MORE HINTS OF RECOVERY MAN OMAN TURBOCHARGER TESTING

ABOUT THE BUSINESS NEW SERVICE SHOP KSU EXPANDS CAPABILITIES

JULY 2016

PARTNERS
IN TRAINING

MECHANICAL DRIVE ORDER SURVEY

WWW.COMPRESSORTECH2.COM/SUBSCRIBE/

ALSO IN THIS ISSUE:

Filtration Efficiency
Centrifugal Surge Control
n Customer:
Petrochemical plant, Canada.

n Challenge:
Anti-fouling coating for compressor
rotors was being prematurely degraded
by cleaning.

n Result:
Elliotts replacement coating prevented
fouling and extended planned outages
by 2-3 years.

They turned to Elliott

for longer equipment life.
The customer turned to Elliott because they learned the hard way that not all rotor coatings
can handle chemical cleaning. Few companies can match Elliotts coating expertise.
Who will you turn to?

C O M P R E S S O R S n T U R B I N E S n G L O B A L S E R V I C E The world turns to Elliott.

www.elliott-turbo.com
July 2016

COMPRESSORtech2 is the premier resource for gas compression news and information.

Featured Articles
12 The Importance Of Filtration Efficiency On Compressor Health
16 Hotstart Brings Big Benefits To Small Package
18 2016 Mechanical Drive Order Survey
62 MAN To Open Service Shop In Oman

Cover Designed By
Carla Lemke
Partners In Training
24 Kansas State University Turbocharger Test Facility Expands Capabilities
COMPRESSORtech2 (ISSN 1085-2468)
Volume 21, No. 6 Published 10 issues/year 30 Partners In Training
(January-February, March, April, May, June,
July, August-September, October, November, 32 Training Options Aplenty With ASME
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6 Global Perspective The Answer Lies In Midstream
Follow @COMPRESSORtech2 on:
8 About The Business Oil & Gas Industry Showing Further Signs Of Recovery
10 Events & Meetings
31 Literature
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PUBLICATION STAFF
Associate Publisher ................... Mark Thayer
Associate Publisher ..............Roberto Chellini
Senior Editor ................................... DJ Slater
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Get Smart
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DIESEL & GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS
President & CEO .................... Michael J. Osenga
Executive Vice President ....Michael J. Brezonick
I
n my youth, I was told again and
again by parents, teachers, coun-
selors and well, everybody that
my life would be best served by earn-
ing a college degree. They told me my
earning potential would be much more
than with just a high school diploma.
They werent wrong.
In 2012, the US Census Bureau re-
ported that median earnings for a work-
er with a bachelors degree were 77%
higher than for a high school graduate.
Apparently, thats been a persis-
tent message. College enrollment
continues to grow, increasing 31%
between 2000 and 2014, according
to the National Center for Education-
al Statistics.
The message that has been shouted
from far fewer rooftops, however, is
that a successful and satisfying career
is possible without that pricey four-
year degree. Market-essential skills
can be learned in technical schools
and apprenticeships.
Within the last couple of years,
there was a lot of discussion about the
skills gap between the open jobs and
the workers available to fill those jobs.
That conversation seems to have
died down during the present industry
slowdown. Open jobs are scarce at
the moment.
But as Norm Shade mentions in his
column this month, there are early
signs that a turnaround is beginning.
In time, the hiring will pick up again.
Plus, new vacancies will be open-
ing up as around 10,000 Baby Boom-
ers retire each day, according to
Digital Trends. Over the next 10 to
15 years, waves of experience and
knowledge will leave the industry,
including many old-timers with 40+
years in compression.
It is estimated that by 2030, 75%
of the workforce will be Millennials.
Thats a high percentage of employ-
ees with a relatively small amount of
individual experience.
The need for education, training,
and knowledge transfer is as great
as ever.
Here at the magazine, we are proud
to help share some of that knowledge.
Contributions to our TECHcorners
from some of the smartest people
in the industry have helped make
COMPRESSORtech2 a remarkably
respected voice in gas compression.
In addition to the magazine, our an-
nual Compression Technology Sourc-
ing Supplement (CTSS) is filled with
both fundamental and cutting-edge
technical information. As an essential
learning tool, it is a key element of our
Partners In Training program.
We have highlighted many of the
colleges, companies, and organiza-
tions in Partners In Training in this is-
sue. The education available in these
programs targets learners of any level
of experience, whether they just fin-
ished high school, just transferred into
the industry or have been around the
divider block a few times.
Discover more in the pages that fol-
low, and look for the Partners In Train-
ing section on our website for links to
each program. CT2
Mark Thayer, associate publisher
mthayer@dieselpub.com
WHAT IS THE POWER OF ONE?
The power of one is what happens when many individuals join forces toward
a common goal. Its the greatness that can be achieved through a shared
purpose. For Compressor Products International, its the global footprint,
manufacturing efficiencies and product innovations that arise from the
unification of the 16 companies weve acquired since 2007. For our customers,
its the power of a single phone call for all of your oil & gas compressor needs.
Together, we are stronger. Together, we are CPI.

an EnPro Industries company

CPIstrong.com | 1-800-675-6646
CPIstrong.com/us | 1-800-675-6646
Global Perspective

The Answer Lies In

BY ROBERTO CHELLINI
ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER Midstream > As LNG fills portfolios, companies
will look to midstream markets

L
iquefied natural gas (LNG) appears to be making opportunities exist in the transport, marine, city gas and in-
headway in the portfolios of the major integrated oil dustrial sectors, albeit from low bases. However, a lack of
companies (IOCs), with Royal Dutch Shell, Exxon mid- and downstream infrastructure threatens to stall de-
Mobil, Chevron and Total making substantial liquefaction mand in these areas. Financing this type of infrastructural
capacity additions. development is complicated by constrained EM govern-
According to BMI Research, this shift from oil to gas ment resources and an increasingly diversified end-user
makes strong sense commercially in the long term. Fuel ef- base, according to BMI.
ficiency gains and progressive environmental policies have Traditionally, offtake has been dominated by a more
put increasing pressure on oil demand. And even though limited pool of large buyers, often major utilities, BMI
it will retain a substantial share of the overall said. Unlike EMs, these companies have had
energy mix in the foreseeable future, the sufficient demand and sufficient capital
opportunities for growth will become to develop and finance the necessary
increasingly limited, BMI said. infrastructure.
The global LNG market is un- To tap new sources of demand,
derdeveloped and uncertainties BMI states that IOCs will have
remain around future demand IOCs (integrated oil to look to smaller and more
growth, BMI said. In the past,
developed markets (DMs)
companies) will have diverse buyers. These buyers
lack either the financial or
in northwest Europe and to play a larger role in technical capacity to develop
northwest Asia were the
heavy consumers, but BMI
developing these chains, the value chains to import,
market and distribute gas.
states that incremental de- as well as position IOCs will have to play a larg-
mand will become increas-
ingly diversified and will
themselves in the er role in developing these
chains, as well as position
stem largely from emerging midstream sector ... themselves in the midstream
markets (EMs). sector, which is aware from core
BMI predicts unrestrained de- competencies upstream.
mand growth in EMs would be BMI has found that there is al-
rapid, given both broader energy de- ready evidence that companies are
mand growth trajectories and increased looking at demand creation, with a num-
fuel switching from oil and coal to natural gas. ber of memorandums of understanding signed
The uncertainty lies in the substantial barriers to entry, in in recent months, including in the marine fuel and small-
terms of offtake cost and infrastructure, BMI said. scale distribution sectors. We expect this trend to continue
One of the major barriers is regasification capacity, which going forward, catalyzed by weaker spot prices and accel-
becomes an issue with EMs that have plans to import LNG. erated fuel switching from crude to LNG.
With thin domestic markets and the lack of economy of The extent to which IOCs will wish to integrate them-
scale, EMs dont have the financial wherewithal to support selves along the value chain is debatable. However, a mid-
the necessary infrastructure for LNG. stream position may help build resilience in IOC portfolios,
BMI also states that issues also exist with bringing in new as contracting upstream shifts away from the long-term,
offtakers in existing markets. For example, strong growth take-or-pay model to the shorter-term, flexible contracts. CT2

JULY 2016 6 COMPRESSORtech2

Service with passion.

Marine Engines & Systems Power Plants Turbomachinery After Sales

We provide a global network of more than 100 service hubs worldwide, tailor-made solutions and
cutting edge technological prociency. Dedication, toil and the most responsive support available all
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About The Business
Oil & Gas Industry
Showing Further Signs Of
BY NORM SHADE Recovery > Aging workforce could thwart chemical
industry growth
T
he signs are showing that the oil and gas industry is
starting to recover. In early June, oil prices exceeded
US$50/bbl, which is 70% above the early 2016 lows.
Rig counts also increased for the first time in 41 weeks.
With drilling resuming in the most lucrative shale plays, a
modest increase in demand for gas lift compressors should
soon follow.
Natural gas prices have rebounded 58% from near all-
time lows earlier this year. Gas prices are not yet high
enough to justify drilling in all but the very best locations,
and current inventories remain high following a period of
overdrilling and a record warm winter. But production is al-
ready declining as a result of the past years dramatic re-
duction in drilling activity, and the excess inventory is only a
couple percent of annual production. This is causing some
analysts to predict that normal weather, combined with
lower production as existing wells decline, could lead to a
gas shortage within a year.
Despite the reduction in drilling, the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA) reported that the U.S. was again the
worlds top producer of oil and natural gas in 2015. On the
gas demand side, Cheniere Energy announced that its
Sabine Pass liquefied natural gas (LNG) project in Cameron
Parish, Louisiana, was scheduled to ship its first commercial
cargo in November. Cameron will be the second major U.S.
LNG export terminal to begin production this year.
Abundant supplies of domestic natural gas from shale
have moved the U.S. from being a high-cost producer of key
petrochemicals and resins to among the lowest cost pro-
ducers globally, creating a period of unprecedented growth.
The U.S. Department of Commerce said that U.S. chemi-
cal shipments in April rose for the 13th straight month, up
5% from the same month in 2015.
Thanks to our nations abundant supplies of shale
gas, the U.S. has become the worlds destination for new
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI
Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 46-year veteran of the
gas compression industry, he has written numerous papers
and is active in the major industry associations.
JULY 2016
chemical industry investment, said Cal Dooley, president
and CEO of the American Chemistry Council (ACC), in
June after Shell announced its decision to proceed with
building an ethane cracker in western Pennsylvania.
By the early part of the next decade, the facility will be a
major producer of ethylene and polyethylene. Concurrently,
PTT Global Chemical America officials said they are still con-
sidering building an ethane cracker in Ohio in addition to the
Shell facility. Relieving the current glut of ethane produced
from the rich Marcellus and Utica plays is an important step
that will eventually contribute to expanded production.
We currently have more than 262 new chemical projects
announced that are valued at over US$161 billion, Dooley
said. For the first time in more than a decade, the U.S.
chemical industry is creating good, high-paying American
jobs and its vital that we be able to attract and retain a
talented workforce that helps us continue to drive economic
expansion, innovation, and global competitiveness.
Just like the oil and gas industry, finding enough skilled
workers for a growing chemical industry is a major chal-
lenge. A recent ACC report emphasizes a problem that the
oil and gas industry faces. In a recent survey, more than 500
chemical industry respondents warned that North American
chemical companies face workforce turnover issues that
could lead to more operations disruptions, more safety risks
and more hiring and training costs. Chemical companies
face a shortage of experienced workers and must replace a
substantial number of retiring baby boomers in the coming
years as more than 20% of the workforce is approaching
retirement age in the next three to five years.
Most chemical firms compete with peers for personnel,
filling open positions mainly by hiring from other companies
in the industry. This makes for a limited talent pool and fierce
competition. Exacerbating the workforce challenges is the
so-called missing middle of workers ages 35 to 54. This is
also a tight labor pool from which to recruit and replace retir-
ing workers with valuable expertise. Awareness is a critical
first step, but it is important to work closely with schools,
communities and government leaders to ensure resources
are in place to prepare tomorrows workforce. CT2
8 COMPRESSORtech2
 Same great people.
Same great service.
Same great company.

You know what we do.

We can do more together.

Valerus is becoming SNC-Lavalins

Production & Processing Solutions
Valerus is now a part of the larger SNC-Lavalin family. Together, we
provide unmatched modular equipment facilities on a turnkey basis.

To learn more, visit snclavalin.com/en/oil-gas/processing-treating

2016 SNC-Lavalin.
 Dont replace.

Events & Meetings

Altronic_HHsprd_Mar16_CT2.indd All Pages

Boldface indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating

JULY www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/gascom- OCTOBER

July 25-27 pressor_home.html Oct. 2-5
SGA Operating Conference Gas Machinery Conference
Houston, Texas Sept. 14-15 Denver, Colorado
+1 (972) 620-8505 International Rotating +1 (972) 620-4026
www.southerngas.org Equipment Conference
www.gmrc.org
Duesseldorf, Germany
AUGUST +49 69 66 03 12 82
Oct. 10-13
Aug. 23-25 www.introequipcon.com
International Seminar Rotor
Power-Gen Natural Gas Dynamics & Bearings
Sept. 14-15
Columbus, Ohio
European Forum for Reciprocating Cologne, Germany
+1 (918) 831-9160
Compressors (EFRC) +49 2267 6585 0
www.power-gennaturalgas.com
Hofburg, Vienna, Austria www.arla-online.com
+49 69 6603 1286
SEPTEMBER
www.recip.org Oct. 11-13
Sept. 12-15
HHP Summit 2016
Turbomachinery Symposium/ Sept. 20-22
Pump Users Symposium Chicago, Illinois
Power-Gen Asia +1 (888) 993-0302
Houston, Texas Seoul, South Korea
+1 (979) 845-7417 www.hhpsummit.com
+44 1992 656 656
http://turbolab.tamu.edu www.powergenasia.com
Oct. 17-19
Sept. 13-15 Sept. 20-23 Saudi Arabia International Oil & Gas
Gas Compressor Short InnoTrans 2016 Exhibition (SAOGE)
Course Conference Berlin, Germany Dammam, Saudi Arabia
Norman, Oklahoma +49 30 30 38 2376 +39 06 3088 3030
+1 (405) 325-3136 www.innotrans.de www.saoge.org

JULY 2016 10 COMPRESSORtech2

Rebuild.
The Altronic Flashguard 2.0 Secondary Spark Plug Lead System
gives you the ability to fully rebuild spark plug leads in the field.
Incorporating custom Teflon extensions, including special boots, or grommets/terminal pins acquired directly from your
extensions for the Caterpillar 3300 and 3400 engines, multiple Distributors inventory or your own.
wire styles, a range of primary and secondary connections, and
This system offers accessibility, reliability, and the performance
an assortment of lead accessories, you can cost-effectively that are critical to minimize downtime, while driving the
specify a lead for manufacture by your local Distributor, or
necessary cost-control and serviceability that are so crucial to
locally by your own personnel. In either case, leads can be twenty-first century operation.
serviced/rebuilt when necessary with moderately priced, easily
installed replacement components, including new O-rings, wires, Contact your Altronic Distributor for all the details.

HOERBIGER Engine Solutions

Find a distributor near you at www.altronic-llc.com

2/17/16 9:44 AM

For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/

Oct. 24-27 Nov. 15-17 Feb. 22-24

Rio Oil & Gas SIPPE Australasian Oil and Gas Conference
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Shanghai, China Perth, Australia
+55 21 2112 9079 +86 21 65929965 +61 3 9261 4500
www.ibp.org.br www.sippe.org.cn/en www.aogexpo.com.au

DECEMBER Feb. 26-March 1

NOVEMBER
Dec. 13-15 Laurance Reid Gas
Nov. 2-4
Power-Gen International Conditioning Conference
EP China 2016 Orlando, Florida Norman, Oklahoma
Beijing, China +1 (918) 831-9160
+1 (405) 325-3891
+852 2811 8897 www.power-gen.com
www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/lrgcc_
www.epchinashow.com
home.html
JANUARY 2017
Nov. 7-10 Jan. 24-26
Feb. 27-March 2
ADIPEC Offshore West Africa
Nigeria Oil & Gas Conference
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Lagos, Nigeria
+1 (713) 963 6283 Abuja, Nigeria, Africa
+971 2 6970 518 +234 706 911 7347
www.offshorewestafrica.com
www.adipec.com www.cwcnog.com
FEBRUARY
Nov. 14-16 MARCH
Feb. 6-8
International Petroleum Basra Oil & Gas Conference March 15-16
Technology Conference and Exhibition Global Oil & Gas Turkey
Bangkok, Thailand Basra, Iraq Istanbul, Turkey
+971 4 457 5800 +90 21 23 56 0056 +44 207 596 5193
www.iptcnet.org www.basraoilgas.com www.global-oilgas.com/turkey

JULY 2016 11 COMPRESSORtech2

The Importance Of Filtration
Efficiency On Compressor
Health > Equipment condition imperative
to overall pipeline efficiency
BY DAN BURCH
n This chart represents turbine performance, starting with, from top to bottom,
MW output, heat rate and differential pressure.
T
urbine technology has developed over the years and
the latest machines offer new levels of efficiency.
Blades, rotors and stators are all carefully designed
and maintained and fuel quality carefully monitored to pro-
tect the turbine.
Turbines used for gas compression, however, consume
vast quantities of air, which carries particles that can hamper
the performance of the units. Understanding and selecting
the proper air inlet filtration system will have a huge impact
on system performance and overall operating profits.
On paper, filters are given an efficiency rating based on
laboratory tests. Large dust or sand particles can cause
corrosion. Small particles smaller than two microns
entering the turbine will foul compressor blades, affecting
aerodynamic performance and reducing the units efficiency.
Dan Burch is the marketing leader for the gas turbine
filtration business at Clarcor Industrial Air. Contact him
at: daniel.burch@clarcor.com.
JULY 2016
For filters, a higher rating equates to better efficiency, which
will protect the unit from smaller particles. Many operators
now look for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
or high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration products
for protection, but its not that simple.
Gas turbine compressors do not operate in a laboratory.
This machinery not only deals with dust, but also moisture
in the form of mist or fog, salt particles in liquid or solid form
if near (within 12 mi. [19.3 km]) seawater, and hydrocarbon
mists. The efficiency ratings of filters based on test stan-
dards such as ASHRAE 52.2, EN779 (filters rated F9 and
below) or EN1822 (HEPA-class filtration) do not allow for all
the additional environmental factors surrounding a turbine
in the real world.
Considerations in the design of a filtration system include
the size of the filter house. Retrofitting (H)EPA filters to ex-
isting installations may not be practical because of their
size. Depending on where the turbine is situated, even new
installations may present restrictions on the size of the filter
house used.
continued on page 14
12 COMPRESSORtech2
Everywhere.
Providing solutions for oil and gas applications upstream, downstream and in-between.

We are where you need us.

Welcome to a new era of innovation and technology.
As you have come to expect, Dresser-Rand provides
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But theres more.
The new Dresser-Rand business now has expanded
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combines one of the industrys most extensive
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 By itself, a filter efficiency rating does not give an indica- None of the above factors are reflected in a filters ef-
tion of the robustness of a filter. In many gas pipeline ficiency rating. Rating standards do not always require
installations, standard (H)EPA filters that are widely media neutralization prior to testing. Operators should
used in HVAC and other smaller applications may not be evaluate the test method being used. Electrostatic charge
strong enough to withstand the rigors of an oil and gas may give enhanced filtration results in the laboratory that
installation environment. will quickly disappear in the field.
While standard filter efficiency ratings provide an indication
of performance and a baseline to compare filter technolo-
gies, operators ultimately need to look to the compressor
health and gas turbine performance as the measure of a
filters suitability for an installation. If gas turbine efficiency
drops, machinery becomes damaged, which then leads to
unplanned shutdowns.

Considerations In Filter Selection

One consideration is how much air and moisture are going
to pass through the inlet house. This will be a factor in the
size of the inlet house. Additional options are also available
that can be implemented to support the filter itself. These
include weather hoods to guard against rain and snow, mist
eliminators, moisture separators and coalescers. How a filter
system handles moisture is vital to the performance of the
final filter stage and to the protection of the gas turbine.
Moisture forms when small droplets get trapped inside a
filters media. This can cause sudden and unexpected block-
ages that result in pressure spikes. Moisture and hydrocarbon
mists will also make any particles, such as dust or salt in the
air, sticky and more likely to adhere to compressor blades.
The environment in which a filter is installed will also de-
termine the selection of casing materials. Operators need
to consider if a metal casing will be affected by corrosion.
Stainless steel, for example, is recommended for coastal
sites. If a plastic housing is selected, some plastics can be-
come brittle, crack or lose their shape over time. The plastic
used needs to be appropriate for the environment and last
over the expected lifetime of the filter.
Another area that affects filter performance is the over-
all robustness of its design. If the seal between the filter
and its casing is compromised, any filter efficiency rating is
rendered irrelevant as air can bypass the filter altogether.
Poorly constructed filters will allow particulates, water and
contaminants to reach the compressor, causing fouling and
corrosion. Operators should look for filter options that pro-
mote positive sealing and avoid air bypass issues.
Another major consideration in filter selection is the media
that it uses. Not all media perform the same in different en-
vironmental conditions. Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene
(ePTFE) media, for example, uses thin layers that are eas-
ily susceptible to blockage from moisture or hydrocarbon
mists. Some media use hydrophobic coatings to protect
filters from leaching of moisture and liquids, but operators
need to ensure these barriers will last throughout the filters
life. Glass fiber media is about 10 times thicker than ePTFE
and less prone to sudden blocking. Chemical binders, how-
ever, are used to keep it together, which means operators
should make sure they are water soluble and wont disinte-
grate if they become wet.
n Turbine blade corrosion is one example
of real-world consequences that are not
necessarily reflected in industry standard
filtration tests.
Evaluating Filtration Performance
Filter performance can only be evaluated by the perfor-
mance of the compressor. Field trials have been carried out
in various locations throughout the world to evaluate the
effect of different media types. The results have shown that
the correct filter selection can reduce or even remove the
need for offline washes, stop fouling of compressor blades
and offer a realistic filter life without unrealistic demands on
maintenance overheads.
Conclusion
Filter efficiency rating standards today do not give op-
erators a true picture of how a filter will perform in the real
world. Filter selection will have a huge impact on all aspects
of a compressors health and performance. It will affect the
lifetime of the turbine, system availability, maintenance
overheads, rate of performance degradation, power output,
heat rate and system differential pressure.
The configuration of the filter system may seem a lesser
consideration than the overall compressor design, but un-
derstanding how to select the right option for the demands
of an installation could save millions of dollars throughout
the systems lifetime. CT2

JULY 2016 14 COMPRESSORtech2

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DO YOU HAVE A FULL BLUESTROKE
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UNDERSTANDING OF YOUR RECIP? SERVICE

WE OFFER CUSTOMIZED
RECIP COMPRESSOR TRAINING.
Sessions can be held at your plant or at our NEAC
Training Center in the factory of Germany. We provide
hands-on training for disassembly, inspection and
reassembly. Additionally, get in-depth knowledge
on the entire compression system including control
systems to simulate start-up, shutdown, routine
operation, and troubleshooting.
The choice is yours.

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A company of NEUMAN & ESSER GROUP
Headquarters in Germany
www.neac.de
Contact me for requests in Europe:
Norbert Janssen
Product Manager Training
norbert.janssen@neac.de
Phone: +49 2451 481-325
Hotstart Brings Big Benefits To
Small Package > CSE system designed for hazardous locations BY MARK THAYER

n The CSE heating system can be used in cold

and warm climates, aiding with engine startup or
preventing condensation inside engine cylinders
and other critical components.

H
otstart now offers the forced-
circulation benefits of large
explosion-proof systems in a
compact package for smaller engines.
The engine block heater manu-
facturer has developed its new CSE
coolant heating system, designed for
hazardous location applications in
the oil and gas market. It is the com-
panys first explosion-proof, coolant-
forced circulating system built direct-
ly for small horsepower engines with
a small-form factor.
Hotstart is always trying to diver-
sify its product line, said Pat Nor-
wood, Hotstarts marketing manager,
oil & gas. The CSE fills a hole in the
explosion-proof product line and pro-
vides our customers with the benefits
of forced circulation without the added
cost of larger EP systems.
The CSE features a positive dis-
placement pump, which pulls coolant
from the low end of the system. The
system heats the coolant and circu-
lates its back to heat the block and
cylinders. The CSE heats engines up
to 4000 cu.in. (6555 cm3) displace-
ment (CID) or 17.2 gal. (65 L) based
on the specified power, Norwood said.
The planning process for the CSE
stems back to the development of
another Hotstart product the OSE
small capacity oil heating system (see
April 2015 COMPRESSORtech2, p.
24). While designing the OSE, Hot-
start recognized a need for a small
coolant system that offered cold-start
capability and prevented condensa-
tion, Norwood said.
In essence, the system could be
used in cold climates and warmer
weather, even in high humidity. The
system helps maintain engine tem-
perature above the dew point, which
reduces the risk of condensation in-
side the engine cylinders and other
critical components, Hotstart said.
The CSE is also built to and with
CSA Class 1, Div. 2 Gas Group D
specifications and components, Nor-
wood said, adding that it is suited for
customers who have small horse-
power gas compression skids or com-
pressed natural gas/liquefied natural
gas (CNG/LNG) distribution points
where heating is required.
The existing options are either
too big (CLE) or they do not want
to use thermosiphon type heaters,
Norwood said. The CSE is different
because it fits the small-form factor
of these small hp engines, but also
provides the benefits of forced circu-
lation of the larger explosion-proof
systems.
Even though Hotstart already has
small coolant heaters in its product
lineup, such as the CSM and CMM,
the company had nothing for hazard-
ous locations until now.
The existing CLE system is pre-
dominantly used in larger engine ap-
plications (159 gal. [600 L]), but, in the
past, has been used with small 65 L
engines and smaller, he said.
The CSE debuted in the second
quarter of this year. It is available
for North American applications and
50 Hz, 400 V European applications
upon request. CT2

JULY 2016 16 COMPRESSORtech2

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 2016 Mechanical Drive
Order Survey > Celebrating 11 Years BY JACK BURKE

E
ach year, our sister publication, Diesel
Reciprocating
RECIP ENGINEEngine Orders
ORDERS
& Gas Turbine Worldwide, conducts
8000
three surveys designed to provided 7000
details on the markets of larger reciprocat- 6000
ing engines, steam turbines and gas turbines 5000

Units
4000
used in power generation, mechanical drive
3000
and marine propulsion applications. The Me- 2000
chanical Drive Order Survey is devoted to 1000
prime-mover orders for mechanical drive ap- 0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
plications, including pumps, compressors, oil-
Years
exploration machinery, rail and other indus-
trial applications. What follows is an amended
version of that survey, tailored specifically to-
ward the gas compression marketplace. Gas
GAS TurbineORDERS
TURBINE Orders
300

Procedures 250

The Mechanical Drive Order Survey in- 200

Units

cludes prime movers beginning at 0.5 MW. 150

New orders are broken into reciprocating en- 100
gine, gas turbine and steam turbine orders. 50
Fuel types are simplified to reflect only liquid 0
versus gaseous fuels. Liquid fuel, as reported 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

in this survey, can be any form of diesel oil. Years

It is important to note that the data in this
survey does not represent units shipped, but
only the total orders received during calen- SteamTURBINE
STEAM TurbineORDERS
Orders
dar-year 2015. 600
An accompanying table shows the geo- 500
graphic breakdown we provide OEMs, high-
Units

400
lighting the specific countries within the re- 300
ported geographic regions.
200
Every effort is made to ensure that this sur-
100
vey is as complete and comprehensive as
0
possible and would not have the level of detail 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
it contains without the generous contributions Years
continued on page 20 *Steam turbines were added to the survey in 2009.

Country Information For Regions/Regional Codes in D&GTW Annual Market Surveys

Western Europe Liechtenstein Spain Belarus Latvia
Andorra Luxembourg Sweden Bosnia and Herzegovina Lithuania
Austria Italy Switzerland Bulgaria Moldova
Belgium Ireland United Kingdom Croatia Poland
Denmark Malta Czech Republic Republic of Macedonia
Finland Netherlands Eastern Europe, Estonia Romania
France Norway Russia & CIS Georgia Russia
Germany Portugal Albania Hungary Serbia
Greece San Marino Armenia Kazakhstan Slovac Republic
Iceland Slovenia Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan

JULY 2016 18 COMPRESSORtech2

 MECHANICAL DRIVE RECIPROCATING ENGINE ORDERS, January December 2015
Engine Operating

Central America
Western Europe

Southeast Asia

South America
North America
Total Engine Fuel

Central, West,
Speed Ranges

East & South

& Caribbean
North Africa
Russia & CIS

Central Asia
Middle East
Output Range Number Output For

& Australia
(MW) Of Units Each Output 300 to 720 to above

Far East
Europe,
Eastern
Diesel Heavy Natural

Africa
Range (MW) 600 1000 1000
Fuel Fuel Gas
rpm rpm rpm
0.50 to 1.00 2016 1255 0 0 2016 1934 18 64 589 80 3 182 90 6 0 25 1030 1 10
1.01 to 2.00 783 1184 0 2 781 543 0 240 66 26 6 86 64 10 0 5 501 0 19
2.01 to 3.50 406 1101 0 11 395 366 0 40 8 19 13 101 2 1 0 183 70 0 9
3.51 to 5.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.01 to 7.50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7.51 and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
above
Totals 3205 3540 0 13 3192 2843 18 344 663 125 22 369 156 17 0 213 1601 1 38

MECHANICAL DRIVE GAS TURBINE ORDERS, January December 2015

Southeast Asia

South America
North America
Total Engine

Central, West,
Fuel

East & South

North Africa
Russia & CIS

Central Asia
Middle East

& Australia
Number Of Output For Each

Caribbean
America &
Output Range (MW)

Western

Far East
Europe,
Units Output Range

Eastern

Central
Europe
Diesel Heavy Natural

Africa
(MW) Fuel Fuel Gas
1.00 to 2.00 1 4.77 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.01 to 3.50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.51 to 5.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.01 to 7.50 2 11.4 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
7.51 to 10.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10.01 to 15.00 11 147.4 0 0 11 2 5 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
15.01 to 20.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20.01 to 30.00 21 512 0 0 21 0 6 8 3 0 0 4 0 0 0 0
30.01 to 60.00 53 1767 0 0 53 0 1 11 0 4 0 0 0 31 3 3
60.01 to 120.00 4 412 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
120.01 to 180.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
180.01 and above 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 92 2854.57 1 0 91 2 12 21 4 4 0 8 0 35 3 3

MECHANICAL DRIVE STEAM TURBINE ORDERS, January December 2015

Central, West, East
Steam Turbine Types

Central America
Western Europe

Southeast Asia

South America
North America
Output
& South Africa

Number Total Engine

& Caribbean
North Africa
Russia & CIS
Condensing

Condensing

Central Asia
Middle East

Range
& Australia
Extraction

Induction

Of Units Output (MW)

(MW)
Far East
Europe,
Eastern
Reheat
Non-

0.0 to 1.00 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.01 to 5.00 13 47 5 8 0 0 0 2 4 4 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.01 to 10.00 18 145 8 8 0 2 0 1 5 0 0 5 4 0 2 1 0 0
10.01 to 30.00 26 520 2 5 0 15 4 0 7 0 1 7 1 0 5 5 0 0
30.01 to 60.00 11 394 4 0 0 6 1 0 4 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 1
60.01 to 120.00 5 379 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
120.01 and above 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 74 1482 23 19 0 25 5 1 21 4 4 20 6 0 7 8 0 1

Country Information For Regions/Regional Codes in D&GTW Annual Market Surveys

Turkmenistan Iraq Turkey North Korea Cambodia
Ukraine Israel United Arab Emirates South Korea Fiji Islands
Uzbekistan Jordan Yemen Taiwan Indonesia
Kuwait Kiribati
Middle East Lebanon Far East Southeast Asia Laos
Bahrain Oman China & Australia Malaysia
Cyprus Qatar Hong Kong Australia Marshall Islands
Egypt Saudi Arabia Japan Brunei Micronesia
Iran Syria Mongolia Burma Palau

JULY 2016 20 COMPRESSORtech2

 Combined Geographic Totals of the participating companies. An accompanying
(All Driver Types) table identifies those companies that participated in
January December 2015 the 2016 survey.
It is important to note, some units reported in the
South America 2016 Mechanical Drive Order Survey did not have
Central America & Caribbean complete information. In some cases OEMs chose
North America not to provide engine output, fuel type or geography
for some of their reported orders.
Central, West, East & South Africa
North Africa Overview
Central Asia This marks the 11th year for the Mechanical Drive
Southeast Asia & Australia Order Survey. Year-over-year comparison shows a
Far East decline in total orders (all reported drivers types)
Middle East from 2014 to 2015. This years survey catalogued
3371 orders (2015 data), a 37% drop compared to
Eastern Europe, Russia & CIS
last years report (2014 data) which recorded 5361
Western Europe
units. Orders in 2014 were up 20% over 2013 and
0 400 800 1200 1600 ended a two-year decline.
continued on page 22
Country Information For Regions/Regional Codes in D&GTW Annual Market Surveys
Papua New Guinea Vietnam North Africa Botswana Djibouti Lesotho
Philippines Algeria Burkina Faso Equatorial Guinea Liberia
Samoa Central Asia Libya Burundi Eritrea Madagascar
Singapore Afghanistan Morocco Cameroon Ethiopia Malawi
Solomon Islands Bangladesh Tunisia Cape Verde Gabon Mali
Tahiti India Cen. African Rep. Gambia Mauritania
Tonga Maldives Islands Central, West, Chad Ghana Mauritius
Thailand Nepal East & South Africa Comoros Guinea Mozambique
Tuvalu Pakistan Angola Congo Guinea Bissau Namibia
Vanuatu Sri Lanka Benin Cte dIvoire Kenya Niger

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 COMBINED UNIT ORDERS,
ALL DRIVER
Combined Unit Orders,TYPES
All Driver Types
8000
7000
6000
5000
Units

4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Years

The accompanying graphs show the cyclical
nature facing the mechanical drive applications
reporting into this survey.
The past year mirrored the previous in several
large themes: Low oil prices, economic challenges
in China and political unrest in major oil and gas
producing countries again tamped down demand.
Effects of these challenges began to take their toll
in the fourth quarter of 2014, with oil and gas majors
announcing deep cuts that continued through 2015.
There are a few positive signs in the market,
however. Oil prices which had been trading at
their lowest levels in a decade have regained
about 70% from their February lows. However,
todays oil stocks will likely have a major damp-
ening effect on price increases.
Reciprocating Engines
The number of reciprocating engines ordered in
2015 total 3205 units, a 35% decrease compared
to last years survey. The majority of orders were
divided between the output ranges of 0.50 to 1 MW
(2016 units) and 1.01 to 2.00 MW (783 units).
Engine operating speeds above 1000 rpm
accounted for 99% of the recip orders report-
ed in the survey.
Diesel fuel once again dominated the fuel
type, accounting for 89% of the reported orders.
North America once again claimed the top
geographic destination for reciprocating engines
in 2014 (50%). North Americas shale development and in-
frastructure remains unrivaled, keeping it the top geograph-
ic destination for mechanical drive reciprocating engines for
the foreseeable future.
Western Europe was the second geographic destination
for recip engines within the mechanical drive segment, re-
ceiving 20% of 2015 orders. The Far East was next at 12%.
Gas Turbines
Gas turbine orders decreased 44% compared to the
2015 Mechanical Drive Order Survey. Total orders reported
in this survey equaled 92, compared with 167 in 2014.
Units with the output range of 30.01 to 60.00 MW re-
ceived the most orders (58%), followed by units rated 20.01
to 30.00 MW (23%).
North America was the top geographic location for gas
turbines in mechanical drive applications, receiving 38%
of the orders. The Middle East claimed the number two
geographic location, accounting for 23% of the orders re-
ported, followed by Eastern Europe, Russia and the Com-
monwealth of Independent States (CIS) (13%).
Steam Turbines
Steam turbine orders declined 75% compared to last years
surveys. Total steam turbine units ordered in 2015 was 74, fall-
ing mostly within the 10 to 30 MW output range (35%).
Condensing steam turbines saw the most demand, ac-
counting for 31% of the total steam turbines ordered.
Eastern Europe, Russia and CIS had the most orders
(28%), followed by Southeast Asia & Australia (26%).

Country Information For Regions/Regional Codes in D&GTW Annual Market Surveys

Nigeria Tanzania Bolivia Uruguay Cuba Mexico
Rwanda Togo Brazil Venezuela Dominica Nicaragua
Senegal Uganda Chile Panama
Dominican Republic
Seychelles Colombia Central America Puerto Rico
Zaire El Salvador
Sierra Leone Ecuador & Caribbean Virgin Islands
Zambia
Somalia Guatemala West Indies
Zimbabwe Guyana Bahamas
South Africa Paraguay Bermuda Haiti
North America
Sudan South America Peru Belize Honduras Canada
Swaziland Argentina Surinam Costa Rica Jamaica U.S.A.

JULY 2016 22 COMPRESSORtech2

 Annual Surveys
Reciprocating
On behalf of COMPRESSORtech2 and Diesel & Gas Turbine Worldwide Worldwide,
Engine thank you to all contributors for your continued participation in this annual
Manufacturers survey process. It is our hope that these surveys combined will provide an
Caterpillar accurate snapshot of the entire large engine landscape, with fine-tuned
Inc. detail provided for three market segments through each individual report
power generation, mechanical drive and marine propulsion. Electronic ver ver-
GE Oil &
sions of past surveys are available at our website: www.dieselgasturbine.
Gas com. Questions, comments and suggestions should be directed to Jack
GE Power & Burke at: jburke@dieselpub.com. CT2
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JULY 2016 23 COMPRESSORtech2


PARTNERS
IN TRAINING
n The National Gas
Machinery Lab, located at
a Manhattan, Kansas, indus-
trial park near the Kansas State
University campus, provides research
and testing services for the natural gas
transmission industry and a real-
world learning environment for
undergraduate and graduate
students.
JULY 2016
Kansas State University
Turbocharger Test
Facility Expands
Capabilities
National Gas
Machinery Lab
provides students
with a real-world
classroom experience
W
ith changes implemented last year, the National Gas Machinery Laboratory
(NGML), a designated research institute of Kansas State University (KSU), has
three turbocharger test cells. The most recent addition, a mid-flow cell that be-
came operational in November 2015, fills the gap between the facilitys low- and high-flow
test cells and significantly increases its capacity for testing more units.
Located in a 10,000 sq.ft. (929 m2) industrial laboratory at an industrial park near
KSUs main campus in Manhattan, Kansas, the NGML serves the prime mover industry
with fully instrumented turbocharger and engine test stands. It provides a real-world
classroom for students.
The NGML, directed by Byron Jones, has supported the natural gas transmission indus-
try since 1995. The facility is staffed year-round by 11 part-time undergraduates and one
graduate student, who do all of the turbocharger installation and testing under the guidance
of the director, a business manager and an engineering manager. Students, who are most
commonly in the KSU mechanical engineering program, typically start employment at the
NGML as sophomores or juniors and continue working there until graduation.
continued on page 26
24 COMPRESSORtech2
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 n NGML added a new mid-flow test cell in 2015 that can handle
PARTNERS turbochargers with a flow rate up to 10,000 scfm (283 m3/min) and
compression ratios that are typically only limited by the turbocharger.
IN TRAINING The closed-loop, bootstrap facility has a Detroit Diesel engine with a
gear and over-running clutch for starting the turbochargers.

The NGMLs small turbocharged, low-flow test cell is

Students develop a disciplined work ethic to supplement
an academic education, experiencing an industry safety
culture that creates well-trained, experienced engineers
for an easy step into full-time careers, said Eric Figge, en-
gineering manager. The lab emphasizes industry safety
practices, with oversight by an industry committee.
The facilitys high-flow test cell, which was completely re-
built in 2011, is a versatile closed-loop arrangement that op-
erates on natural gas for combustion. The large bootstrap
test cell can accommodate testing several turbocharger
sizes and brands, including the largest in the industry.
The test cell can handle flow rates of 5000 to 30,000 scfm
(142 to 850 m3/min), compression ratios up to 3:1 and pres-
sures up to 30 psig (2.1 bar). A natural gas burner is used to
heat air entering the turbine to as high as 1200F (650C),
which allows testing to be conducted under simulated field
engine exhaust conditions.
Operating parameters can be changed while turbo-
chargers are tested in the instrumented test cell designed
to meet ASME and SAE test codes. The calibrated data
acquisition system meets Nuclear Regulatory Commission
requirements. A software interface minimizes the possibility
of human error and provides automated report generation.
JULY 2016
an open-loop arrangement with the turbocharger and gas
burner inside a sound-attenuating chamber and an external
engine-driven compressor that provides pressurized air. It
can be used to test turbochargers as small as automotive to
as large as the Caterpillar 3500 engine, with flows to 3000
scfm (85 m3/min), pressure ratings up to 80 psig (5.4 bar)
and inlet temperature up to 1650F (900C). The small cell
has also been used to test some very high performance/
high output turbochargers.
The new mid-flow test cell can handle turbochargers with
a flow rate up to 10,000 scfm (283 m3/min) and compres-
sion ratios that are typically only limited by the turbo. The
closed-loop, bootstrap facility has a Detroit Diesel engine
with a gear and overrunning clutch for starting the turbos.
It is configured for testing several models of EMD locomo-
tive turbochargers, but can also accommodate other tur-
bochargers, such as Cooper-Bessemer ET18s and various
Elliott models.
Having this new stand frees up the high-flow rig and
greatly increases our capacity, Jones said.
Supporting equipment at the facility includes a motor-
driven compressor that boosts natural gas fuel to the pres-
sure required for engines and the high-flow turbocharger
test cell. Additional equipment includes fin-fan air coolers
26 COMPRESSORtech2
 The NGML is focused on its mission
PARTNERS statement of maintaining a center
of expertise to reduce the life-cycle
IN TRAINING costs of prime mover operations
and be a focal point for industry
education, research and application,
and outreach
Byron Jones, NGML director
for turbo water systems, a smaller air
cooler for the high-flow test stand oil
system and a portable air compres-
sor with air receivers that can deliver
up to 750 cfm (21 m3/min) at 100 psig
(6.9 bar) for jet assist starting. There
ng
is also a cooling tower that is used for
En gine Testi
dynamometer water cooling. #1 re!
The NGML has a large inventory Softwa
of transitions and adapters to fit vari-
ous turbochargers into the test cells.
Inventory is maintained in computer-
ized records, which helps ensure
the correct equipment can be re-
trieved quickly.
The majority of our testing is for tur-
bos that have been recently overhauled,
said Cody Catlin, business manager.
Many of the tests support turbo-
charger overhaul and repair facilities.
Other turbochargers are received di-
rectly from end users.
With all cells having consistent in-
strumentation, our testing capabilities
take the guesswork out of turbocharger
performance and matching, Figge said.
Tests range from a short mechani-
cal evaluation to confirm the integrity
after overhaul to a full-blown perfor-
mance test that includes complete
TEC soft Testing & Emissions
Compliance Software
for the testo 350 Emissions Analyzer
compressor mapping. Customers can
witness the testing from the safety
and comfort of the control room or New automated testing runs
remotely via an Internet link. Many of Now g New standard calibration template
the tests generate 3x3 maps consist-
cludin Improved calibration screens
ing of three points at each of the three In
Improved reporting templates
speeds. In addition to measuring ther-
modynamic and aerodynamic perfor-
mance, vibration readings are taken Intuitive: Simple navigation and Site setup
to confirm mechanical soundness. Flexible: Calibrate, test, review, or print anywhere
In 2015, 30 customer-owned turbo-
chargers were tested in the high-flow
Efficient: Save testing values into analyzer
test cell. Anywhere from eight to 30 - download to PC anytime
are tested in the low-flow test stand
in a typical year, although it is often Contact Testo now for a free trial version
oriented toward development testing, info@testo.com 1-800-227-0729 www.testo350.com
including endurance tests.
continued on page 28
JULY 2016 27 COMPRESSORtech2
 PARTNERS n The NGMLs high-flow turbocharger test cell can accommodate testing for
the largest turbochargers in the industry. Completely rebuilt in 2011, it can
IN TRAINING accommodate testing up to a 3:1 pressure ratio and flow rates to 30,000 scfm
(850 m3/min) at 30 psig (2.1 bar).

n The NGML has a good inventory of transitions and adapters to fit various
turbochargers into the test cells.

JULY 2016 28 COMPRESSORtech2

 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING
n NGML Business Manager Cody Catlin
stands near two large turbochargers for Clark
TCV-16 (left) and TVC-12 (right) integral
engines staged for testing in the facilitys
high-flow test cell.

Engine research conducted by the

NGML provides tools, technologies and
strategies for meeting stringent emis-
sions requirements, enhanced efficien-
cy and higher reliability. Performance
and exhaust emissions measure-
ments can be made in fully instru-
mented test cells that include FTIR
and ECOM systems for measuring
O2, CO, NO and NO2. Engine sizes
to 1800 hp (1342 kW) at 3500 rpm, as
well as 600 hp (450 kW) at 8000 rpm,
can be accommodated.
The NGML can also support re-
search for other industries. One
multiyear project, conducted in col-
laboration with the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) National Air
Transportation Center of Excellence,
researched sensing technology that
can reliably and economically sense
oil contamination of gas turbine com-
pressor bleed air used to pressurize
and ventilate commercial aircraft cab-
ins. The goal is to allow the contami-
nation source, usually a seal failure, to
be pinpointed and corrected before it
becomes a safety and health hazard.
This project required development of a
test bed with a 500 hp (373 kW), 6000
rpm PWC29 helicopter engine with the
capability of introducing and measuring
known amounts of contaminants. CT2

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 Partners In Training showcases colleges, companies and organizations with compres-
sor training programs that participate in our annual Compression Technology Sourcing
Supplement. These programs make the CTSS, the industrys leading reference source for
purchasers, packagers and training providers, available as part of their course material.

More information on the companies below and the colleges mentioned else-
where in this issue can be found at compressortech2.com/partners-in-training.
Peruse the CTSS at CTSSnet.net.

PARTNERS
IN TRAINING
Ariel Corp.
Ariel offers product training as a val-
ue-added service exclusively to Ariel
industry partners and customers world-
wide who own, lease, or service Ariel
equipment. Training is conducted at
Ariel world headquarters in Mount Ver-
non, Ohio, at training centers in Austra-
lia, Canada, China, Russia, United Arab
Emirates, and online through the Ariel
training portal. In addition, Ariel also of-
fers remote training courses throughout
the United States at customers request.
Borsig
Borsig offers a training program that is
specially designed for customers oper-
ating and maintenance staff. 1. Safe op-
eration and professional maintenance of
the BORSIG ZM compressors. 2. Intro-
duction into machine-specific features.
3. Professional handling of particular
components. 4. New technologies and
innovations.
Burkhardt Compression
Customized training from Burkhardt
is designed for newcomers to experi-
enced participants who want to learn
how to optimize the efficiency and per-
formance of reciprocating compressors.
In-house experts teach of the complete
range of compressors up to the maxi-
mum pressure of 50,763 psi (3500 bar).
Dresser-Rand,
A Siemens Business
The Dresser-Rand business offers
professional and certified online and
in-person training around the world
for a wide range of client operations,
maintenance, and engineering per-
sonnel. Training programs cover a
range of products including centrifugal
compressors, reciprocating compres-
sors, steam turbines, controls, Guas-
cor engines, and magnetic bearings.
Elliott Group
Elliott offers customers turboma-
chinery training programs that range
from basic operation to advanced, en-
gineer-level topics, and span a wide
range of equipment, including steam
turbines, centrifugal compressors, ex-
panders and lubrication and sealing
systems. Backed by over 100 years
of experience in the turbomachinery
field, Elliotts Technical Training De-
partment can meet many types of
training needs.
GE
Power Services Training GE of-
fers a variety of training solutions for
gas, steam and aero product lines
(heavy duty gas turbines, steam tur-
bines, aeroderivative turbines, gen-
erators, heat recovery steam genera-
tors, boilers, air quality controls and
control systems). GE training courses
are conducted by qualified instructors
who are experts in OEM design, in-
stallation, maintenance and start-ups.
Howden
Focused on compressor mainte-
nance, Howdens training courses
cover compressor technology and op-
eration. Howden holds open generic
courses on different types of compres-
sors on a yearly basis at each of its
worldwide offices. Howden will arrange
bespoke courses where the duration,
content and language of training can
be tailored to the needs and prefer-
ences of the individual customer.
LMF
LMFs customized training pro-
grams for plant engineers or service
technicians help to ensure optimal op-
eration of customers plants. Whether
the training need is on an oil platform
offshore, testing pipelines in Siberia or
working on a refinery in the desert
they tailor the training to the specific
application.
Man Diesel & Turbo
PrimeServ Academies conduct
professional qualification courses us-
ing full-scale machinery and sumula-
tors. Participants are guided through
hands-on exercises in operation,
maintenance and troubleshooting.
Motortech
Motortechs products system train-
ing modules teach efficient opera-
tion of engines and power systems.
Courses are offered at the headquar-
ters in Celle, Germany, or in-house at
a customer site. Modules include In-
troduction Into Gas Engine Technolo-
gies, MIC Ignition Control and All-in-
One CHP Gas Engine Control.
Murphy
Murphy by Enovation Controls pro-
vides hands-on training in a class-
room setting as well as on site, with
programs designed for distributors,
packagers, operators, and end us-
ers. Classes on engine basics, AFR
operations, IntelliSpark Ignition and
EICS operations help students learn
to maximize their operations.
Windrock Inc.
Windrock offers courses to meet the
needs of mechanics, operators, and
engineers at every level, from basic
instruction for beginners to advanced
training for seasoned analysts. The
experienced staff of instructors con-
ducts classes at the Windrock training
center or at customer locations. CT2

JULY 2016 30 COMPRESSORtech2

LITERATURE
Gas
Compressors
FLSmidth has released a
brochure on its Ful-Vane
gas compressors. The com-
pressor features a large inlet
area for capturing large gas
flows; three moving parts;
constant blade-to-cylinder
contact; and inlet/outlet con-
figuration. The compressor
is also used in FLSmidth
packages.
www.flsmidth.com
Filtration
Precision Filtration Prod-
ucts released literature
on its natural gas filters.
The company offers high-
capacity, horizontal filter
vessels, ranging from 200
to 2220 psi (13.8 to 153.1
bar). The filter options are
available for compressors,
separators, particulate re-
moval, dew-point heaters
and dehydrators.
www.precisionfiltration.com
JULY 2016
Valve
Services
A brochure from Custom
Valve provides details on
the companys capabilities.
Custom Valve can repair
all types and sizes of gate,
globe, check, ball, control
and safety relief valves. The
company services a wide
array of valve brands as
well, a list of which is avail-
able on its website.
www.custom-valve.com
Heavy-Duty
Actuator
Flowserve has released
literature on its LPS Limi-
torque pneumatic heavy-
duty scotch yoke actuators.
The actuator, designed for
oil and gas applications,
provides up to 221 lb.ft.
(300 Nm) of torque and has
a design life of 25 years. The
literature includes a sche-
matic of the actuator, as well
as control system options.
www.flowserve.com
31
Compressor Company
Products History
A capability brochure is Ariel Corp. has released a
available from Compres- brochure that provides the
sor Products International brief history on the compa-
(CPI). The company offers ny. The brochure features
compressor valves, sealing a comprehensive timeline
and wear products, lubrica- that stretches from the
tion technology, and a vari- 1960s to 2016. The bro-
ety of service options. CPI chure also includes quotes
serves the natural gas, pet- from Jim Buchwald (found-
rochemical and refining, off- er) and Karen Buchwald-
shore, and OEM industries. Wright (president/CEO).
www.cpicompression.com www.arielcorp.com
Order James P.
Buchwalds Book
Letters to Alex
Contact Paragraphs Book Store at
paragraphs@earthlink.net,
or by phone 740-392-9290
Credit Cards Only, $25.00 plus shipping
Paragraphs Bookstore, 229 South Main Street, Mount Vernon, Ohio 43050
COMPRESSORtech2
 Training Options Aplenty
With ASME >
ASME offers training, development program for
gas compression packages, systems and facilities
engineers, designers
E
ngineers, designers, operators and maintainers of
gas compressor packages, compressor stations
and the related facilities and infrastructure are
usually faced with a long learning curve. There are many
codes, standards and practices that apply, and the detailed
technical knowledge specific to the design of compression
systems is not covered in depth, if at all, by most college
engineering programs today.
This leaves even engineers with a four-year degree with
the need to learn the detailed tools of their trade on the job
or on their own. The lucky ones have a seasoned mentor
who can teach them. Others may have access to well-
documented company procedures that cover the majority of
the technical information they need.
Many rely heavily on vendors for technical support,
however, vendor companies face the same challenges of
finding and developing experienced staff. The problem is
exacerbated as more and more experienced personnel
retire each year. All of this points to the importance of spe-
cialized continuing education.
A wide range of learning solutions are available from
ASME for meeting this industry need, including a significant
number that are directly applicable to the design, fabrication
and management of gas compressor packages, systems
and facilities. Founded in 1880 as the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), it offers more than 150 pub-
lic courses, ranging from fundamentals to advanced levels,
one to five days in length. Many are offered at multiple
locations in the U.S. and internationally.
An additional master class series offers in-depth explora-
tion of advanced topics aimed at experienced engineers.
Industry experts, who can address current issues and best
JULY 2016
practices through interactive group discussion and knowl-
edge sharing, lead the class.
eLearning courses, currently numbering more than 100,
are also available. These include both instructor-supported
and self-study online learning options, each available on
the internet. Customized in-company training programs are
also offered.
The accompanying chart shows ASMEs public, master
class and eLearning training course offerings that have di-
rect or potential application to the gas compression industry,
including system design, equipment selection and applica-
tion, repair and maintenance, and soft skills for individual
and management development. Continuing Education Units
(CEU) and Professional Development Hours (PDH) are
awarded for each course. ASME guarantees the quality of
its courses, but if anyone is unsatisfied, the organization will
extend credit for another comparably priced course.
ASME is an international not-for-profit professional or-
ganization that enables collaboration, knowledge sharing
and skill development across all engineering disciplines.
ASME Training and Development has been accredited as
an authorized provider by the International Association for
Continuing Education and Training (IACET).
The organization indicates that all ASME Training and
Development programs are delivered by ASME-approved
instructors who are recognized experts within their profes-
sional discipline. It also indicates that ASME standards
courses are taught by ASME committee members who un-
derstand and can communicate code or standard relevance
and their impact on safety, quality and integrity. Detailed
information on ASME Training and Development programs
is available at www.go.asme.org/training. CT2
continued on page 34
32 COMPRESSORtech2
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 ASME offers a wide range of
learning solutions including a significant
number that are directly applicable to those ASME Training Programs For The
involved in the design, fabrication and Gas Compression Industry
management of gas compressor packages,
systems and facilities.

Pressure Vessels And Piping Systems

Public/Master eLearning
Course Title
Course No. Course No.
Boiler And Pressure Vessel (BPV) Code, Section VIII, Div. 1: PD442 EL501
Design And Fabrication of Pressure Vessels
BPV code: Section VIII, Division 2; Pressure Vessels PD448
Design By Analysis Requirements In ASME Boiler And Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 2 MC121
Essentials: BPV Code, Section VIII, Division 3 ZABC11
Essentials: BPV Code, Section VIII, Division 3 ZABC11
Design Requirements For High Pressure Vessels In ASME Code Section VIII Division 3 MC127
BPV Code: Plant Equipment Requirements PD622
How To Predict Thermal-Hydraulic Loads On Pressure Vessels And Piping PD382
B31.3 Process Piping Design PD014
Essentials B31.3 Process Piping ZABC15
B31.3 Process Piping Materials, Fabrication, Examination And Testing PD457
Layout Of Process Piping Systems PD720
Optimization Of Plant Layouts Utilizing 3-D CAD/CAE Systems PD721
Detail Engineering Of Piping Systems PD410
B31.8 Gas Transmission And Distribution Piping Systems PD370
Essentials: B31.8 Gas Transmission And Distribution Piping Systems ZABC12
B31.1 Power Piping Code PD013

Process And Utility System Components

Public/Master eLearning
Course Title
Course No. Course No.
Pressure Relief Devices: Design, Sizing, Construction, Inspection And Maintenance (new) PD583
Essentials: PTC-25 Pressure Relief Devices ZABC36
Introduction To The Selection Of Valves ZABC43
Introduction To The Selection Of Pumps ZABC42
Selection Of Pumps And Valves For Optimal System Performance PD679
Economics Of Pipe Sizing And Pump Selection PD690
Design And Selection Of Heat Exchangers PD673
Bases And Application Of Heat Exchanger Mechanical Design Rules in Section VIII Of ASME BPV Code MC104
Introduction To Hydraulic Systems PD764
Design Of Bolted Flange Joints PD386

Bolted Joints And Gasket Behavior PD539

JULY 2016 34 COMPRESSORtech2

 ASME Training Programs For The Gas Compression Industry
Rotating Machinery
Public/Master eLearning
Course Title
Course No. Course No.
Centrifugal Compressor Performance Analysis PD584
Centrifugal Pumps: Testing Design And Analysis PD763
Basic Gas Turbine Engine Technology EL540
Basic Gas Turbine Engine Technology ZABC49
The Gas Turbine: Principles And Applications PD115
Gas Turbine Engines Controlling Pollutants PD765
Essentials: B133.8 Gas Turbine Installation Sound Emissions ZABC44

Turbomachinery Dynamics: Design And Operation PD432

System Maintenance And Repair

Public/Master eLearning
Course Title
Course No. Course No.
Bolted Joint Assembly Principles Per PCC-1-2013 PD577
Developing Effective Bolted Flange Joint Assembly Procedures Using ASME PCC-1 MC136

Essentials: PCC-2 Repair Of Pressure Equipment And Piping ZABC59

Failure Prevention, Repair & Life Extension Of Piping Vessels And Tanks PD077

Run Or Repair Operability Decisions For Pressure Equipment And Piping Systems MC132
Repair Strategies And Considerations For Pressure Vessels And Piping MC144
Piping Failures Causes And Prevention MC117
Piping Vibration Causes And Remedies A Practical Approach MC111
Shock And Vibration Analysis PD231
Creating And Implementing Effective Inspection Plans For Pressure Equipment & MC137
High Energy Piping Systems Using ASME PCC-3
Risk And Reliability Strategies For Optimizing Performance PD619
Root Cause Analysis Fundamentals PD618
Flow Induced Vibration With Applications To Failure Analysis PD146
Process Safety And Risk Management For Mechanical Engineers PD702

Individual And Management Development

Public/Master eLearning
Course Title
Course No. Course No.
Communications Essentials For Engineers PD692
Project Management For Engineers And Technical Professionals PD467
Project Management For Engineers EL511
Ethics for Engineers: Doing The Right Thing When No One Is Looking ZABC3
International Business Ethics And Foreign Corrupt Practices Act PD674
Marketing, Sales And Communications For Engineers ZABC41

Marketing, Sales And Communications For Engineers EL531

Comprehensive Negotiating Strategies: Engineers And Technical Professionals PD575

Leadership and Organizational Management: Leading Individuals And Engineering Project Teams EL532
The Engineering Manager: Engaging Todays Workforce PD475
Core Engineering Management PD620
Leadership And Operational Management PD531

JULY 2016 35 COMPRESSORtech2

 Regional Colleges Adapt
To Industry Climate >
Compression technology programs respond
PARTNERS to shortage of internships and jobs
IN TRAINING BY NORM SHADE

A
n Panola College lthough the gas compression industry boom has slowed, the industrys eventual
students practice recovery, coupled with aging of the current workforce, will soon demand many more
maintenance on a qualified petroleum and natural gas compressor operators and maintenance techni-
small reciprocating cians. New technologies, ever-changing regulatory compliance, and better safety practices
compressor. are also driving increased training needs for the current workforce.
A number of regional colleges offer programs to meet these demands. However, with the
recent weak job market for graduates, and with very few internship opportunities provided
for students, most schools are adapting their programs to be more flexible and to remain
viable through the industrys downturn.
Continuing its history of partnering with regional colleges since 1992, the Gas Compressor
Association (GCA) provides guidance and networking opportunities that help nurture many
of the compression programs. In addition to providing significant financial grants to seven
different regional college programs in the past year, many GCA member companies have
donated equipment and provided instructional support. Short profiles of the most estab-
lished programs in North America are presented herein.

continued on page 40
JULY 2016 38 COMPRESSORtech2

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 PARTNERS n A student at Western Wyoming Community College monitors a Caterpillar G3306 /
GE-Gemini H302 three-stage compressor package that operates on a closed loop with
IN TRAINING nitrogen. The addition of a nitrogen generator allows the college to operate the package
more economically, making it available for training in operations and emissions testing.

serves the mining industry as well as oil and gas. The oth-
ers are Oil and Gas Production Technology and Natural
Gas Compression Technology.
The WWCC Natural Gas Compression Technology pro-
gram, which was started in 2007, focuses on the technical
skills needed to be an effective gas compression mechan-
ic and successful employee. A combination of lecture and
hands-on training help students acquire the ability to trouble-
shoot, repair and maintain compression equipment.
The area has been hit hard by the downturn in the coal
industry as well as the oil and gas industry, but the Natural
Gas Compression Technology program is full at 16 stu-
dents each year, said Joe Uriarte, assistant professor of
continued on page 42
 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING
gas compression. He noted that this is an increase from
last year and required an addition to the faculty. However,
he also explained that WWCC continues to struggle with
enrollment of traditional students from the area because of
the lack of understanding about what the gas compression
industry is and what kind of opportunities there are.
WWCCs training facility includes a Caterpillar G3306 /
GE-Gemini H302 three-stage compressor package that it
runs with nitrogen in a closed-loop arrangement. Now that
the college has its own nitrogen generator, which reduces
operating cost, the package is run a great deal for train-
ing in operations and emissions testing, Uriarte said. We
hope to have a Maxim catalyst purchased in the fall, so
JULY 2016
we can continue teaching emissions testing. We would also
like to acquire a small-frame Ariel compressor for mainte-
nance training purposes.
Zane State College
The Oil & Gas Engineering Technology program at Zane
State Colleges Cambridge, Ohio, campus emphasizes the
basic science and technology of oil and natural gas explo-
ration, development, and distribution. The completion of the
two-year program leads to a career in oil and natural gas
exploration, drilling, completion, production, natural gas
compression, distribution and related field services.
An emphasis is placed on the development of the oil and
42 COMPRESSORtech2
 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING

n Zane State College students begin

disassembling a small Ariel com-
pressor as part of their natural gas
compression maintenance training.

instrumentation and general distribution terminology for operators of compres-

sion stations, and incorporates the approved curriculum of the Eastern Gas
Compression Roundtable (EGCR). A formal Gas Compression Technology
program was developed over that time, and the first one-year certificate was
continued on page 44

Experience, Reliability, Integrity...

natural gas resources in Ohio and the

surrounding Appalachian Basin, includ-
ing the application of the best available
technology utilized in traditional oil and
gas formations as well as those applied
to the Marcellus and Utica Shales. There
were six graduates from the program in The AXH manufacturing complex consists of
December 2015 and eight in May 2016. six plants, totaling 559,100 SF on 67 acres.
For the past two years, Zane State
has offered Natural Gas Compression as
a four-week, full-time technical elective
between semesters or during the sum- (918) 283-9200 Fax (918) 283-9229 www.axh.com
mer. The course introduces transmission,
JULY 2016 43 COMPRESSORtech2
 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING

awarded in December 2015, followed by

another in May 2016. A two-year AAS Gas
Compression Technology program was initi-
ated in the Fall 2015 semester.
With the industry downturn, there have
been few, if any, intern possibilities for stu-
dents, so the college has added a capstone
project option as an alternative to internship.
We had a serious problem in that co-op
experience was a requirement for gradu-
ation from the two-year program, but we
needed more sponsors to provide students
with meaningful work experience, said
Paul Paisley, instructor. With the downturn,
recruiting students is also an issue, as we
need ongoing enrollments into the program
to be able to sustain it.
Officials also said to control costs dur-
ing the downturn, the number of full-time
faculty for the oil and gas program will be
reduced for the coming school year, relying
on more adjunct faculty.
Zane State received a grant from the State
of Ohio for construction of a building that
will be dedicated to hands-on compressor
and heavy equipment training. It is sched-
uled for completion later this year. When the
new building is ready, Sullair will donate a
cutaway screw compressor and other equip-
ment that the college is gradually acquiring
through donations from the industry.

Panola College School of Energy

n Panola College students on a field trip
get first-hand instruction on an operating
gas engine compressor package.
JULY 2016
Panola Colleges four-semester program
is designed to help individuals prepare for
careers as oil and gas lease operators
and function as members of an oil and/or
gas production team. Students attend fall
and spring classes on the Panola College
campus in Carthage, Texas, or at the
Shelby Regional Training Center (SRTC) in
Center, Texas, following a curriculum creat-
ed in cooperation with representatives from
44 COMPRESSORtech2
 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING

the petroleum industry. The two-year AAS in Petroleum

Technology includes introductory courses in engines,
compressors, controls and processing. A two-year AAS
Electrical and Instrumentation Technology program was
added in 2014.
In 2015, after several years of development, the college
initiated stand-alone, two-year AAS and one-year certificate
programs in Natural Gas Compression. These are designed The Panola College School of Energy has been grow-
to provide technically oriented entry-level employees with ing steadily since its formation in 2007, and now we are
basic knowledge and skills of gas compression equipment in the building phase as a result of a community bond
and maintenance required to efficiently and safely maintain, issue, said Dr. Joe Shannon, vice president of instruction.
troubleshoot, and operate compression packages in their First is a new 80,000 sq.ft. (7432 m2) science building
area of responsibility. continued on page 46

Compression requirements New and Refurbished

Compressor Compressor Equipment
change. The ACI team has Evaluation
the expertise to develop Mechanical
and implement the best Services
Performance
solutions to manage your Control and
compression projects Automation
and optimize your
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Systems
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Components Engineering Analysis

ACI Services, Inc. Cambridge, Ohio www.ACIServicesInc.com (740) 435-0240

 PARTNERS n Oklahoma State University Institute of Technologys Chesapeake Energy
Natural Gas Compression Training Center includes training space for more
IN TRAINING than a dozen gas engines for engine principles and overhaul classes.
and student center. The program is changing constantly
to meet changing needs. We expect to have an energy
technology building in a couple of more years.
Certificates of completion are awarded each semes-
ter, with 900 certificates and associate degrees awarded
since 2009. We are also working with Stephen F. Austin
University to apply our two-year degree toward a four-year
bachelor degree, said Natalie Oswalt, dean of professional
and technical programs.
Oswalt noted that total enrollment in the School of
Energy remains strong, although with the industry down-
turn, it dropped from 256 in fall 2015 to 223 in spring 2016,
including 171 and 139, respectively, enrolled in Petroleum
Technology. In the fall 2015 term, 16 AAS and 45 certificates
were awarded in Petroleum Technology, in addition to 11
certificates in the new Natural Gas Compression program.
Seward Community College
Launched in January 2011, the Natural Gas Compression
Technology (NGCT) program offered by the Seward County
(Kansas) Community College/Area Technical School (SCCC/
JULY 2016
ATS) prepares students for entrance into the natural gas
industry as entry-level maintenance technicians. The pro-
gram has been developed in cooperation with regional gas
production, transport, and service companies to assure stu-
dents will receive the best possible training as determined
by potential employers.
Students in the NGCT program learn precision measure-
ment, workplace skills, engine theory, basic electricity and
circuits, metal fabrication, basic welding, compressor and
engine repair, compressor theory, compressor mounting
and aligning, and preventative maintenance of engines and
compressors. Students participate in an internship at the
end of their program of study to prepare them for the work-
force and give them experience working with a company in
the industry.
Both one-year certificate and two-year AAS degree op-
tions offered. The program accommodates up to 15 stu-
dents at a time, with new classes beginning each semester.
Westmoreland County Community College (WCCC)
WCCC offers one-semester Petroleum and Industrial
Process Operations Technology (PIPOT) and Pipeline
Mechanic certificates. The PIPOT program is a short-
term certificate program designed to prepare students for
entry-level positions in the midstream and downstream
phases of the natural gas and oil sector. The Pipeline
Mechanic certificate program is designed to prepare
students for entry-level positions in natural gas, pipeline
operations, compression, refining, power generation and
various plant processes, particularly in the field of pipe-
line operations.
WCCC also offers a two-year Petroleum Technology AAS
degree. WCCC partners with a number of energy industry
companies, such as Dominion Transmission, to ensure that
students are trained to meet industry needs for compres-
sor technicians. The programs are based at the colleges
Advanced Technology Center, which opened in 2014 at
RIDC-Westmoreland in Mount Pleasant, Pennsylvania.
Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT)
In addition to the aforementioned U.S. college programs,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada-based Southern Alberta Institute of
46 COMPRESSORtech2
 PARTNERS
IN TRAINING

Technologys School of Manufacturing and Automation offers

an apprenticeship program for natural gas compression tech-
nicians. The two- to four-year program prepares technicians to
assemble, install, commission, maintain, repair and overhaul
natural gas compression and related equipment. This includes
reading and interpreting diagrams or schematic drawings to
determine work procedures, and using a variety of electrical,
mechanical and specialty diagnostic test equipment.
Students are also exposed to reciprocating and rotat-
ing machinery analysis to determine equipment condition,
prediction of failure, corrective and preventative measures,
and equipment performance. The program involves on-the-
job training as well as formal instruction.

San Juan College

In operation for well over a decade, the School of Energy
at San Juan College in Farmington, New Mexico, has un-
E-Instruments_JF16_3.125X4.75_CT.indd 1 1/19/16 3:47 PM
dergone major changes in its program in the past year.
Compression took a real hit in the downturn, said Ken
Johnson, coordinator and assistant professor of petroleum
GAS ENGINES
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uates in the area, coupled with the fact that area students
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we found it necessary to close the natural gas program as
a stand-alone program and combine it into a lease opera-
tors program that has more demand for graduates. Honors
classes in natural gas compression are being added.
The School of Energy offers a one-year certificate and
two-year AAS degrees in a number of energy industry
training programs. With a new 65,000 sq.ft. (6039 m2)
facility, students receive training and experience in state-
of-the-art training labs taught by educators and profes-
sionals from the industry. Students come from across
the country, many participating in online courses, which
enables them to complete a certificate and degree while
continuing to work.
All students are required to complete the Energy Core
Curriculum before focusing on a particular degree. The Reliable heart for your unit.
curriculum, which includes a natural gas compression
course, takes two semesters to complete and can be done info@tedomengines.com, +420 483 363 642
entirely online. www.tedomengines.com
continued on page 48
JULY 2016 47 COMPRESSORtech2
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Small Gap Between Piston
And Cylinder Where The Gas
Film Bearing Is Generated
Hard Coating Or
Enclosure Of Sapphire
Or Diamond Or Ceramic
Or Other Similar Material
Low-pressure Hydrogen
Being Drawn Into
Cylinder Cavity
For Compression
n Figure 1. Schematic of LMRC concept.
Intake
Manifold
Hydrogen Stage 1
PR = 3.56
20 bar Pin = 20
n Figure 2. LMRC three-stage compression system concept with
interstage cooling manifolds.
Table 1. Compressor Stage Sizing Results
Stage
Cylinder Bore Diameter (in.)
Piston Stroke (in.)
Displacement/End (in ) 3
Speed (CPM)
Volume Fixed Clearance/Displacement
Suction Pressure (psia)
Discharge Pressure (psia)
Suction Temperature (F)
Discharge Temperature (F)
Required Flow (lb.m /hr)
Design Flow [including 2% recycle] (lb.m /hr)
Maximum Piston Force (lb.f )
JULY 2016
High Pressure Hydrogen Discharging To stages of compression as depicted in
Storage Vessel Or Distribution Pipeline
Figure 2. To achieve a near isentro-
pic process, the hydrogen will remain
in the gas phase and the system will
Permanent Magnet Piston, include interstage cooling. The LMRC
Which Is Moving Up And Down
To Act As Compressor And is being sized to meet the DOEs dem-
Rotating To Create
Gas Film Bearing
onstration flow requirement of greater
than or equal to 22 lb.m/hr (10 kg/hr).
In addition to achieving an isentro-
Windings To Generate
Magnetic Field To Create
pic efficiency goal and discharge pres-
Linear Motion And Rotation sure, the LMRC design also aims to
reduce capital costs and reduce the
Semi-active Or required maintenance as compared to
Fully Active Suction And
Discharge Valves traditional reciprocating compressors.
For Compressor These goals will be achieved through
the following design aspects:
Low piston speeds Working at
low reciprocating speeds of 300 cycles
per minute (cpm) (5 Hz), the LMRC is
expected to meet an isentropic effi-
ciency target of greater than 95% per
Cooling stage based on basic principles of re-
Water ciprocating compressor design [2].
Interstage cooling Utilizing
Discharge interstage cooling reduces the ini-
Manifold
tial enthalpy of the gas per stage,
Stage 1 Stage 1 Hydrogen
PR = 3.56 PR = 3.56 which keeps the gas at a lower en-
Pin = 71 Pin = 248 875 bar ergy state and requires less com-
pression power.
Cooling Aerodynamically efficient valves
Water Custom valves are being designed
for the LMRC that achieve low pressure
drops by using advanced contours.
Reduced number of parts The
simplicity of the design (no rod, rod
packing, crankshaft, coupling or sepa-
rate motor/driver) reduces required
maintenance, minimizes seal leak-
ages and wear, and allows for oil-free
operation. All three stages in the com-
1 2 3
pressor design require near duplicate
2.557 1.537 0.852
components, which allows for de-
3.000 3.000 3.000
creasing manufacturing costs in large-
15.398 5.563 1.710 volume productions.
330 300 300 Pulsation Control As a result
0.250 0.325 0.400 of operating at low speeds, pulsa-
290 1025 3623 tions are expected to be much less
1035 3660 12,805 problematic and most of the typical
80 80 80
efficiency-docking pulsation attenua-
tion devices (orifice plates and choke
331 333 327
tubes) will not be necessary.
22 22 22
The LMRC is being applied to a hy-
22.0 22.0 22.0 drogen compression process for the
4253 5199 5462 project described in this paper; how-
ever, the concept of the LMRC could
be used in other applications such as
52 COMPRESSORtech2
 73 in. (1828 mm)

n Figure 3. LMRC design overview.

those applicable to the natural gas in-

Piston Retainer dustry. A hermetically sealed compres-
Discharge Valve
sor such as the LMRC could provide the
industry with a zero-methane-leakage
compressor, which is an important de-
HE/CE Bypass
sign benefit that is in line with DOE and
U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
Ceramic cys (EPA) current initiatives to reduce
Piston
methane leakage from pipelines.

Compressor Design: Stage Sizing

The LMRC compressor design
began with stage sizing that was
Rider Band
Suction Valve Seal Seal Retainer And Bumper completed using an iterative flow-
balancing process with the objectives
n Figure 4. Close-up of piston. of minimizing piston speed and de-
signing for an isentropic efficiency of
95% per stage. The sizing procedure
Coils began with an objective of equal pres-
sure ratios for each of the three stag-
es, which provides the best theoretical
thermodynamic efficiency. Preliminary
assumptions of cylinder internal fixed
Piston Tube clearance volumes and valve pres-
sure drops of 5% were applied based
on experience with hydrogen com-
pressors in other applications. Fixed
clearances noted in Table 1 were as-
sumed for each stage and were target
values used in the mechanical design
of each cylinder. The 3 in. (76.2 mm)
stroke was selected with consider-
ation of the electromagnet design,
Piston Rod and the speed of 300 cpm was based
Magnets
Spacers on design experience for low-loss,
highly efficient compressors. This very
conservative speed will also limit the
n Figure 5. Close-up of magnets and coils.
continued on page 54

JULY 2016 53 COMPRESSORtech2

 acceleration and deceleration require-
Two Successive Ring Magnets' ments of the electromagnetic system.
Cross-Sectional Areas
These approximations were validated
as the detailed design progressed.
High Magnetic Finally, using two piston ends per
Permeability
Steel Spacers cycle, the piston diameter of each
Separate The stage was varied until the combined
Magnets And
Help Direct flow of the two ends matched the
The Magnet's required delivered flow, plus the 2%
One Four-Column-By-12-Row
Radial Field
Set Of Continuously Wound, cooling flow. Sizing results for the
Current-Carrying Copper Coils
three stages are listed in Table 1. In
addition to the analytical calculations
that were made to develop the sizes
noted in Table 1, confirmation calcu-
Axis Of lations were made with the SwRI-
Symmetry
developed CPSS software.
Finalizing the stage sizing provided
the necessary information for progress
Piston to be made on the mechanical design.
Shaft

Mechanical Design
To reduce manufacturing and main-
n Figure 6. Axi-symmetric cross section of magnetic field patterns from tenance costs, the compressor was
the magnets and radial magnetic field strength. designed so each stage would be simi-
lar with many identical parts. To take
full advantage of the linear motor, each
stage is double acting. The number of
magnets and coils varies from stage to
OD Outer stage and is dependent on the com-
Steel Casing pression force requirements. It was
decided to keep the coils on the exte-
rior of the compressor casing in order
to prevent the need of feeding coils
ID Piston through the pressurized casing.
Surface The current structural design is
shown for Stage One in Figure 3, Figure
4 and Figure 5. Stage One has seven
coils and nine magnets. Although the
n Figure 7. Four-piece spring-energized sliding contact seal design with noted
figures show the LMRC in a horizontal
bounding load cases for static seal analysis.
position, each stage will actually be ori-
ented vertically when in service. After
the design was completed, finite ele-
ment analysis (FEA) was performed to
determine the structural strength of the
primary pressure vessel. It was found
to have an acceptable safety factor that
meets ASME guidelines.

Linear Motor Design

n Figure 8. Cylindrical-symmetry ANSYS
Model of optivee component.
n Figure 9. Characteristic unit loads ap-
plied to the ANSYS model.
A market analysis was completed
to determine if there are existing lin-
ear motors in the size and capacity
needed for this compressor. None of
the researched, existing manufactur-
ers had actuators that met the required
output force and stroke combina-

JULY 2016 54 COMPRESSORtech2

 tion of 5500 lb.ft. (24,500 N) at 3 in.
(76.2 mm) of stroke. The market re-
search indicated that it would be nec-
essary to design and build the linear
motor portion of the LMRC.
The linear motor design is based
on a traditional moving-magnet-type
actuator. The design uses a stack of
Valve Geometry Negative Space Flow Volume
between seven and 10 actuators/coils
(depending on the stage of the com-
n Figure 10. Valve flow volume.
pressor) on a shaft. These coils can
achieve the required actuation force
while maintaining acceptable power
dissipation per unit volume.
Sharp Corner
Moving-magnet actuators have a
cylindrical magnet that rides within two
opposing current-carrying coils. The
magnet is drawn toward one coil while
being repelled by the other, and when
High Velocity the currents are reversed, the direction
In Throat of the magnetic force is reversed. In
this way, a roughly linear force versus
displacement curve can be generated.
In addition, the current-carrying coils
can be situated outside the pressure
n Figure 11. Flow profiles for suction valve. vessel where water cooling can easily
continued on page 56

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Modulift_JanFeb16_CT.indd 1 1/13/16 5:23 PM
 Table 2. Seal leak rate predictions the motor is 50 V at 500 to 800 Amps,
driven with a variable duty cycle wave
Stage Individual Seal Leak Rate Individual Seal Leak Rate
(g/hr) (% Of Full Flow) at 5 Hz. A commercially available drive
circuit meeting those specifications,
1 1.1 0.01
after a few custom modifications, was
2 8.0 0.08
found and purchased from EPC Corp.
3 35 0.35

Dynamic Seal Leak Rate Analysis

Table 3. Static seal summary A high-pressure piston dynamic seal
Stage Max. Temp. Diameter Material Manu- Duro- between the cylinder compression
Internal Range (in.) facturer meter chamber and the magnets chamber
Operating (F) (Shore A) was proposed by Thar Energy for the
Pressure LMRC system design based on their
(psig)
experience with high-pressure (up to
V1238-95 Parker 10,000 psi [689 bar]) pump systems.
1 1125 -15 to 400 3/32 95
Fluorocarbon Hannifin
A cross-section view of the four parts
V1238-95 Parker
2 4101 -15 to 400 3/32
Fluorocarbon Hannifin
95 to the seal design is shown in Figure
7: (1) female adapter, (2) vee N-style
14,069 Inconel 718 Parker
Primary
-15 to 400 3/32
Metal C-Ring Hannifin
NA ring, (3) dual spring optivee, and (4)
3 pak-ring (not shown in Figure 7). Parts
<10,000 V1238-95 Parker
95 2 and 3 extend beyond the nominal
Secondary Fluorocarbon Hannifin
inner and outer diameters and are,
therefore, compressed upon assembly
Table 4. Summary Of Preliminary Sizing Of Pulsation Suppression Vessels
in the machine. These parts are made
Volume (cu. in.) Volume (cu. in.) of low-friction polytetrafluoroethylene
Per API Per TAPS Acoustic Modeling
(PTFE) blends and are the contacting
Stage 1 Suction 974 246 and sealing surfaces.
A fundamental leak rate analysis
Stage 1 Discharge 689 205
was performed for the dynamic seal to
Stage 2 Suction 359 359 bound the leak rate and ensures it is
sufficiently small relative to its impact
Stage 2 Discharge 269 170
on machine performance. The analysis
Stage 3 Suction 114 125 was divided into three phases that ad-
dress each of the key contributing fac-
Stage 3 Discharge 95* NA**
tors simplified seal flexibility model
* 95 cubic inches is unreasonable at stage 3 pressures, so it was reduced to 50 cubic inches. development; static loading analysis;
** It was predicted that no vessel is needed as long as the pressure control valve is mounted and dynamic loading analysis.
sufficiently close to the compressor outlet.
A simplified seal flexibility model
was created (ANSYS model shown in
Figure 8 and Figure 9) to capture the
change in radial position of the seal
contact points in response to external
be used to keep the coil temperatures within an acceptable range. Figure 6 shows pressure and contact loads by repre-
the geometry of the actuator coils. The copper conductor is hollow, with coolant senting part 3 as the combination of
water flowing through the center circular regions. three linear springs, which enables
Figure 6 also shows the magnetic field patterns for the magnets. The radial mag- rapid calculations.
netic fields interact with the circumferential coil currents to develop linear force on The second analysis step combined
the shaft. In this case, the position of the magnets relative to the coils is near their the static pressure load, assembly pre-
maximum displacement and maximum magnetic force. load and linear spring model to deter-
Neodymium-Iron-Boron magnets with a maximum energy product of 50MGOe, mine the likelihood of gap formation
a magnetic remanence of 1.36T, and the outer diameter of 4 in. (101.6 mm) were due to static loading only. It was deter-
chosen to maximize size and strength. These specifications are near the practical mined that the seals are adequate in
upper limit of commercially available magnets. The annular or ring magnets will be terms of static-only conditions.
mounted around the piston shaft and move with the shaft, as shown in Figure 6. The final and most complicated
Drive electronics were investigated with the approximate voltage, frequency and analysis phase coupled the linear
current demands of the design. The operating voltage and current demands of continued on page 58

JULY 2016 56 COMPRESSORtech2

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 Upper Cylinder Head And Piston

spring model with the compressible

Reynolds equation that governs fluid
Outer External
Annulus Casing Pipe flow in thin films.
The final seal leak rate predictions
are given in Table 2. The leak rate of
Coil the selected polymeric seal design is
Pack
acceptable for this application.

Magnet
And
Static Seals Selection
Spacer O-ring seals for use in the primary
Assembly
static seal locations for all stages of
the LMRC were investigated in detail
in consultation with seal manufactur-
Inner
ers technical authorities. Criteria for
Casing seal selection included face seals with
zero sealing gap for all primary and
secondary (back-up) seal locations;
impermeable and resistance to 100%
n Figure 12. Conjugate heat transfer hydrogen gas; explosive decompres-
model of first-stage compressor.
Lower Cylinder Head And Piston

Original Valve Parameters New Valve Parameters

1600 1400
Isen. Eff. = 73% Isen. Eff. = 89%
1400 1200

1200
1000

1000
Cylinder Pressure (psi)

Cylinder Pressure (psi)

800
Max Forcing

800
600
600

400
400

200
200

0
-2.0 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 Top End -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Piston Position (in.) Piston Position (in.)
Top Ideal
Bot End
1400
Bot Ideal
Isen. Eff. = 88% Isen. Eff. = 99%
1200

1000 1000
Optimized Forcing
Cylinder Pressure (psi)

Cylinder Pressure (psi)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
-2.0 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 -2.0 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Piston Position (in.) Piston Position (in.)

n Figure 13. LMRC current predicted efficiencies.

JULY 2016 58 COMPRESSORtech2

sion resistance; and operating pres-
sure and temperature requirements.
All external seals will have a redun-
dant backup seal. A vent port will be
provided between the primary and sec-
ondary seal that can be used, if neces-
sary, to detect leakage past the primary
seal. Table 3 summarizes the selec-
tions as approved by Parker Hannifins
O-ring division. The Parker V1238-95
fluorocarbon material has been devel-
oped and applied for downhole oil and
gas drilling applications. Metal C-rings
have been developed for various ultra-
high pressure applications including
downhole drilling with sour gas.
PEEK material, which is commonly used for compressor valves in hydrogen and
other gas compression applications.
After an initial design for the first-stage valves was created, it was necessary
to determine the flow and dynamic characteristics of each valve. Therefore, CFD
modeling of each valve was completed. Using the valve geometry, a representative
volume was generated, as shown in Figure 10.
With these volumes, ANSYS-CFX was used to determine the fluid properties for
various flow rates going through each of the valves. The properties, such as pres-
sure, were then used to calculate the flow coefficients to be used in the dynamic
model for each of the valves. The coefficients were applied to the dynamic model
continued on page 60

Valve Design
The current reciprocating compres-
sor valve market was surveyed to
identify manufacturers that could pro-
vide valves for the LMRC. None of the
researched manufacturers were able
to provide, in a sufficient timeframe,
solutions that can handle either the
high pressure of Stage Three (12,690
psia [875 bara]) or operate in a hy-
drogen environment. Therefore, the
valve selection process turned into a
valve design process. ACI Services
manufactures valves that do not fit the
specific application, but are applied in
similar services. Existing designs were
adapted to make valves that fit the giv-
en application. The compressor design
has a low throughput and tight space
constraints. A single poppet valve was
identified as a potential solution.
Poppet lifts and passage sizes
were confirmed by CFD analysis to
achieve the highest practical efficien-
cy without compromising mechanical
integrity and reliability. By keeping
the poppet relatively compact and
robust, the shear stress, which is
a rough parameter used for poppet
design, is very low. Actual poppet
stresses, including bending, were
confirmed by FEA analyses.
The valve seats and guards will be
made from A286, which has the re-
quired properties of hydrogen embrit-
tlement resistance, nonmagnetic, high
strength and reasonable availability.
The final valve springs are specified to
be Elgiloy material. The poppets will be

JULY 2016 59 COMPRESSORtech2

 drive the electromagnetic actuator. Large
currents are required to drive the compres-
Second
sor, thus there will be large resistive heat
Stage
loads to be dissipated through the coils.
The design team has performed conju-
Third
Stage gate heat transfer analyses of individual
coil packs and of the entire LMRC to en-
sure that the coils, cooling water and gas
trapped within the compressor remain at
acceptably low temperatures.
An overview of the conjugate heat trans-
fer model is shown in Figure 12. Due to
the continual piston movement, the ma-
chine never reaches a final temperature
and pressure. Instead, it oscillates within a
range. The model has been used to verify
that the operating temperature range of
critical components remain acceptable for
First
continual operation.
Stage

n Figure 14. Planned LMRC test setup. Material Selection

and then the valve spring constant and preload for each valve was optimized
through numerous runs of the dynamic model.
In addition to providing the flow parameters of the valves for use in the
dynamic model, the CFD models were also useful in determining where im-
provements to the valves can be made by analyzing and modifying velocity
and turbulent energy profiles, such as in Figure 11.
Pulsation Design
It is standard practice in the industry to include pulsation control with a
reciprocating compressor. This ensures that the inherent pulsating flow leav-
ing the compressor does not cause any operational issues, such as high
vibrations. Since the stage sizing is well defined, general vessel sizes were
determined for the pulsation suppression devices.
Initial vessel sizing per API Standard 618 is summarized in Table 4.
Stage Three discharge vessel sizing per API Standard 618 was considered
unreasonable, meaning a smaller, more reasonable size is noted for the
preliminary sizing. Vessel sizing noted in Table 4 was then refined using
the pulsation analysis models that were developed in the SwRI-proprietary
TAPS acoustic/pulsation modeling software.
Cooling System
The LMRC will have three primary cooling systems. First is the interstage
cooling that will reduce the hydrogen temperature after each stage of com-
pression so that less energy is required to complete the subsequent stage
of compression.
The second cooling system will be a series of compressor cylinder water
jackets that cover either end of each compressor. These cooling jackets will
keep the cylinder and components surrounding the piston at a cool tempera-
ture to bring the compression as close as possible to an isothermal process
and keep the piston seal cooler.
The third cooling system is responsible for cooling the copper coils that
The phenomenon of hydrogen embrittle-
ment was one of the primary factors con-
sidered when determining the appropriate
materials. Hydrogen embrittlement is the
weakening of the mechanical properties of a
material when exposed to hydrogen. Hydro-
gen embrittlement depends on the material
type and the pressure and temperature of
the hydrogen. The material selection was
based on an extensive literature review to
determine which materials would be suitable
to operate in the high-pressure hydrogen en-
vironment. Material selection was also driven
by the linear motor design. Certain portions
of the LMRC were designed with highly mag-
netic materials in order to improve the driving
forces, while other portions were designed
with nonmagnetic materials in order to avoid
interfering with the linear motor.
Performance Prediction And Controls
Unlike traditional reciprocating compres-
sors, the LMRC does not have a rod and
crankshaft. Therefore the piston position
relies completely on the balance of com-
pression forces within the cylinders and the
magnetic forces produced by the electro-
magnetic coils wrapped around the casing.
The electromagnetic forces depend on the
amount of current running through the coils
and the position of the magnets with respect
to the coils; thus the performance depends
upon the control scheme.
Traditional reciprocating design tools
are unable to assist with predicting the

JULY 2016 60 COMPRESSORtech2

compressor performance. Thus a detailed system model
was developed to predict the performance and to optimize
the control scheme. The predicted LMRC performance is
shown in Figure 13 for four scenarios: maximum magnet-
ic forces with the original valve, optimized performance
with the original valve, the maximum magnetic forces
with the redesigned valve, and optimized performance
with the redesigned valve. It is predicted that the LMRC
valves and optimized control scheme will allow the com-
pression system to operate above the design goal of 95%
isentropic efficiency.
Test Stand Planning
The planned test configuration is shown in Figure 14.
Years two and three of the project will focus on the experi-
mental evaluation of the design. It was necessary, however,
to identify a safe location for testing and a proper test setup.
The plan is to test the LMRC outdoors near SwRIs turboma-
chinery facility located in San Antonio, Texas. Locating the
LMRC test loop near this building will allow sufficient utilities
to be supplied to the test loop while keeping the compressed-
hydrogen loop at a safe distance from the building and other
test equipment. This will provide sufficient protection against
PRIME
MOVERS
Windrock
Windrock has hired Samantha Milligan
and Alissa Foley to serve as the compa-
nys quality/repair manager and technical
services coordinator, respectively.
Milligan formerly spent four years as a
distribution supervisor
and quality supervisor
for Pepsi Beverage
Co. She was also a
S. Milligan process engineer for
18 months at Carlisle Tire. Foley has prior
experience in sales and marketing.
Milligan and Foley will work out of
Windrocks headquarters in Knoxville,
Tennessee. A. Foley
Atlas Copco
Atlas Copco has acquired the compressor business of
Kohler Druckluft, with operations in Austria, Switzerland
and Liechtenstein.
Kohler Druckluft is based in Eschen, Liechtenstein, and has
about 30 employees. The company is an Atlas Copco com-
pressor distributor and specializes in selling, renting and ser-
vicing industrial air compressors and air treatment systems.
JULY 2016
a catastrophic event. Personnel will monitor the tests re-
motely with cameras, microphones and gas sensors.
Summary
A linear motor reciprocating compressor is being devel-
oped by SwRI and ACI Services to achieve the DOEs goal
for advancing forecourt hydrogen compression. The three-
stage compressor is designed to discharge hydrogen at
12,700 psi (875.6 bar) and is expected to achieve an isentro-
pic efficiency of greater than 73%. This paper has presented
the current status of the primary design elements and gen-
eral test plan.
Next Steps
The project was approved to continue on to Phase Two,
which is focused on constructing, commissioning and testing
of Stage One. Stage One of the concept (lowest discharge
pressure) is being built and will be tested in July. Phase Three
(year three) will then focus on building the rest of the com-
pressor system (Stages Two and Three), testing the perfor-
mance and optimizing the overall system performance. CT2
See references at: http://ct2.co/references
The acquired company becomes part of Atlas Copcos
Compressor Technique business area.
American CNG Energy
American CNG Energy will build an Opis Energy CNG
station in Fort Pierce, Florida. The station will be the sec-
ond built by American CNG Energy, which signed a con-
tract with the local utility company to run a 4 in. (101.6 mm)
natural gas line to the facility.
The station is the only public CNG facility in the area, with
the next closest offering 90 mi. (144.8 km) south in Pom-
pano Beach, Florida. Construction will start in June.
Julio G. Macedo, American CNG Energys CEO, said the
company plans to build more than 20 additional stations in
Florida, Georgia, Texas and California in the next five years.
The market for CNG is continuing to grow as more and
more truck fleets are converting to alternative fuels, he
said. We plan to further this movement.
American CNG Energy will team up with Opis Energy and
Wise Gas to build the next 20 stations, the company said.
CSI Compressco
CSI Compressco LP has appointed Derek C. Coffie as
its chief financial officer (CFO). Coffie, who reports to com-
pany president Timothy A. Knox, is responsible for man-
aging the companys finance and accounting functions.
Coffie succeeds Elijio V. Serrano, who has served as the
companys interim chief financial officer since August 2015.
continued on page 69
61 COMPRESSORtech2
 Photo courtesy of PDO

n MAN Diesel & Turbo will service 50 turbocompressors for Petroleum Development Oman.

We are strengthening
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DESIGNED
MAN CEO Uwe Lauber

LUBRICANTS.
The shop covers not only core ma- DESIGNED TO
chines no matter if its MAN or a
third party but also service for other
BE THE BEST.
related equipment like pumps and
valves, Brecht said.
MAN experts, along with local Tulcos Lubsoil Synthetic LPG-WS and LPG-WI
Omani technicians, will staff the shop, Lubricants provide optimal performance and better
with MAN offering further training for equipment protection compared to any other lubricant
shop employees. Apart from work- on the market. Our field tested and formulated
shop personnel, MAN will also pro- products are proven to save downtime and money, all
vide its own on-site staff at PDOs while increasing your compressors productivity. Tulcos
different production sites. Training synthetic lubricants offer:
is available for those seeking it at
the site, MAN said. Reduced gas solubility leading to extended lubricant life
Once operational, the Muscat shop
Improved compressor efficiency and wear protection
will serve as part of the PrimeServ net-
Superior performance in vapor recovery compressors
work, which has service shops around
Excellent performance in H2S and CO2 rich or heavy
the globe, Brecht said. The Muscat
gas compression
shop will not serve Omani custom-
ers, but anyone within the region.
Just like with the nearest turboma- Tulco Oils has been a top-rated global marketer for
chinery service workshop in Qatar, decades, and manufactures petroleum, semi-synthetic
service jobs are executed as close and full synthetic Lubsoil brand lubricants. We
to the customer as possible, but al- offer quality products with high-tech support
ways in close connection with the and comprehensive service. No
Competence Centers at the main sites matter the challenge you have
in Germany and Switzerland, Brecht with your compressor, the Tulco
said. This network is supported by team will have a solution.
worldwide operating field service staff
that comes from both the local sites
and the headquarters.
The service agreement includes
WWW.TULCO.COM
consultancy services and a spare-
parts provision. According to MAN, it (800) 375-2347
will be the first original equipment man-
ufacturer of turbomachinery to have its
own local workshop in Oman. CT2
JULY 2016 63 COMPRESSORtech2
Surge Detection And Surge TECH

corner
Control Systems For Centrifugal
Compressors (Part 1) >
Fundamentals include dynamic centrifugal compressor map,
operating envelope, surge cycle
BY NEETIN GHAISAS AND TODD REITSMA

Abstract
Surge detection and surge control of centrifugal com-
pressors is complex. It requires specialized knowledge
and experience of machinery, controls and processes
to develop advance algorithms, fallback strategies and
dedicated, purpose-built systems that are capable of
high-speed execution of algorithms for optimized tur-
bomachinery controls.
This paper presents fundamentals such as dynamic
centrifugal compressor map, operating envelope, surge
cycle and surge detection. The paper will also describe an-
tisurge and performance controllers and their importance
to an overall control strategy, antisurge control responses,
advance control features including loop decoupling, load
sharing, performance override control, limiting loops and
fallback modes. Recycle piping and valve sizing consid-
erations, hot gas bypass valve (HGBV) requirements and
instrumentation considerations are also discussed. n Figure 1. Compressor inlet volumetric capacity
versus pressure ratio map.
Dynamic Compressor Map
Centrifugal compressors convert energy imparted by the
driver into potential and kinetic energies in the gas being
compressed. Figure 1 shows a representative dynamic
compressor map. It explains energy conversion in two di-
mensions. The horizontal coordinate of the map is for volu-
metric inlet capacity Q and the vertical coordinate repre-
sents pressure ratio Rc.
Characteristic operating envelope of a centrifugal com-
pressor is shown in Figure 2. It illustrates how the stable
operating zone was determined after adding control mar-
gins within the boundaries of surge limit, stonewall, mini-
mum and maximum speeds and any additional process or
compressor train constraint.

Neetin Ghaisas is a senior fellow rotating equipment, with

Fluor. Contact him at: Neetin.Ghaisas@Fluor.com. Todd
Reitsma is a senior account manager with Compressor
n Figure 2. Typical operating envelope of a
centrifugal compressor.
Control Corp. Contact him at: treitsma@cccglobal.com.

JULY 2016 64 COMPRESSORtech2

 Surge Cycle And Surge Detection
Figure 3 shows propagation of a surge cycle. As pressure
builds up, system resistance increases, and the operating
point draws the performance curve. At point A, the potential
energy in the discharge vessel exceeds the capability of
the compressor. With Pv > Pd(max), the flow in the system
reverses. As a result, the pressure downstream of the com-
pressor drops, and that allows the compressor to reestablish
forward flow. If corrective action is not initiated, the surge
cycle repeats.
Surge can be experienced during the startup and shut-
n Figure 3. Development of surge cycle.
down of a compressor, during operation at low flow rates
(inlet volumetric flow in the proximity of surge limit line) or
when a centrifugal compressor operates at high flow rates where z= ( Zs + Zd) / 2
with sudden process variations, such as changes in pres- Rc = Pd / Ps
sures and gas composition, fouled aftercoolers, plugged = (k 1) / (k* )
inlet filters or strainers and loss of driver power. k = Cp / Cv
Surge cycle times typically range from 0.3 to 3.0 s/cycle.
Consequences of a surge include rapid oscillations in flow  = inlet flow orifice coefficient
and pressure, exponential rise (severity based) in the tem- Ts = suction temperature
perature of the gas, process instability, potential machine/ Zs = inlet compressibility
process trips and possible damage to compressor seals, MW = gas molecular weight
bearings, impellers and shaft depending on the energy Rc = pressure ratio
level associated with surge and the compressor design. Pd = absolute discharge pressure
Surge detection is an inherent feature of the surge con- dPo = differential pressure flow measurement signal
trol system. It is used to alarm plant operators, engage Ps = absolute suction pressure
the surge system controllers adaptive action (i.e., in- R = gas constant
crease the margin to surge) and, if necessary, shutdown Zd = discharge compressibility
the compressor to prevent damage. Various methods are n = efficiency
used for surge detection, including setting thresholds on
rate of change in pressure, rate of change in flow, rise In these equations, not all parameters can be measured
in temperature compared to upstream gas temperature, directly. Real-time measurement of molecular weight is not
rate of change in driver power and/or a combination of all suitable for antisurge control. Accurately defining the in-
of these parameters. terface between stable operation and surge in all possible
conditions is essential to protect a compressor from surge.
Compressor Map With Invariant Coordinates Invariant coordinate systems contain only the variables,
Compressor inlet volumetric flow (Qs) and polytropic which are measured directly. Normalizing the above equa-
head (Hp) are commonly used map coordinates. These are tions will produce a compressor map in reduced flow and
expressed by the following equations: reduced head coordinates that are invariant to changes in
gas properties such as gas density and molecular weight.
dPo*Ts*Zs Z*R*Ts Rc 1
Qs = A* Hp = + This creates a reliable coordinate system for better surge
Ps*MW MW
continued on page 66

JULY 2016 65 COMPRESSORtech2

 stable zone of operation, prevent design limit excur-
sions, provide more effective surge protection, provide
more precise control of the process variable and enable
smoother and repeatable automated start-up and shut-
down procedures.
Loop Decoupling
Control loops are coupled when the control action of one
loop causes the process variable of another loop to change.
Dedicated recycle loops on multisection compressors are
highly coupled (often referred to as interactive). Opening
either recycle valve in the two-section compressor example
will improve the location of the operating point in that sec-
tion, but can negatively affect the location of the operating
point in the other section. The reaction of the two recycle
loops can quickly become unstable.
Feed forward loop decoupling between the recycle con-
trollers (UIC) is essential to minimize the interaction. Feed
forward action preemptively opens the other recycle valve
and very effectively stabilizes each loop.
Load Sharing
Often, multiple compressors will work in parallel to meet
the process needs of the plant. This gives plants the flex-
ibility to do maintenance on one of the machines and
typically not affect plant production and also the ability
to manage large process flow ranges. Significant energy
savings can be realized by taking machines online or of-
fline as required. Controlling parallel compressors effi-
ciently and effectively to meet the process goals, however,
can be a challenging task.
The primary control objectives of parallel compressor
networks include:
Precise control of the primary process variable to maxi-
mize plant production.
Maintain all compressor trains within their design oper-
ating limits.
n Figure 5. Compressor throughput options to maintain a desired
discharge pressure.
JULY 2016
Optimally divide the responsibility of maintaining the
primary process variable between the compressors in
the network, while at the same time:
o Minimizing the risk of machines tripping due
to surge, vibration, over-speed and process
disturbances.
o Minimizing compressor network energy
consumption.
o Avoid introducing disturbances to the pro-
cess when bringing machines online and
offline.
There are many ways to control parallel compressors
and some are more effective than others at achieving
the control objectives above. Typical control strategies
include:
Base load and swing machines, which can result in
recycling gas with the swing load machine. Only the
swing machine handles process disturbances, which
increase the risks of trip and increase wear and main-
tenance on swing machines.
Independent performance controllers on each train.
Flow oscillations can occur between trains when
multiple controllers are used to maintain a common
process parameter. To avoid oscillations, controller
tuning is dampened or control loops are switched to
manual mode. These reactions severely compro-
mise the main process variable control and increase
the risk of trips during process disturbances.
Master controller for load balancing. A master con-
troller is added to maintain the primary process
variable. A master controller provides the set point
for each train performance controller (also referred
to as load-sharing controllers). This control archi-
tecture guarantees that both compressor trains
move in the same direction to meet the main pro-
cess goal. This control method requires all com-
pressor performance maps to be the same. Since
no two compressors are exactly alike, and suc-
tion and discharge piping in the network can influ-
ence individual compressor performance, they will
handle flow differently. The result is trains are not
balanced, so in low flow conditions, some com-
pressors may go into recycle while others will not.
Master controller for distance to surge balancing.
In this control architecture, the load share response
of the master takes into account the distance to the
surge control line (SCL) calculated by each anti-
surge controller in the parallel network. Equalizing
the relative distance from surge (deviation), is the
best means for distributing flow among parallel com-
pressors. This strategy guarantees minimum overall
recycle of the group of compressors, providing the
most efficient operation and also the most effective
antisurge control. In the case of a process distur-
bance, all compressors in the parallel system begin
to open their recycle valves at the same time. CT2
67 COMPRESSORtech2
 2
3 Scheduled Downtime DJ SLATER, PUZZLEMASTER

4 Visit www.compressortech2.com/scheduled-downtime/ for answers

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Marketplace
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to Simulate Vibrations in Drive Systems
Articles in COMPRESSORtech2 can be reprinted at a very reasonable cost torsional and lateral vibration analysis
and used for effective direct mail purposes, answering inquiries, trade show rotordynamics & bearing analysis (fluid-film)
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continued from page 61
Serrano will continue as senior vice president and CFO of
Tetra Technologies.
Coffie has more than 35 years of accounting and financial
management experience, working in a variety of industries,
including agribusiness, manufacturing and land-based diesel
engine services. Coffie joins CSI Compressco from United
Holdings, a subsidiary of Kirby Corp., where he served as
vice president finance and controller since 2015.
Sonatrach
Sonatrach, Algerias state energy company, is seeking
firms to build six compressor stations as part of a multi-
billion dollar project aimed at pumping more gas from new
southern fields in North Africa.
The project looks to expand and build compression and
pumping stations, as well as pipelines, in the next four
years for the North African OPEC state. The six compres-
sor stations are expected to cost US$1 billion.
Sonatrach hasnt designated any firms for the project, but it
did identify 16 of them two years ago, including Bonatti, China
Petroleum Pipelines, Technicas Reunidas and Techint Group.
Enerflex
Enerflex has officially opened its new service facility in
ings, including compression, process and electric power
equipment sales; aftermarket service and support; and as-
set management for the southern Australian region.
The facility, the sixth for Enerflex in Australia, also in-
cludes a workshop for equipment overhauls, upgrades,
retrofits and general asset management. A regional
training space and parts warehouse are also part of the
facility, which sits in the northwest suburb of Gillman.
According to Enerflex, the facility has been operational
since April, but was officially opened on May 31. Enerflexs
presence in Australia spans more than 20 years. The com-
pany supplies natural gas compression, oil and gas pro-
cessing and electrical power equipment, as well as refrig-
eration systems.
IPD
IPD, an aftermarket provider of engine components for
heavy-duty diesel and natural gas powered engines, has
hired Michael Clogg as its president and chief operating
officer (COO).
This isnt the first time Clogg has served in this posi-
tion. He worked as the companys president and COO
in 2003 to 2004 and in 2008 to 2012. More recently, he
served on the board of directors for IPDs parent com-
pany, Storm Industries.

JULY 2016 69 COMPRESSORtech2

Advertisers Index
*Further information on this companys products can be found in the 2016 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
(at www.Dieselandgasturbineguide.net) and/or 2016 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).

ACI Services Inc. ....................................................................45 *KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts, Mfg. ..................36, 37, 57

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Altronic LLC ......................................................................10, 11 Modulift ...................................................................................55

*ARIEL Corporation .............................................................1, 31

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ARMCO Compressor Products Corp. ..................Third Cover

Murphy by Enovation Controls .................... Fourth Cover, 25
*Burckhardt Compression AG ............................................3, 39
Neuman & Esser Group .........................................................15
Compressor Products International .......................................5
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TEDOM a.s. - Engines Division .............................................47

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*Elliott Group .......................................................Second Cover *Testo, Inc. ...............................................................................27

Exline Inc. ...............................................................................59 Tulco Oils ................................................................................63

GE Oil and Gas - Reciprocating Compression ....................17 Zahroof Valves Inc. ................................................................51
Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 72
n These early sketches were used by Donald E. Bently to explain that the linear dc voltage output generated by a proximitor module as
a function of gap size (left) was essential to the performance capability of his Bently Nevada proximity measurement system for vibra-
tion monitoring and machinery malfunction diagnosis. The output provides the average gap distance from the probe tip to the target
surface, plus the observed vibration excursion level in both frequency and amplitude (right).
stiffness characteristics, which means the machines casing
shaft vibration does not relate to the shafts overall vibra-
tion. Consequently, direct observation of the machines shaft
(rotor) was recognized as a more accurate method of as-
sessing condition on such machines.
The compact eddy-current proximity probes pioneered
by Bently addressed this need and quickly became the pre-
ferred method of assessing vibration and overall mechani-
cal condition on large turbomachinery employing fluid-film
bearings. Such machines and bearing types account for
the vast majority of compressors, turbines, pumps, electric
motors, generators and other rotating equipment exceeding
1000 hp (746 kW). The primary focus of the company soon
shifted from laboratory measurements to industrial mea-
surements on rotating machinery.
In an article in the March 1972 issue of Diesel and Gas
Turbine Progress, Bently discussed the technology in depth.
The eddy-current principle is used to measure the distance
from the coil (on the tip of the probe) to the surface of the
target, usually a rotating shaft. This is accomplished by the
generation of a small radio frequency (RF) in a special sig-
nal conditioning model called a proximitor.
The RF signal escapes into the area surrounding the
probe tip. When no conductive material is within range of
the signal, virtually all of the power released to the sur-
rounding area is returned to the probe tip. As a conduc-
tive surface approaches the tip, the RF sets up small eddy
currents on this surface. The eddy currents create a mea-
surable power loss in the RF signal. The nearer the target
material, the greater the eddy-current loss.
The proximitor linearizes the output voltage as a func-
tion of the probe tip to target gap distance, providing a
direct measurement of the targets position and vibration
frequency and amplitude. When two probes are placed 90
apart, total shaft motion can be observed. This creates a
basic tool for monitoring rotating machinery condition and
diagnosing malfunctions such as unbalance, wear, internal
rubs, bearing wear or failure or instability, among others.
JULY 2016
The 1972 article noted the fast growth and acceptance
of proximity (noncontact) vibration and position transduc-
ers that gave machinery operators a practical method for
observing actual shaft vibratory motion for the first time.
It said that Bently had already begun to focus his com-
panys efforts on instrumentation for rotating machinery
condition measurements.
This included permanent protection monitoring systems
and portable or test stand data reduction instruments that
assisted in design, acceptance and startup of machinery.
Users could get simple visual indications of the vibration
amount and could set alarm levels for annunciation and
machine shutdown purposes when vibration levels be-
came excessive.
The company continued to expand, making diagnostic
instruments such as spectrum analyzers, tunable filters and
other signal conditioning and recording apparatus, in ad-
dition to its sensors and monitors. As time went by, it also
became apparent that customers were in need of expertise
to help interpret their vibration measurements.
In response, the company expanded its service organiza-
tion in the 1980s beyond instrument installation and repair
to include a team of machinery diagnostic engineers, skilled
in collecting and interpreting vibration signals to help cus-
tomers identify and correct machinery malfunctions.
Bently became a globally recognized authority on rotor
dynamics as well as vibration monitoring and diagnostics,
authoring more than 140 papers on these subjects. A signif-
icant amount of his rotordynamic research pertained to the
topic of stability, and he introduced several new data presen-
tation formats, such as so-called full spectrum plots and
acceptance region trend plots. His book, Fundamentals of
Rotating Machinery Diagnostics, published in 2002, is used
as a textbook at major universities.
When Bently sold the Bently Nevada Corp. to GE Energy
in 2002, it had more than 1800 employees and 10,000 active
products. GE continues to design, manufacture and market
products and services using the Bently Nevada name. CT2
71 COMPRESSORtech2
 C ornerstones Of Compression
n Early image of the proximity probe transducer developed by Bently Nevada.
The Bently Nevada
Proximity Probe > Direct measurement of shaft vibration enabled
advancements in turbomachinery performance
and reliability
T
he Bently Nevada eddy-current proximity probe was
a significant development that enabled centrifugal
compressors, gas turbines and other high-speed
machinery to be pushed to substantially higher levels of
performance and reliability. This sensor revolutionized
vibration measurements in high-speed turbomachinery by
allowing the direct observation of the rotating shaft.
In the mid-1950s, Donald E. Bently, an electrical engi-
neering graduate student at the University of California,
was briefly employed by an aerospace company working on
aircraft control systems. At the time, those control systems
were primarily mechanical/hydraulic in nature and Bentlys
employer was investigating the use of electronic sensors as
a replacement for some of the mechanical apparatus.
It was here that Bently was exposed to and intrigued by
eddy-current sensors. Believing that there was limited use
for such sensors, the aerospace company gave him permis-
sion to use the eddy-current technology in his own endeav-
ors. Shortly thereafter in 1956, he dropped out of school, left
his aerospace employer and formed Bently Scientific Co.,
operating out of his garage in Berkeley, California.
JULY 2016
BY NORM SHADE
Although the idea of an eddy-current sensor was not
original to Bently, he was the first to make it commercially
practical. Initially, he sold his eddy-current sensing systems
via mail order and manufactured them one at a time. In
1961, the company relocated to the small town of Minden,
Nevada, and became Bently Nevada Corp. Its primary op-
erations remain there.
In the companys early years, its noncontacting displace-
ment sensors were used primarily for laboratory rather than
industrial measurements. But industrial users of turboma-
chinery began to experiment with the use of these sensors
for measuring vibration or machine shaft motion. Direct ob-
servation of the vibratory motion of a machines shaft is de-
sirable because, most often, the rotating shaft is the source
of vibration in the machine.
Previous to the introduction of the so-called Bently probe,
shaft motion had to be indirectly inferred by measuring the
vibration of the machines casing. While machinery casing
measurements can be valuable under certain conditions,
machines that employ fluid-film bearings have damping and
continued on page 71
72 COMPRESSORtech2
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