness due to corrosion and erosion must be considered.
Source Azur Offshore Ltd and Wikimedia Commons
8
1.4.1 Hydraulic Design
Proper pressure and temperature variations along the pipeline should be determined in order to evaluate
the optimum diameter for the throughput required. Changes in fluid properties throughout the life cycle
of the pipeline should be taken into account. Single- and multi-phase flows should be considered taking
into account any sand deposits, water cut volumes, wax depositions, hydrate formation and so on.
Using Darcys law, pressure loss should be determined taking into account friction of the inside wall of the
pipeline. Whereas for liquids pressure loss normally is linear along the length of a pipeline, for gas,
however, non-linearity of friction gradient due to expansion of gas should be taken into account.
There are a number of computer software systems that take into account the multi-phase nature of fluids
and, using industry established models for compressible fluids, work out stream density and friction
factors to evaluate the flow characteristics.
1.4.2 Structural Design
British Code BS 8010 Part 3 provides guidance on the design of steel pipelines. There are similar codes
by DNV (Rules for Submarine Pipeline Systems 1996), ASME/ANSI 31.8 and HSE regulations. All possible
load conditions and load combinations including environmental loads such as waves, currents and loads
due to burial and so on should be taken into account to arrive at the maximum stress and strain in a
pipeline.
Normally equivalent stresses which are a combination of hoop (circumferential), longitudinal

(lengthways) and shear (multi-directional) stresses are determined under the most severe load
combination as per the BS 8010 and compared with the allowable stresses.
According to BS 8010 Part 3 the allowable design factors f(d) for different stress conditions are as
follows:
Stress type Pipeline at seabed Riser
Hoop stress 0.72 0.60
Equivalent stress from functional and

environmental or accidental loads 0.96 0.72
Equivalent stress from construction or

hydrotest loads 1.0 1.0
Allowable stress o(a) in the pipeline should be less than the minimum yield stress o(y) such that:
typically o(y) for X60 steel is 415 N/mm squared and for X65 steel is 450 N/mm squared.
Currently design methods for strain controlled design and limit state design are being developed which
will allow higher stresses in pipes under certain conditions and make the pipeline more economical.
Pipelines and flowlines are designed for internal corrosion protection by a combination of extra wall
thickness and injection of corrosion inhibitors mixing with the well fluids or the export pipeline fluids.
9
1.4.3 Operational Requirements Pigging
Figure 3.6: Pigging Activities

If pigging is to be one of the defences against wax or hydrates blocking the line, then the flowline design
must incorporate round trip pigging (with the cleaning pig launched from and returning to the host
facilities), or one-way pigging incorporating a subsea pig launcher on the manifold.
Source Azur Offshore Ltd and Wikimedia Commons
1.5 Lay Techniques
There are many methods for installation of offshore pipelines and flowlines ranging from lay barge, reel
ship, tow methods, J-laying and flexible lay. The most common form of installation for large diameter
pipelines occurs from a lay barge. The reeling method and tow method are used for suitable pipe sizes
and situations and the J-lay method is used to date mostly for deepwater. The flexible lay is used for
short length flowlines and small diameter pipelines, except in Brazil where Petrobras is the largest user of
flexible pipes.
1.5.1 Lay Barge and Lay Ship Installation
Currently there are several lay barges and ships operating in the world, namely Castoro Sei, Semac, LB
200, DLB 1601, Lorelay and so on. These vessels are owned by Allseas, EMC and McDermott, Stolt and
so on who are the leading pipe-laying companies operating worldwide. Another company OPI has an
extensive fleet of lay barges and is mostly operating in the Gulf of Mexico. Allseas have recently
constructed a new and very large pipe-laying vessel, Solitaire, which is a state-of-the-art, dynamically
positioned (DP) lay ship which increases the capability and capacity of the industry. The Lorelay is also a
DP lay vessel whilst the others are all anchor operated vessels.
10
Figure 3.7: Lorelay Pipelay Vessel
Lorelay is one of the first pipelay vessels using dynamic positioning to position the vessel and to provide
forward motions. This vessel lays in shallow water using the S-lay technique. As the line is constructed
on the deck it is paid out the back as the vessel moves forward. The line is supported as it moves to the
seabed on a stinger frame at the stern of the vessel. In the S-lay configuration it is at this point that
the pipe is unsupported until it reaches the seabed touchdown location.
Source Allseas
Figure 3.8: Solitaire Pipelay Vessel

Solitaire is a much larger pipelay vessel than Lorelay and is capable of laying pipe up to 60 diameter.
The record laying rate for Solitaire is some 5 to 6 km per day.
Source Allseas
The typical deck of the s lay vessel:
11
1) Pipe end milling-bevelling to prepare the welding profile
2) Pipe end heating prior to welding
3) Line-up tooling and welding bead pass
4) Welding of the hot pass and the filler passes
5) Welding of the Cap
6) Ultrasonic testing of the weld
7) Tensioners to hold and move the pipe
8) Grit blasting of the weld area
9) Pre-heating the cleaned area ready for coating
10) Spraying of the coating powder (epoxy powder)
11) Passing the connected pipes into the sea and via the external stinger to the sea bed.
12
Lay barges operate on the principle of S laying where the pipeline or flowline is fabricated on board and
lowered to the seabed under tension provided by tracked tensioners. The ability to resist movement and
provide the required tension to the pipe is provided by either an anchor pattern or thrusters. Pipe
sections are supplied to the lay barge from pipe carriers and stored in racks on board the vessels. Pipe is
bevelled, double jointed, welded into the firing line, radiographed and field joint coatings applied in a
controlled sequence of operations resembling a factory production line. From entering the firing line to
entering the sea can take as little as 5 to 7 minutes when a barge or DP lay vessel is operating at peak
performance. Some of the companies mentioned above have established automatic welding systems
known as Passo, Saturnex, Phoenix and so on.
Figure 3.9: Semac 1 Pipelay Barge

Lay barges of this type do not have propulsion systems. Instead they are moored, but with the forward
lines set to more than 1 km in front of the vessel. They move forward by pulling in on the mooring lines
with the winches. At some point anchor handling support vessels will have to reset the mooring lines
ahead of the lay vessel.
Source Saipem
High installation stresses occur during pipe laying in the overbend and the sagbend region of the pipe and
it is important to analyse stresses in pipe during (a) normal pipe laying, (b) start-up, and (c) pick-up, to
avoid over stressing or damaging the pipe.
The analysis should include for current and wave motion, barge motion, pipe tension, hydrostatic effects
on tension, stinger radius, exit angle, strength of pipe, local collapse and denting.
Usual practice is to limit the pipe equivalent stress to the SMYS (Specified Minimum Yield Stress)
although it is becoming necessary with the requirement to lay pipelines in deeper water to follow more
achievable strain based criterion. Both static and dynamic analysis should be computed. This will give
guidance on tension requirements, stinger radius, length and roller setup and, very importantly, under
what conditions the pipe will require abandonment during laying operations.
13
In general terms when considering the pipe on its way to the seabed, the higher the curvature, the
higher the moment in the pipe (the tendency to produce motion, especially about an axis). Therefore to
reduce the moment in the pipe it is best to consider increasing the tension on the barge or changing the
stinger angle and radius. This type of laying is often for shallow water export pipelines of diameters 20
46.
Directed Learning:
Google Allseas pipelay vessels and click on videos. It includes the vessels Lorelay
and Solitaire. Collect the information to add to your files.
1.5.2 Reel Ship Installation
There are a number of techniques available using horizontal and vertical reels mounted on DP vessels
and lay barges. The major reel ship operating in world waters was the CSO Apache. This has now been
replaced by Technips Apache II which is capable of laying pipelines up to 16 inches in diameter. In the
reel method, pipelines and flowlines are welded up in strings at a fabrication yard and reeled onto the
reel, transported to the offshore installation site and installed in their prescribed position in a minimum
amount of time. ortable reels in conjunction with locally available vessels and equipment can be used to
lay rigid and flexible pipelines. In this operation small diameter lines can be laid piggyback and the
protective anodes are mounted and brazed on the vessel at the base of the ramp.
Figure 3.10: Apache Reel Ship

Apache reel ship was the first of its kind. The steel pipe is welded into long lengths in the spool base and
then the complete line wound onto the vessels big reel. In the laying process it simply unrolls the line to
the seabed.
Source CSO Offshore Ltd (now part of Technip)
14
Figure 3.11: Apache Reel Ship Vessel Details
Note In this vessel the reel is built into the vessel. In later reel ships the reel is separate and can be
lifted into the vessel in its filled state.
Figure 3.12: Apache Reel Ship Operations

View of the steel pipe carried on the vessels large reel.
15
At the end of 2001, CSO started operation of a new generation of multi-lay vessel, the CSO Deep Blue
designed to lay rigid or flex pipes in 2,500 m of water. This vessel is now in the Technip fleet.
Figure 3.13: Deep Blue Reel Ship (Technip)

The Deep Blue is the top of the range capability of reel ships. It can reel lay steel pipe of up to 18
diameter and flexible pipe up to 24 diameter
Source SBM GustoMSC
DEEP BLUE Hull & Lay Ramp

details
Figure 3.14: Details of Deep Blue Loading and Tower Ramp
Source SBM GustoMSC
16
The operational capability of these reel ships is illustrated with respect to the quantity of pipe they can
carry on their reels.
Figure 3.15: Comparison of Pipelay Capacities on Single Reel of Steel Pipe

For in-field flowlines, the diameters represented in the chart, the total length of steel pipe on the reel is
usually enough to more than cover the full length requirement from the drill centre with trees and
manifolds to the production host.
Source Azur Offshore Ltd
TYPICAL SPOOL BASE for FLOWLINES Welding,

Coating, Inspection and REEL SHIP LOADING
Figure 3.16: Typical Spool base for Reel Ship
17
Directed Learning:
Go to the Technip Company website (www.technip.com) and look up the details of their
Reel Ship Vessels Fleet. (Look in the Subsea section.) It includes the vessels Deep
Blue and Apache II. Collect the information to add to your files.
1.5.3 J-Laying
In order to meet deepwater challenges and to avoid excessive straining of the pipe on the pipe ramp or
stinger of a conventional lay barge, consideration has been given to J-laying. This method of pipe
laying has been contemplated for many years but only recently put into practice. Vertical assembly of
the pipe string takes place on a surface DP vessel.
Figure 3.17: J-Lay Technique for Deepwater

As the water depths increase, the unsupported length between the stinger and seabed in the S-lay
method leads to possible damage and buckling of the pipe during installation. The stinger can be lowered
to a greater angle, but at some 300 to 400 m water depth it is usual to go to the J-lay method where
most of the pipe is just in tension (from its pipe wall thickness) and only the bottom section is turned to
allow it to rest on the bottom.
Source: JE & P Associates
Installation companies such as Herema Marine Construction, Technip, Saipem, McDermott and Acergy
have a wide range of vessels capable of laying pipe in deepwater by the J-lay method.
18
Figure 3.18: Various Deepwater Pipelay Vessels
Source Saibos, Acergy and Saipem
The J-lay technique is illustrated in Figures 3.19 to 3.26 with reference to Herema Marine Constructions
Balder Vessel.
Deepwater Construction Vessel (DCV) Balder was built in 1978 by Mitsui in Japan as a semi-submersible
construction vessel with two cranes (3,000 tonne and 4,000 tonne). In 2000, it was upgraded to a multi-
purpose DCV by adding a class 3 DP system, a J-lay tower and a mooring line deployment system.
J-lay System
The DCV Balder is equipped with a J-lay system suited for 1,050 tonne of top tension. It is fed with
hexjoints (240 ft/74 m). These hexjoints are partly constructed onshore and partly offshore. Onshore,
12 m (40 ft) single joints are welded into 24 m (80 ft) double joints. In addition, each third double joint
is equipped with a collar (collar joint). Double joints and collar joints are transported offshore in pipe
crates on a barge. On board the Balder, two double joints are first welded into a quad joint and
subsequently into a hexjoint by adding a collar joint. The J-lay system has two work stations, a welding
and a coating/auxiliary station, with a collar hang-off assembly in between them. Each pipelay cycle
consists of loading a completed hexjoint in the tower, welding, lowering of the weld to the coating station
and completing the field joint coating. Optional items such as VIV-strakes and anodes are installed at
this location as well. Finally, the hexjoint is lowered and hung off at the collar.
19
Figure 3.19: Heremas Balder Vessel
Source Herema Marine Construction
Figure 3.20: Balder Deck

On the jointing deck single lengths are prepared and welded into doubles. Doubles are welded in quads.
Lastly a double and a quad are joined to make a hex (six section) pipe of some 70 m+ in length.
20
Figure 3.21: Balder Pipe Logistics
Illustrating the pipe-handling requirements to store and move the various pipe sections
Figure 3.22: Balder Joint Assembly Station
21
Figure 3.23: Balder Pipe Elevator (1)
Lifting the hex jointed section from its horizontal deck based jointing stations to the vertical for placing in
the J-Lay tower.
22
Source Herema Marine Consultants
Figure 3.26: Balder Incorporation of SLED into Line

In between jointing of the pipe sections in the J-lay tower it is possible to add structures that will be
required in the line when it is on the seabed. Such structures include Sleds which allow connection of
flow jumpers from trees or manifold into the flowline. These must be welded into the pipe sections
during J-klaying. The structures will progressively be lowered to the seabed as the J-lay pipe lengths are
added.
23
FLOWLINE TEES SLED
Figure 3.27: Flowline Sled laid by J Lay Vessel
Source BP plc
This type of laying is often for deepwater export pipelines of diameters 20 to 46.
Saipem 7000 J Lay Vessel

Another top of the range J DP vessels is the Saipem 7000. Originally this semi-submersible vessel was
constructed with heavy lift capabilities from its twin lift cranes. Later it had added an additional J
capability.
Figure 3.28: Saipem 7000 Heavy Lift and Deepwater J lay DP Vessel
Source - Saipem
24
The steel pipe is brought to the Saipem 7000 already welded into 4 times 12 meter lengths so of 48m
pipe sections.
The work activities include:
a) Bevelling / milling the weld profile at each end of the 48m pipe sections.
b) Transporting the horizontal pipe length to the J lay tower by the automated roller system
c) A series of automated clamp arms raise the pipe from horizontal to vertical, and then lift the 48m
pipe section a further 48m to the top of the J lay tower
d) While waiting to be loaded into the J lay tower a pick-up tool is lowered into the top of the
waiting pipe.
e) When the top of the J lay tower is free, the waiting pipe is swung into the working line of the
tower.
f) The pick-up tool, already lowered into the top pipe section, is connected to the line-up tool in the
top of the lower section. The line-up tool is set between the two sections.
g) Welding of the joint takes place.
h) When welding is completed the Saipem 7000 moves 48 meters through the sea utilising its DP
capability.
i) The upper section weld thereby moves to the lower work station at the deck level.
j) While welding continues at the upper working level, the joint section we have been following,
goes through a testing and coating activity at the lower working level
k) The process continues with the Saipem 7000 moving in 48m steps each time.
The above stages are illustrated in the sequence of Figures 3.29 to 3.34
Figure 3.29: Saipem 7000 Deepwater J-Lay System (1)
Source - Saipem
25
Source - Saipem
Source - Saipem
26
Source - Saipem
Source - Saipem
27
Source - Saipem
The Saipem 7000 is capable of laying up to 32 pipe in depths of 2000 to 2500m.
1.6 Offshore Operations (Export Pipelines)
1.6.1 Flowline Bundles
Sometimes it is convenient to form a number of flowlines into one set contained in a larger outer carrier
pipe. This is termed a flow bundle. The bundle is made as one full length up to 7.5 km is possible. At
each end of the bundle there must be a towhead structure to provide stability while towing to the field.
The towing to the field locations is by the Controlled Depth Tow Method (CDTM).
The principle of the CDTM involves the transportation of a pre-fabricated and fully tested flowline bundle
suspended between two tugs. To maintain control during the tow, the bundle has been designed and
constructed within specific tolerances with respect to its submerged weight.
In order to achieve sufficient buoyancy for the bundle, the flowlines, control lines and so on are placed
within a carrier pipe. Chains are attached to provide additional weight in order to obtain a system which
has a limited submerged weight. At rest the bundle floats at several metres above the seabed. It is then
towed to the field, with the bundle flying in a mid-water configuration. At the field site it is dropped to
the bottom.
28
Figure 3.35: Flow Bundles and Controlled Mid-water Tow Method (CMTM)
In the mid-depth tow method, the whole pipeline system is built up into set lengths in a land-based
facility. The set of pipes is put within an overall carrier pipe. When completed the pipe bundle is pulled
off the beach and towed to the field. It requires a tow head structure at each end to facilitate the towing.
Source J E & P Associates and Azur Offshore Ltd
Figure 3.36: Flow Bundle Installed in Britannia Field (North Sea)

Note the outer bundle containment pipe may be used to carry hot water (from the platform) to avoid low
temperature problems such as hydrate formation.
Source Chevron UK Ltd
29
Directed Learning:
The various vessels mentioned above are those in the top end of the pipelay capability.
There are many other smaller vessels working around the world. In September 2010
two new pipelay vessels were completed in Singapore for the Companies SEA TRUCKS
and GLOBAL INDUSTRIES. Often these additional vessels are to form locally available
capabilities.
Using the internet look at pipelay vessels working in your area of the world and share
your information with others through the course Forum.
1.6.2 Flexible Pipe
Essentially the same type of flexible pipe used in Flexible Dynamic Risers may be used on the seabed as
flexible flowlines. As such they may be more expensive than steel pipe on a per metre length but this
extra cost may be recovered by the relative ease and simplicity of the installation process.
The pipe can be reeled up on much smaller diameter drums than is possible with steel pipe. Similarly the
laying vessel will be much smaller and less sophisticated compared with the reel ship laying steel pipe.
Figure 3.37: Flexible Pipe and Installation Vessel

Flexible pipe is much easier to lay and uses smaller, simpler vessels. The pipe can be reeled onto smaller
drums than those used for steel pipes. The pipe diameters are usually smaller than that of the steel pipe
range.
Source Wikimedia Commons and CSO Offshore (now part of Technip)
30
Figure 3.38: Laying Flexible Pipe
The laying configuration can be S- or J-lay.
Source J E & P Associates and CSO Offshore (now part of Technip)
1.7 Pipeline Tie-ins
Pipeline and flowline connections or tie-ins to risers, spool pieces, subsea systems and other pipelines can
be executed by differing jointing techniques and different installation methods. The jointing methods
currently available for making pipeline and flowline tie-ins are:
Welding.
Flanged connections (for rigid or flexible spools).
Proprietary mechanical connection systems.
Although each of the above jointing techniques is considered safe and can be used in a variety of ways,
the policy of most operators is to minimise the use of mechanical connections. Welded tie-ins are
preferred but where these are impractical or where the riser or spoolpiece is designed either from flexible
materials or to be removable, flanged tie-ins may be used provided they can be demonstrated to be safe
by quantified risk assessment QRA methods. When using flanged connections subsea it is
recommended that ring type joint RTJ faces and oval or octagonal RTJ gaskets are used.
When selecting the tie-in position and jointing method it is important to select a configuration that does
not overstress the pipe during installation, leave unacceptably high locked-in stresses in the pipeline or
result in spanning or overstressing during operation of the pipeline. Other project-specific considerations
to be taken into account are as follows:
Pipe material, grade and specification.

Pipe diameter and wall thickness, loading from pipeline movements and environmental loadings.
Water depth, environmental condition, currents and visibility for surveying, metrology and
installation.
Equipment required, access requirements, weights, lifting capacities and workability factors.
Local restrictions, length, geometry, number of tie-in sections required.
31
1.7.1 Welding
Tie-in welding can be conducted above water on a lay barge for example when stalking on a riser or
hyperbaric welding may be performed on the seabed. Above water tie-in techniques involve lifting pipe
from the store in the lay barge for the jointing process. The assembly is then lowered back into position
on the seabed. Hyperbaric welding comprises the welding of the pipelines together inside a habitat that
is filled with a breathable gas mixture (heliox or nitrox). Water is evacuated from the habitat and the
pressure, temperature and atmosphere maintained, which allows manual welding to take place. Some
important considerations which must be borne in mind include personnel welfare and transfer, pipeline
alignment techniques, habitat sealing, welding processes, procedures and qualification, pressure effects
on welding, electrode care and field joint coating of the finished weld.
1.7.2 Flanged Connections
Subsea flanges are bolted together utilising Hydratight or similar hydraulic bolt tensioning equipment.
Alignment procedures for correct alignment of bolt holes and flange faces are extremely important.
Swivel ring flanges are usually used to accommodate misalignment of bolt holes. First, exact metrology
measurements are made of the seabed components for the spoolpiece. This is followed by accurate
fabrication of spools coupled with guide wires and stabbing guides which normally allow the elimination of
use of H frames to align the spoolpieces. The use of alignment frames, however, cannot be dismissed
until the spoolpiece is safely installed. It is considered prudent to have these items on standby just in
case. Flanged connections should be positioned so as to minimise the loading expected from pipeline
expansion and it is recommended that RTJ flanges and suitable gaskets are used.
Figure 3.39: Divers Connecting a Flowline to a Riser on the Seabed

In shallow water, where divers are often used in the construction phase of the field development activity,
joints between the flowlines and risers are often made with flanged ends spool pieces. The divers will
bring the flange ends together with the assistance of the lifting beam. The diver will insert the gasket
and bolt the flange ends together with bolts and nuts using hand tools.
Source Rockwater
32
1.7.3 Proprietary Mechanical Connection Systems
Big Inch, Taperlock, Graylock, Moregrip and others offer proprietary mechanical connections for oil and
gas services. These products offer valuable flexibility to pipeline designers and installers.
Figure 3.40: Rigid Spool Connections in Deepwater

In deeper water the connection must be made with diverless connection systems and using ROVs
(Remote Operated Vehicles) or ROTs (Remote Operated Tools). There are a number of proprietary
systems available.
Source Aker Solutions
Flow Spool
Connectors
In Line
Flow Spool Sled
Connector
Figure 3.41: Flexible spool lines connecting the Trees to Manifold and Manifold to Flowline Sled
Source BP plc
33
1.8 Trenching
Pipeline trenching is conducted for one or more of the following reasons:
To increase stability.
To protect the pipeline from damage.
To minimise the obstruction to third parties.
To improve the insulation.
Normally pipelines are trenched but the HSE (Health and Safety Executive, in the UK) will give
consideration to allow larger diameter pipelines to remain un-trenched provided the pipeline is:
Above 16 inches in diameter.

Stable on the seabed and will not move about.
Will not be damaged by trawl board impacts.
Figure 3.42: Protection for Offshore Pipelines

The smaller diameter flowlines are often protected by burial of rock/sand bag dumping.
34
Figure 3.43: Hazard of Pipe being Hit by Fishing Gear
In areas that are heavily fished, account of the fishing type must be addressed. Fishing by seabed
trawling methods can potentially damage the flowline, or trawling gear might become trapped by a line's
free span. When this occurs the fishermen are supposed to cut their nets and put in a claim for a new
net to the line owners.
There are many methods of offshore pipeline trenching such as ploughing, mechanical excavation, jetting
and dredging. The selection of the most appropriate method of trenching under the particular prevailing
soil conditions is essential. Where there are mixed conditions it may be possible to combine the use of
more than one method. Backfilling of a pipeline may occur naturally or be carried out by mechanical
means.
1.8.1 Ploughs
Ploughing is becoming a reliable and cost effective method of trenching pipelines. Ploughing is a one
pass system and modern ploughs are relatively light, between 40 and 150 tonnes. They lift the pipe at
the front end of the plough, cut a trench and guide the pipeline into the trench behind the plough over a
system of rollers. Ploughing force requirements can vary significantly with differing soil conditions. Force
requirements of between 20 and 200 tonnes can be provided by tugs. For higher pull forces anchored
pulling vessels are required. When tugs are used the support services, lifting facilities and ploughing
control are normally provided by a typical DSV.
Most major contractors operate ploughs and smart additions such as controlled depth ploughing are
becoming available which can allow controlled or intelligent multi-pass ploughing. Ploughs can be used in
fine to medium sands, clays and granular soils and can cope with small boulders without problems.
Ploughs require a stable seabed and relatively straight and level pipe to allow efficient operation. Trench
depths of up to 2 m are attainable. Ploughing around curves however is difficult and should be conducted
with great care so as not to leave the pipeline outside the excavation trench. The performance of a
plough under suitable soil conditions is very impressive and rates of 1,000 m per hour can be achieved.
35
Figure 3.44: Bar Protector Vessel with Seabed Plough for Pipe Burial
An example of a seabed plough which can be used to cut a seabed trench in hard soil.
Source Saipem
1.8.2 Mechanical Excavation
Mechanical excavators remove soil by rotating cutting teeth, chains, discs or heads cutting the soil which
is then removed by eductors which fluidise and eject the soil to the side of the excavation. There are
various different systems of mechanical excavation available, for example Eager Beaver, Digging Donald,
HAM 950 (ex-KBV trencher) and so on. These systems have been used on a wide variety of pipeline
trenching work with success but cannot match the progress rates of a plough. They can be used however
in circumstances where ploughs and other methods could not operate and are therefore considered to be
extremely useful trenching tools.
Directed Learning:
Go to the Allseas Company website (www.allseas.com) and look up the details of their
trench digging ROV called Digging Donald. (Look under Pipeline Protection in the
Activities section of the Company tab.) Collect the information to add to your files.
1.8.3 Jetting
Excavation of a pipeline trench using jetting techniques from a jet barge involves high-pressure, high-
volume jetting which fluidises the material to be excavated below the pipeline and removes it by eduction
from the trench. The pipeline thus becomes unsupported and drops under gravity into the trench.
Jetting can involve much energy and in non-homogeneous materials, where the going is mixed between
soft and hard ground, the jet sled does tend to over-excavate the soft areas and under-excavate the hard
zones resulting in a non-defined trench. Jet barges have been used with great success on various
projects, and can be used as a span correction tool for jetting out span supports.
36
Figure 3.45: FlexJet Pipeline Burial Jetting Vehicle
An example of a seabed water jetting vehicle which can be used to cut a seabed trench in soft soil.
Source J E & P Associates and Saipem (Sonsub)
1.8.4 Rock Dumping
Rock dumping carried out by specialised vessels as shown in Figure 3.46 can be an expensive operation
for long lengths of pipeline. Trenching is always a more cost effective solution. However, in multi-line,
congested areas, or around manifold areas where multiple short jumpers and umbilicals need to be
protected, rock dumping can be very effective. Cost comparison studies should always be carried out
before deciding which solution is best suited.
Figure 3.46: Pipe Burial by Rock dumping

Rock dumping vessels cover the line with rock. This is a common method if flowlines lift from the seabed
or the bed materials get washed away due to the currents. This leads to free spans of unsupported line
lengths. The span is filled in by the rock dumping.
Source Van Oord
37
1.9 Route Surveys (Refer Back to Figure 3.4)
Surveys are required at various stages during a pipeline project. The different requirements of design,
construction, completion or as-built surveys and operational surveys have to be met.
1.9.1 Design Surveys
Equipment requirements include:
Vessel and seabed positioning equipment.

Echo sounders.
Side scan sonars.
Sub-bottom profiler.
Tide gauge.
Current meters.
Magnetometer.
Grab sampler.
Vibrocorer (to collect sediment core samples).
Gravity corer.
Cone penetrator and if necessary a rock corer.
Positioning equipment should include:
Surface positioning system.

Sub-surface positioning.
Navigational and processing equipment.
All equipment should be calibrated and tested before use. Comprehensive survey procedures should be
written prior to departure and data acquisition should take place at prescribed intervals.
Design surveys need to identify the following:
Seabed bathymetric features which may produce adverse laying conditions, such as excessive
slopes or changes of slope and areas which may encourage freespans.
Wrecks, boulders, disused munitions and any other items, which may give rise to concern over the
prescribed pipeline routeing.
Seabed and sub-seabed geology and soil types. Thickness and properties of the soils which may
influence the ability to trench or the method to be used.
1.9.2 Construction Surveys
Route preparation surveys, installation and as-built surveys involve the use of the same geophysical
equipment, none of the geotechnical equipment and the addition of an ROV for visual examination of the
works as that indicated above for the design survey.
The survey boat accompanies the working spread and surveys sections of the work as the work proceeds.
During route preparation works the bathymetry provided by the echo sounder and debris surveys from
the side scan sonar would be important items to check. During pipe laying the survey boat would
normally monitor the touch down point behind the lay barge and investigate any locations where damage
is suspected on the pipeline together with a periodic look forward to monitor the condition of the seabed
immediately in front of the lay barge.
During trenching ROV checks would be used to monitor and assist with the location of the trenching
equipment, to conduct periodical checks on the progress of the trenching, to investigate any high load
cell reading recorded during the trenching operation itself and to finally check that the pipeline is sitting
within the excavated trench. The echo sounder would also be used to determine the exact depth of
trenching. Checks may be made with the ROV in contact with the pipe to conduct out-of-straightness
surveys and span assessment surveys. If span correction works and/or rock dumping is required further
monitoring of this work will be undertaken using the ROV.
38
Following completion of all works and just prior to handover to the clients, an as-built survey may be
conducted to verify the as-built location and condition of the pipeline.
1.9.3 Operational Surveys
These surveys are predominantly ROV surveys to identify any occurrence of critical spans, damage to the
pipeline and check the operation and condition of the CP system.
39
2. RIGID RISERS (FOR FIXED PLATFORMS)
2.1 Introduction
Platform risers are key components of all offshore production facilities having major economic and safety
significance. The riser provides access from the seabed to the platform facilities for:
Product import (single-phase or multi-phase fluids).

Product export (single-phase or multi-phase fluids).
Platform utilities (control and power lines).
Subsea satellite developments (produced oil and gas, test lines, water injection, gas lift lines,
control umbilicals and chemical injection lines).
Figure 3.47: Rigid Platform Risers

A fixed platform will have the steel riser pipes built with them attached in the construction yard. These
will connect into the seabed flowlines.
A riser is usually a pipe which connects a subsea pipeline and the platform topside and can be made from
rigid or flexible pipe in a size range from 2 diameter to 36 diameter depending on requirements.
Typical layouts are illustrated.
The riser design accommodates substantial environmental loading, particularly in the splash zone. To
accommodate the environmental load, risers of smaller diameters require additional structural support
which can be provided by additional clamps to span between main jacket members located inside a
carrier pipe, called I-tube or a J-tube or a caisson, which acts as a structural member to provide
protection.
40
Figure 3.48: Pre-Installed I and J Tubes
In addition to the full riser pipes, additional empty tubes may be added at the construction phase. These
I and J tubes can be used to pull in smaller pipes, flexibles or umbilicals that become required in the
field development at a later stage of development.
Risers are of key importance to platform safety as their failure can compromise the complete production
facilities. For this reason many safety considerations are incorporated into riser designs.
These include:
Accidental vessel impact protection.

Increased requirements for corrosion protection.
Structural strengthening.
Subsea and topsides safety valves or ESD valves.
Passive fire protection.
Riser design is covered by numerous industry specifications and government legislation, included in which
are recent recommendations by the UK DTI which require risers to be protected from accidental vessel
impact damage.
The main platform risers are built into the jacket construction at the fabrication yard.
41
Figure 3.49: Jacket Construction including Risers
A view of a steel jacket in the construction yard. Because it is built on its side, the legs which will sit on
the bottom and the riser ends attached to the lower cross member appear high up in the sky.
Figure 3.50: Rigid Risers Viewed from Lower Platform Deck

The view from the lower platform deck shows the jacket structure, the drilling guides with most having
drilling risers filling them, and vertical production riser tubes attached to the structure.
42
A major requirement on all new production facilities is to accommodate current, future expected and
future speculative risers. Sometimes the platforms drilling slots may be used to house risers (if further
drilling is not required).
If all prior riser options are used then the last resort is the installation in-situ of new risers. This is
relatively expensive.
43
3. RISERS FOR FLOATING PRODUCTION HOSTS FLEXIBLE/CATENARY/
HYBRID TOWER RISERS
3.1 Introduction
The main riser systems for floaters are flexible dynamic risers which emerged in the 1980s. The
economic advantages of incorporating flexible risers in subsea production systems are:
1. Dramatic reduction of downtime costs or loss of production (uptime of 99% achieved to date).
2. Relative simplicity in system design.
3. Built-in flexibility: system can be easily adapted to changing economic objectives as field
development progresses.
4. Easy and rapid installation: use of relatively lightweight and economical DP vessels for minimum
dependence on weather and other vessels in the field.
The dynamic flexible riser concept has been used successfully for several years in various parts of the
world under relatively temperate weather conditions and is now used by the industry for applications in
the most harsh environments, North Sea included, since 1985.
The necessity for having a flexible riser system to a floater is illustrated with an example of an FPSO
operating in the North Sea (water depth 120 m). On its moorings the FPSO has horizontal excursions of
+/ 25 m, and vertical excursions of +/ 8 m. Such amounts of movement could not be accommodated
with a rigid steel pipe.
Figure 3.51: Basis of Requirement for Flexible Dynamic Risers to Floaters

Note the envelope of movement in the riser from the top-up position to the bottom-down position. It is
only the flexible dynamic riser that can accommodate such movements.
44
3.2 Design, Computer Simulations and Model Testing
The engineering of each dynamic riser system involves a comprehensive study covering the following key
topics:
1. Definition of the most appropriate pipe structure, based on the specification of the project in
question.
2. Selection of the most suitable riser configuration, based on the following criteria:
Weather data.
Anticipated motion of the surface vessel (FPV or FPSO).
Water depth.
Extreme loads.
Required service life.
Using this configuration as the input, a comprehensive computer package is used to predict both
the dynamic behaviour and the limits of the service life of the system. The service life can be
expected to be between 10 and 15 years with existing pipe structure in harsh environments or up
to 20 years in mild environments.
3. Design of the necessary ancillary equipment, riserfloater interface, sub-surface buoy and mid-
water arch, riser bases, together with related equipment.
4. Definition of the most appropriate installation method and handling equipment requirements.
5. Simulated model basin tests if necessary. Regular and irregular waves up to centenary storm
height should be generated from different headings to simulate the behaviour of the system in all
possible situations.
Several model tests have been carried out to date and one of the most remarkable results to
emerge from these tests is the overall stability of the dynamic flexible riser system under the
harshest conditions, even in the splash zone which is normally a critical area.
Simulated emergency disconnections with QCDC (Quick Connect/Disconnect) connectors were

thoroughly tested and proven to be perfectly safe, for the flexible risers themselves, for the rig
and for the subsea equipment beneath.
6. Interface with the mooring system.
Today sophisticated computer simulations are available to the systems designer.
The most commonly used software systems are:
DEEPLINES by IFP and PRINCIPIA.
FLEXRISER by ZENTECH INTERNATIONAL.
ORCAFLEX by ORCINA.
45
Figure 3.52: Flexible Pipe Design and Analysis Data Specification
The flexible risers are usually designed by the manufacturers specialist design house. It is for the field
development team to provide the required data for this process.
Source: Azur Offshore Ltd
3.3 Types of Pipe Structures and Main Manufacturers
In the 1980s two types of structures were on offer the BONDED rubber-based one and the UNBONDED
thermoplastic/steel one.
Today only UNBONDED structures are manufactured for flexible dynamic risers. Bonded structures are
only used for short lengths of flexible pipe jumpers at the top of drilling risers and for floating offloading
hoses, where they can easily be replaced.
A typical unbonded structure with all the various layers and their functions is illustrated below:
46
Figure 3.53: Flexible Pipe Structures
In the early days, the first flexible dynamic risers were bonded structures (with the steel and plastic
layers attached to each other like a car tyre). This did not work. It was realised that the separate
layers had to be free to move one against the other. This led to the structures we have today.
Figure 3.54: The Make-up of a Flexible Dynamic Riser (from Wellstream)

The flexible pipe is built up during the manufacturing process. Steel layers provide the necessary
mechanical strength and plastic layers the containment capability. The process starts with the inner
section (carcass), formed from flat strips of steel. This is followed by the plastic pressure sheath giving
the containment of the well fluids (oil, water and gas). The main structural strength comes from spiral
wound strips of steel, first wound at an angle close to the diameter (giving it hoops strength) and second
wound at an angle more along the length (giving it tensile strength). Also the pipe may have layers of
insulation.
Source Courtesy of Wellstream International Ltd
47
Manufacturers have made very large investments to build large and complex factories. The three main
manufacturers are:
COFLEXIP with factories in France, Brazil, Angola and Malaysia.
WELLSTREAM (originally part of the Haliburton Group but now part of GE Oil & Gas) with factories
in Brazil and the UK.
NKT (originally part of the Stolt Offshore group now National Oil Well Varco) with one factory in
Denmark.
Figure 3.55: Manufacturers of Flexible Dynamic Risers and their Geographic Locations
Wellstream Flexible Pipe Factory in Brazil. Note reels with flexible pipe waiting at the dockside for
delivery to fields.
48
Figure 3.56: Wellstream now part of GE Oil and Gas
Source - GE Oil & Gas
Figure 3.57: Details of the Manufacturing Stages

Wellstream International Ltd Flexible Factory showing components of the various fabrication stages
building up the complete pipe.
49
Figure 3.58: Details of the Manufacturing Stages
Description of the manufacturing stages.
Source Coflexip (now Technip)
Ongoing development and testing work by the manufacturers ensure the quality of the product is very
high and the range of capabilities meets the requirements of deepwater developments.
Directed Learning:
Google Wellstream Flexible Dynamic Riser. Look under web and images. Collect the
information for your file. In particular, note which manufacturing plants are nearest to
your location.
Visit Google and search for NKT flexible video where there is an excellent YouTube
link showing the manufacture of flexible pipe in their factory.
50
Figure 3.59: Flexible Pipe Testing by the Manufacturer
Pipe section following burst tests
Figure 3.60: Flexible Pipe Ranges

Current and future sizes for various water depth ranges.
51
After fabrication the full riser length (including end fittings) is wound on a storage reel. Before delivery it
must pass a witnessed hydro test. This involves pressurising it to its maximum design pressure, and
checking it maintains its pressure for a full 24 hours. After this it is stored on the reel awaiting delivery
to the field.
Figure 3.61: Flexible Risers in Drums for Testing and Delivery

After manufacture the individual riser is wound on a drum. It has to undergo a hydro test where it is
pressurised with water up to its maximum design pressure, and has to show it holds that pressure for 24
hours. After testing the end connectors are wrapped for protection and it is put on a delivery drum.
Source Azur Offshore Ltd and Courtesy of Wellstream International Ltd
3.4 Different Riser Configurations
Dynamic flexible riser systems can be designed for most types of floating production systems, but of the
different possibilities, five basic configurations are currently in service:
1. Free hanging.
2. Lazy S.
3. Steep S.
4. Steep wave.
5. Lazy wave.
Figure 3.62: Standard Riser Configurations
52
Figure 3.63: Standard Riser Configurations
The S or wave shape is produced by forming a mid-water arch. This can be achieved by draping the riser
over a mid-water arch structure or by distribution foam along the mid-water length to form the arch
shape.
Figure 3.64: Flexible Dynamic Risers

Showing the catenary portion formed by either draping it over a mid-water arch structure or by
distributed buoyancy by blocks of foam attached to the riser.
53
3.4.1 Free Hanging Riser
This system is the most suitable for temporary production in rougher seas or for permanent field
development under mild or average weather conditions. Being the simplest of the five, it requires a
minimum investment in equipment. The flexible riser runs in a catenary configuration from the upper
connection point on the floater straight down to a tangential contact point on the seabed where it can be
connected to any type of subsea equipment.
3.4.2 Lazy S
More sophisticated than the free-hanging riser, the double catenary with a flexible arch configuration is
suitable for all types of field development even under the worst weather conditions. The system is used
to best advantage in production schemes involving satellite wells, or whenever the subsea equipment is
located at a distance from the floater. The system comprises a flexible line running down through the
upper connection on the floater to a tangential contact on the seabed via a sub-surface buoy and a mid-
water arch, in a double catenary. The first catenary, suspended between the floater and the buoy,
absorbs most of the motion induced by current and waves, and the second catenary runs from the mid-
water arch to the sea bottom for connection to the subsea equipment. The sub-surface buoy is tensioned
by means of a chain and deadweight on the seabed.
3.4.3 Steep/Lazy Wave Configuration
The steep wave configuration is a straightforward extension of the steep S configuration: the mid-water
arch with its buoy has been replaced by individual buoys clamped onto the riser spreading the buoyancy.
The lazy wave configuration is more novel as not only the arch and buoys have been replaced, but also
the mooring cable between the arch and deadweight no longer exists.
Both these configurations have been extensively tested for North Sea conditions during model tests.
During these tests, it appeared that if the distribution of the buoyancy was optimised, then the steep/lazy
wave design showed a smoother dynamic behaviour than the steep/lazy S design.
Other advantages of this design are that:
Larger bending radii are obtained.

The installation is facilitated (the mid-water arch and buoy is a large piece of equipment to install).
Less maintenance is required.
3.4.4 The Distributed Buoyancy Concept
This concept has been developed in relation to the new steep/lazy wave configuration. The distributed
buoyancy may be obtained by either:
Clamping individual buoys on the riser.

Adding articulated buoyancy modules.
The material of the foam may be either PVC for shallow water or synthetic foam, with closed cells, for
deepwater.
3.4.5 Steep S
This, the most widely used system, was developed as a safe solution to the problem of over-crowding on
the sea floor for production systems where the subsea equipment is located directly beneath the floating
facilities. This system is best adapted for harsh environments.
The steep S system differs from the lazy S in that the flexible riser itself is used to tension the sub-
surface buoy, terminating in a riser base, which replaces the deadweight, at the subsea connection point.
Although the second catenary is eliminated, the dynamic behaviour of the riser is very much the same.
This configuration provides the most direct liaison between the surface facilities and the subsea
equipment. With the elimination of tie-back loops, the system occupies a minimum of space on the
seabed, thus reducing the risk of interference with other subsea equipment and accidental damage from
anchor chains and other hazards.
54
3.5 Operation, Maintenance and Advantages
The incorporation of dynamic flexible riser systems in a production scheme results in major advantages
for the operator. From an operational point of view:
Dynamic flexible riser systems remain fully connected even in 100-year storm conditions (even
though production is shut down).
Zero, or very little down-time, is attributable to the riser system (up to 98/99% can be achieved).
Routine limited disconnection during temporary shut-down for rig maintenance and refurbishing is
a simple operation. The risers are winched down 2 or 3 m below the connector. Reconnection can
proceed after maintenance.
Emergency shut-downs can be completed in a matter of seconds with the QCDC connectors. The
risers can be recovered for reconnection when the emergency is over. None has been necessary,
up to date, in the North Sea.
From a maintenance point of view:
Dynamic riser systems require no maintenance other than regular external ROV inspection of the
flexible lines and subsea equipment and routine checks of the connectors and their associated
equipment.
Pressure testing every six years in-situ.
The flexible risers have built-in corrosion resistance, provided by the internal stainless steel conduit
and by the external polyamide sheath or other material. In addition, all metallic components of the
subsea part of the system are cathodically protected.
Flexible risers are more likely to meet semi-submersible platform or monohull survival
environmental conditions, with motions taken up by the catenary of the risers and umbilicals.
Particular care is necessary to ensure that flexible risers can withstand all the design conditions.
For example, durability under the effects of the temperature, pressure and chemical constituents of
the produced fluids must be ascertained.
The lower end of the risers terminates at a base, a PLEM (pipeline end manifold) or a flowline
connector/anchor. These are simple structures which experience relatively low loads from the
risers.
A conversion requires very limited modification to the moonpool deck or turret.
The moonpool is free for workover equipment. A derrick is not required unless one is necessary for
workover.
Once in production it can be relatively easy to tie-in extra wells and introduce additional risers.
However, for pontoon mounted connections, additional connectors would have to be incorporated
during initial construction or conversion.
The potential gains over rigid risers make flexible risers very attractive when used with semi-
submersible and monohull based production schemes, and a trend towards their use, under even
the severe weather conditions of the North Sea, is now obvious.
3.6 Devices Connected or Attached to Flex Risers
From the floater to the seabed a significant number of devices are used. These include:
QCDC at the top (deck or pontoon level).
End fittings.
Buoyancy modules.
Mid-water arch.
Bend stiffeners and bend restrictors.
Fairing vanes and other guiding tubes and cones.
PLEM and riser base.
55
Figure 3.65: Devices Attached to Flexible Dynamic Risers
These include end fittings, mid-water arches or distributed buoyancy modules and bend stiffeners.
3.7 Integrity Monitoring, Statutory Requirements and Codes
Where flexible dynamic risers are used in FPSOs with internal or external turrets there is a need to take
care in the region where the risers enter the turret. This is a very congested region with close proximity
of the risers and mooring chains. Detailed computer evaluations are carried out as part of the design and
the area is closely monitored during operations.
A new technique offers a major step forward in through-life management of flexible riser/flowline
systems. Built around current best practice and simple internal inspection techniques, FLEXSENS is a
new and developing system for integrity assessment and condition monitoring.
FLEXSENS takes a range of measurements to monitor changes in the performance signature over time for
the complete length of pipe, providing a through-life finger print assessment. It is a cradle to grave
integrity assessment tool with potentially much wider benefits for deepwater applications. The Flexsens
NDT (non-destructive testing) technique uses Eddy current technology which indicates the thickness of
steel at the point of measurement.
56
Figure 3.66: Integrity Assessment and Monitoring of Flexible Dynamic Risers
One of the main problems facing flexible dynamic risers is the integrity monitoring. Plain steel pipe has
many NDT techniques of evaluating its performance capability during its life. This information can be
used to decide the end of its useful working life. Because the flexible dynamic riser pipe has many
separate layers we do not yet have the means to evaluate the status of each layer to determine its life
status. A number of measurements are made of the riser while it is in operation. These can give
indications of changes to its make up components. One day we expect to have a full NDT system to
provide the data on the life expectancy of the riser.
-- RISER INTEGRITY MONITORING (RIM) SERVICE for DALIA IPB
Annulus Integrity
Monitoring
Operating Conditions
Surveillance Vacuum tests
Vent system check-up
P.T envelope Peaks and Shut-down
Peaks & shut-down
DTS
Riser IM
External Integrity
Surveillance
Insp. & Maint. Of
ROV & visual inspection
Monitoring System DTS
Riser Mechanical
VGM & Plastic Ageing
DTS

Vent gas analysis
Polymer coupon
Plastic ageing
Fatigue analysis
Figure 3.67: Riser Integrity Monitoring (RIM) Service for Dalia IPB Riser
57
3.8 New Flexible Risers for Deepwater
ULTRA DEEPWATER: The Main Challenges
Installation
Suspended
Riser configurations weight
Hydrostatic
pressure
Thermal losses
Figure 3.68: Riser Challenges for Deep and Ultradeep Water
The problem of FLOW ASSURANCE does require a means of maintaining heat in risers, in particular
during shut-downs.
COFLEXIP pioneered the IPB system in 1998 for deepwater projects in Angola (1,500 m). There is
extensive thermal insulation, but also an active hot water heating system circulating in small hoses or
electrical trace heating wires built into the structure.
Figure 3.69: Technip Flexible Dynamic Riser Construction and Latest Integrated Production
Riser Bundle
The flexible pipe is a complex fabrication of steel layers and plastic layers. The steel provides the core
and the tensile and hoop strength. The plastic provides the fluid containment requirements. The layers
are not bonded together, but can move with respect to each other.
The latest risers may have insulation and electrical trace heating elements.
Source Technip Ltd
58
3.9 Field Examples of Flexible Dynamic Risers
Figure 3.70: Semi-submersible Production Hosts with Flexible Dynamic Risers

Balmoral and Troll semi operating in the North Sea.
Figure 3.71: Snorre Field Norway

Field comprising the Snorre B semi-submersible and Snorre TLP with subsea field facilities.
Source Statoil
59
Figure 3.72: FPSO with Mooring Lines and Risers
Shells Anasuria FPSO, an internal turret moored vessel operating in the North Sea. With such FPSOs the
mooring lines connect to the turret chain table at the bottom of the turret. The risers enter the underside
of the turret and continue up to the main deck level where they are connected into the piping system on
the turret.
Source SBM
Figure 3.73: Disconnectable Turret Moored FPSO (External Turret)

Jabiru FPSO a FPSO with an external turret operating in Australia. The turret is of the disconnectable
type. In these waters the FPSO must disconnect and move away during cyclones.
The line from the well to the turret is all flexible pipe, even the length on the seabed. The alternative
would have been a length of steel as the flowline and a flexible pipe for the riser. This would have
required a connecting PLEM to connect the two.
60
Directed Learning:
Use the Internet to look up fields using Floating Production Vessels. Make a note of
some of these that use Flexible Dynamic Risers. A good website is www.offshore-
technology.com. Look under Industry Projects. Report back to other students on any
other websites youve found which include details of Fields with Flexible Dynamic
Risers.
3.10 Hybrid Riser Systems
3.10.1 Deepwater Tower
The first tower was originally designed by Cameron in the early 1980s for Placid Oil Companys Green
Canyon Block 29 Gulf of Mexico 42 well subsea development; the system was installed and operational in
450 m water depth. The tower structure is made of steel pipes held in tension by a buoyancy unit at its
top (below the water line). It therefore looks like a submerged bulrush and waves about in the currents
and tides.
3.10.2 Hybrid Riser Tower for Girassol (1,400 m)
In the early 1990s Mobil proposed a fully welded riser tower concept for 1,400 m of water. The same
design concept was considered by the ALTO MAR GIRASSOL Group (ETPM, BOUYGUES OFFSHORE, STOLT
COMEX) and further designed for the ELF ANGOLA Girassol field development in 1998. This design was
selected against a flexible riser system with hot water heating. This new system was locally fabricated
and was installed during the summer of 2001.
Figure 3.74: Girassol Riser Tower System Details

The riser tower was used in the Girassol Field Angola. Each of the three riser towers has six 8
pathways for flow and two 2 pathways for service fluids, all surrounded by insulated foam blocks. The
towers are some 1.3 km in length. At the bottom they attach to the pile mount with a RotoLock stab-in
connection. At the top there is a buoyancy can which tensions the riser and provides the connection of
the flexible jumper connections to the FPSO riser porch.
61
3.10.3 Other Hybrid Tower Concepts
Various engineering groups have proposed improved concepts such as:
BOUYGUES OFFSHORE SHREWD
BOUYGUES OFFSHORE GUIDED RISER TOWER
AKER MARITIME LIGHTWEIGHT HYBRID RISER
SAIBOS SLOR AND STUR CONCEPTS.
SLOR
The SLOR (single line offset riser) consists of a single vertical steel pipe connected to the foundation pile
at the seabed and tensioned using a buoyancy can at the top. The top of the buoyancy can is typically
located 50100 m below the mean water level. The SLOR is generally situated 100500 m away from
the vessel depending upon water depth and the vessel excursions.
The foundation pile is either suction pile, driven or drilled and grouted pile. The bottom assembly of the
SLOR is connected to the foundation pile using a high integrity connector and terminated with an offtake
assembly. The offtake assembly is connected to a flowline via rigid jumper. The bottom assembly
connection to the foundation pile is achieved by roto-latch (or any flex element) or using a tapered stress
joint.
The riser pipes are usually casing grade steel pipes and will be constructed by welding the double-joint
pipes and associated components. The riser is supported by a nitrogen filled buoyancy can at the top. A
central pipe (bore) runs through the centre of the can and is divided into multiple compartments using
internal bulkheads.
The riser pipe is attached either to the top of the buoyancy can through a load shoulder or to the bottom
of the buoyancy can using chains or a flex element. In the case of a rise pipe attached to the top of the
buoyancy can, a keel joint is used at the base of the buoyancy can where the riser exits the bore, to
relieve the bending moment transferred to the riser pipe due to offsets and dynamic motions.
Connection between the vessel and the riser is achieved using a flexible jumper via a steel gooseneck
assembly connected to the top of the riser pipe. The flexible jumper is connected to the vessel through
an I-tube assembly with adequate bend stiffeners to minimise fatigue damage. The gooseneck and
flexible offtake can be located either above or below the air can depending on the installation strategies.
The bends in the gooseneck, offtake spool and base jumper are usually configured with 3D or 5D radius
bends to allow pigs and prevent any restrictions in the flow passage. The pipe-in-pipe version of the
SLOR configuration COR (concentric offset riser) is usually used for production risers.
The outer annulus is used for gas lift purposes. The gooseneck is modified to allow access to the outer
annulus so that the gas can enter the COR via a flexible jumper which is injected into the production flow
at the base of the riser through a gas lift crossover forging.
Several SLOR and COR systems have been successfully installed in West Africa with more upcoming
deepwater developments implementing these riser solutions.
Grouped SLOR
The grouped SLOR is also referred to as an open bundle hybrid. The arrangement consists of two or
more SLORs bundled together with optimum distance between the risers to avoid clashing during
installation and operation, including removal and reinstallation if necessary.
62
Figure 3.75: Riser Tower SLOR system
GREATER PLUTONIO RISER TOWER

SCOPE OF WORK
Figure 3.76: Greater Plutonio SLOR Riser System Scope of Supply
Source BP plc
63
Directed Learning:
Look up Riser Towers on the Internet. Are there other Fields which currently use
them? Report back your findings for other students.
3.11 Steel Catenary Risers for Deepwater Developments
Neither the steep-wave riser configuration nor the use of steel as a riser material is original, but the
combination of the two represents something which has not been widely acknowledged as feasible for
severe deepwater environments.
A profusion of riser designs, including flexible pipe, steel and titanium concepts, are presently at various
stages of development, and cost and technical limitations are continually shifting. Several types of pipe
cross-section and material are serviceable under deepwater conditions across a range of duties, making
product supply highly competitive. It is a healthy situation, but the choice between designs can be a
difficult one.
The optimum type and configuration of riser is highly dependent on diameter, duty and seabed layout.
Use of steel as a base material, or flexible risers as finished products, offers clear advantages in many
circumstances, though other materials have special attractions. Titanium and hybrid risers have already
been used in harsh, deepwater environments, and composite materials are on the horizon. A mix and
match situation may turn out to be the norm.
For any configuration, curvature reduces as scale increases, so low bending stresses are attainable in
deepwater designs such as the steel catenary riser (SCR). Improved station-keeping of production
vessels, negligible wave loading over large lengths of riser, the beneficial effect of greater elastic stretch
and the opportunity for large step-outs also play their part in re-focusing the designer's attention as
water depth increases.
The use of free-hanging steel catenaries is ideal for benign environments and low vessel motions. A good
example of innovation is the export riser for the Gulf of Mexico Shell Auger TLP (Tension Leg Platform).
For more severe loading conditions, limitations come into play, relating to touch-down dynamics,
maximum vessel offset and increased top-end response.
The predominant pipe material considered for the riser is standard X65 grade steel. A small amount of
X80 grade is also used, while a light stress joint (or possibly a short length of titanium pipe) at the top
end ensures that combined stresses are below 50% of yield throughout. Low dynamic response means
that a long fatigue life is predicted.
Maximum dynamic rotation over riser end-sections is about 10, and seabed and vessel ends are
configured at a small angle to the vertical, corresponding to a static rotation in the mean position. Uplift
on the riser base and vessel weight loading are 100 tonnes and 160 tonnes, respectively. Installation
would be by controlled depth tow of the entire riser or of several sections joined on-site using mechanical
connectors.
The status of SCRs to date is as follows:
The Shell Auger TLP platform saw the installation of 2 x 12 SCR export risers in 1994. They are in
API 5L X52 pipeline steel, coated with three layers of polyethylene and VIV suppression strakes in
the top 150 m. The water depth is 858 m; they have a length of 1,500 m, an inclination angle of
11 +/ 2 from vertical and are connected at pontoon level hang-off points with an elastomeric
flexjoint.
64
Figure 3.77: Steel Catenary Risers Auger TPL (GoM)
With a relatively stable TLP platform, and in some 800 m of water the steel riser can be draped from the
platform to the seabed in a catenary shape.
Since the Auger installation from a TLP, a lot more work has been done, in particular:
Petrobras XVIII semi-sub production platform. Marlim field. 1998. 10 riser in 910 m of water.
Experiment for mooring.
STRIDE JIP has performed, in 1998 in the UK, test initiatives into several areas for the design of
SCR. Tests have been carried out offshore with 6 and 10 risers.
Morpeth field Mini-TLP GoM. 1998. Two risers, 12 and 8 for oil and gas export, have been
installed in 470 m.
SCRs have been installed on the Bonga FPSO operating in Nigeria.
65
Figure 3.78: First Steel Catenary Riser on a Semi-submersible (P18 in Brazil) and
FPSO (Bonga FPSO in Nigeria)
For the past 10 years a steel catenary riser has been on test in Brazilian waters. The Bonga Field in
Nigeria is the first use of steel catenary risers deployed from an FPSO. It is highly instrumented and
should provide useful information to the industry about further potential use with FPSOs.
Source Shell Plc and Azur Offshore Ltd
All the developed configurations fulfil both the ultimate limit state (ULS) conditions and fatigue due to
first order wave action and due to vortex induced vibrations. Also, the fatigue limit state (FLS) governs
the global configuration of the SCR concept.
In order to achieve a confident design, several design aspects must be studied in detail:
First order wave loading.
Vortex induced vibration.
Differential effects (from the large volume structure).
Riser/soil interaction.
Fatigue capacity.
66
2009/2010 FIRST STEEL LAZY WAVE RISERS to FPSO TURRET for
SHELL BC10 Field (BRAZIL) in 1780 m ..
STEEL
S.L.W.R.
CATENARY
LAZE
WAVE
RISER
SBM FPSO
ESPERITO SANTO
Figure 3.79: First Steel Catenary Riser with a Lazy Wave Configuration
Shells BC-10 FPSO is moored in some 1,780 m water in Brazil. It is the first use of a Steel Catenary
Riser layed in a Lazy Wave configuration using water buoyancy units.
Source Shell plc
Directed Learning:
Look up Steel Catenary Risers on the Internet. Are there other Fields which currently
use them?
Report back your findings for other students.
Online Assessment:
Log on to the Learning Management System to complete the online assessment for this
module. If you dont achieve at least 75%, you may revise the module and attempt the
test again to improve your score.
67

FLR2564 Module 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FLR2564 Module 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FUNDAMENTALS OF SUBSEA

Pipelines, Flowlines and Risers

John Preedy PhD

Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................................... 4

1. Flowlines and Pipelines................................................................................................... 5

You will also be able to:

You will also be able to:

Source J E & P Associates and Azur Offshore Ltd

Source J E & P Associates

1.2 Pipeline/Flowline Route Selection

Figure 3.4: Pipeline/Flowline Route Survey

Source Wikimedia Commons and Cameron Singapore

1.3 Materials Selection

It is an iterative process. The main steps are:

Figure 3.5: Summary of Pipeline/Flowline Design Requirements

Source Azur Offshore Ltd and Wikimedia Commons

1.4.2 Structural Design

Normally equivalent stresses which are a combination of hoop (circumferential), longitudinal

Stress type Pipeline at seabed Riser

Hoop stress 0.72 0.60

Equivalent stress from functional and

Equivalent stress from construction or

Figure 3.6: Pigging Activities

Source Azur Offshore Ltd and Wikimedia Commons

1.5 Lay Techniques

1.5.1 Lay Barge and Lay Ship Installation

Figure 3.8: Solitaire Pipelay Vessel

The typical deck of the s lay vessel:

Figure 3.9: Semac 1 Pipelay Barge

1.5.2 Reel Ship Installation

Figure 3.10: Apache Reel Ship

Source CSO Offshore Ltd (now part of Technip)

Source CSO Offshore Ltd (now part of Technip)

Figure 3.12: Apache Reel Ship Operations

Source CSO Offshore Ltd (now part of Technip)

Figure 3.13: Deep Blue Reel Ship (Technip)

Source SBM GustoMSC

DEEP BLUE Hull & Lay Ramp

Figure 3.14: Details of Deep Blue Loading and Tower Ramp

Source SBM GustoMSC

Figure 3.15: Comparison of Pipelay Capacities on Single Reel of Steel Pipe

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

TYPICAL SPOOL BASE for FLOWLINES Welding,

Figure 3.16: Typical Spool base for Reel Ship

Source Azur Offshore Ltd

Figure 3.17: J-Lay Technique for Deepwater

Source: JE & P Associates

Source Saibos, Acergy and Saipem

Source Herema Marine Construction

Figure 3.20: Balder Deck

Source Herema Marine Construction

Source Herema Marine Construction

Figure 3.22: Balder Joint Assembly Station

Source Herema Marine Construction

Source Herema Marine Construction

Figure 3.24: Balder Pipe Elevator (2)

Source Herema Marine Construction

Source Herema Marine Consultants

Figure 3.26: Balder Incorporation of SLED into Line

Source Herema Marine Construction

Figure 3.27: Flowline Sled laid by J Lay Vessel

Saipem 7000 J Lay Vessel

The work activities include:

Figure 3.29: Saipem 7000 Deepwater J-Lay System (1)