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Biomechanical Analysis of a Change of Direction

Task in Collegiate Soccer Players

ARTICLE in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY AND PERFORMANCE MAY 2015

Impact Factor: 2.66 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2014-0458 Source: PubMed

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International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2016, 11, 96-101
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0458
2016 Human Kinetics, Inc. ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION

Biomechanical Analysis of a Change-of-Direction

Task in College Soccer Players
Giancarlo Condello, Thomas W. Kernozek, Antonio Tessitore, and Carl Foster

This study aimed to investigate biomechanical parameters during a change-of-direction task in college soccer players. Fourteen
male and 12 female players performed a 10-m sprint with a 60 change of direction at 5 m. Vertical and mediolateral ground-
reaction force (GRF) and contact time were measured by having the subjects run in both directions while contacting a force
plate with either their preferred (kicking) or nonpreferred leg. Using the midpoint between 2 pelvic markers, further parameters
were evaluated: performance cutting angle and horizontal distance. Relationships between parameters, sex, and leg preference
were analyzed. Significant correlations emerged between vertical and mediolateral GRF (r = .660.909) and between contact
time and performance cutting angle (r = .598 to .793). Sex differences were found for mediolateral GRF (P = .005), perfor-
mance cutting angle (P = .043), and horizontal distance (P = .020). Leg differences were observed for vertical GRF (P = .029),
performance cutting angle (P = .011), and horizontal distance (P = .012). This study showed that a sharper change of direction
corresponded to a longer contact time, while no relationships were found with GRF. Moreover, measuring the angle revealed that
the real path traveled was different from the theoretical one, highlighting the performance of sharper or more rounded execution.
In conclusion, this study showed that specific biomechanical measurements can provide details about the execution of a change
of direction, highlighting the ability of the nonpreferred leg to perform better directional changes.

Keywords: ground-reaction force, cutting angle, biomechanics, leg preference, sex

Agility has been defined as rapid whole-body movement with
change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus1 and is
viewed as a complex motor skill involving physical, as well as cogni-
tive, factors.2 When only the physical component is considered, agil-
ity is often referred to as change-of-direction (COD) ability, which
involves effective and quick coupling of acceleration, deceleration,
and reacceleration actions in a short period of time within a limited
space.3 Furthermore, it can be considered a multifactorial complex
motor task that involves horizontal and unilateral movements in a
closed-chain way and with multijoint actions.4
The evaluation of COD performance has been widely inves-
tigated with both field-based testing and laboratory-based bio-
mechanical analysis. The field-based approach can be easier and
quicker to conduct, although the main outcome is time to perform
a specific (often preplanned) task.2,5 In contrast, a laboratory-based
analysis of a COD test can yield more detailed information such
as ground-reaction force (GRF),6 contact time,7 joint moments and
angles,810 angular velocities,7 and electromyographic analysis.11,12
However, these variables have been often investigated in studies
related to the risk of injury,811,13 while few studies focused on the
characteristics of COD performance.7,14
The lower limbs may not be symmetrical in terms of physi-
cal characteristics,15 particularly in a sport like soccer where the
interaction between feet and ball is fundamental. Considering the
Condello and Tessitore are with the Dept of Movement, Human and Health
Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico, Rome, Italy. Kernozek is with
the Dept of Health Professions, and Foster, the Dept of Exercise and Sports
Science, University of WisconsinLa Crosse, La Crosse, WI. Address author
correspondence to Giancarlo Condello at giancarlo.condello@gmail.com.
performance of technical skills, the preferred kicking leg showed
higher ability than the nonpreferred one.1618 Regarding the perfor-
mance of a COD task, greater vertical GRF and valgus moments
were observed on the preferred kicking leg in high school female
players.13 However, the limb asymmetry in soccer players for COD
ability has not been widely investigated.
The purpose of this study was to measure the kinetic parameters
and evaluate the real path during a COD task performed by male
and female college soccer players. Since sex differences have been
already shown for a variety of physical abilities19 and limb asym-
metry exists in terms of COD ability and technical skills,13,1618 we
hypothesized that differences between men and women and between
preferred (kicking) and nonpreferred (stance) leg would exist for
GRFs (vertical and mediolateral components), contact time, and
cutting angle. Furthermore, we investigated associations between
all these parameters.
Methods
Subjects
Male (n = 14) and female (n = 12) college soccer players (National
Collegiate Athletic Association [NCAA] Division III) were recruited
to participate in this study (Table 1). Subjects were tested during
the off-season at the termination of their competitive season. They
had no history of serious lower-extremity injury within the previous
12 months that required a loss of play or practice time. They were
asked to identify their preferred leg by indicating their kicking leg.7
The investigation was approved by the institutional review board
of the University of WisconsinLa Crosse, and a written informed
consent form was signed by each subject.

96

Table 1 Subject Data, Mean SD
Characteristic Men (n = 14) Women (n = 12) P without the first 18 markers. The static neutral standing trial was
Age (y) 19.6 1.5 21.0 2.7 .102
Height (cm) 178.9 4.7 166.9 4.1 <.001
Body mass (kg) 73.1 7.2 61.9 6.2 <.001
Leg length (cm) 86.1 3.2 81.8 3.2 .003
Soccer experience (y) 13.7 2.6 15.1 2.6 .201
Design
The current study used a cross-sectional experimental design to
evaluate the preplanned COD ability in college soccer players. While
most previous studies investigated COD performance in terms of
time elapsed to perform the test2,5 and assessed kinetic and kinematic
parameters related to the risk of injury,811,13 we focused attention on
evaluating the technical execution of COD movements. Administer-
ing a 60 COD test, we focused on the real path traveled by each
subject, which may be different from the theoretical one derived
by the framework of the test. We conducted kinetic and kinematic
measurements to determine GRFs, contact time, and 2 new param-
eters to identify different types of technical execution of the COD
(rounded or sharp)3,20 and to detect differences between male and
female athletes and between their preferred and nonpreferred leg.
Methodology
Data Collection. All data were collected during 1 test session
in a biomechanics laboratory. Before testing began, each subjects
height, body mass, and leg length were recorded. Leg length was
measured using a retractable measuring tape from the greater
trochanter to the lateral malleolus by the same experimenter. All
subjects wore spandex shorts and used the same model of running
shoes (525 New Balance, Boston, MA; provided by the investigator)
to reduce variability due to different models of shoes. All reflective
portions of clothing were covered by tape to avoid interference with
data collection.
The kinematic data were collected using a marker-based
motion-capture system consisting of 8 digital cameras (Motion
Analysis Corp, Santa Rosa, CA) positioned around the labora-
tory defining an optimized capture volume of 10 4 2.5 m. The
motion-capture system was synchronized with an embedded force
plate (40 80 cm; Bertec Force Platform, Bertec Corp, Columbus,
OH). Kinematic data were sampled at a rate of 240 Hz and kinetic
data were sampled at 2400 Hz.
Subjects completed a standardized warm-up involving 3
minutes of jogging on a treadmill followed by dynamic stretching,
double- and single-leg squats, lateral lunges, short accelerations,
and submaximal trials of the test. A total of 48 retroreflective spheri-
cal markers (diameter 25 mm) were attached on the skin, spandex
shorts, and shoes. Eighteen markers were placed over each shoulder,
each iliac crest, the greater trochanters, medial and lateral femoral
condyles, medial and lateral malleoli, and the first and fifth meta-
tarsal heads. An additional 30 markers were placed at the following
locations: cervical spine (C7), right and left scapulas (medial aspect
of the scapular spine), thoracic spine (T12), right and left anterior
superior iliac spine, right and left posterior superior iliac spine,
a cluster of 4 markers on the lateral thigh, a cluster of 4 markers
on the lateral shank, and a cluster of 3 markers on the rear foot of
IJSPP Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016
Kinetics and Kinematics of Change of Direction 97
the shoe.21 A static neutral standing trial was performed using all
the 48 markers, while the dynamic testing trials were performed
used to determine the midpoint of the right and left posterior iliac
spine markers for the dynamic testing trials. Although data were
collected from the remaining 30 markers, for the purpose of this
study we used only the data of the midpoint of the right and left
posterior superior iliac spine, while data from all the other markers
were used for further kinematic analyses. The marker trajectories
and analog signals from the force platform were digitally filtered at
15 Hz using a low-pass, fourth-order, Butterworth recursive filter.
Each subject performed a 10-m sprint with a 60 COD at 5 m.
They were instructed to sprint forward maximally for 5 m, make a
COD on the force plate, and sprint for another 5 m. Thus, the inside
part of the COD formed an angle of 120 (Figure 1[A]). This test
ensured the evaluation of the ability to perform the quick coupling
of acceleration, deceleration, and reacceleration in a shorter period
of time and limited space.3 Subjects had to push with the plant
foot (the outside leg) on an area of the force plate near the middle
highlighted by a visual target, consisting of an X marked on the
floor with black tape. They performed 10 trials, each time changing
the running direction to alternate the leg that pushed on the force
plate (5 for each leg, preferred and nonpreferred), with a 2-minute
rest between trials. Additional performance trials were allowed to
subjects who were not able to make contact near the middle of the
force plate. Five performance trials for each leg were necessary
to ensure a repeatable methodology in motion capture associated
with gait.22 A COD angle of 60 was selected following previous
investigations on team-sport players.2,20,23
Data Processing. Data were collected using Cortex software
(version 2; Motion Analysis Corp, Santa Rosa, CA). The kinetic data
were imported and analyzed with Excel (version 2010; Microsoft
Corp, Redmond, WA) to extract the following variables: peak
vertical and mediolateral GRF (normalized to body mass) and
contact time. Initial contact and push-off of the foot on the force
plate were identified when the vertical GRF went above and below
a threshold of 10 N. The kinematic data were first tracked and then
imported into Matlab software (Mathworks Inc, Natick, MA) to
Figure 1 Description of the kinematic variables. The black line rep-
resents the theoretical path that was drawn 1.50 m before and after the
middle of the force plate. (A) Framework of the test. (B) Performance
cutting angle. (C) Horizontal distance.
98Condello et al

calculate the performance cutting angle and the horizontal distance
using custom-made software.
The 3-dimensional motion-capture space was calibrated in
such a way that the vertical axis (z) was oriented upward, x was to
the right, and y was along the runway. Five different time points
from the pelvis center (midpoint of the anterior superior iliac spine
markers) positions were computed: 1.5 m before the initial plate
contact, initial plate contact, minimum horizontal foot center-pelvis
distance, plate push-off, and 1.5 m after plate push-off (Figure 1).
The performance cutting angle was computed from 2 line vectors
connecting pelvis center positions 1 to 2 and 4 to 5, projected
to the floor (x-y-plane) (Figure 1[B]). The quantification of this
angle takes into account the real path traveled by the subjects to
identify the type of execution (rounded or sharp) of the COD. The
minimum horizontal distance was defined as the minimum distance
(normalized to the subjects leg length) from the plant foot to the
pelvis center projection on the floor (Figure 1[C]). This distance
can be interpreted as the measure of the minimum width of the step
performed during the COD that could affect its overall execution.
Statistical Analyses
Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were performed on all
dependent variables. ICC values of .75 or above are considered
to indicate good reliability.24 Two-way mixed-model repeated-
measures ANOVAs were conducted. Independent variables included
sex (between subjects; male and female) and leg (within subject;
preferred and nonpreferred leg). The dependent variables included
normalized peak vertical and mediolateral GRF, contact time, per-
formance cutting angle, and normalized horizontal distance. The
mean value of 5 trials (5 for the preferred and 5 for the nonpreferred
leg) for each variable was used in all statistical analyses. In case
significant factor effects were observed, post hoc analyses were
conducted. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to assess
the relationships among select kinetic and kinematic parameters for
each sex leg condition.
Moreover, to provide meaningful analysis for comparisons,
Cohen effect sizes (ESs) were calculated using the following
equation25:
Cohen d = M1 M 2 / Spooled
where Spooled = ( s12 + s22 ) / 2
ES values <0.2, 0.2 to 0.6, 0.61 to 1.2, and >1.2 were considered
trivial, small, moderate, and large, respectively. Alpha level was
set at P < .05. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS
(Version 19, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL).
Results
Except for the normalized horizontal distance (mens and womens
preferred kicking leg), all ICCs were higher than .75, which repre-
sents acceptable reliability (Table 2). The 2-way ANOVAs did not
show any significant sex leg interactions. Significant sex effects
were observed in normalized peak mediolateral GRF (P = .005),
performance cutting angle (P = .043), and normalized horizontal
distance (P = .020). Significant leg effects were observed in normal-
ized peak vertical GRF (P = .029), performance cutting angle (P
= .011), and normalized horizontal distance (P = .012) (Table 3).
Pearson correlation coefficients among kinetic and kinematic
parameters are presented in Table 4. Large to very large positive
correlations were observed between normalized peak vertical and
mediolateral GRF (r = .66.91, P .01), and large to very large
negative correlations were found between contact time and perfor-
mance cutting angle (r = .60 to .79, P < .05).

Discussion
Table 2 Intraclass Correlation Coefficients
The main findings of this biomechanical study revealed sex and leg
Men Women differences in the execution of a COD task, with relationships being
Pr NPr Pr NPr found between normalized peak vertical and mediolateral GRF and
between contact time and performance cutting angle.
Vertical GRF (N/kg) .82 .97 .93 .89 Our study attempted to carry out a more detailed evaluation
Mediolateral GRF (N/kg) .85 .93 .95 .94 of a COD task. In fact, to our knowledge this work is the first to
Contact time (s) .94 .95 .88 .95 use the performance cutting angle and horizontal distance as kine-
matic parameters to measure the path associated with athlete COD.
Performance cutting angle () .94 .91 .83 .95
Thus, the identification of the real path is linked to the technical
Horizontal distance (AU) .74 .88 .42 .78 execution of the COD task, which has been previously described
Abbreviations: Pr, preferred; NPr, nonpreferred; GRF, ground-reaction force; AU, by Vescovi3 in terms of more rounded or sharper execution. The
arbitrary units. detection of different technical executions has also been proposed

Table 3 Summary of Kinetic and Kinematic Parameters, Mean SD

Gender effects Leg effects
Men Women P ES Preferred Nonpreferred P ES
Vertical GRF (N/kg) 26.9 4.5 24.3 3.2 .051 0.67 24.7 3.2 26.7 4.7 .029 0.52
Mediolateral GRF (N/kg) 17.3 2.8 14.2 3.1 .005 1.05 15.4 2.8 16.3 3.7 .133 0.27
Contact time (s) 0.233 0.03 0.237 0.03 .726 0.13 0.233 0.03 0.237 0.03 .403 0.13
Performance cutting angle () 154.8 5.2 150.7 5.6 .043 0.76 154.0 5.3 151.8 6.0 .011 0.39
Minimum horizontal distance (AU) 0.62 0.05 0.58 0.04 .020 0.88 0.61 0.04 0.59 0.05 .012 0.66
Abbreviations: ES, effect size; GRF, ground-reaction force; AU, arbitrary units.

IJSPP Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016

 Kinetics and Kinematics of Change of Direction 99

Table 4 Correlation Coefficients Between Variables, r (p)

Sex, leg Vertical GRF Mediolateral GRF Contact time Dist Perf angle
Male, preferred Vertical GRF 1
Mediolateral GRF .66 (.01)* 1
Contact time .24 (.41) .26 (.38) 1
Dist .02 (.95) .17 (.56) .19 (.52) 1
Perf angle .14 (.63) .09 (.77) .68 (.01)* .07 (.81) 1
Male, nonpreferred Vertical GRF 1
Mediolateral GRF .89 (.00)* 1
Contact time .07 (.82) .22 (.46) 1
Dist .03 (.91) .15 (.60) .41 (.15) 1
Perf angle .18 (.53) .03 (.93) .78 (.00)* .28 (.33) 1
Female, preferred Vertical GRF 1
Mediolateral GRF .91 (.00)* 1
Contact time .37 (.24) .34 (.28) 1
Dist .37 (.23) .57 (.06) .41 (.18) 1
Perf angle .01 (.98) .03 (.92) .60 (.04)* .14 (.68) 1
Female, nonpreferred Vertical GRF 1
Mediolateral GRF .79 (.00)* 1
Contact time .18 (.58) .36 (.25) 1
Dist .13 (.97) .42 (.17) .11 (.74) 1
Perf angle .24 (.46) .22 (.50) .79 (.00)* .14 (.66) 1
Abbreviations: GRF, ground-reaction force; DIST, minimum horizontal distance; Perf angle, performance cutting angle.
*P < .05.

by Condello et al20 for a COD test with young rugby players where
athletes demonstrated a prevalence of rounded executions up to the
under-15 age category, while with under-17 and under-19 catego-
ries there was a prevalence of sharper execution. In line with the
aforementioned findings, our study demonstrated how athletes can
perform a COD task much differently. Examples of different execu-
tions of COD are shown in Figure 2. Both the examples represent a
trial with the left leg. Figure 2(A) shows a more rounded execution
of the running path (dashed line) after the COD in respect to the
theoretical path (solid line). Conversely, in Figure 2(B) the entire
path of the subject is inside the theoretical one, suggesting a sharper
COD execution. Considering the performance demands in soccer,
Figure 2 Examples of a (A) rounded and (B) sharp execution of the
the ability to perform sharp CODs could provide benefits in terms change-of-direction test. The black arrow shows the direction of the run-
of spatial and temporal advantages over an opponent. Such ability ning.
to perform sharp executions can be improved by both individual
maturity and training effects.
Differences between male and female athletes have already
been shown for a variety of physical and physiological variables.19 for the incidence of injuries. In fact, increased knee valgus6,10 and
However, limited information is available considering biomechani- internal/external-rotation moments8,9 and reduced hip-flexion angles
cal parameters related to sport-specific movements such as the COD and moment11 during a COD task may contribute to the higher risk
task. The results of our study demonstrated that male athletes were of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in females. However, no sex
able to generate higher GRF values in both vertical and mediolat- differences were found in the medial GRF (men 11 1.1 N/kg,
eral components (men 26.9 4.517.3 2.8 N/kg, women 24.3 women 11 2.5 N/kg) during a cutting maneuver.6 The different
3.2 to 14.2 3.1 N/kg), while contact time was similar between performances between men and women confirm the result of the
sexes. In terms of cutting angle, female athletes executed their poor relationships between the GRF (ie, vertical and mediolateral)
COD performances with smaller mean values of the angle. The and the performance cutting angle, suggesting the need for further
comparison of our result with previous investigations is limited investigations including other aspects such as coordinative, neuro-
due to the former studies greater concern with the sex differences muscular, and motor control.

IJSPP Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016

100Condello et al
Usually, soccer players show differences in performance
between legs, resulting in higher ability of the preferred kicking
leg to perform technical skills in comparison with the nonpreferred
one.1618 In literature, higher ball speeds were achieved with the
preferred kicking leg as the result of better intersegmental motion
patterns and a more desirable transfer of velocity from the foot
to the ball.16 Similarly, significant greater ball velocity, shank
angular velocity, final foot velocity, and knee peak moments were
also observed for the preferred kicking leg.17 On the other hand,
the nonpreferred leg showed a certain tendency of better balance,
explained by the higher demand for stabilization on the stance leg
during kicking actions.18 In relation to the findings in the literature,
our analysis showed a different performance between the 2 legs
in all parameters observed except contact time. In particular, the
nonpreferred leg was able to generate significantly higher vertical
GRF, smaller performance cutting angle (resulting in sharper a
COD execution), and shorter horizontal distance than the preferred
kicking leg. Thus, comparing our results with those of previous
studies,13,1618 we could speculate about the primary role of the
nonpreferred leg in making better CODs, while the role of preferred
kicking leg may be more related to performing technical skills with
the ball.
Normalized peak GRFs, contact time, and performance cut-
ting angle highlighted an acceptable reliability (ICC = .78.97) for
both sex and leg (preferred and nonpreferred), as already found in
previous investigations on COD tasks considering biomechanical
measurements7 (ICC > .87) or time to complete the task19 (ICC =
.86.99). Conversely, normalized horizontal distance for preferred
kicking leg in both male and female athletes showed a lower reli-
ability (ICC = .74.42, respectively), probably due to the greater
movement variability for the preferred kicking leg and to the pri-
mary role of the nonpreferred leg in making better CODs. In fact,
this distance has been proposed as an indicator of the minimum
width of the step during the COD that could affect its execution. It
may be expected that the lower the distance, the better the COD.
However, in terms of associations, none of these were found with
the other parameters, in particular with the performance cutting
angle, which is linked to a sharper (considered better) execution
of the COD. Thus, further investigations could be encouraged to
thoroughly ascertain the reliability of this parameter.
The analysis of the relationships revealed a 71% common
variance between normalized peak vertical and mediolateral GRF.
Since a COD task requires movements in the frontal and transverse
planes, training programs should be performed in both planes to
enhance the vertical and mediolateral components of the GRF.7 Of
great interest is the large and negative correlation between contact
time and performance cutting angle, highlighting that a more
rounded COD was related to a shorter contact time spent pushing
on the force platform. Conversely, the sharper COD performances
were associated with a longer contact time with the force platform.
As previously suggested, the ability to perform sharper CODs
could give advantages in face-to-face actions against an opponent.
However, a sharper COD performance might be improved by
decreasing the time of execution to also take a temporal advantage
over the opponent. Improvement of the velocity of some activities
(ie, running and hopping) is associated with increased lower-limb
stiffness.26 Moreover, some level of lower-limb stiffness is neces-
sary for optimal utilization of the stretch-shortening cycle.26 Thus,
plyometric training, involving stretch-shortening actions, may be
proposed to improve the stiffness of the lower extremity and reduce
contact time during COD movements.7
IJSPP Vol. 11, No. 1, 2016
Regarding the GRF, no relationships were found between its
components (ie, vertical and mediolateral) and the performance cut-
ting angle, while a recent investigation by Spiteri et al14 examined
the relevance of lower-body strength in COD ability. Our findings
largely followed the results of Inaba et al27 showing that a COD
movement and a lower body position can be influenced by lower-
body strength. Despite recognizing that lower-body strength is an
important underpinning of COD ability, our study showed that
greater GRF was not directly associated with the ability to perform
sharper cutting movements. Thus, further investigations appear
necessary to identify the possible reasons for the ability to perform
sharper or more rounded CODs.
Practical Applications
A novel kinematic analysis introduced by our study provided more
specific details about how soccer players performed a preplanned
COD task in the laboratory. The analysis of the real path based
on pelvic markers allowed us to discern more rounded or sharper
CODs. Differences in the execution of a COD task are tightly related
to performance demands in soccer. In fact, the ability to perform
sharp CODs could provide benefits in terms of spatial and temporal
advantages over an opponent. Regarding sex, women performed
sharper CODs than men. Although further analyses are necessary
to evaluate other aspects such as coordinative, neuromuscular, and
motor control, implications for training could be related to the
findings of our study. The suggestion may be the enhancement,
especially for male athletes, of the ability to perform sharper
CODs through exercises involving high foot speed, quick coupling
of deceleration and acceleration phases, and plyometric exercise.
Moreover, the greater ability shown by female athletes to perform
sharper CODs could determine a positive influence to reduce their
risk of injury.11,13 Considering leg preference, the nonpreferred leg
was able to make a sharper COD than the preferred kicking leg. In
any case, training should consider addressing the enhancement of
the ability to perform CODs and technical skills with both legs, to
increase the unpredictability of the athletes during their actions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of our study highlighted the necessity of
using a biomechanical approach in evaluating preplanned COD
ability. The evaluation of the differences related to sex and leg
preference and the identification of the parameters associated with
this ability may contribute to the enhancement of training plans for
NCAA Division III soccer players.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the athletes and the staff of the soccer team of the Uni-
versity of WisconsinLa Crosse and Viterbo University for taking part of
this study and the technical assistance of Di-An Hong, PhD, University of
WisconsinLa Crosse.
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