Journal of Marketing Management

ISSN: 0267-257X (Print) 1472-1376 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjmm20

New advances in attitude and behavioural

decision-making models

Nina Michaelidou & Louise Hassan

To cite this article: Nina Michaelidou & Louise Hassan (2014) New advances in attitude and
behavioural decision-making models, Journal of Marketing Management, 30:5-6, 519-528, DOI:
10.1080/0267257X.2014.884368

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2014.884368

Published online: 28 Mar 2014.

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 Journal of Marketing Management, 2014
Vol. 30, Nos. 56, 519528, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2014.884368

EDITORIAL

New advances in attitude and behavioural

decision-making models

Introduction
The seminal contributions of Fishbein and Ajzen remain prominent in consumer
research particularly in the areas of attitudes and decision-making. Fishbein and
Ajzen separately and jointly worked in these areas and have developed some of the
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most highly cited articles in consumer research. Works including the Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985, 1991) have amassed thousands of citations. The TPB
is an expectancy value model, which states that human behaviour is a consequence of
ones behavioural intention (the cognitive representation of the individuals
motivation to enact the behaviour in question), which is in turn explained by ones
attitude (the individuals positive or negative evaluation of performing the
behaviour), subjective norm (the individuals perceived social/peer pressure in
undertaking the behaviour) and perceived behavioural control (the individuals
perception of the ease or difficulty in enacting the behaviour). The TPB is an
extension of the TRA, which does not include perceived behavioural control and
thus is not designed to explain behaviours out with an individuals volitional control.
A large number of reviews and meta-analyses have concluded favourably on the
ability of the TRA/TPB to explain intention and behaviour across a wide spectrum
of contexts (e.g. Albarracin, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile, 2001; Armitage &
Conner, 2001; Conner & Armitage, 1998; Godin & Kok, 1996; Hagger,
Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Sheeran, 2002; Sheeran & Taylor, 1999;
Sheppard, Hartwick, & Warshaw, 1988; Trafimow, Sheeran, Conner, & Finlay,
2002; Webb & Sheeran, 2006).
Since their inception in 1975 and 1991, respectively, the TRA and TPB have
evolved to include additional constructs not within the original conceptualisation of
the theory, including among others self-identity, ethical obligation and past behaviour
(e.g. Bagozzi et al., 2000; Shaw & Shiu, 2013), and they have provided the
conceptual platform for other theories and models to emerge, including the
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM and TAM2) (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh &
Davis, 2000) and the Model of Goal-Directed Behaviour (MGB) by Perugini and
Bagozzi (2001). These theories have been extended also through combining the TRA/
TPB with other theories such as social identity theory (Fielding, Terry, Masser, &
Hogg, 2008), personality (Rhodes & Courneya, 2003) and human values (Hrubes,
Ajzen, & Daigle, 2001). Others have extended the TRA/TPB by exploring potential
moderating and mediating relationships (e.g. Churchill, Jessop, & Sparks, 2008;
Mathur, 1998; Muhamad & Mizerski, 2013; Norman & Conner, 2005),
decomposed the TRA/TPB constructs (e.g. Kidwell & Jewell, 2008; Rodgers,
2014 Westburn Publishers Ltd.
 520 Journal of Marketing and Management, Volume 30

Conner, & Murray, 2008; White, Smith, Terry, Greenslade, & McKimmie, 2009)
and used the TRA/TPB to evaluate the efficacies of interventions (e.g. Armitage,
2007; Fife-Schaw, Sheeran, & Norman, 2007).

Past and current published work on the TRA and TPB in business
and management

Fishbein and Ajzens TRA and TPB have been applied in multiple business and
management, psychology, health and medical contexts to name a few. Though the
objective of this editorial is not to conduct a systematic review of the literature on
these theories, as a heuristic attempt to gain a better understanding of the magnitude
of the published work which draws from, adapts and/or extends these theories in the
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areas of business and management, we searched two key online databases, Science
Direct and EBSCO, using the terms theory of planned behaviour and theory of
reasoned action appearing in titles, abstracts and keywords of scholarly publications
from 1993 to 2013. Our search, conducted in December 2013, indicated the
substantial number of works on these theories the past 20 years; in particular, a
search in EBSCOs Business Source Complete using the aforementioned terms,
appearing in titles, abstracts and subject terms provided by authors, produced 493
results for the TPB and 373 for the TRA. In addition, Science Direct yielded 52
entries for TRA and 126 entries for works on the TPB, with most works published in
journals like Information Management, Journal of Business Research, Tourism
Management, International Journal of Hospitality Management and Journal of
Economic Psychology over the last 20 years. Moreover, this exploratory search
confirmed that comparatively more attention is paid to the TPB, with recent
scholarly research on the theory being published between 2010 and 2013
appearing mostly in journals listed in EBSCOs Business Source Complete, such as
Journal of Business Ethics (17), Journal of Applied Social Psychology (16), Behaviour
& Information Technology Journal (11) and Transportation research (11). Consumer
research focused journals also had a considerable number of papers drawing on,
applying, and/or adapting the TPB between 2010 and 2013, with five papers
appearing in the International Journal of Consumer Studies (Aish, McKechnie,
Abosag, & Hassan, 2013; Carey, Bell, Duff, Sheridan, & Shields, 2011; Kang, Liu,
& Kim, 2013; Lopes, 2010; Ren, Chung, Stoel, & Xu, 2011), four papers in the
Journal of Marketing Management (Moons & De Pelsmacker, 2012; Richard &
Meuli, 2013; Rettie, Burchell, & Riley, 2012; Wells, Ponting, & Peattie, 2011),
four in Psychology and Marketing (Hauser, Nussbeck, & Jonas, 2013; Muhamad &
Mizerski, 2013; Nocella, Boecker, Hubbard, & Scarpa, 2012; Xie, Bagozzi, & stli,
2013), three in Journal of Consumer Marketing (Chan & Tsang, 2011; Hee & Jae-
Eun, 2011; Zhou, Thogersen, Ruan, & Huang, 2013), two in Journal of Retailing &
Consumer Services (e.g. Pookulangara, Hawley, & Xiao, 2011; Yang, 2012), two in
Journal of Consumer Behaviour (Prugsamatz, Lowe, & Alpert, 2010; Yap et al.,
2013), two in the International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
(Jeong, Stoel, & Chung, 2012; Ma, Littrell, & Niehm, 2012), two in Journal of
Strategic Marketing (Cavazos, 2013; Cavazos & Varadarajan, 2012) and finally, one
in Advances in International Marketing (Wenjie & Othman, 2010). Overall, these
 Editorial 521

exploratory findings reveal the significant interest and use of these models as a means
of understanding behaviour in multiple consumer contexts and situations.

Content of the special issue

The objective of this special issue was to draw more attention to consumer research
that utilises and advances Fishbein and Ajzens work in new and existing contexts. To
that end, this special issue consists of three competitive articles applying and
extending the TRA, TPB and MGB in varied contexts and using different
methodologies and samples. Our call for papers attracted a large number of
submissions (over 20), and the resulting articles provide new insights into this
important research area.
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The first article by Claire-Lise Ackerman and Adrian Palmer entitled The
contribution of implicit cognition to the Theory of Reasoned Action Model: a
study of food preferences, examines consumers attitudes towards healthy eating
focusing on the interplay between explicit and implicit measures of attitudes. The
authors employ quantitative research to test their set of hypothesis using a sample of
91 consumers, patrons of a restaurant in France. More specifically, the authors
measure implicit attitudes using an implicit association test (Brunel, Tietje, &
Greenwald, 2004) and then contrast them with self-reported explicit attitudes to
identify their impact on behavioural intention. The authors findings from a
regression analysis suggest that perceived normative beliefs and explicit attitudes
positively impact behavioural intention, whereas implicit attitudes do not. Further,
in comparing implicit and explicit attitudes, the authors find that for subjects with the
lowest difference between explicit and implicit attitudes (e.g. no psychological
conflict), perceived normative beliefs and explicit attitudes have a significant impact
on intention, whereas for subjects who show the highest difference between implicit
and explicit attitudes (e.g. a high psychological conflict), only explicit attitudes
significantly impact intention. Based on their results, the authors conclude that a
potential internal psychological conflict exerts a negative influence on the predictive
validity of the TRA, although they suggest that further research should investigate
this psychological conflict in depth using both qualitative and quantitative techniques.
The second article entitled The role of desire in understanding intentions to drink
responsibly: an application of the model of goal-directed behaviour, by Marie-Louise
Fry, Judy Drennan, Josephine Previte, Angle White and Dian Tjondronegoro, applies
the MGB (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001) to the key context of responsible drinking
behaviour among young Australians, using a quantitative methodology in the form of
an online questionnaire yielding 1522 responses. The authors test their model via
structural equation modelling and report that desire is the highest direct predictor of
intention to drink moderately, followed by perceived behavioural control. In
contrast, the authors find no direct significant relationship between frequency of
past behaviour and behavioural intentions. Additionally the authors findings show
that desire is predicted by subjective norms, followed by positive anticipated
emotions and frequency of past behaviour. Interestingly, the authors find that
attitudes and perceived behavioural control do not impact desire to drink
moderately. The authors further report that their models explanatory power of
desire and intention is strong and differs from other applications of the MGB and,
 522 Journal of Marketing and Management, Volume 30

hence, contributing to the theoretical and practical importance of emotions and

desires in the context of predicting intention to drink moderately.
Finally, the third article by John Gironda and Pradeep Korgaonkar entitled
Understanding consumers social networking site usage focuses on the topical
issue of social networking site (SNS) usage and draws on the Decomposed Theory
of Planned Behaviour by Taylor and Todd (1995) to examine motivations to use SNS
in the spectrum of three separate activities, including general SNS usage, joining a
business SNS page and clicking on an ad on a SNS. The authors use a mixed methods
approach involving an online survey with 467 respondents to empirically test their
model and associated hypotheses via structural equation modelling and semi-
structured interviews with 85 participants to shed further light into the motivations
of individuals to engage with SNS usage. The authors findings indicate variations in
the explanatory power of variables across the three SNS activities, while the
qualitative interviews indicate the deeper role of subjective norms in SNS usage.
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Avenues for future research

Although, as has been previously stated, there is a large body of research on the TRA/
TPB, there are nevertheless still many research gaps and unanswered research
questions. We do not attempt here to provide a full list of potential research
avenues but would like to suggest some areas which would enhance our
understanding of decision-making in the consumer research field. Some of these
ideas stem from recent research in the social psychology literature that would also
be applicable and of benefit for consumer researchers. Other ideas stem from our
observation of a general lack of insight within TRA/TPB research across all domains.
The first important area for future research concerns the modelling of the TRA/
TPB to include a measure of behaviour. Most research in the consumer behaviour
area assesses consumers intentions but does not measure behaviour at a latter point
in time. Thus, there is the potential that managers will make judgements and
decisions based on information that is not reliable because often there is a gap
between what consumers say they will do and what they actually do. Indeed in a
review of articles in the area of ethical consumption, Hassan, Shiu, and Shaw
(in press) find few articles that capture behaviour (at a later time point), and that
for a large proportion of those that do, there is a large gap between intention and
behaviour. Their own case study also evidences a large gap between intention and
behaviour in an ethical context. However, without more studies that measure
behaviour and do so in a way that maximises predictive power (see Sutton 1998
for a discussion around issues on measurement in the TPB), then it is difficult to
conclude at this stage regarding the extent of the intention-behaviour gap.
Furthermore, the fact that such a gap has been found across studies suggests that
research is needed to determine what factors other than intention and actual
behavioural control might help in explaining behaviour. This is an extremely
under-researched area that demands research attention. For instance, Hassan, Shaw,
Shiu, Walsh, and Parry (2013) highlight the potential role for uncertainty, while
Papaoikonomou, Ryan, and Ginieis (2011) provide insights on the roles of a
number of internal and external factors (e.g. price and time pressure), which might
have an impact on the intentionbehaviour relationship. We therefore encourage
researchers to, first, design studies, which allow for the measurement of behaviour
 Editorial 523

at a suitable time point after intention and, second, to capture and model a wide
range of factors that might lead to a better understanding of the psychological
processes that lead from intentions to actions. A related area is the need for
longitudinal applications of the TRA/TPB (e.g. Stead, Tagg, MacKintosh, & Eadie,
2005), which would enable consumer researchers to gain a deeper understanding of
the factors that lead to changes in attitudes, intentions and behaviours. Such studies
are rare in the consumer research field but help contribute to understanding the
stability of consumer behaviours. Stead et al. (2005) found over a 4-year longitudinal
application of the TPB that cross-sectionally the theory worked similarly at each wave
yet changes (as a result of a linked advertising campaign) in attitudes, and affective
beliefs regarding speeding were also found. These results help in evidencing the
potential of using the TPB both as a model for social marketing interventions and
for modelling other consumer behaviours such as understanding the influence of sales
promotions over time. Thus, researchers applying the TRA/TPB could consider
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undertaking a longitudinal study.

The next area that demands research attention is the do versus dont framing of
behaviour. The vast majority of research applications that utilise the TRA/TPB focus
on explaining doing something, that is buying a new pair of shoes online in the next
month. However, marketers (e.g. Smith, 2013) are calling for academics to
understand the psychological process of not buying as this is just as important as
understanding the buying process. There has been some recent research in this area
(e.g. Richetin, Conner, & Perugini, 2011), but there remains a need for research
looking at the belief structures that underlie each of attitude, subjective norm and
perceived behavioural control as well as the role that other factors might play in
differentially explaining doing and not doing behaviours. Such research might help in
understanding switching versus not switching as well as the avoidance of certain
behaviours. As framing effects have been well studied in other areas stemming from
works such as gain versus loss framing (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), there lies a
starting point that might bring benefits to understanding the operation of the TPB
across different types of action/inaction.
Despite some early applications of TRA/TPB across countries (e.g. Lee & Green,
1991; Malhotra & McCort, 2001) and the need to understand consumers in an
increasing global marketplace, cross-cultural applications and assessments of the
applicability of the TRA/TPB across national borders remain an under studied area.
As a result, whether the TPB can be considered as etic (theory building for
generalisation purposes based on universal frameworks) or emic (indigenous
approach based on understanding cultural-specific facets) is still to be conclusively
addressed. This is an important gap that needs many studies in different countries
conducted using the same methods over the same time period to be undertaken
across different consumer behaviours. A number of articles have already shown
evidence that the relationship between subjective norm and intention vary
significantly across countries (e.g. Cordano, Welcomer, Scherer, Pradenas, &
Parada, 2011; Dinev, Goo, Hu, & Nam, 2009); these results therefore lead to a
further set of broader research questions centred on the question: what cultural
factors influence the operation of the TPB? Addressing such a research question
might require the use of multi-level techniques, which would allow the
simultaneous modelling of individual-level as well as cultural-level factors in order
to explore the role of cultural-level factors in explaining variation in individual-level
relationships. Multi-level studies would as a result be beneficial within this research
 524 Journal of Marketing and Management, Volume 30

area in addition to smaller scale multi-country studies. Both of which would help in
determining the etic versus emic nature of the TRA/TPB and afford researchers
insights into how to culturally adapt the TPB.
Finally, we draw attention to three other areas that demand research attention and
which concern the nature and role of emotion, impulse and the sub-conscious within
the TRA/TPB. Emotions have been incorporated into the model of goal-directed
behaviour; however, anticipated emotions (both positive and negative) capture at
best one overarching view of emotional response. It is likely, however, that different
behaviours and behavioural contexts will elicit different types of emotions. As a
result, there is a need to capture and model specific types of emotions (e.g.
pleasure, fear, embarrassment), which might be more powerful in explaining
intentions. This is especially relevant as some research using the extended model of
goal-directed behaviour (e.g. Shiu, Hassan, Thomson, & Shaw, 2008) has found both
positive and negative anticipated emotions to be not relevant in explaining volition.
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Therefore, future researchers should consider capturing specific emotions that relate
to their chosen research context. Similarly, research by Churchill et al. (2008)
highlight that impulsivity adds to the prediction of behaviour over and above
intention and that as a result the modified TPB can be used to explain behaviours
that are not fully explained by rational decision criteria (e.g. snacking behaviour,
impulse buying). Therefore, researchers should take note of this exciting research
area and explore impulsivity and other factors that might assist in using the TRA/TPB
for explaining behaviours which to date have not been suited to rational decision-
making models. Finally, in recent years (see Bohner & Dickel, 2011 for a review),
there has been increasing interest in implicit attitude and the role of implicit attitudes
in decision-making, given that attitude is often the most influential antecedent of
intention within the TPB framework (Armitage & Conner, 2001); a logical extension
to the TPB would be the inclusion of implicit attitude in addition to the current
explicit measure. More research on assessing the role of implicit attitude within the
TPB framework is warranted.

Acknowledgements
We express our gratitude to all the colleagues and reviewers who supported this special issue by
providing constructive and timely feedback to authors work. We also thank the editors Mark
Tadajewski and Paul Hewer for offering this special issue opportunity, as well as the editorial
office for their support throughout this process, which has been excellent.

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Nina Michaelidou
School of Business and Economics, Loughborough University, UK
Louise Hassan
Bangor Business School, Bangor University, UK

Corresponding author: Nina Michaelidou, School of Business and Economics,

Loughborough University, LE11 3TU, UK.

T 01509 222435
E n.michaelidou@lboro.ac.uk