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By
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to dedicate this paper to Luis Santos who is a pioneer in gas
transient modeling in Argentina and has opened a wide field for transient analysis since
the 80s
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Summary of conclusions
3. Power gas demand
3.1. Natural gas and power infrastructure
3.2. Power Plants
3.3. Power Plant Load Requirements
3.4. Load curves
4. Natural gas pipeline design
4.1. The art of pipeline flow simulation
4.2. Natural gas specification
4.3. Pipeline design methodology
4.4. Pipeline operation technology
5. Pipeline simulation
5.1. Fundamentals
5.2. Main data and border conditions
5.3. Results
6. Conclusions and recommendations
6.1. Conclusions
6.2. Recommendations
7. Bibliography
Appendices
I- Gas Composition
II- Load Curves
III- Unit conversion
IV- Minimum pressure required by power technology
The Natural Gas (NG) demand profile has been changing in the last decades. Nowadays
the Power Plant (PP) fuelled by NG is becoming the most dynamic vector of the NG
demand in the world. The gas load curve is today more a function of the electrical
dispatching rules than a consequence of the residential consumption behavior. Thus,
understanding the expected PP operations means having a better knowledge about
pipeline design. In case of networks without NG storage facilities, the design
requirements and operational parameters are strongly linked with a right understanding of
the transient analysis tools and an efficient line pack management.
This paper analyses the operational requirements, the border conditions specified,
transient vs. steady state cost benefit analysis and peak hourly vs. average daily flow rate
design. The purpose of the paper is to verify the basic requirements and methodology to
be used in the NG PP pipeline design, especially in networks without storage. A complete
menu of simulations will be carried out for different pipe conditions, NG specification
and load curves.
The authors have more than 20 years experience in NG Industry mainly in the Southern
Cone Region. Argentina with more than 50 years of NG industry history shows three
interesting facts worth analyzing:
1) 47% of its primary energy matrix is filled up with NG (50% of the power generation).
2) Its large pipe network ( more than 7,500 miles of trunk line spread all over the
country) does not have any NG storage
3) Argentina has a deregulated Power and Gas Industry.
2. Summary of conclusions
(Systems without NG storage)
When green field projects are being analyzed the Steady state design Transient
analysis verification methodology is the recommended alternative. This statement is
made taking into account the general misinformation, uncertainties and ignorance
about the demand behavior at beginning of the project.
To minimize the design risk the load curve should be agreed between the
Transportation Company and the shipper (PP). In certain cases a MHQ (Maximum
Hourly Quantity) should be established. (In the minimum risk position:
MHQ=MDQ/24).
BOLIVIA BRASIL
TBG:
Santa Cruz-Sao Paulo
Norandino PARAGUAY
TBG:
Sao Paulo-Porto Alegre
Atacama
ARGENTINA
TSB
Uruguaiana-P.Alegre
TGN (Construction)
URUGUAY
Gas Andes TGM
Entrerriano
Gas Pacifico
Cruz del Sur
Construction
C
H
I
L TGS
E
ENAP
The Argentina Gas Transmission System operates under heavy operational requirements
due to three main facts: seasonal demand, geographical concentration around the Center-
Eastern area and the lack of storage facilities
The residential and most of the industrial customers have contracted firm transportation
pipeline capacity through the local distribution companies or bypassing them, but only a
few of the thermal PPs have contracted firm capacity.
The gas demand is mainly seasonal as a consequence of the increase in the use of gas for
heating purposes during the winter, producing certain shortage in cold spells for thermal
PP.
When the NG system was privatized and deregulated in the 90s, the residential users
didnt have an alternative fuel, so supply of gas was assured by LCDs through strict gas
supply contracts, controlled by the regulatory agency.
On the other hand the Power Sector was also deregulated in the early 90s, following the
Chilean and UK models. This basically consists of a separated segment of business
(vertical integration among generation, transmission and distribution is not allowed). The
Power Generation is deregulated, based on short-term marginal cost. But transmission
and distribution are regulated.
There is also an isolated electrical system serving the Patagonia, and it is planned to be
connected to the main system. New expansions are planned to ring the 500kV network to
improve reliability.
During the winter, the alternative fuel for thermal PP is for Conventional Steam Turbines:
Fuel Oil and for Gas Turbines and Combined Cycles lighters distillates as Diesel Oil,
pushing up the marginal cost of generation, and consequently the annual average cost of
power.
The hydro thermal dispatching of PPs is strongly affected by the seasonal availability of
NG. Thus the hydro PPs are maximizing their dispatch during the winter with the purpose
of reducing the annual average cost of electricity.
Figure 3.1.3
In a deregulated electricity market as the Argentine, the electricity producer accepts the
full market risk. Despite fix asset cost, the combustion efficiency and cost of fuel are the
key issues to make a profitable business.
The deregulation was developed over an existing Hydro-Thermal Power System mainly
composed by Conventional Steam Turbine PP (ST) (Rankine Cycle) fuelled by NG, and
using Fuel Oil as a substitute. During the 90s, all the new investment was made in Gas
Turbines (GT) (Brayton Cycle), convertible to combine cycle (CCGT Combine Cycle
Gas Turbine). As a result of these changes in the Type of plant and dispatching rules, new
requirements for the gas supply system had to be carried out.
As a consequence of having NG at a low cost, the GT will be more competitive than the
CCGT, and at certain level of gas cost, the CCGT becomes the most competitive power
generation alternative. When enough NG gas is available, the conventional ST is not an
In terms of availability and reliability the CCGT shows higher figures than other
alternatives.
One important difference from the gas designer point of view, is the short CCGT start-up
time, instead of the longer time required by ST (to heat parts of all components to avoid
exceeding thermal stress limits). Thus the standard ST start-up time was reduced from 12
or 24 hours to less than three hours in CCGT. In other words, the CCGT could be fully
loaded at least 4 times less than the older ST PP. It imposes additional transient analysis
requirements for the pipe design and operation.
The start-up time could be classified according to its previous status (standstill time) in:
The process of start up depends on each technology employed, but generally it includes
the following steps:
Cold running GT and HRSG purging( Heat Recovery Steam Generator)
GT speed-up.
ST speed-up.
During the first step, the GT is running at its ignition speed using auxiliary starting
devices, blowing air through the HRSG and purging it. The time employed depends on
the plant design but less than 10 minutes should be enough.
In the second step, the GT is ignited and running at its nominal speed, being later
synchronized and loaded. Generally, in a cold start-up the GT is loaded at only 20 % of
its full load up to 30 minutes before ST loading, which means that the CCGT works at
20% load during the first 2 hours. When the CCGT has two GT, the second GT starts-up
when ST is loading.
In a hot start-up the GT is loading constantly during the first 30 minutes and the ST is
fully loaded before the first hour
Figure 3.3.1 Exhaust gas
In a planned shut down, the GT ST
load is reduced constantly G
during the first 25 minutes
HRSG Steam
In fact, the GT and the CCGT are capable of reacting quickly under unsteady load
conditions.
Under normal conditions the load requirements are imposed by the marginal cost
dispatching rules. In a hydrothermal marginal dispatch the daily hydro energy available is
a consequence of a seasonal water optimal utilization. That means that the water is
utilized in each period to minimize the annual average cost of electricity, thus a weekly
water cost is established and certain weekly amount of water is available at that cost.
Every day, the hydro energy is firstly dispatched as base-load in terms of energy
(MWh), but covering the peaks as much as possible in terms of Power (MW). Secondly
the nuclear energy is dispatched as base-load. Later the CCGT is dispatched as semi-
base load and finally the GT fuelled by distilled (gas-oil) or NG, as peak load if the
hydropower is not enough.
This semi-base behavior does not imply that all the units have the same load curve,
meaning that certain units have a peak load curve.
P (MW)
Pinst
P max
4th GT
P aver
1rst Hydro
3rd CCGT
Time (hs)
2nd Nuclear
24hs
Cold start-up
Hot start-up
Shut-down
Normal-operation
Peak operation
Conceptually, the PP fuel consumption is a function of the electricity load affected by the
overall efficiency of the CCGT
For example
IE P * 8760
Fuel Cons =
EFF * NHV 365 * 10 3
Where
IE= Ideal Heat /Electricity conversion factor 3414 BTU/kWh (3600 kJ/kWh)
EFF= Overall efficiency of CCGT (%)
NHV= Net heating value in BTU/scf
P= Power MW
As a consequence, the fuel consumption curve does not follow the CCGT load curve;
thus, it could be represented approximately with the GT load curve.
Figure 3.4.1
Cold Start Up
120
100 GT1
80 GT2
60
ST
40
20 Fuel
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
min
The design and/or analysis of a pipeline involves taking into account mass and energy
balance as well as stress factors, where the flow driving force is the pressure of the
reservoir bed formation and/or compression, and the friction in the pipeline, together with
the elevation, are the ones which offer resistance to the flow.
Pressure drop along the pipeline is, among other factors, directly proportional to the
specific gravity of the gas transported, and the recompression power requirements depend
among other things on that same specific gravity plus other gas properties, all of which
eventually depend on the composition of such NG.
The NG transmission theory is based on a few basic fully developed equations and
explained in ref .1 and 2. The four basic ones are State, Continuity, Momentum, and
Energy equation, which are summarized below:
Equation of state
It is customary in the gas industry to express mass flow rate in terms of so-called standard
cubic feet or standard cubic meters -the volume the gas would occupy if ti were an ideal
gas at an arbitrary pressure and temperature base-.
RT
P=
Mw
Where:
But it is not useful for NG transmission purposes. Most appropriate, and sophisticated,
based in a better physical understanding of how gases work, are the well known Soave-
Redlich-Kwong (SRK), Peng-Robinson (PR) or Bennedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling
(BWRS) used properly in gas within certain range of composition.
RT a (T )
P=
V b V (V + b) + b (V + b)
( A) M
=
t x
where
= density A= area of control volume (control surface)
M=mass content in the control volume (A*dx)
pipe
Control Volume
Gas flow
Control surface dx
( pA) M
=
t c 2
x
where
p= pressure c2 =speed of sound in the gas
If the pipe diameter is constant, then A is also constant and it is evident for steady flow,
there are no changes either in the net mass into the control volume or in pressure along
the time:
p M
=0 and =0
t x
At certain instant the force acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of
momentum of the particle:
p w 2 4 f ( w) ( w 2 )
g sin = +
x 2 D t t
where
w=gas velocity f = friction coefficient D= internal diameter
= angle between the horizon and the direction x
Basically the terms of the equation represent the forces acting in the fluid within the
control volume the net body force, the pressure force and the shear force.
The energy balance is not so obvious even though the principle is exactly the same.
Energy comes in many forms, many of which cannot be directly measured . But, it is not
necessary to isolate each for consideration so long as all forms are accounted for.
The Bernoulli equation expresses so well the conservation of the energy principle
Hq-W=E
where
Hq= Heat added W= Work done E= change in energy
w
Assuming into a pipe =0
t
( Adx ) w2 ( wA) w2
Hq = u + + gz + u + pv + + gz dx
t 2 x 2
Where:
In adiabatic flow:Hq = 0
Isothermal flow, T = const, Hq 0
The isothermal flow assumes that changes of temperature due to heat conduction
between the pipe and the soil could be ignored ( T= const., it implies dHq=0)
Based on the above equations several simplified models are developed to solve transient
flow. As example, the biquadratic model is showed in ref 1:
2 p2 p 2
= k
x 2 t
Where
4 fQ
k =
DA c 2
Q= Flow f(x.t)
Numerical methods to solve the differential equations, are based on the calculation of the
average over each interval in space and time, assuming that certain variables included in
the equations do not change over the interval (ref 1, 2, 5). These methods are known as
explicit, implicit and methods of characteristics. The selection among them is always a
compromise between accuracy and velocity to solve complex networks
In addition, the model has to solve network equations, even for steady state using
numerical techniques considering
Boundary conditions
Kirchoffs laws
Methods like Newton Raphson
Sparse matrix techniques
Quality specifications for NG have usually been individually negotiated and prescribed in
contracts between purchasers or pipeline companies and the producer or processor. In
many Countries, like Argentina, there is a Standard defined by regulations. (see Table
4.2.1).
Specification parameters for pipeline quality NG may include heating value, specific
gravity, composition, contaminants, water content, and hydrocarbon dew point.
Specification limits for these parameters may vary widely depending on the pipeline
system, weather conditions, end use, characteristics of regional NG resource, and other
factors.
The main constituent of NG is methane, desirable as a primary fuel. Sales gas also
contains smaller amounts of the heavier hydrocarbons and other gases. Often a portion of
the heavier hydrocarbons can be recovered profitably in a field-gas processing plant as
one or more liquid products.
Table 4.2.1
0.570 C6 C5
As that Appendix shows, pairs of cases of equal gross calorific value -but different
specific gravity- were alternated with pairs of cases of different gross calorific value, but
same specific gravity, with the aim of assessing the joint effect of a gas specific gravity
and gross calorific value variation over transportation capacity, measured as standard
volume and as equivalent energy volume.
According to the general experience, when a new pipe is designed, a great deal of
important data is assumed. Most of the time, the designer does not have accurate and
reliable information: temperatures of air and soil demand forecast (even if it is based in a
Gas Transportation Contract). Generally, a group of load curve shapes are assumed.
When a customer is a PP, the load curves are defined by the electrical dispatching rules
and are obviously the result of a complete different modeling technique.
The called Hydro thermal dispatch is the result of a sophisticated simulation, taking
into account: water availability in reservoirs, whether forecast, probable river flow
assumptions (historical series), fuel prices, and planned and unexpected outages of PP.
The available PP are thus, dispatched according to their increasing variable cost of
electricity production. It is estimated using LaGrange multiplier method, which was
developed for n power units:
where:
FT =is total cost of fuel (or total variable production price)
P1=P2==Pn= Power produced by each unit
dfi
= = incremental production cost (LaGrange multiplier)
dPi
The result of the economic dispatch generally produces different load curves for each
power unit.
Taking into account the above arguments: the load curve shape assumed will always be
uncertain. Designing the pipe for Steady State techniques, the impact of different load
curves, has to be considered.
To consider the transient effect of the load changes using steady state techniques a tp
(Differential transient pressure) is assumed, increasing the minimum pressure required in
the border of PP.
where:
In summary the pipeline was designed using steady state techniques for peak demand.
The steady state design defines pipe diameters; compression power required and
pressures profiles. Later, using transient analysis the design is verified, identifying
operational constrains and system response at strongest operational conditions
Such kinds of variables are normally available at the Control Center of each System
(Electricity/Gas) and they serve as the inputs for operational control, as well as for the
billing between the parties.
The existence of a Wholesale Electrical Market imposes a very careful look over the
major cost operation part of a CCGT, that is gas, and over their production, which is
assigned with the marginal cost criterion.
With the actual and the historical data, an accurate tuning of the simulation against real
conditions on the time allows making on line predictions of the system behavior.
Also, the nature of the local market imposes an accurate measurement of the gas
available, actual gas burned, etc., to avoid an excess of gas consumed against the
requested, which by nature as unplanned demand is more expensive.
So, this imposes strict conditions over the operation of the three actors involved in
dispatching
Gasline
Electrical Network
PP CCGT
This only could be satisfied with the availability of real time measurements at the systems
and at the boundary of each one, that is:
CGCT All the parameters getting in/out the CCGT, Power, Voltage,
Pressure, Actual Flow.
The availability of Real Time Data allows having historical data and thus the simulations
above mentioned.
GAS NETWORK
Figure 4.4.1. CONTROL
CS
M&R Station
Gas Line
Transformer
M&R Station
Station
CGT Plant
Transformer
Electrical Grid Station
HV Line
The transient simulations permit to verify steady state design, and analyze the system
outcome for different operational requirements.
5.1 Fundamentals
The simulation was made utilizing well-known worldwide commercial software of gas
transient analysis. The software is very flexible and allows users to analyze both steady
and transient state
A lot of alternatives and complementary tools could be selected for the simulation. For
this case the following alternatives were selected :
The simulation was made for several topologies, load curves ( without considering any
kind of NG storage), initial stationary assumptions and different NG quality.
Chart 5.2.1
Topology Initial state PP Load Curve NG Composition
N1 Running Base Dry
Warm start-up Semi-Base
Cold start up Peak
Running Base 6 Different Gas
composition
Running 168 hs Dry
Stand by: Sat-Sun / Base:
Mon-Friday / (D1 70% Sat,
50% Sun, 100% Mon-Fri)
N2 Idem TN1 except Base Dry
sensibility to NG Semi-Base
composition Peak
The result of the steady state simulation for each topology is the following
CP 1 CP 2 CP 3
Inlet
D1
Pressure D2
psig 957 618/971 618/971
608/971 602
(Barg) (66) (42.6/67) (42.6/67)
(41.9/67) (41.5)
The design is the same of topology N1, except for the PP location and the idle capacity
of compression plant (CP3)
Topology N3 (Branch)
Inlet
D1
Pressure
psig D2
942 435
(Barg) (65) (30)
The demand called D1 ( General Purpose daily average demand ) includes residential
and industrial customers, and it follows the load curves showed in the appendix II-
load Curves which include typical hourly variation.
The initial condition (t=0) was established for three initial states in the PP:
a) Running : PP in service. Pressure profile resulting of steady state simulation.
b) Warm start-up: PP shutting-down at 1rst hour, remaining stand-by up to 11th
hour, then the PP starts-up again.
c) Cold start-up: The PP starts-up after the 11th hour. In this case the total
compression power utilized was reduced according with the initial load
requirements.
In the topology N1 and N2 the outlet pipe pressure was maintained in 594 psig
(41 Barg) while inlet pipe and compressor pressures were adjusted
In the topology N3 the outlet pipe pressure was 435 psig (30 Bar), but the inlet
pipe pressure was reduced.
Chart 5.3.1.
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
Time (hours)
6.1 Conclusions
6.1.1. The methodology employed shows that the tp assumed to prevent the transient
effects in the steady state simulations is not always effective. In topologies 1 and
2, it should be 50% instead the assumed 30% Pminpp. Its value depends strongly
on the others consumers demand curve, as could be seen in the Topology 3 case ,
where only a 7% will be necessary.
6.1.3. According to the type of weekly load curves assumed, the operation is stabilized
after 48 hs whatever configuration or type of PP load curve selected. It is obvious
that a sudden event (as an unexpected compressor outage)could modify this
regular oscillation.
6.1.4. The gas quality does not affect the dynamic system response. All the
chromatographies have the same dynamic behavior. Nevertheless, the compressor
power requirement is considerably affected. Heavier NG composition needs more
power compressor or different impellers to compensate the drop pressure at the
compressor suction side. On the other hand , the amount of energy (BTU)
transported will be rather different.
6.1.5. The assumption of constant discharge compressor pressure implies that the
changes in the load have to be supported by changes in the compressor power
utilized. In fact, it is not the usual way to operate a compression plant , but it is
useful to verify the maximum theoretical required power and the type and amount
of units to be installed. In certain case the operations with only one big unit will
not be possible.
6.1.6. The operational power requirements for the compression plant could reach a
range between 40 to 110%. For a given compressor configuration, it could be
necessary to assume a heavier oscillatory regimen. In this case, the electrical drive
compressor could be an appropriate solution.
6.1.7. When certain compressor configuration was selected after the first transient
analysis, and after choosing model and supplier. Additional transient analysis is
recommended to verify the final design.
6.2.1 When green field projects are being analyzed the Steady state design Transient
analysis verification methodology is the recommended alternative. This
statement is made taking into account the general misinformation, uncertainties
and ignorance about the demand behavior at beginning of the project.
6.2.2 The design utilizing steady state techniques implies the knowledge of the
existence of transient oscillations of the variables involved. It is not advisable
guarantee a Minimum Contractual Pressure without verifying the load curve
included in the contract.
6.2.3 The Minimum Contractual Pressure must be the lowest possible avoiding
working with higher design pressure.
6.2.4 To minimize the design risk the load curve should be agreed between the
Transportation Company and the shipper (PP). In certain cases a MHQ
(Maximum Hourly Quantity) should be established .( In the minimum risk
position : MHQ=MDQ/24).
6.2.6 When a peak load curve is expected, a lower MDQ could be contracted, but it will
never be possible if nobody contracts the capacity remaining (the difference
between the peak PP demand and the MDQ contracted by the PP). Contracting the
capacity lower than the peak required means that certain risk of shortage must be
assumed ( when the PP is called to dispatch does not have enough capacity)
6.2.7 When the PP is expected to be used as a seasonal peak reserve, the alternative is
using dual fuel solutions, with interruptible NG supply contract if somebody
builds the pipeline and contract firm capacity.
6.2.8 For certain load curves assumed and agreed the option booster compressor versus
pipeline capacity must be investigated, although always should remain as an
option in cases when the interaction between the PP and other customers over the
pipeline is significant.
The NG quality assumed under Dry denomination was: C1= 98%, C2=0.5 %, N2=
0.9%, CO2 0.6%, HHV = 1003 BTU/cf and SG = 0.567.
D1:Demandcurve
1,40
1,30
Adimensional Coeficient
1,20
1,10
1,00
0,90
0,80
0,70
0,60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
time(hour)
D2:Powerdemand
Base Case
1,20
1,00
Adimensional Coeficient
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hOUR)
1,20
1,00
Adimensional Coeficient
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hOUR)
D2:PowerDemand
SemiBaseCase
1,20
1,00
Adimensional Coeficient
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hOUR)
Appendix IV
Minimum pressure required by power technology
Oscar Alvarez has studied Civil Engineering at the Universidad Tecnolgica Nacional in
Buenos Aires, Argentina. He has more than 20 years worked in several positions into the
gas transmission industry. He is currently working as System Planning Supervisor at
TGN. He is a Professor in posgrade levels and author of several technical papers.