Introduction

Stability of a power system is its ability to return to normal or stable operating

conditions after having been subjected to some form of disturbance.
Conversely, instability means a condition denoting loss of synchronism or
falling out of step.

Though stability of a power system is a single phenomenon, for the purpose of

analysis, it is classified as Steady State Analysis and Transient Stability.

Increase in load is a kind of disturbance. If increase in loading takes place

gradually and in small steps and the system withstands this change and
performs satisfactorily, then the system is said to be in STADY STATE
STABILITY. Thus the study of steady steady state stability is basically
concerned with the determination of upper limit of machines loading before
losing synchronism, provided the loading is increased gradually at a slow rate.
In practice, load change may not be gradual. Further, there may be sudden
disturbances due to

i) Sudden change of load

ii) Switching operation
iii) Loss of generation
iv) Fault

Following such sudden disturbances in the power system, rotor speeds, rotor
angular differences and power transfer undergo fast changes whose
magnitudes are dependent upon the severity of disturbances, For a large
disturbance, changes in angular differences may be so large as to cause the
machine to fall out of step. This type of instability is known as TRANSIENT
INSTABILITY. Transient stability is a fast phenomenon, usually occurring
within one second for a generator close to the cause of disturbance.
Short circuit is a severe type of disturbance. During a fault, electrical powers
from the nearby generators are reduced drastically, while powers from remote
generators are scarily affected. In some cases, the system may be stable even
with sustained fault; whereas in other cases system will be stable only if the
fault is cleared with sufficient rapidity. Whether the system is stable on the
occurrence of a fault depends not only on the system itself, but also on the
type of fault, location of fault, clearing time and the method of clearing.

Transient stability limit is almost always lower than the steady state limit and
hence it is much important. Transient stability limit depends on the type of
disturbance, location and magnitude of disturbance.
Review of mechanics

Transient stability analysis involves some mechanical properties of the

machines in the system. After every disturbance, the machines must adjust
the relative angles of their rotors to meet the condition of the power transfer
involved. The problem is mechanical as well as electrical.

The kinetic energy of an electric machine is given by

1 2
K.E. = I Mega Joules (1)
2

where I is the Moment of Inertia in Mega Joules sec.2 / elec. deg.2

is the angular velocity in elec. deg. / sec.

Angular Momentum M = I ; Then from eqn. (1), K.E. can be written as

1
K.E. = M Mega Joules (2)
2
The angular momentum M depends on the size of the machine as well as on its
type.

The Inertia constant H is defined as the Mega Joules of stored energy of the
machine at synchronous speed per MVA of the machine. When so defined, the
relation between the Angular Momentum M and the Inertia constant H can be
derived as follows.

Relationship between M and H

Stored energy in MJ
By definition H =
Machine's rating in MVA

Let G be the rating of the machine in MVA. Then

Stored energy = G H MJ (3)

1 1
Further, K.E. = M MJ = M (2 f) MJ = M x f MJ (4)
2 2
Stored energy = G H MJ (3)

1 1
Further, K.E. = M MJ = M (2 f) MJ = M x f MJ (4)
2 2

From eqns. (3) and (4), we get

GH=Mx f; Thus

GH
M= MJ sec. / elec. rad. (5)
f

When the angles are measured in elec. deg.

GH
M = MJ sec. / elec. deg. (6)
180 f

While the angular momentum M depend on the size of the machine as well as
on its type, inertia constant H does not vary very much with the size of the
machine, The quantity H has a relatively narrow range of values for each class
of machine.
Swing equation

The differential equation that relates the angular momentum M, the

acceleration power Pa and the rotor angle is known as SWING EQUATION.
Solution of swing equation will show how the rotor angle changes with respect
to time following a disturbance. The plot of Vs t is called the SWING CURVE.
Once the swing curve is known, the stability of the system can be assessed.

The flow of mechanical and electrical power in a generator and motor are
shown in Fig. 1.

Pe Pe
Te Ts
Generator Motor
Pm Pm
Ts Te
(a) (b)
Fig. 1

Consider the generator shown in Fig. 1(a). It receives mechanical power Pm at

the shaft torque Ts and the angular speed via. shaft from the prime-mover. It
delivers electrical power Pe to the power system network via. the bus bars. The
generator develops electromechanical torque Te in opposition to the shaft
torque Ts. At steady state, Ts = Te. Assuming that the windage and the friction
torque are negligible, the accelerating torque acting on the rotor is given by

Ta = Ts Te (7)
Ta = Ts Te (7)

Multiplying by on both sides, we get

Pa = Ps Pe (8)

In case of motor

Ta = Te Ts (9)

Pa = Pe Ps (10)

In general, the accelerating power is given by

Pa = Input Power Output Power (11)

d2
We know that P a = Ta =I =M =M
dt 2

d2
Thus M = Pa (12)
dt 2
Here = angular displacement (radians)

d d d2
= = angular velocity (rad. / sec.); = = = angular acceleration
dt dt dt 2
Now we can see how the angular displacement can be related to the rotor
angle .
Consider an object moving at a linear speed of vs v. It is required to find its
displacement at any time t. For this purpose, introduce another object moving
with a constant speed of vs. Then, at any time t, the displacement of the first
object is given by

x = vs t + d

where d is the displacement of the first object with respect to the second as
shown in Fig. 2. x

vs + v
d
vs
Fig. 2
Similarly in the case of angular movement, the angular displacement , at any
time t is given by

= s t + (13)

where is the angular displacement of the rotor from synchronously rotating

reference axis, rotating at synchronous speed s. The angle is also called as
LOAD ANGLE or TORQUE ANGLE.
In view of eqn.(13) = s t +

d d
= s + (14)
dt dt

d2 d2
2
= (15)
dt dt 2

From equations (12) and (15), we get

d2
M = Pa (16)
dt 2

The above equation is known as SWING EQUATION.

In case damping power is to be included, then eqn.(16) gets modified as

d2 d
M + D = Pa (17)
dt 2 dt
Swing curve, which is the plot of torque angle vs time t, can be obtained by
solving the swing equation. Two typical swing curves are shown in Fig. 3.

d
=0
. dt

0 0

t t
(a) (b)
Fig. 3

Swing curves are used to determine the stability of the system. If the rotor
angle reaches a maximum and then decreases, then it shows that the system
has transient stability. On the other hand if the rotor angle increases
indefinitely, then it shows that the system is unstable.
We are going to study the stability of (1) a generator connected to infinite bus
and (2) a synchronous motor drawing power from infinite bus.

We know that the complex power is given by

P + j Q = V I* i.e. P j Q = V * I Thus real power P = Re {V * I}

Consider a generator connected to infinite bus.

Xd XT V is the voltage at infinite bus.

Taking this as ref. V = V 0

0

E I V
E is internal voltage of generator.

X is the total reactance

E j X I = V i.e. E = V + j X I

E Internal voltage E leads V; Thus E = E

1
V Current I = [ E cos + j E sin V ]
jX
I
E V
Electric output power Pe = Re [ V I ] = sin = Pmax sin
X
Consider a synchronous motor drawing power from infinite bus.

Xd XT
V
VjXI = E

E I V I
E

1
Thus E = E Current I = [ V ( E cos j E sin )]
jX

E V
Electric input power Pe = Re [ V I ] = sin = Pmax sin
X

d2
Thus Swing equation for alternator is M 2
= Pm Pmax sin
dt

d2
Swing equation for motor is M = Pmax sin - Pm
dt 2

Notice that the swing equation is second order nonlinear differential equation
Equal area criterion

The accelerating power in swing equation will have sine term. Therefore the
swing equation is non-linear differential equation and obtaining its solution is
not simple. For two machine system and one machine connected to infinite
bus bar, it is possible to say whether a system has transient stability or not,
without solving the swing equation. Such criteria which decides the stability,
makes use of equal area in power angle diagram and hence it is known as
EQUAL AREA CRITERION. Thus the principle by which stability under
transient conditions is determined without solving the swing equation, but
makes use of areas in power angle diagram, is called the EQUAL AREA
CRITERION.

From the Fig. 3, it is clear that if the rotor angle oscillates, then the system is
stable. For to oscillate, it should reach a maximum value and then should
d
decrease. At that point = 0. Because of damping inherently present in the
dt
system, subsequence oscillations will be smaller and smaller. Thus while
d
changes, if = 0, then the stability is ensured.
dt
The swing equation for the alternator connected to the infinite bus bars is

d2
M = Ps Pe (18)
dt 2

d
Multiplying both sides by , we get
dt

d2 d d
M = (P s P e) i.e.
dt 2 dt dt

1 d d 2 d
M ( ) = (Ps Pe) (19)
2 dt dt dt

d d 2 dt 2 (Ps Pe ) d d 2 2 (Ps Pe )
Thus ( ) = ; i.e. ( ) =
dt dt d M d dt M

d 2 (Ps Pe ) d
On integration ( )2 = i.e.
dt 0 M

d 2 (Ps Pe ) d (20)
=
dt 0
M
d 2 (Ps Pe ) d (20)
=
dt 0
M

d
Before the disturbance occurs, 0 was the torque angle. At that time = 0.
dt
d
Once the disturbance occurs, is no longer zero and starts changing.
dt
Torque angle will cease to change and the machine will again be operating at
d
synchronous speed after a disturbance, when = 0 or when
dt

2 (Ps Pe )
d = 0 i.e. (Ps Pe ) d = 0 (21)
0 M 0

If there exist a torque angle for which the above is satisfied, then the
machine will attain a new operating point and hence it has transient stability.

The machine will not remain at rest with respect to infinite bus at the first time
d
when = 0. But due to damping present in the system, during subsequent
dt
oscillation, maximum value of keeps on decreasing. Therefore, the fact that
has momentarily stopped changing may be taken to indicate stability.
Sudden load increase on Synchronous motor

Let us consider a synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus bars.

- E jX V
+
E = V I ( jX )
I

P Input power

V Pe= Pmax sin

c

E
Ps d b A2 e Changed output

A1
I
a Initial output
P0
E V
Pe sin = Pmax sin
X

0 s m Fig. 4

The following changes occur when the load is increased suddenly.

Point a Initial condition; Input = output = P0; = s; = 0

Due to sudden loading, output = Ps; output > Input;

decreases from s; increases from 0.
 P Input power

V Pe= Pmax sin

c

E
Ps d b A2 e Changed output

A1
I
a Initial output
P0
E V
Pe sin = Pmax sin
X

0 s m Fig. 4

Between a-b Output > Input; Deceleration; decreases; increases.

Point b Output = Input; = min which is less than s; = s

Since is less than s, continues to increase.

Between b-c Input > output; Rotating masses start gaining energy;
Acceleration; starts increasing from minimum value but still
less than s; continues to increase.

Point c Input > output; = s; = m; There is acceleration; is

going to increase from s; hence is going to decrease from
m.
 P Input power

V Pe= Pmax sin

c

E
Ps d b A2 e Changed output

A1
I
a Initial output
P0
E V
Pe sin = Pmax sin
X

0 s m Fig. 4

Between c-b Input > output; Acceleration; increases and decreases.

Point b Input = output; = max ; = s. Since is greater than s,

continues to decrease.

Between b-a Output > input; Deceleration; starts decreasing from max ;
but still greater than s; continues to decrease.
Point a = s; = 0; Output > Input; The cycle repeats.
Because of damping present in the system, subsequent oscillations become
smaller and smaller and finally b will be the steady state operating point.

Interpretation of equal area:

As discussed earlier (eqn. 21), the condition for stability is

(Ps Pe ) d = 0 i.e. Pe d = Ps d
0 0 0

m m
From Fig. 4, Pe d = area 0 abc m and Ps d = area 0 ade m
0 0

Thus for stability, area 0 abc m = area 0 ade m

Subtracting area 0 abe m from both sides of above equation, we get A2 =

A1. Thus for stability,

A2 = A1 (22)
Fig. 5 shows three different cases: The one shown in case a is STABLE. Case
b indicates CRITICALLY STABLE while case c falls under UNSTABLE.

P P P
A2
A2
A2 A1 A1
A1

P0 P0 P0

0 m 0 s m 0
s Case c
Case a Case b
Fig. 5
Example 1

A synchronous motor having a steady state stability limit of 200 MW is

receiving 50 MW from the infinite bus bars. Find the maximum additional load
that can be applied without causing instability.

Solution
P
Refereeing to Fig. 6, 200
A2
for critical stability PS C D
A1 Electric Input
A2 = A1 power

50 B
A E

0 s
- S

Fig. 6

50
0 = sin-1 = 0.25268 rad. Further 200 sin S = PS
200
 P

200
A2
PS C D Adding area ABCDEA to
A1 Electric Input
both A1 and A2 and
power
equating the resulting
50 areas
B
A E
0 s
- S

200 sin S ( S 0) = 200 sin d i.e.

0

( S 0) sin S = cos 0 cos ( S) = cos 0 + cos S i.e.

( S 0.25268) sin S - cos S = 0.9682458

The above equation can be solved by trial and error method.

S 0.85 0.9 0.95

RHS 0.8718 0.9363 0.9954

Using linear interpolation between second and third points we get

S = 0.927 rad. 0.927 rad. = 53.11 deg.

Thus PS = 200 sin 53.110 = 159.96 MW

Maximum additional load possible = 159.96 50 = 109.96 MW

FURTHER APPLICATION OF EQUAL AREA CRITERION

Opening of one of the parallel lines

When a generator is supplying power to an infinite bus over two parallel

transmission lines, the opening of one of the lines will result in increase in the
equivalent reactance and hence decrease in the maximum power transferred.
Because of this, depending upon the initial operating power, the generator
may loose synchronism even though the load could be supplied over the
remaining line under steady state condition.

Consider the system shown in Fig. 7. The power angle diagrams

corresponding to stable and unstable conditions are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7
 G

Fig. 7

A2

PS
A2 A1
PS
A1

0 s m

A2 = A1 ; Stable A2 < A1 ; Unstable

Fig. 8
 Short circuit occurring in the system

Short circuit occurring in the system often causes loss of stability even
though the fault may be removed by isolating it from the rest of the system in a
relatively short time. A three phase fault at one end of a double circuit line is
shown in Fig. 9(a) which can be reduced as shown in Fig. 9(b).

+ + +
+ Ei Eg Ei
Eg - - -
Ig
-

(a) Fig. 9 (b)

It is to be noted that all the current from the generator flows through the fault
and this current Ig lags the generator voltage by 900. Thus the real power
output of the generator is zero. Normally the input power to the generator
remains unaltered. Therefore, if the fault is sustained, the load angle will
increase indefinitely because all the input power will be used for acceleration,
resulting unstable condition.
When the three phase fault occurring at one end of a double circuit line is
disconnected by opening the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted line,
power is again transmitted. If the fault is cleared before the rotor angle reaches
a particular value, the system will remain stable; otherwise it will loose
stability as shown in Fig. 10.

Pre-fault output
power

Post-fault output
power
A2 A2 A2
PS Input power
A1 A1 A1

0 C m 0 CC m 0 C
During fault
< CC
output power C > CC
C

A2 = A1 ; Critically stable A2 < A1 ; Unstable

A2 = A1 ; Stable
Fig. 10
When a three phase fault occurs at some point on a double circuit line, other
than on the extreme ends, as shown in Fig. 11(a), there is some finite
impedance between the paralleling buses and the fault. Therefore, some power
is transmitted during the fault and it may be calculated after reducing the
network to a delta connected circuit between the internal voltage of the
generator and the infinite bus as shown in Fig. 11(b).

Xb

+ + +
Xa Xc
+ Em Eg Em
Eg - - -
-

(a) (b)
Fig. 11
 Eg Em
Power transmitted during the fault = sin (23)
Xb

Stable, critically stable and unstable conditions of such systems are shown in
Fig. 12.

Pre-fault output power

C < CC;
Post-fault output power

A2 = A1; A2
Input power
STABLE
A1
During-fault
output power

0 C m

Fig. 12(a)
 Pre-fault output power

Post-fault output power

C = CC; A2
Input power
A2 = A1;
A1 During-fault
CRITICALLY
output power
STABLE

Fig. 12(b) 0 CC m

Pre-fault output power

Post-fault output power

C > CC;

A2 < A1;
A2 Input power
UNSTABLE
A1 During-fault
output power

Fig. 12(c)

0 C
Example 2

In the power system shown in Fig. 13, three phase fault occurs at P and the
faulty line was opened a little later. Find the power output equations for the
pre-fault, during fault and post-fault conditions.

0.16 0.16
Xg = 0.28 0.24 0.16

G
P
'
E g = 1.25 p.u. x
V = 1.0 p.u.
0.24
0.16 0.16
Fig. 13
Values marked are p.u. reactances

Solution Pre-fault condition

0.16
0.56 0.72

0.28 0.56 + + +
1.0 1.25 1.0
+
1.25 - - -
-

1.25 x 1.0
Power output Pe = sin = 1.736 sin
0.72
During fault condition:

0.16 0.56
0.56
0.16 0.4

0.28 + 0.28 0.16

+ 1.0 + 0.16 0.4 +
1.25 -
- - -

2.99
0.08 0.2 0.16
0.28
+ 1.25 1.0
+
1.25 0.057 1.0
- -

1.25 x 1.0
Power output Pe = sin = 0.418 sin
2.99
Post-fault condition:

0.16
0.56
1.0
0.28 +
1.0 1.25 1.0
+
1.25 -
-

1.25 x 1.0
Power output Pe = sin = 1.25 sin
1.0

Thus power output equations are:

Pre-fault Pe = Pm1 sin = 1.736 sin

During fault Pe = Pm2 sin = 0.418 sin

Post fault Pe = Pm3 sin = 1.25 sin

Here

Pm1 = 1.736; Pm2 = 0.418; Pm3 = 1.25;

Expression for critical clearing angle CC

Consider the power angle diagram shown in Fig. 14.

Pm1

Pm3

A2
PS
Pm2
A1

Fig. 14

0 CC m

CC

Area A1 = PS ( CC 0 ) Pm 2 sin d
0

= PS CC PS 0 + Pm 2 cos CC Pm 2 cos 0 (24)

Area A2 = Pm 3 sin d - PS ( m CC )
CC

= Pm 3 cos CC Pm 3 cos m PS m + PS CC (25)

Area A1 = PS CC PS 0 + Pm 2 cos CC Pm 2 cos 0 (24)

Area A2 = Pm 3 cos CC Pm 3 cos m PS m + PS CC (25)

Area A2 = Area A1

Pm 3 cos CC Pm 3 cos m PS m + PS CC = PS CC PS 0 + Pm 2 cos CC Pm 2 cos 0

( Pm 3 Pm 2 ) cos CC = PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
cos CC =
Pm 3 Pm 2

Thus CRITICAL CLEARING ANGLE is given by

1
PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
CC = cos [ ] (26)
Pm 3 Pm 2
 PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
cos CC =
Pm 3 Pm 2

Thus CRITICAL CLEARING ANGLE is given by

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
CC = cos 1 [ ] (26)
Pm 3 Pm 2

Here the angles are in radian. Further, since

Pm1 sin 0 = Ps , Pm3 sin s = Ps and m = - s angles 0 and m are given by

PS PS
0 = sin 1 ( ) m = sin 1 ( ) (27)
Pm1 Pm 3
Example 3

In the power system described in the previous example, if the generator was
delivering 1.0 p.u. just before the fault occurs, calculate CC .

Solution

Pm1 = 1.736; Pm2 = 0.418; Pm3 = 1.25; PS = 1.0

1.736 sin 0 = 1.0; sin 0 = 0.576; 0 = 0.6139 rad.

1.25 sin s = 1.0; sin s = 0.8; s = 0.9273 rad.; m = s = 2.2143 rad.

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
cos CC =
Pm 3 Pm 2

1.0 (2.2143 0.6139) + 1.25 cos 2.2143 - 0.418 cos 0.6139

= = 0.6114
1.25 0.418

Critical clearing angle CC = 52.310

STEP BY STEP SOLUTION OF OBTAINING SWING CURVE

The equal area criterion of stability is useful in determining whether or not a

system will remain stable and in determining the angle through which the
machine may be permitted to swing before a fault is cleared. It does not
determine directly the length of time permitted before clearing a fault if
stability is to be maintained.

In order to specify a circuit breaker of proper speed, the engineer must know
the CRITICAL CLEARING TIME, which is the time for a machine to swing from
its original position to its critical clearing angle. If the Critical Clearing Angle
(CCA) is determined by the equal area criterion, then to determine
corresponding Critical Clearing Time (CCT), the swing curve for the sustained
faulted condition is required.

The step by step method of obtaining swing curve, using hand calculation is
necessarily simpler than some of the methods recommended for digital
computer. In the method for hand calculation, the change in the angular
position of the rotor during a short interval of time is computed by making the
following assumptions.
 1. The accelerating power Pa computed at the beginning of an interval is
constant from the middle of the proceeding interval to the middle of the
interval considered.

d
2. is constant throughout any interval at the value computed for the
dt
middle of the interval.

Fig. 15 will help in visualizing the assumptions. The accelerating power is

computed for the points enclosed in circles, at the beginning of n-1, n and n+1
th intervals. The step of Pa in the figure results from assumption 1.

d d
Similarly ( = - s), the excess of angular velocity over the
dt dt
synchronous angular velocity is shown as a step curve that is constant
throughout the interval, at the value computed at the midpoint.

3 1
Between the ordinates n - and n - , there is a change in angular speed
2 2

caused by constant angular acceleration. This change in angular speed is
 Pa
Pa (n 2)
Pa (n 1)

Pa (n)

t
t

n-2 n-1 n t
n th interval
n - 1 th interval

(n 1/2)

(n 3/2)

t
t

n 3/2 n 1/2 t
n

n
n-1

n-1
n-2

n-2 n-1 n t
Fig. 15

The change in angular speed is

1 3
(n - )- (n - ) = Constant angular acceleration x time duration
2 2

Pa ( n 1) d2 1
= t ( Because = Pa ) (28)
M dt 2 M

Similarly, change in over any interval = constant angular speed x time
duration. Thus

1
(n) = (n - ) t (29)
2

3
(n 1) = (n - ) t and (30)
2

1 3 Pa ( n 1)
Therefore (n) - (n 1) =[ (n - )- (n - )] t= ( t)2
2 2 M

Pa ( n 1)
Thus (n) = (n 1) + ( t)2 (31)
M
 Pa ( n 1)
Thus (n) = (n 1) + ( t)2 (31)
M

Equation (31) shows that the change in torque angle during a given interval is
equal to the change in torque angle during the proceeding interval plus the
( t) 2
accelerating power at the beginning of the interval time .
M

Torque angle can be computed as

(n) = (n 1) + (n) (32)

Pa ( n 1)
where (n) = (n 1) + ( t)2 (33)
M

The process of computation is now repeated to obtain Pa (n), (n+1) and (n+1).

The solution in discrete form is thus carried out over the desired length of time
normally 0.05 sec. Greater accuracy of solution can be achieved by reducing
the time duration of interval.
Any switching event such as occurrence of a fault or clearing of the fault
causes discontinuity in the accelerating power Pa. If such a discontinuity
occurs at the beginning of an interval then the average of the values of Pa just
before and just after the discontinuity must be used.

Thus in computing the increment of angle occurring during the first interval
after a fault is applied at time t = 0 becomes

1 ( t) 2 1 ( t) 2
1 = 0 + (Pa 0- + Pa 0+) = Pa 0+ (Because Pa 0- = 0)
2 M 2 M

If the discontinuity occurs at the middle of an interval, no special procedure is

needed. The correctness of this can be seen from Fig. 16.

n th interval n th interval
n - 1 th interval n - 1 th interval

Discontinuity at the Discontinuity at the

beginning of an interval middle of an interval

Fig. 16
Example 4

A 20 MVA, 50 Hz generator delivers 18 MW over a double circuit line to an

infinite bus. The generator has KE of 2.52 MJ / MVA at rated speed and its
transient reactance is Xd = 0.35 p.u. Each transmission line has a reactance of
0.2 p.u. on a 20 MVA base. E = 1.1 p.u. and infinite bus voltage V = 1.0 p.u. A

three phase fault occurs at the mid point of one of the transmission lines.
Obtain the swing curve over a period of 0.5 sec. if the fault is sustained.

E = 1.1 p.u. 0.2 p.u.

0.2 p.u.
20 MVA 50 Hz
Delivers 18 MW Infinite bus
Xd = 0.35 p.u. V = 1.0 p.u.
H = 2.52 MJ/MVA

G = 20 MVA = 1.0 p.u.

GH 1.0 x 2.52
Angular momentum M = = = 2.8 x 10 4 sec 2 / elec. deg.
180 f 180 x 50

( t) 2 (0.05) 2 x 10 4
Let us choose t = 0.05 sec. = = 8.929
M 2.8
Recursive equations are (n) = (n 1) + (n)

where (n) = (n 1) + 8.929 Pa (n-1)

1.1 x 1.0
Pre fault: X = 0.45 p.u.; Pe = sin = 2.44 sin
0.45

During fault:
0.2
0.2
0.1 0.1

0.35 + 0.35 +
+ 1.0 + 0.1 0.1
1.1 -
- - -

Converting the star 0.35, 0.1 and 0.2 as delta

1.25

1.1 1.0 1.1 x 1.0

Pe = sin = 0.88 sin
1.25
Initial calculations:

Before the occurrence of fault, there will not be acceleration i.e. Input power is
equal to output power. Therefore

Ps = 18 MW = 0.9 p.u.

Initial power angle is given by

2.44 sin 0 = 0.9; Thus 0 = 21.64

Pa 0- = 0; Pa 0+ = 0.9 0.88 sin 21.640 = 0.576 p.u.

Pa average = ( 0 + 0.576 ) / 2 = 0.288 p.u.

( t) 2
First interval: 1 = 0 + Pa average x = 0.288 x 8.929 = 2.570
M

Thus (0.05) = 21.64 + 2.57 = 24.210

Subsequent calculations are shown below.

t sec. deg. Pmax Pe Pa = 0.9-Pe 8.929 Pa
-
0 21.64 0
+
0 21.64 0.88 0.324 0.576

0 average 21.64 0.288 2.57 2.57

0.05 24.21 0.88 0.361 0.539 4.81 7.38

0.10 31.59 0.88 0.461 0.439 3.92 11.30

0.15 42.89 0.88 0.598 0.301 2.68 13.98

0.20 56.87 0.88 0.736 0.163 1.45 15.43

0.25 72.30 0.88 0.838 0.062 0.55 15.98

0.30 88.28 0.88 0.879 0.021 0.18 16.16

0.35 104.44 0.88 0.852 0.048 0.426 16.58

0.40 121.02 0.88 0.754 0.145 1.30 17.88

0.45 138.90 0.88 0.578 0.321 2.87 20.75

0.50 159.65
 Fig. 17
Swing curve, rotor angle with respect to time, for sustained fault is plotted
and shown in Fig. 17.
Example 5

In the power system considered in the previous example, fault is cleared by

opening the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulty line. Calculate the CCA
and hence find CCT.

Solution

From the previous example: Ps = 0.9; Pm1 = 2.44 and Pm2 = 0.88

For the Post fault condition:

1.1 x 1.0
X = 0.55 p.u; Pe = sin = 2.0 sin
0.55

Thus Ps = 0.9; Pm1 = 2.44; Pm2 = 0.88; Pm3 = 2.0

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm 3 cos m Pm 2 cos 0
cos CC =
Pm 3 Pm 2

2.44 sin 0 = 0.9; Therefore 0 = 0.3778 rad.

2.0 sin s = 0.9; Thus s = 0.4668 Therefore m = - s = 2.6748 rad

0.9 ( 2.6748 0.3778 ) + 2 cos (2.6748) 0.88 cos (0.3778)

cos CC = = 0.47915
2 0.88

Thus CCA, CC = 118.630

 Fig. 18

Referring to the swing curve obtained for the sustained fault condition,
corresponding to CCA of 118.630, CCT can be obtained as 0.38 sec. as shown
in Fig. 18.
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

Following Examples 6,7 and 8 will help in understanding the digital computer
solution for multi-machine stability.

Example 6

The single-line diagram of Fig. 19 shows a 50 Hz. generator connected through

parallel transmission lines to a large metropolitan system considered as an
infinite bus. The machine is delivering 1.0 per unit power and both the terminal
voltage and infinite bus voltages are 1.0 per unit. The numbers marked on the
diagram indicate the values of the reactances on a common system base. The
transient reactance of the generator is 0.2 per unit. (i) Calculate the internal
voltage (ii) Determine the power angle equation for the system. (iii) Find the
operating rotor angle. (iv) Obtain the swing equation. Take H = 5 MJ / MVA.

j 0.1 j 0.4

Infinite bus

j 0.4
X d = 0.2
Fig. 19
Solution

The reactance diagram for the system is shown in Fig. 20. Given that both the
terminal voltage and infinite bus voltages are 1.0 per unit.
I j 0.4
j 0.2 j 0.1

+ +

E V1 j 0.4 1.0 0 0
- -

Fig. 20
(i) Series reactance between the terminal voltage and the infinite bus is 0.3 p.u.

Note that the power supplied by the generator is 1.0 p.u. Therefore denoting
as the angle between the machines terminal voltage and the infinite bus

(1.0) X (1.0)
sin = 1.0; This gives = sin- 1 0.3 = 17.4580
0.3

So, machines terminal voltage V1 = 1.0 17.4580

1.017.458 0 - 1.00 0
Output current of the generator I = = 1.012 8.7290 p.u.
j 0.3

M/c Internal voltage E = 1.0 17.4580 + ( j 0.2) (1.012 8.7290) = 1.05 28.440
(ii) Total reactance between the internal voltage and the infinite bus is

0.4
X = 0.2 + 0.1 + = 0.5 p.u.
2

(1.0) X (1.05)
Power angle equation is: Pe = sin = 2.10 sin
0.5

(iii) Since the machines output power = 1.0 p.u.

2.10 sin 0 = 1.0

1.0
Operating rotor angle 0 = sin- 1 = 28.440
2.1

(iv) Mechanical input power = initial machines output power = 1.0 p.u.

H 5
M= = = 0.0005556
180 x f 180 x 50

d2
Thus, the swing equation is: 0.0005556 = 1.0 - 2.10 sin
dt 2
Example 7

The system of Example 6 is operating under the indicated condition when a

three-phase fault occurs at mid point P as shown. (i) Making use of bus power
equation,, determine the power-angle equation for the system with the fault on
and the corresponding swing equation. (ii) Also determine the initial
accelerating power and the initial acceleration.

j 0.1 j 0.4

Infinite bus
P

X d = 0.2
j 0.4
Solution

For the faulted network, per unit reactance diagram with the values marked in
admittances is shown in Fig. 22.

-j 2.5
-j 3.3333
1 3 2
+ +
Fig. 22
E -j 5 -j 5 1.0 0 0
- -
The above p.u. reactance diagram can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 23.

-j 2.5
-j 3.3333
1 3 2
+ +
Fig. 23
E -j 5 -j 5 1.0 0 0
- -

(i) Performance equations in matrix form is

Y11 Y12 Y13 E1 I1 - 3.3333 0 3.3333 E1 I1

Y21 Y22 Y23 E2 = I 2 i.e. j 0 - 7.5 2.5 E2 = I2
Y31 Y32 Y33 E3 I3 3.3333 2.5 - 10.8333 E3 0

Since I3 is zero, node 3 can be eliminated. Eliminating node 3

2.308 0.769 E1 I1 E1 = |E1|

j =
0.769 6.923 E2 I1 E2 = 1.0 0 0
As discussed in power flow analysis, real power injection at bus i is

N
Pi = Vi Vn Yi n cos ( i n + n i )
n =1

In this case, power flow from node 1 to 2 is

P1 = |E1| |E2| |Y12| cos (90 + 0 )

= |E1| |E2| |Y12| sin

Thus during fault generator power output Pe = 1.05 x 1.0 x 0.768 sin

= 0.808 sin

d2
Corresponding swing equation is: 0.0005556 = 1.0 0.808 sin
dt 2
(ii) Rotor angle is initially 28.440 as in Example 6.

Therefore initial accelerating power = Ps - Pe = 1.0 - 0.808 sin 28.44 = 0.615 p.u.

d2 0.615
Initial acceleration 2
= = 1107 elec. deg. / sec.2
dt 0.0005556

Example 8

The fault on the system of Example 7 is cleared by simultaneous opening of

the circuit breakers at each end of the affected line. Determine the power-angle
equation and the swing equation for the post-fault period.

Solution

Corresponding reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in Fig. 24.

( j 0.4 )
( j 0.3 ) -j 2.5
-j 3.3333
1 3 2
+ + Fig. 24
1.0 0 0
E
-
-
 ( j 0.4 )
( j 0.3 ) -j 2.5
-j 3.3333
1 3 2
+ +
1.0 0 0 Fig. 24
E
-
-

1
Admittance y12 = = - j 1.429 p.u.
j 0.7

Therefore, the transfer admittance Y12 = - y12 = j 1.429

Therefore post fault power-angle equation is

Pe = 1.05 x 1.0 x 1.429 sin

= 1.5 sin

and the corresponding swing equation is

d2
0.0005556 = 1.0 1.5 sin
dt 2
Example 9

Consider the system shown in Fig. 25. It is same as that considered previously
in Example 6 except for the addition of a short transmission line. Initially the
circuit breaker A is closed but circuit breaker B at the other end of the short
line is open making the post fault condition remains same as pre-fault
condition. At point P, close to the bus, a three-phase fault occurs and it is
cleared by circuit breaker A after a short period of time. The short circuit
caused by the fault is effectively at the bus and so electrical power output from
the generator is zero until the fault is cleared. (i) For such a situation develop
necessary formulas for critical clearing angle and the critical clearing time. (ii)
Determine the critical clearing angle and the critical clearing time for the
system shown in Fig. 25 taking values of H as 5 MJ / MVA and f = 50 Hz.

j 0.1 j 0.4

Infinite bus

j 0.4
X d = 0.2 P

A B A: initially closed and opened when fault is cleared

Fig. 25
B: opened always
Solution

For the system described the power-angle curve showing the critical clearing
angle cc is shown in Fig. 26.

Swing equation for during fault is Pm

d2 d2 A2
1
M = Ps 0 i.e. = Ps Ps
dt 2 dt 2
M
A1
Integrating the above once
0 0 cc
d 1 d m
= Ps t ( at t = 0 is zero)
dt M dt Fig. 26

A further integration with respect time yields the rotor angle as

1
(t) = Ps t2 + 0
2M

Corresponding to critical clearing angle cc, critical clearing time is tccT. Thus

1 2M
cc = Ps tccT2 + 0; i.e. tccT2 = ( cc 0 ) Thus
2M Ps

2M
Critical clearing time tccT = ( cc 0 )
Ps
Referring to Fig. 26 Area A1 = Ps ( cc 0 )

Area A2 = Pm sin d - Ps ( m cc)

cc
Pm

A2
= Pm (cos cc cos m) Ps ( m cc)
Ps
Equating the two areas
A1

Pm cos cc - Pm cos m - Ps m + Ps cc = Ps cc - Ps 0
0 0 cc m

Pm cos cc = Ps ( m - 0) + Pm cos m Fig. 26

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm cos m
cos cc =
Pm

1
PS ( m 0 ) + Pm cos m
cc = cos [ ]
Pm

where m = 0
As seen in Example 6, generator power output equation is 2.1 sin .

Also Ps = 1.0:

1.0
Angle 0 = sin- 1 = 28.440 = 0.49657 rad.
2.1

Then m = 0.49657 = 2.646287 rad

PS ( m 0 ) + Pm cos m
cos cc =
Pm

(2.646287 0.49657) + 2.1 cos 151.56 0

= = (2.1497 1.84697) / 2.1= 0.1443
2.1

Thus cc = 81.6970 = 1.426 rad.

2M
tccT2 = ( cc 0 ) = 2 x 0.0005556 (81.697 28.44) = 0.05918
Ps

Thus tccT = 0.2433 sec.

SOLUTION OF SWING EQUATION BY MODIFIED EULERS METHOD

Modified Eulers method is simple and efficient method of solving differential

equations (DE)

Let us first consider solution of first order differential equation. Later we shall
extend it for solving a set of first order DE. The swing equation is a second
order DE which can be written as two first order DE and solution can be
obtained using Modified Eulers method.

Let the given first order DE be

dx
= f ( t, x ) (34)
dt

where t is the independent variable and x is the dependent variable. Let (t 0, x 0)

be the initial solution and t is the increment in t. Then

t 1 = t 0 + t; t 2 = t 1 + t; t n = t n1 + t

First estimate of x1 is denoted as x 1(0). Then

dx
x 1(0) = x 0 + |0 t (35)
dt
 (0)
Thus (t 1, x 1 ) is the first estimated point of (t 1, x 1). Second and the final
estimate of x 1 is calculated as

1 dx dx (0)
x1 = x0 + ( |0 + |1 ) t (36)
2 dt dt

dx (0) dx
where |1 ) is the value of computed at (t 1, x 1(0)). Thus the next point
dt dt

(t 1, x 1) is now known. Same procedure can be followed to get (t 2, x 2) and it

can be repeated to obtain points (t 3, x 3), (t 4, x 4) ..

Knowing (t n - 1, x n - 1 ), next point (t n, x n) can be computed as follows:

dx
x n(0) = x n 1 + |n 1 t (37)
dt

t n = t n1 + t (38)

dx (0) dx
Compute |n which is computed at (t n, x n(0)). (39)
dt dt

1 dx dx (0)
Then xn = xn-1 + ( |n - 1 + |n ) t (40)
2 dt dt
Same procedure can be extended to solve a set of two first order DE. Let the
DE be

dx dy
= f1 (t, x, y) and = f2 (t, x, y)
dt dt

Knowing (t n - 1, x n - 1 , y n - 1), next point (t n, x n, yn) can be computed as follows:

dx
x n(0) = x n 1 + |n 1 t
dt

dy
y n(0) = y n 1 + |n 1 t
dt

t n = t n1 + t

dx (0) dx
Compute |n which is computed at (t n, x n(0), y n(0)) and
dt dt

dy (0) dy
|n which is computed at (t n, x n(0), y n(0))
dt dt

1 dx dx (0)
Then x n = x n - 1 + ( |n - 1 + |n ) t and
2 dt dt

1 dy dy (0)
yn = yn-1 + ( |n - 1 + |n ) t
2 dt dt
We know that the swing equation is

d2
M = Pa
dt 2

When per unit values are used and the machines rating is taken as base

H
M=
f

Therefore for a generator

d2 f f
= ( Ps Pe ) = K ( Ps Pe ) where K =
dt 2 H H

The second order DE

d2
= K ( Ps Pe ) can be written as two first order DEs given by
dt 2

d
= s
dt

d
= K ( Ps Pe )
dt

d d
Note that generally of the form = f1 ( t, , ). However, now it a
dt dt
d d
function of alone. Similarly, generally of the form = f2 ( t, , ).
dt dt
However, now it a function of alone.
Just prior to the occurrence of the disturbance, Ps Pe = 0 and = s. The
rotor angle can be computed as (0) and the corresponding angular velocity is
(0). Thus the initial point is ( 0, (0), (0)).

As soon as disturbance occurs, electric network changes and the expression

for electric power Pe in terms of rotor angle can be obtained. During fault
condition, Pe shall be computed by the said expression.

Using Modified Eulers method 1 and 1 can be computed. Thus we get the
next solution point as ( t1, 1, 1). The procedure can be repeated to get
subsequent solution points until next change in electric network, such as
removal of faulted line occurs. As soon as electric network changes,
corresponding expression for electric power need to be obtained and used in
subsequent calculation.

The whole procedure can be carried out until t reaches the time upto which
transient stability analysis is required.
Example 10

An alternator rated for 100 MVA supplies 100 MW to an infinite bus through a
line of reactance 0.08 p.u. on 100 MVA base. The machine has a transient
reactance of 0.2 p.u. and its inertia constant is 4.0 p.u. on 100 MVA base.
Taking the infinite bus voltage as reference, current supplied by the alternator
is ( 1.0 j 0.6375 ) p.u.

Calculate the torque angle and speed of the alternator for a period of 0.14 sec.
when there is a three phase fault at the machine terminals and the fault is
cleared in 0.1 sec. Use Modified Eulers method with a time increment of 0.02
sec.

Solution

100 MVA
Ps = 100 MW
H=4 ! " # 0 0

E = ( 1.0 + j0) + j 0.28 ( 1.0 j 0.6375) = 1.1785 + j 0.28 = 1.2113 13.36510 p.u.

Initial rotor angle = 13.36510 = 0.2333 rad.

Shaft power Ps = 100 MW = 1.0 p.u. This remains same throughout the
calculations.

Just before the fault, Pe = Ps = 1.0 p.u.; Swing equation is:

d2 f 50
= ( Ps Pe ) = ( 1 Pe ) = 39.2699 ( 1 - Pe )
dt 2 H 4

s =2 x 50 = 314.1593 rad. / sec.

The two first order DEs are:

d
= 314.1593 Initial point is:
dt
(0) = 0.2333 rad.
d (0) = 314.1593 rad. / sec.
= 39.2699 ( 1 Pe )
dt

Since the fault is at the generator terminals, during fault Pe = 0

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt
To calculate (0.02) and (0.02)

First estimate: Initial point is:

(0) = 0.2333 rad.
d (0) = 314.1593 rad. / sec.
= 314.1593 314.1593 = 0
dt

d
= 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) = 39.2699
dt

= 0.2333 + ( 0 x 0.02 ) = 0.2333 rad.

= 314.1593 + ( 39.2699 x 0.02 ) = 314.9447 rad. / sec.
Second estimate:
First estimated point is:
d
= 314.9447 314.1593 = 0.7854 = 0.2333 rad.
dt
= 314.9447 rad. / sec.
d
= 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) = 39.2699; Thus
dt

1
(0.02) = 0.2333 + ( 0 + 0.7854 ) x 0.02 = 0.24115 rad.
2

1
(0.02) = 314.1593 + ( 39.2699 + 39.2699 ) x 0.02 = 314.9447 rad. / sec.
2
d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt

To calculate (0.04) and (0.04) Latest point is:

First estimate (0.02) = 0.24115 rad.
(0.02) = 314.9447 rad. / sec.
d
= 314.9447 314.1593 = 0.7854
dt

d
= 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) = 39.2699
dt
= 0.24115 + ( 0.7854 x 0.02 ) = 0.2569 rad.
= 314.9447 + ( 39.2699 x 0.02 ) = 315.7301 rad. / sec.
Second estimate: First estimated point is:
= 0.2569 rad.
d
= 315.7301 314.1593 = 1.5708 = 315.7301 rad. / sec.
dt

d
= 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) = 39.2699; Thus
dt

1
(0.04) = 0.24115 + ( 0.7854 + 1.5708 ) x 0.02 = 0.2647 rad.
2

1
(0.04) = 314.9447 + ( 39.2699 + 39.2699 ) x 0.02 = 315.7301 rad. / sec.
2
Calculations can be repeated until the fault is cleared i.e. t = 0.1-. The results
are tabulated. Thus

(0.1) = 0.4297 rad.; (0.1) = 318.0869 rad. / sec.

Once the fault is cleared, reactance between internal voltage and the infinite
bus is 0.28 and thus generator out put is;

1.2113 x 1.0
Pe = sin = 4.3261 sin
0.28

In the subsequent calculation Pe must be obtained from the above equation.

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt
To calculate (0.12) and (0.12)
First estimate Latest point is:
(0.1) = 0.4297 rad.
d (0.1) = 318.0869 rad. / sec.
= 318.0869 314.1593 = 3.9276
dt

d
= 39.2699 ( 1 4.3261 sin 0.4297 rad. ) = - 31.5041
dt

= 0.4297 + ( 3.9276 x 0.02 ) = 0.50825 rad.

= 318.0869 + (- 31.5041 x 0.02 ) = 317.4568 rad. / sec.
Second estimate: First estimated point is:
d = 0.50825 rad.
= 317.4568 314.1593 = 3.2975 = 317.4568 rad. / sec.
dt

d
= 39.2699 ( 1 4.3261 sin 0.50825 rad. ) = - 43.4047; Thus
dt

1
(0.12) = 0.4297 + ( 3.9276 + 3.2975 ) x 0.02 = 0.50195 rad.
2

1
(0.12) = 318.0869 + ( - 31.5041 - 43.4047 ) x 0.02 = 317.3378 rad. / sec
2
Complete calculations are shown in the Table:

d d
= 314.1593; = 39.2699 (1 Pe ); Pe = 0 for t < 0.1 and then Pe = 4.3261 sin
dt dt

First Estimate Second Estimate

t
rad.
sec. rad/sec
d /dt d /dt rad. d /dt d /dt rad.
rad/sec rad/sec
-
0 0.2333 314.1593
+
0 0.2333 314.1593 0 39.2699 0.2333 314.9447 0.7854 39.2699 0.2412 314.9447

0.02 0.2412 314.9447 0.7854 39.2699 0.2569 315.7301 1.5708 39.2699 0.2647 315.7301

0.04 0.2647 315.7301 1.5708 39.2699 0.2961 316.5155 2.3562 39.2699 0.304 316.5155

0.06 0.304 316.5155 2.3562 39.2699 0.3511 317.3009 3.1416 39.2699 0.359 317.3009

0.08 0.359 317.3009 3.1416 39.2699 0.4218 318.0863 3.927 39.2699 0.4297 318.0869

-
0.10 0.4297 318.0869

+
0.10 0.4297 318.0869 3.9276 -31.504 0.5083 317.4568 3.2975 -43.405 0.502 317.3378

0.12 0.502 317.3378 3.1785 -42.468 0.5655 316.4884 2.3291 -51.761 0.557 316.3955

0.14 0.557 316.3955

 t
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
sec

0.2333 0.24115 0.2647 0.304 0.359 0.4297 0.50195 0.5570

rad

13.37 13.82 15.17 17.42 20.57 24.62 28.76 31.91

deg

314.1593 314.9447 315.7301 316.5155 317.3009 318.0869 317.3378 316.3955

rad/s
SOLUTION OF SWING EQUATION BY RUNGE KUTTA METHOD

Fourth order Runge Kutta (RK) method is one of the most commonly used
methods of solving differential equation.

dx
Consider the first order DE = f ( t, x )
dt

Let (t m, x m) be the initial point and h be the increment in time. Then

tm+1 = tm + h

Fourth order RK method can be defined by the following five equations.

1
xm+1 = xm + ( k1 + 2 k2 + 2 k3 + k4) where
6

k 1 = f ( t m, x m ) h

h k
k2 = f ( t m + ,xm+ 1)h
2 2

h k
k3 = f ( t m + ,xm+ 2)h
2 2
k4 = f ( t m + h, x m + k3 ) h
Note that in this method, the function has to be evaluated four times in each
step. Same procedure can be extended to solve a set of first order DE such as

dx dy
= f1 ( t , x , y ) and = f2 ( t , x , y )
dt dt

Initial solution point is ( t m, xm, ym ). Then

1 1
xm+1 = xm + ( k1 + 2 k2 + 2 k3 + k4) ym+1 = ym + ( 1 +2 2 +2 3 + 4)
6 6

where

k1 = f1 ( t m, xm, ym ) h; 1 = f2 ( t m, x m, ym ) h

h k h k
k2 = f1 ( t m + , xm + 1 , ym + 1 ) h; 2 = f2 ( t m + , xm + 1 , ym + 1 ) h
2 2 2 2 2 2

h k h k
k3 = f1 ( t m + , xm + 2 , ym + 2 ) h; 3 = f2 ( t m + , xm + 2 , ym + 2 ) h
2 2 2 2 2 2

k4 = f1 ( t m + h, xm + k3, ym + 3 ) h; 4 = f2 ( t m + h, xm + k3, ym + 3 )h
We know that the swing equation can be written as

d
= s
dt

d f
= K ( Ps Pe ) where K =
dt H

The initial solution point is ( 0, (0), (0)). When 4th order RK method is used,
k1, 1, k2, 2, k3, 3, k4, 4 are computed and then the next solution point is
obtained as

( t1, 1, 1). This procedure can be repeated to get subsequent solution points.
Example 11

Consider the problem given in previous example and solve it using 4th order
RK method.

Solution

As seen in the previous example, two first order DEs are

d
= 314.1593 Initial point is:
dt
(0) = 0.2333 rad.
d (0) = 314.1593 rad. / sec.
= 39.2699 ( 1 Pe )
dt

During the first switching interval t = 0+ to 0.1 sec. electric output power Pe = 0.

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt
To calculate (0.02) and (0.02)
Initial point is:
(0) = 0.2333 rad.
(0) = 314.1593 rad. / sec.

k1 = (314.1593 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0 1 = 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) x 0.02 = 0.7854

(0) + k1 / 2 = 0.2333; (0) + 1 / 2 = 314.1593 + 0.3927 = 314.552

k2 = (314.552 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.007854 2 = 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) x 0.02 = 0.7854

(0) + k2 / 2 = 0.2372; (0) + 2 / 2 = 314.1593 + 0.3927 = 314.552

k3 = (314.552 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.007854 3 = 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) x 0.02 = 0.7854

(0) + k3 = 0.2412; (0) + 3 = 314.1593 + 0.7854 = 314.9447

k4 = (314.9447 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.0157 4 = 39.2699 ( 1 0 ) x 0.02 = 0.7854

1
(0.02) = 0.2333 + [ 0 + 2 (0.007854) + 2 (0.007854) + 0.0157 ] = 0.24115 rad.
6

1
(0.02) = 314.1593 + [ 0.7854 + 2 (0.7854) + 2 (0.7854) + 0.7854 ]
6

= 314.9447 rad / sec.

It is to be noted that up to 0.1 sec., since Pe remains at zero,

constants 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 0.7854

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt

To calculate (0.04) and (0.04) Latest point is:

(0.02) = 0.24115 rad.
k1 = (314.9447 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.01571 (0.02) = 314.9447 rad. / sec.

(0.02) + 1 / 2 = 314.9447 + 0.3927 = 315.3374

k2 = (315.3374 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.02356

(0.02) + 2 / 2 = 314.9447 + 0.3927 = 315.3374

k3 = (315.3374 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.02356

(0.02) + 3 = 314.9947 + 0.7854 = 315.7301

k4 = (315.7301 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.03142

1
(0.04) = 0.24115 + [ 0.01571 + 2 (0.02356) + 2 (0.02356) + 0.03142 ] = 0.2647 rad.
6

(0.04) = 314.9447 + 0.7854 = 315.7301 rad / sec.

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt

To calculate (0.06) and (0.06)

k1 = (315.7301 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.03142 Latest point is:

(0.04) = 0.2647 rad.
(0.04) + 1 / 2 = 315.7301 + 0.3927 = 316.1228 (0.04) = 315.7301 rad. / sec.

k2 = (316.1228 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.03927

(0.04) + 2 / 2 = 315.7301 + 0.3927 = 316.1228

k3 = (316.1228 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.03917

(0.04) + 3 = 315.7301 + 0.7854 = 316.5155

k4 = (316.5155 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.04712

1
(0.06) = 0.2647 + [ 0.03142 + 2 (0.03927) + 2 (0.03927) + 0.04712 ] = 0.304 rad.
6

(0.06) = 315.7301 + 0.7854 = 316.5155 rad / sec.

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt
Latest point is:
To calculate (0.08) and (0.08) (0.06) = 0.304 rad.
(0.06) = 316.5155 rad. / sec.
k1 = (316.5155 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.04712

(0.06) + 1 / 2 = 316.5155 + 0.3927 = 316.9082

k2 = (316.9082 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.05498

(0.06) + 2 / 2 = 316.5155 + 0.3927 = 316.9082

k3 = (316.9082 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.05498

(0.06) + 3 = 316.5155 + 0.7854 = 317.3009

k4 = (317.3009 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.06283

1
(0.08) = 0.2647 + [ 0.04712 + 2 (0.05498) + 2 (0.05498) + 0.06283 ] = 0.359 rad.
6

(0.08) = 316.5155 + 0.7854 = 317.3009 rad / sec.

d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt

To calculate (0.1) and (0.1) Latest point is:

(0.08) = 0.359 rad.
k1 = (317.3009 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.06283
(0.08) = 317.3009 rad. / sec.
(0.08) + 1 / 2 = 317.3009 + 0.3927 = 317.6936

k2 = (317.6936 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07069

(0.08) + 2 / 2 = 317.3009 + 0.3927 = 317.6936

k3 = (317.6936 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07069

(0.08) + 3 = 317.3009 + 0.7854 = 318.0863

k4 = (318.0863 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07854

1
(0.1) = 0.359 + [ 0.06283 + 2 (0.07069) + 2 (0.07069) + 0.07854 ] = 0.4297 rad.
6

(0.1) = 317.1593 + 0.7854 = 318.0863 rad. / sec.

At t = 0.1 sec., the fault is cleared. As seen in the previous example, for t 0.1
sec., electric power output of the alternator is given by Pe = 4.3261 sin
To calculate (0.12) and (0.12)

k1 = (318.0863 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07854

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.4297 rad.) = 1.8022

1 = 39.2699 ( 1 1.8022 ) x 0.02 = - 0.63

(0.1) + k1 / 2 = 0.4690; (0.1) + 1 / 2 = 318.0863 - 0.315 = 317.7713

k2 = (317.7713 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07224

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.469 rad.) = 1.9554

2 = 39.2699 ( 1 1.9554 ) x 0.02 = - 0.7504

(0.1) + k2 / 2 = 0.4658; (0.1) + 2 / 2 = 318.0863 + 0.3752 = 317.7111

k3 = (317.7111 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.07104

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.4658 rad.) = 1.9430

3 = 39.2699 ( 1 1.9430 ) x 0.02 = - 0.7406

(0.1) + k3 = 0.5007; (0.1) + 3 = 318.0863 - 0.7406 = 317.3457

k4 = (317.3457 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.06373

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.5007 rad.) = 2.0767

4 = 39.2699 ( 1 2.0767 ) x 0.02 = - 0.8456

1
(0.12) = 0.4297 + [ 0.07854 + 2 (0.07224) + 2 (0.07104) + 0.06373 ] = 0.5012 rad.
6

1
(0.12)= 318.0863 + [ - 0.63 - 2 (0.7504) - 2 (0.7406) - 0.8456 ]= 317.3434 rad. / sec.
6
d d
= 314.1593 = 39.2699 (1 Pe )
dt dt

To calculate (0.14) and (0.14)

Latest point is:
k1 = (317.3434 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.06368 (0.12) = 0.5012 rad.
(0.12) = 317.3434 rad. / sec.
Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.5012 rad.) = 2.0786

1 = 39.2699 ( 1 2.0786 ) x 0.02 = - 0.8471

(0.12) + k1 / 2 = 0.5330; (0.12) + 1 / 2 = 317.3434 - 0.42355 = 316.91985

k2 = (316.91985 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.05521

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.533 rad.) = 2.1982

2 = 39.2699 ( 1 2.1982 ) x 0.02 = - 0.9411

(0.12) + k2 / 2 = 0.5288; (0.12) + 2 / 2 = 317.3434 - 0.47055 = 316.87285

k3 = (316.87285 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.05427

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.5288 rad.) = 2.1825

 3 = 39.2699 ( 1 2.1825 ) x 0.02 = - 0.9287

(0.12) + k3 = 0.5555; (0.12) + 3 = 317.3434 - 0.9287 = 316.4147

k4 = (316.4147 314.1593) x 0.02 = 0.04511

Pe = 4.3261 sin (0.5555 rad.) = 2.2814

4 = 39.2699 ( 1 2.2814 ) x 0.02 = - 1.0064

1
(0.14) = 0.5012 + [ 0.06368 + 2 (0.05521) + 2 (0.05427) + 0.04511 ] = 0.5558 rad.
6

1
(0.14)= 317.3434 + [- 0.8471- 2 (0.9411)- 2 (0.9287)- 1.0064 ]= 316.4112 rad. / sec.
6

The results are tabulated.

t sec 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

0.2333 0.24115 0.2647 0.304 0.359 0.4297 0.5012 0.5558

rad

13.37 13.82 15.17 17.42 20.57 24.62 28.72 31.84

deg

314.1593 314.9447 316.5155 317.3009 318.0863 317.3434 316.4112

rad/s 315.73011
MULTI MACHINE TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS

The equal area criterion cannot be used directly in systems having three or
more machines. Although the physical phenomena observed in the two-
machine problems basically reflect that of the multi-machine case, the
complexity of the numerical computations increases with the number of
machines considered.

For transient stability study, the system conditions before the fault occurs and
the network configuration for prefault, during the fault and post fault status
must be known. Consequently in the multimachine case the following four
phases of calculations are involved.

1. The steady state prefault conditions for the given system are calculated
using power flow program.

2. The network representation for transient stability study is arrived at by

suitable representing the generator reactances and loads.

3. The network representation obtained in step 2, is then modified to account

for the during fault and post fault conditions

4. Employing numerical technique swing equations of the machines can be

solved and the swing curves are obtained.
From the first phase of calculations we know the values of real power, reactive
power, and voltages at each generator terminal and load bus, with all angles
measured with respect to the slack bus.

The following are the assumptions commonly made in transient stability

studies.

(a) The mechanical power input to each machine remains constant during the
entire period of swing curve computation.

(b) Damping power is negligible.

(c) Each machine can be represented by a internal voltage source, behind a

constant transient reactance as shown in Fig. 27. Magnitude of the internal
voltage remains constant while its phase angle changes in time.

I

j xd
Vt
+

|E |
,
-

Fig. 27 Synchronous Machine and its equivalent circuit

Knowing that

Vt I* = Pg + j Qg (41)

machine current is obtained as

Pg j Q g
I = *
(42)
Vt

Thus the internal voltage of generator is computed as

E = V t + ( j X d ) I (43)

By writing the internal voltage of generator as

E = | E | (44)

initial rotor angle can be obtained.

(d) Static load can be represented by an admittance connected between the
load bus and the ground as shown in Fig. 28. The value of the shunt
admittance is determined by the steady state prefault conditions.

VL VL

yL
IL
P L + j QL

Fig. 28 Static load and its representation

The terminal voltage of the load VL is obtained from the power flow analysis.
For a given load PL + j QL the corresponding shunt admittance yL can be
obtained.

PL + j QL = VL IL* = VL ( VL* yL* ) = |VL|2 yL* (45)

PL j Q L
Thus yL = 2
(46)
VLp
The admittance matrix used for the prefault power flow calculation includes
the transformers and transmission lines. It is to be augmented to include
transient reactance of each generator and the shunt load admittances.

Usually generators are connected to the transmission network through

transformer. The transient reactance of the generator is between the internal
bus and the terminal bus. Since the transformer impedance and the transient
reactance are connected in series, the can be added and included in the bus
admittance matrix. This is shown in Fig. 29. In this way generator terminal is
eliminated leaving the generator internal voltage bus.

j k k
j X d

i i

Fig. 29 Inclusion of generator reactance

Loads are accommodated by adding the load admittances in the
corresponding diagonal elements in the bus admittance matrices. Note that
now the injected current is zero at all buses except the internal buses of the
generators. The network equations for system with three machines and two
load buses will be of the form

Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 E1

'
I1
Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 Y25 E2
'
I2
Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 Y35 E3
'
= I3 (47)
Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 Y45 V4 0
Y51 Y52 Y53 Y54 Y55 V5 0

Since only the generator internal buses have injections, all other buses in the
bus admittance matrix can be eliminated by Kron reduction. The dimension of
the modified bus admittance matrix then corresponds to number of
generators. For three machine system network equations will be of the form

'
E1 I1
'
[Ybus] E 2 = I 2 (48)
'
E3 I3
Similar to bus power equation in power flow analysis, now the power output of
generator i can be computed from

m
Pg i = |Ei|2 Gii + E 'i E 'n | Yin | cos ( in + n i )
n=1
n i

m
= |Ei|2 Gii + E 'i E 'n | Yin | cos ( in in ) (49)
n=1
n i

where in is the angle of Yin in equation (48) and in = i n

For example for the three machine system the power output of generator 1 is
given by

Pe 1 = |E1|2 G11 + |E1| |E2| |Y12| cos ( 12 12) + |E1| |E3| |Y13| cos ( 13 13) (50)

The power-angle equations form part of the swing equations

2 Hi d2 I = 1,2,3
(51)
2
= Pm i Pe i
s dt
Example 12

A 60 Hz, 230 kV transmission system shown in Fig. 30 has two generators of

finite inertia and an infinite bus. The transformer and line data are shown
inTable 1. Power flow results are shown in Table 2. Values are in per unit on
230 kV, 100 MVA base.

The generators have reactances and H values expressed on a 100 MVA base
as follows:

Generator 1: 400 MVA, 20 kV, Xd = 0.067 p.u. H = 11.2 MJ/MVA

Generator 2: 250 MVA, 18 kV, Xd = 0.10 p.u. H = 8.0 MJ/MVA

4 3
1

Generator 1

Infinite Bus
L4

L5
2
Fig. 30 One line diagram for Example 12
Generator 2
Table 1

Line and transformer data:

Bus to bus Series z Shunt Y

R X B
Transformer 1 4 0.022

Transformer 2 5 0.040

Line 3 4 0.007 0.040 0.082

Line 3 5 (1) 0.008 0.047 0.098

Line 3 5 (2) 0.008 0.047 0.098

Line 4 - 5 0.018 0.110 0.226

 Table 2 Bus data and prefault load flow values:

Bus Voltage Generation Load

Mag ang-deg. P Q P Q
1 1.03 8.88 3.500 0.712

2 1.02 6.38 1.850 0.298

3 1.0 0 -------- -------

4 1.018 4.68 -------- ------- 1.00 0.44

5 1.011 2.27 -------- ----- 0.50 0.16

(i) Determine the generator internal voltages

(ii) Obtain the bus admittance matrix used in power flow analysis.

(iii) Include the generator reactances and the load representation and
determine the augmented bus admittance matrix.
Solution

(i) Current supplied by the generators are:

(P1 + j Q 1 ) 3.5 j 0.712

I1 = = = 3.468 - 2.6190
V1
*
1.03 - 8.88 0

(P2 + j Q 2 ) 1.85 j 0.298

I2 = = = 1.837 - 2.7710
V2
*
1.02 - 6.38 0

Thus

E1 = V1 + j Xd1 I1 = 1.03 8.88 + ( j 0.067 ) ( 3.468 - 2.6190 ) = 1.1 20.820

E2 = 1.02 6.38 + ( j 0.1 ) ( 1.837 - 2.7710 ) = 1.065 16.190

E3 = 1.0 0.00

(ii) Using the transformer and transmission lone data in Table 1, the bus
admittance matrix can be obtained as:

j45.4545 0 0 j45.4545 0
0 j25 0 0 j25
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j45.4545 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.6939 j78.4115 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j25 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j74.9976
(iii) To include reactance of generator 1:

Remove the transformer 1 4; Its admittance = - j45.4545

Add admittance of j45.4545 between 1 4.

Resulting bus admittance matrix will be

0 0 0 0 0
0 j25 0 0 j25
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
0 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.6939 j32.957 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j25 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j74.9976

Admittance of series combination of generator reactance and transformer =

1/(j0.067 + j0.022) = - j 11.236

Add this admittance between buses 1 4. Resultant bus admittance matrix will
be

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 j25 0 0 j25
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.6939 j44.193 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j25 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j74.9976
To include reactance of generator 2:

Remove the transformer 2 5

Its admittance = - j25 Add admittance of j25 between 2 5.

Resulting bus admittance matrix will be

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.6939 j44.193 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 0 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j49.9976

Admittance of series combination of generator reactance and transformer =

1/(j0.1 + j0.04) = - j 7.1429

Add this admittance between buses 2 5. Resultant bus admittance matrix will
be

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 - j 7.1429 0 0 j7.1429
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.6939 j44.193 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j7.1429 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j57.1405
To include load at bus 4:

1.0 j 0.44
Load admittance = = 0.9649 j0.4246
1.018 2

This is added to Y44. Resulting bus admittance matrix is

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 - j 7.1429 0 0 j7.1429
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 6.6588 j44.6176 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j7.1429 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.4879 j57.1405

To include load at bus 5:

0.5 j 0.16
Load admittance = = 0.4892 j0.1565
1.0112

This is added to Y55. Resulting bus admittance matrix Ybus 1 is

Resulting bus admittance matrix Ybus 1 is

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 - j 7.1429 0 0 j7.1429
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 6.6588 j44.6176 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j7.1429 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.9771 j57.297

Example 13

In the power system described in Example 12, a three-phase fault occurs on

line 4 5 near bus 4. Determine (i) Reduced bus admittance matrix
corresponding to during fault period (ii) The swing equation for each machine
during the fault period.
Solution

During the fault bus 4 is short circuited to ground. Therefore the row and
column 4 in the admittance matrix obtained in Example 12 disappear because
node 4 is merged with reference node. The new row 4 and column 4 (node 5)
are eliminated using Krons reduction rule. The resultant bus admittance
matrix corresponding to during fault period is then obtained as

1 2 3

1 j11.11236 0 0
Ybus 2 = 2 0 0.1362 j6.2731 0.0681 + j5.1661
3 0 0.0681 + j5.1661 5.7987 j35.63

1 2 3
1 11.11236 - 90 0 0 0
= 2 0 6.2752 - 88.7563 0 5.1665 90.7552 0
3 0 5.1665 90.7552 0 36.0987 - 80.7564 0

Since three-phase fault occurs at bus 4 Pe 1 = 0

Noting that |E1| = 1.1; |E2| = 1.065; E3 = 1.0 0.00

Pe 2 = |E2|2 G22 + |E2| |E1| |Y21| cos ( 21 21) + |E2| |E3| |Y23| cos ( 23 23)

= (1.0652) (0.1362) + 0 + ((1.065) (1.0) (5.1665) cos ( 2 90.75520)

= 0.1545 + 5.5023 sin ( 2 0.75520)

Therefore, while the fault is on the system, the desired swing equations are:

d2 1 180 f 180 f
= ( Pm1 Pei ) = ( 3.5 0 ) = 56.25 f elec. deg. / sec.2
dt 2 H1 11.2

d2 2 180 f 180 f
2
= ( Pm2 Pe2 ) = [ 1.85 (0.1545 + 5.5023 sin ( 2 0.75520))]
dt H2 8.0

180 f
= [1.6955 - 5.5023 sin ( 2 0.75520)]
8.0

= 38.1488 f - 123.80175 f [sin ( 2 0.75520)] elec. deg. / sec.2

Example 14

The three-phase fault in Example 13 is cleared by simultaneously opening the

circuit breakers at the ends of the faulted line. Determine (i) the reduced bus
admittance matrix corresponding to the postfault period (ii) the swing
equations for the postfault period.

Solution

When the fault is cleared by removing line 4 5, the prefault Ybus matrix arrived
at in Example 12, must be modified. Prefault Ybus is:

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 - j 7.1429 0 0 j7.1429
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 6.6588 j44.6176 1.4488 + j8.8538
0 j7.1429 7.0392 + j41.355 1.4488 + j8.8538 8.9771 j57.297
Opening of line 4 5 whose admittance is 1/(0.018 + j 0.11) can be
implemented by adding admittance ( 1.4488 + j 8.8538) across 4 5 and
removing the half line charging admittance of j 0.113 Resulting matrix is

- j11.236 0 0 j11.236 0
0 - j 7.1429 0 0 j7.1429
0 0 11.2842 j65.4732 4.245 + j24.2571 7.0392 + j41.355
j11.236 0 4.245 + j24.2571 5.21 j35.8768 0
0 j7.1429 7.0392 + j41.355 0 7.5283 j48.5562
Now using Krons elimination of node 4 and 5, bus admittance matrix
corresponding to the postfault period is then obtained as

1 2 3

1 0.5005 j7.8971 0 - 0.2216 + j 7.6291

Ybus 3 = 2 0 0.1591 j6.1168 0.0901 + j6.0975
3 - 0.2216 + j 7.6291 0.0901 + j6.0975 1.3927 j13.8728

1 2 3
1 7.8058 - 86.3237 0 0 7.632391.6638 0
= 2 0 6.1189 - 88.51010 6.0982 90.8466 0
3 0 6.0982 90.8466 0 13.9426 - 84.2672 0
Noting that |E1| = 1.1; |E2| = 1.065; E3 = 1.0 0.00

Pe 1 = |E1|2 G11 + |E1| |E2| |Y12| cos ( 12 12) + |E1| |E3| |Y13| cos ( 13 13)

= (1.12) (0.5005) + 0 + ((1.1) (1.0) (7.6323) cos ( 1 91.66380)

= 0.6056 + 8.3955 sin ( 1 1.66380)

Pe 2 = |E2|2 G22 + |E2| |E1| |Y21| cos ( 21 21) + |E2| |E3| |Y23| cos ( 23 23)

= (1.0652) (0.1591) + 0 + ((1.065) (1.0) (6.0982) cos ( 2 90.84660)

= 0.1804 + 6.4934 sin ( 2 0.84660)

Therefore, while the fault is on the system, the desired swing equations are:

d2 1 180 f 180 f
= ( Pm1 Pei ) = [ 3.5 - (0.6056 + 8.3955 sin ( 1 1.66380))]
dt 2 H1 11.2

180 f
= [2.8945 - 8.3955 sin ( 1 1.66380)]
11.2

= 46.5188 f - 134.9277 f sin ( 1 1.66380)] elec. deg. / sec.2

d2 2 180 f 180 f
= ( Pm2 Pe2 ) = [ 1.85 (0.1804 + 6.4934 sin ( 2 0.84660))]
dt 2 H2 8.0

180 f
= [1.6696 - 6.4934 sin ( 2 0.84660)]
8.0
2
= 37.566 f - 146.1015 f [sin ( 2 0.84660)] elec. deg. / sec.
Factors Affecting Transient Stability

The two factors mainly affecting the stability of a generator are

INERTIA CONSTANT H and TRANSIENT REACTANCE Xd.

Smaller value of H:

Smaller the value of H means, value of M which is equal to H / f is smaller.

As seen in the step by step method

Pa ( n 1)
(n) = (n 1) + ( t)2
M

the angular swing of the machine in any interval is larger. This will result in
lesser CCT and hence instability may result.

& '(()*+'( )
,-.

$
Larger value of Xd:

As the transient reactance of the machine increases, Pmax decreases. This is

so because the transient reactance forms part of over all series reactance of
the system. All the three power output curves are lowered when Pmax is
decreased. Accordingly, for a given shaft power Ps, the initial rotor angle 0 is
increased and maximum rotor angle m is decreased. This results in smaller
difference between 0 and m as seen in Fig. 31.

Pre-fault output
power

Post-fault
output power

Input power

During-fault
output power

0 m m
0

Fig. 31
 Pre-fault output
power

Post-fault
output power

Input power

During-fault
output power

0 m m
0

Fig. 31
The net result is that increased value of machines transient reactance
constrains a machine to swing though a smaller angle from its original
position before it reaches the critical clearing angle. Thus the possibility of
instability is more.

Thus any developments which lower the H constant and increase the transient
reactance of the machine cause the CCT to decrease and lessen the possibility
of maintaining the stability under transient conditions.