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Body-centered cubic: a cube with an atom at each of the eight corners and a single atom at
the center of the cell.
Face-centered cubic: describes a cube with one atom at the center of each of the six faces.
Example Metals: carbon steel and iron heated above its transformation temperature,
aluminum, nickel, silver, copper, and austenitic stainless steels.
FCC
A body-centered tetragonal: unit cell has one axis elongating to form the shape of a
rectangle, with an atom in the center.
Example Metals: alloy steels and higher carbon, when rapidly cooled, form martensite,
a very hard, crack-susceptible phase.
BCT
In a hexagonal close-packed structure, two hexagons (six-sided shapes) form the top and
bottom of a prism with an atom located at the center and at each point of the hexagon.
A triangle is located midpoint between the top and bottom prism, with an atom at each
point of the triangle.
Adapted from American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 87, fig. 8.7, 2000
Ferrite
Good tensile strength
2800 Liquid 1538
Good ductility
Good low temperature properties
Liquid
2400 and 1316
Austenite
Coarse-Grained Metals Have
Slightly lower strength
2000 1093
Slightly less ductility
Austenite
Good high temperature properties
A cm
Welding has a marked effect on grain size depending
871
F
1600 A
3 C
on such factors as heat input, cooling rate (preheat), long
or short arc, slow or fast travel speed, welding on the
723
1333 high or low end of the parameter ranges, and the process
1200 A1 Austenite and A3, 1 Ferrite 649
selected.
Ferrite
Ferrite and Cementite Another method of affecting mechanical properties
427
is alloying. This changes the orderly rows, lines, and
800
layers of the three-dimensional crystalline structure
Perlite the pure metal would take. Small atoms such as those
and Perlite and Cementite
Ferrite 204
of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen can occupy spaces
400
Eutectionid
Carbon Dissolved
in FCC Iron
-Iron
Austenite Nonmagnetic
Cell 1: Steel at room temperature, which is in the process of being heated. Cell 2: Steel has a transformation temperature that is dependent upon its
This structure is pearlite (BCC) and is made up of ferrite which is alpha iron carbon content. In this exercise we will be using 1,333 F as a fixed
and cementite. It is also referred to as iron carbide Fe3C. It can be observed temperature. BCC steel has its atoms arranged into a 9-unit cell
as having a worm-like appearance. Pearlite is a soft, ductile form of steel configuration and is magnetic. Above 1,333 F it is still solid, but the atoms
with moderate strength (tensile and yield). realign into FCC, a 14-unit cell configuration. (Note Table 3-1.) In this phase
the solid steel can absorb large amounts of carbon and is referred to as
austenite. In austenite, carbon is soluble up to 2% by weight, whereas in
ferrite carbon is soluble up to only 0.02% by weight. As the carbon dissolves
into the FCC iron, also called gamma iron, it becomes nonmagnetic.
Cell 3: If cooled very slowly the austenite will all return to pearlite. The slow Cell 4: This cell shows a somewhat faster cooling rate. Instead of leaving the
cooling would be like leaving the steel in a furnace, then turning off the steel in the furnace, it is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still
furnace and over a day or so it cools to room temperature. This slow cooling air. This faster cooling rate (normalizing) will form a bainite structure. It can
(annealing) allows the carbon time to come out of solution and reform the be observed as not having the worm-like appearance but more like a slug,
soft, ductile pearlite structure. shorter and broader. Bainite is harder, stronger, and less ductile than
pearlite, thus has higher tensile and yield strength.
Fig. 3-37 Transformation of steel upon heating and cooling at various rates. Adapted from Kenneth W. Coryell (Continued)
higher the carbon content is, the lower will be the melting the temperature of a flame produced by the burning of
point. The higher the melting point, the greater the amount acetylene with air is not as high as the temperature of the
of heat needed to melt a given volume of metal. The tem- flame produced by the burning of acetylene with oxygen.
perature of the heat source in welding must be above the Thus it does not have the ability to melt the same materi-
melting point of the material being welded. For example, als that the oxyacetylene flame has.
Cell 5: This cell shows what a very fast cooling rate would do to the steel. Cell 6: To keep some of the good characteristics of martensite (such as
It would be like taking the steel directly out of the furnace and quenching it in strength) but bring back some of the ductility, the steel can be tempered.
brine water, plain water, or oil. This would not give the carbon time to diffuse This is done by heating it below the transformation temperature and then
out of the austenite and would form an acicular (needle-like) structure called cooling slowly. This gives the carbon a chance to move and finely disperse
martensite (BCT). The trapped carbon will make the steel very strong (high the Fe3C. It is a combination of BCC/BCT. The little dots you can see are
tensile and yield), but at a great sacrifice to ductility. This is bad stuff as it much like the dowel rods used in wood working to give more strength at a
will be very hard and brittle and prone to cracking. Martensite must be dealt joint or, in this case, the grain boundaries. This will form good stuff as it
withthe case is not will it crack, but when will it crack. has good strength and toughness.
Generally, cooling rate is most critical when steel is heated above the transformation temperature and is much less critical if heated below the transformation
temperature. It is not possible to transform steel between martensite, bainite, and pearlite without first taking it through the austenitic phase.
Fig. 3-37 Transformation of steel upon heating and cooling at various rates. (Concluded)
Imaginary Mold Interstitial Alloying
Initial Liquid
Solid
Crystals
Continued Solidification
B
Liquid
Grain
Boundaries
Fig. 3-39 (A) Smaller atoms, such as carbon, nitrogen, and hydro-
gen, tend to occupy sites between the atoms that form the grain struc-
Complete Solidification
ture of the base metal. This is known as interstitial alloying. (B) Alloying
C elements with atoms close to the size of those of the base metal tend
to occupy substitutional sites. That is, they replace one of the base
Fig. 3-38 Solidification of molten weld metal. Adapted from metal atoms in the grain structure. This is known as substitutional
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 5th edition, alloying. Adapted from American Welding Society, Welding Inspection
p. 85, Figure 8-4, 2000 Technology, 4th ed., p. 87, fig. 8.7, 2000