G.W.F.

Hegel, Preface to The

Phenomenology of Spirit:
For the rest it is not difficult to see
that our epoch is a birth-time, and a
period of transition. The spirit of man
has broken with the old order of things
hitherto prevailing, and with the old
ways of thinking
The Birth of Modernity
A new industrial age of mass production and mass
consumption
Mass participation in politics
A sense of rapid change and transformation
A sense that traditional ways of doing things were
out of date
The Rise of Ideologies
Socialism
Communism
Liberalism
Nationalism
Ideology in practice: the Revolutionary Emergence
of Nation-States
 Socialism and Labour Movements
Working Mens Agitation for More Rights
1819 Luddites break machines in factories
1820s, 1830s Chartists call for rights,
including universal male suffrage
1802 1833 English Factory Acts gradually
limited hours women and children could
work
1834 Poor Law compelled unemployed to
work in public factories called workhouses
1847 Ten-Hour Bill for women and
children
1871 Trade Unions recognised under law
1900 British Labour Party founded to push
for workers rights
Working Womens Agitation for More
Rights
In 1889 the German socialist Clara Zetkin
wrote: Just as the male worker is subjected
by the capitalist, so is the woman by the
man, and she will always remain in
subjugation until she is economically
independent. Work is the indispensable
condition for economic independence. Emmeline Pankhurst, leader of the British
suffragette movement
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and
Friedrich Engels (1820 1895)
Key works of classical
Marxism:
Engels, The Condition of
the Working Class in
England in 1844 (1845)
Marx and Engels,
Manifesto of the
Communist Party (1848)
Marx, Das Kapital (1867)
Theory of History
Mode of Production

Means of Relations of
Production Production
e.g. resources and Social and technical relationships
technology between people and means of
production
 SUPERSTRUCTURE
Social, Institutional,
Political, Ideological

Relations of
Production

Means of Production
BASE
 MODE OF MEANS OF
CLASSES
PRODUCTION PRODUCTION

None primitive
TRIBAL Hunt / Gather
communism

SLAVERY Slave labour Masters & Slaves

FEUDALISM Agriculture Landowners & Serfs

Bourgeoisie &
CAPITALISM Factories
Proletariat

Communal
COMMUNISM None - communism
ownership
Liberalism and Nationalism
Ideologies of Nationalism and Liberalism spread by:
Spread of Enlightenment thinking
the French and American Revolutions
the conquests of Napoleon
the Industrial Revolution - social change, increase in wealth
growing middle classes
Liberalism:
political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens,
representative government, and the protection of private property.
Derived from the Enlightenment.
Especially popular among the property-owning middle classes of
Europe and North America.
Nationalism:
Political ideology which states that people are naturally divided into
nations.
Peoples of the same ethnicity / language / culture / history are of
the same nation
Nation deserve their own sovereign states: the nation-state
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805 1872)
Believed that all the
people living in the
countries of the Italian
peninsula were one
nation
Wanted them to be
united in one country
Italy speaking one
language, Italian
Wanted them to be
independent of foreign
control
Formed Young Italy to
fight for an independent
united Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini, An Essay On the Duties of Man, Addressed to Workingmen (1858)

This means was provided for you by God when He gave you a country; . . .
he divided Humanity into distinct groups or nuclei upon the face of the
earth, thus creating the germ of nationalities. Evil governments have
disfigured the Divine design . . . by their conquests, their greed, and their
jealousy even of the righteous power of others. . . .
But the Divine design will infallibly be realized; natural divisions and the
spontaneous, innate tendencies of the peoples will take the place of the
arbitrary divisions, sanctioned by evil governments. The map of Europe
will be redrawn. The countries of the peoples, defined by the vote of free
men, will arise upon the ruins of the countries of kings and privileged
castes, and between these countries harmony and fraternity will exist. . . .
Then may each one of you, fortified by the power and affection of many
millions, all speaking the same language, gifted with the same tendencies,
and educated by the same historical tradition, hope even by your own
single efforts to be able to benefit all Humanity.
O, my brothers, love your Country! Our country is our Home, a house God
has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom
we love; a family with whom we sympathize more readily and whom we
understand more quickly than we do others. . . . Our Country is our
common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for
the benefit of the whole world; wherein the tools and implements of
labour we can most usefully employ are gathered together; nor may we
reject them without disobeying the plan of the Almighty, and diminishing
our own strength.
The Nation-State: Symmetry and Correspondence between
Sovereignty, Territory, and Legitimacy

Physical Legitimized People with

Territory administration shared characteristics

Country State Nation

Nation-State

A nation-state is a state which exists to provide a sovereign territory

for a particular nation, and which derives its legitimacy from that function
 1848 Revolutions
The revolutions of 1848 convinced
conservatives that governments
could not forever keep their citizens
out of politics
Conservatives began to realize that
mass politics, if properly managed,
could strengthen rather than
weaken the state.
A new generation of conservative
political leaders learned how to
preserve the status quo through
public education, universal military
service, and colonial conquests
all of which built a sense of
national unity.
 The Unification
of Italy (1859
1870)
Prior to 1859:
Sardinia-Piedmont,
Lombardy, Venetia,
Parma, Modena,
Romagne, Tuscany,
The Marches, The
Papal States, Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies
Count Cavour, Prime
Minister of Piedmont,
spearheaded
unification through a
series of wars against
the occupying
Austrians
Helped by:
Napoleon III of
France
Nationalist Giuseppe
Garibaldi
The Unification of Germany (18661871)
 The Unification of Germany
(18661871)
Prussian Chief Minister Otto von
Bismarck (1815 1898) used the
following factors to unite Germany
under Prussian leadership:
1. Prussias growing industrial,
economic and military power
Defeated Austria in 1866 Austro-
Prussian War
2. Germans growing sense of
nationalism and growing mutual
fear between Germany and France
Defeated France in 1870-1871
Franco-Prussian War
Prussia imposed a humiliating peace
treaty on France. Which included the
annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.
From 1871 onwards France and
Germany were international rivals
The Latin American Wars
of Independence, 1800-
1824
Simon Bolivar and other
revolutionaries made use of the
Napoleonic occupation of Europe
to take over Spanish colonies.
Spanish colonies then ruled by
juntas
Mexico: independence 1821
1824: Pedro I, son of King of
Portugal, declared Brazil
independent