Photosynthesis light energy from sun into chemical potential energy

Releases oxygen from water

Autotrophs use light energy or chemical energy and inorganic molecules
(co2 + water) to synthesise complex organic molecules
Chemoautotroph synthesise organic molecules using energy from
exergenoic reactions(e.g. nitrifying bacteria)
Photoautotrophs Organisms that can photosynthesise Plants, Bacteria,
Protoctists
Heterotrophs ingest and digest complex organic molecules releasing
chemical potential energy stored in them.
6CO2 + 6H20 (+LIGHT ENERGY) C6H12O6 + 602 - - - - - - -
Photosynthesis
Other way around is respiration

Photosynthesis happens in chloroplasts.

Structure of chloroplasts:

Disc shaped 2-10 um long

Double membrane
Inter membrane space 10-20nm wide
Outer is permeable to small ions
Inner has transport proteins.
Inner folded into lamellae which are stacked up to form a granum
Between grana are intergranal lamellae
Stroma fluid filled matrix reactions of light independent stage occur here.
Necessary enzymes are located here. Starch grains and oil droplets also in stroma,
and DNA and prokaryote type ribosomes too
Grana stacks of flattened thylakoid membranes. Light absorption and ATP
synthesis in light dependent stage happen here.

Adaptations

Inner membrane can control entry/exit of substances between cytoplasm and

stroma
Grana has 100 stacks of thylakoid membranes so large surface area for
photosynthetic pigments, electron carriers and ATP synthase enzymes
Photosynthetic pigments arranged in photo systems
Proteins in the grana hold the photo systems in place
Stroma has enzymes to catalyse reactions of light independent
Grana surrounded by stroma, so products from dependent stage, which
are needed in independent stage can pass into stroma easily
Chloroplasts have DNA and ribosomes so they can easily make the
necessary proteins

Photosynthetic pigments

They tried to capture as much light as possible

Are found in thylakoid membranes, arranged in funnel shaped structures
photo systems
Chlorophyll is a mixture of pigments has a Mg atom, a long phytol
and a porphyrin group
 Light hits chlorophyll a causing pair of electrons to be exited
Two forms of chlorophyll A one in P680 and other in P700 both are
yellow/green
Both found at centre of photo systems and are known as primary pigment
reaction centres
P680 PSII- absorbs light at 680nm
P700 PSI absorbs light at 700nm
Chlorophyll a absorbs blue light at 450nm
Chlorophyll b absorbs light around 500nm and 640nm , appears
blue/green

Accessory pigments

Carotenoids reflect yellow and orange light and absorb blue light
Dont contain porphyrin and arent involved directly in light dependent
Absorb light which isnt absorbed well by chlorophyll, and pass the energy
associated to chlorophyll A at base of photo system
Carotene(orange) and xanthophylls(yellow) are main Carotenoids
pigments
In photo system, main pigment is at the bottom where the light hits
The accessory pigment are located around photo system and absorb light
that the main photosynthetic pigment cant absorb
The absorbed light energy passed down to the primary pigment reaction
centre
Chlorophyll A is located there and energy is supplied there to excite
electrons

Light dependent stage

Takes place on thylakoid membrane

PSI is usually on the intergranal lamellae and PSII occurs almost all the
time on the granal lamella
These pigments trap light energy so it can be converted to chemical
energy then ATP
PSII has an enzyme that can split water into H+ ions, electrons and oxygen
2h20 4h+ + 4e- + O2
Oxygen produced is used for aerobic respiration and some diffuses out
through stomata
Splitting of water forms H+ ions, used in chemiosmosis to produce ATP. H+
accepted by coenzyme NADP which becomes reduced NADPH. NADPH
used in light independent stage to reduce co2 and produce organic
molecules.
Water is also a source of electrons to replaces ones lost by oxidised
chlorophyll

Photophosphorylation

Light travels in particles called photons

When a photon hits a chlorophyll molecule, the energy of the photon is
transferred to two electrons and they become excited. The electrons are
captured by electron acceptors and passed along a series of electron
carries embedded in the thylakoid membranes. Electron carriers are
proteins that contain iron atoms.
 Energy is released as the electrons pass the chain of electron carriers. This
pumps protons across the thylakoid membrane in thylakoid space
Proton gradient is formed across thylakoid membrane and protons flow
down their gradients through channels associated with ATP synthase
enzymes
Force drives the rotation of part of the enzyme and allows ADP and Pi to be
joined forming ATP.
Kinetic energy from proton flow is converted to energy in ATP molecules
used in light independent stage of photosynthesis.
Flow of protons is called chemiosmosis
Making of ATP using light energy is called Photophosphorylation.
Two types Cyclic and Non-Cyclic

Cyclic Photophosphorylation

Uses PSI. Excited electrons pass to an electron acceptor and back to the
chlorophyll molecule from which they were lost. No photolysis of water and
no generation of NADP, but little ATP are made.
The ATP may be used in light independent stage reaction of
photosynthesis or may be used in guard cells to bring K ions, lowering
water potential and causing water to follow by osmosis. Cause guard cells
to swell and opens the stomata

Non cyclic Photophosphorylation

Involves PSI and PSII

Light hits PSII, excites electrons that leave chlorophyll molecule from PPRC
Electrons pass along electron carriers and energy is released to
synthesize ATP
Light has also struck PSI and pair of electrons lost
Electrons along with protons in stroma join NADP to form NADPH
Electrons from oxidised PSII replaced electrons lost from PSI
Electrons from photolysis water replace those lost by oxidised chlorophyll
in PSII
Protons from photolysed water take part in chemomeiosis to make ATP
and are then captured by NADP in stroma. This is used in light
independent stage

Light independent stage

Calvin Cycle

Takes place in stroma

Products of light dependent stage are required
CO2 from air diffuses into leaf through stomata (bottom of leaf). Diffuses
throughout air spaces in spongy mesophyll and reaches palisade
mesophyll layer. Then diffuses through thin cellulose walls, the cell surface
membrane, cytoplasm and then the chloroplast envelope into the stroma.
In stroma, CO2 combined with 5 carbon RuBP (co2 accepter). Reaction
catalysed by rubisco. RUBP becomes carboxlyated.
Forms 3 carbon glycerate 3 phosphate (GP)CO2 is now fixed
GP is reduced and phosphorylated to triose phosphate (TP)
ATP and NADPH from light dependent are used in this process
 5 out of 6 TP are recycled by phosphorylation using ATP from light
dependant to 3 molecules of RuBP

How are they used?

Some GP can be used to make amino acids and fatty acids

Pairs of TP molecules combine to form hexose sugars, e.g. glucose
and fructose
Some glucose can be isomerised to form hexose sugar
Glucose and fructose can be combined to form disaccharide
sucrose to be translocated in phloem sieve tubes
Hexose sugars can be polymerised into other carbs such as
cellulose and starch
TP can be converted to glycerol and may be combined with fatty
acid to form GP to make lipid

Limiting factors

Light intensity, CO2 conc, Temperature are all limiting factors

Too high temperature will cause proteins to be denatured

Effect of light intensity

Causes stomata to open so CO2 can enter leaves

Light is trapped by chlorophyll where it excites electrons
Splits water molecules to produce protons

Effect of temperature

Between 0-25OC, Photosynthesis doubles for each 10oC rise

Above 25 it levels off, then falls because enzymes work less efficiently and
oxygen successfully competes for active site of rubisco, stopping CO2 from
binding
Causes loss of water from stomata making stress response to close the
stomata, limiting CO2 available

Measuring photosynthesis

Measure uptake of substrates or appearance of products per

second/minute
Volume of oxygen produced
Rate of CO2 uptake
Rate of increase in dry mass of plants
Usually measured by oxygen produced
-Limitations are that some oxygen produced will be used for respiration by
the plant
-There maybe be some dissolved nitrogen in the gas collected.
Photosynthometer/Audus microburette air tight so no bubbles in capillary
tubing
Gas collected at flare at end of rube
 Gas buble can be meoved into the part of the capillary tube against the
scale and its length can be measured
Volume of gas collected = length of buble x pi R ^2
Compare rates by using the length of gas bubble evolved per unit time,
given diameter is constant
How to measure:
-Fill apparatus with tap water. Remove plunger from synrige and gentle
stream of tap water into the syringe until whole barrel and plastic tube are
full of water
-Replace synringe plunger and gently push water out of flared end of
capillary tubing until plunger is nearly at the end of the syringe and no air
bubbles.
-Cut well illuminated Elodea 7cm long make sure bubbles of gas are
emerging from cut stem. Place cut end upwards into test tube containing
the saem water that the pondweed has been kept in. Add two drops of
hydrogen carbonate solution t the water of the test tube. Stand test tube
in a beaker of water at about 20oC. Use thermometer to measure the
temperature of the beaker at intervals during the investigation. Add cold
water if necessary
-Place light source as close to the beaker. Measure distance from piece of
pondweed to light source and record. L = 1/d 2
-Leave the apparatus with capillary tube postioned so that it is not
collection gas given off by palnt for 5-10 minutes.
-Postion teh capillary tube over the cut end of the plant and after a known
period of time (5-10 mins) gently pull the syringe plunger so that the
bubble of gas collected is in teh capillary tube near the scale. Note length
of bubble and gently push in the plunger so that the bubble is expelled
-Reposition capillary tube to collect more gas and repeat ^ twice more
-Move light source further from plant and measure distance and calculate
the light intensity or use a light meter to measure light intensity. Allow a 5-
10 min acclimatisation period then repeat ^ and ^^.
-Continue investigation with different light intensity. Tabulate your data
and plot graph of rate of photosynthesis. Calc volume of oxygen evolved
per minute against light intesntiy 1/d2
Investigate rate of temp. Keep all factors same, alter temperature. Note
that warmer water reduces solubility of oxygen gas
Co2 everything constant but add more hydrogen carbonate solution
GO THROUGH PROCEDURE PAGE 70

Light intensity

L = 1/d2
It alters light dependant reaction
More light = more excitation of electrons
More electrons excited = greater phosphorylation so more ATP
and NADPH produced
ATP and NADPH used in light independent as source of hydrogen
and energy to reduce GP to TP.
ATP used to phosphorylate 5/6 molecules of TP to regenerate
RUBP
If theres no light, then GP cant be changed to TP, so GP will
accumulate.
 Lower amount of RuBP reducing CO2 fixation and formation of
more GP

CO2

Increased amount = more CO2 fixation

More molecules of GP and more TP and more regeneration of
RuBP.
The number of stomata that open to allow gaseous exchange
leads to increased transpiration and may lead to the plant wilting,
if water uptake cant exceed water lost through transpiration
Leads to release of plant growth regulator (abscisic acid) and
stomata close.
This reduces CO2uptake and rate of photosynthesis

Temperature

Increasing temp affects photolysis of water.

Affects rate of light independent as catalyst is used
Over 25Oc, oxygenase activity of rubisco increases more than
carboxylase increases
Means photorespiration > photosyntehsis
Consequently, ATP and NADPH from light dependant is wasted
Reduces overall rate of photosynthesis
Very high temp can denature
Increased temp causes an increase in water loss from leaves by
transpiration. Can lead to closure of stomata and reduction in
photosynthesis rate

Explain, using the information in the diagram, why the pH of the thylakoid

space (lumen) is lower than that of the stroma and what significance this has for

ATP production.

.........................................................................................................................

In this question, one mark is available for the quality of use and organisation of

scientific terms.

There are a number of organic molecules in cells whose role is to transfer

hydrogen

atoms from one compound to another. Examples include NAD, FAD and NADP.

NAD, FAD and NADP are important molecules in plant cells. Describe, in detail,
the
role of these molecules within a palisade mesophyll cell

When plants are grown in glasshouses during autumn and winter, when the

natural light intensities are low, it is important that temperatures are kept

relatively low.

With referenceto respiration and photosynthesis, explain why it is essential to do

this.

.........................................................................................................................

Go through diagram of Chloroplast

Learn about Mesophyll cells

Enzymes need to be under these conditions:

-Suitable PH
-Suitable temp
-An aqueous environment that keeps substrates and products in
solution
-Freedom from toxins and excess inhibitors
Stimulus: Change in environment that causes a response
Response: Change in behaviour or physiology as a result of a stimulus
Most multicullular organisms tissues are protected by epithelial tissues
(bark and skin).
In animals they are bathed in tissue fluid
Metabolic waste e.g. toxic things diffuse out of cell into tissue fluid
Therefore activity of cell determines the cells own environment
Co2 is a waste product that could disrupt action of enzymes or can change
pH
These waste products act as a stimulus to remove these waste products
excretion

Good communication system:

Cover whole body

Cell communication
Specific communication
Rapid communication
Short and long term responses
Cell signalling

Neuronal system interconnected network of neurons that signal to

each other across synapse junctions. Are quick and can enable
rapid responses to stimuli changing quickly
Hormonal system uses blood to transport it signal. Cells in an
endocrine organ release the hormone into the blood. Carried all
over body but recognised by specific target cells. Long term

Homeostasis:

Maintenance of internal environment in a constant stage despite external

changes.
This that have to be kept constant: Temp, Blood salt conc, Blood glucose
conc, water potential of blood, blood pressure, co2 conc

Negative feedback

Any change to internal environment must be detected

Change must be signalled to other cells
Must be a response that reverses the change
Negative feedback: Process that brings about a reversal of any
change in conditions. Ensures that an optimum steady state can
be maintained as the internal environment is returned to its
original set of conditions after any change.
Stimulus>Receptor>Communication Pathway (cell signalling) > Effector >
Response
Sensory receptors such as temperature receptors, glucose conc receptors
are internal and monitor conditions inside the boy
If they detect a change they will send a message
A communication system such as the nervous system or the hormonal
system acts by signalling between cells.
Uses to transmit message from receptor cells to effectors cells
The message may or may not pass through a coordination centre such as
the brain
Effector cells such as liver or muscle cells will bring about the response
and reverse the change

Positive feedback

Increases the original change and usually harmful. Example: when body
is too cold, enzymes become less active. If less active, exergonic
reactions that release heat are slow and so less heat released.
This cools down body more and releases less heat
Definition: Process that increases any change detected by the
receptor. Tends to be harmful and doesnt lead to homeostasis
Sometimes beneficial. Example pregnancy when dilation of cervix. Begins
to stretch and change is signalled to anterior pituitary gland stimulating
secretion of oxytocin. Oxytocin increases contractions and stretches cervix
more

Meaning of constant
 Negative feedback will maintain a reasonably constant set of conditions,
but will never remain perfectly constant
Will be some variation around mean

Need to maintain a body temp

Enzymes are globular proteins and structure is specific to function

Enzyme activity is affected if they are not kept at optimum temp.
Endotherms: Maintain body temperature within fairly strict limits,
independent of external temperature humans
Ectotherms: Organism that relies on external sources of heat to
regulate its body temperature
Advantages of ectotherm:
-Use less food for respiration
-Find less food and may be able to survive for longer without eating
-More energy from food goes for growth
Disadvantages
-Less active in cool temperatures. Need to warm up. Higher risk of
predation
-Incapable of activity during winter so they need food to survive them for a
long time

Temperature regulation in ectotherms

Do not use internal energy sources to maintain their body

Muscle contractions generate some heat from increased respiration
When ectotherm is cold, itll change behaviour or physiology to increase
absorbption of heat from environment

Adaptation How it helps regulate Example

temp
Expose body to sun Enables more heat to be Snake
absorbed
Orientate body to sun Exposes large S.A for Locusts
more heat absorption
Orientate body away Exposes lower S.A so less Locusts
from sun heat absorbed
Hide in burrow Reduce heat absorption Lizards
by keeping out of sun
Alter body shape Expose more less S.A to Horned lizards
sun
Increase breathing Evaporates water Locusts
movements

Endotherms

Use internal sources of heat to maintain body temp.

Many chemical reactions are exergonic release energy in form of heat
Can increase rate of respiration in liver ot release heat
Advantages
-Constant body temp regardless of external temp
 -Active in cold and night
-Can inhabit colder parts of the planet
Disadvantages:
-A lot of energy from food is used to respire
-More food required
-Less of energy from food put towards growth

Component of body Response if temp high Response if temp low

involved
Sweat glands Secret more sweat on Less sweat secreted. Less
skin, water in sweat evaporation of water
evaporates using heat
from body to supply
latent heat of
vaporisation
Lungs, mouth and nose Panting increases Animal doesnt pant
evaporation of water
from lungs, tongue and
other moist surfaces
using latent heat as
above
Hairs on skin Hairs lay flat, little Hairs stick up, increases
insulation. More heat lost insulation, reducing loss
by convection and of heat from skin
radiation
Arterioles leading to Vasodilatation allows Vasoconstriction reduces
capillaries in skin more blood into flow of blood through
capillaries near the skin. capillaries.
More heat can be
radiated from skin, which
in pale skinned people
may look red
Liver cells Rate of metabolism Rate of metabolism
reduced. Less heat increases.. Respiration
generated from generates more heat.
exergonic reactions
Skeletal muscles No spontaneous Spontaneous
contractions contractions (shivering)
generate heat as muscle
cells respire more

Behavioural mechanisms move into shade move into sun light

Orientate body to increase/decrease S.A exposed
Remain inactive and spread out limbs to increase S.A or active and ball
up

Endotherms monitor temperate of blood via Hypothalamus.

If change, then hypothalamus sends signal
1) Increase rate in metabolism to release more heat through exergonic
reactions
2) Release of heat through extra muscular contraction
 3) Decreased loss of heat to the environment

--------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------
Rise in core temp Thermoregulatory centre in hypothalamus detects
change Nervous system and hormonal system carry signals to skin,
liver and muscles Less heat generated and more heat lost
Temperature falls

Role of peripheral temperature receptors

An early warning that body temp may change could help hypothalamus
respond quicker
If extremities start to cool down, may eventually affect core body temp
Peripheral temp receptors in skin monitor temperature in extremities.
Info is fed to the hypothalamus and can initiate behavioural mechanisms

Sensory receptors

Specialised cells energy transducers, convert one form of energy to

another
Each type of transducer is adapted to detect changes for a specific form of
energy
Change in energy levels in environment called stimulus
Sensory receptors convert energy into a form of electrical energy called
nerve impulse

PAGE 12 sensory receptor table

Generating nerve impulses

Some protein channels allow movement of ions across membrane

Ions keep diffusing until concentration is equal on both sides
Neurones (nerve cells) have specialised channel proteins specific to K and
Na ions
They have a gate which controls the permeability of the membrane.
Channel is usually kept closed
Neurones also contain carrier proteins that actively transport Na out of
cell, K into cell.
Called sodium/potassium ion pumps.
More sodium ions are transported out, than potassium is trasnrpoted in
Inside is negatively charged polarised membrane
Nerve impulse is created by altering permeability to sodium ions
As sodium ion channels open, sodium ions move across membrane down
their conc gradient into cell
Movement of ions creates a change in P.D across membrane
Inside becomes less negative than outside depolarisation
 Generator potentials

Receptor cells respond to changes in environment

Gated sodium ions channels open allow Sodium to diffuse across
membrane into cell.
A small change in potential caused by 1 or 2 sodium ion channels opening
is called a generator potential
Larger the stimulus, the more gated channels open
If enough sodium ions enter the cell, potential difference changes and will
initiate an impulse or action potential

Once stimulus detected and energy converted to depolarisation of

receptor cell membrane, impulse must be transmitted to other parts of
body. Impulse transmitted across neurone as an action potential
Different types of neurones:
Sensory Carry action potential from sensory to CNS
Motor CNS to effector
Relay Connect sensory and motor

Function of neurone is to transmit AP from one part of body to another

Structure to function of neurone

Long so can transmit AP over long dstance

Plasma membrane has many gated ion channels that control entry/exit of
Na/K or C ions
Na/K pumps that use ATP to actively transport Na ions out cell, and K into
cell
Maintain P.D across plasma membrane
Surrounded by fatty sheath called myelin sheath (group of Schwann cells)
that insulates neurone from electrical activity from nearby cells.
There are gaps between where the Schwann cells meet called nodes of
ranvier
Have a cell body that contains nucleus, many mitochondria and ribosomes
Motor have cell body outside CNS, and have long axon
Sensory have long Dendron, positioned outside CNS.
Sensory have short axon
Sensory and Motor have many dendrites connected to other neurones

Resting neurone

When a neurone is not transmitting = rest

Always actively transporting ions across its plasma membrane.
 Na/K pumps use ATP to mum 3 Na out/2 K in.
Membrane is more permeable to K that it is to Na, and so many K diffuse
back out
Cytoplasm has anions and interior of cell is maintained at a negative
potential
Potential difference across cell membrane is about -60mV. = Resting
potential

Action potential

At rest, Na ion channels kept closed

Na/K pump uses ATP to pump in K to the axon
A few K diffuse back out and some K channels are still open
If some Na are open, Na will quickly diffuse down conc gradient into cell
from surrounding tissue fluid
Causes depolarisation of membrane
In generator region of receptor cells the gated channels are opened by
changes in environment
E.g. pacinian corpuscle which detects pressure changes are opened by
deformation
The gates further along neurone are open by changes in PD across
membrane. They are voltage gated channels.
Generator potentials in sensory are depolarisaitons of ccell membrane
A small depolarisation has no effect but if it reaches the threshold
potential of -50mV , itll open up nearby voltage gated channels causing
influx of Na ions and Depolarisation of the membrane will now reach
+40mV causing an action potential
Once action potential starts, itll continue till end of neurone

Action potential consist of a set of ionic movements across cell membrane

when correct channels are open

1) Membrane starts in resting state polarised - -60mV compared to

outside
2) Sodium ion channels open and some sodium ions diffuse into cell
3) Membrane depolarises, becomes less negative and reaches threshold
value of -50mV
4) Voltage gated Na ion channels open and Na come in. Becomes
positively charged in respect to outside
5) Potential difference across plasma membrane reaches +40mV. Inside of
cell is positive compared with outside
6) Na ion channels close, K channels open
7) K ions diffuse out of cell, bringing PD back to negative. Repolarisation
8) PD overshoots slightly making cell hyperpolarised
9) Original PD is restored so cell returns to resting state
After AP, Na and K are in wrong place restored by Na/K pumps
Refractory period = time taken to recover from an action potential
Also makes sure AP are transmitted in 1 direction

Local Currents
 Opening of Na ion channels at one particular point upsets balance of Na
and K ions created by Na/K pumps
Creates a local current in cytoplasm of neurone. These cause Na channels
along membrane to open
-When AP occurs, Na ion channels open at a particular point
-Allows Na ions to diffuse across membrane from outside neurone to inside
-Movement of Na ions into neurone upsets balance of ionic conc
-Conc of Na ions inside neurone rises wherever the Na ion channels are
open
-Causes Na ions to diffuse sideways, away from region of high conc
-This movement is called Local current

Voltage gated Na Ion channels

Further along membrane are more gated Na Ion channels

Gates are operated by changes in voltage across membrane
At rest, voltage is -60mV inside neurone
Movement of Na ions along the neurone alters the potential difference
across membrane
When PD across membrane reduced, gates open
Allows Na ions to enter the neurone at a point further along the membrane
Action potential has moved along neurone

The Myelin Sheath

They are an insulating layer of fatty material. Na/K cant diffuse through
this
The ionic movements that create an action potential cannot occur much
over the length of the neurone
Gaps in myelin sheath are gaps between Schwann cells that make up the
myelin sheath
Ionic exchanges cause AP to occur only at notes of ranvier
In myelinated neurone, local currents are elongated and Na ions diffuse
along neuroen from one node to another
Means that AP jumps, - called Saltatory conduction

Advantages of Saltatory conduction

AP can only occur at gaps between Schwann cells that make up myelin
sheath
Speeds up transmission/conduction of AP at around 120m -1

Structure of cholinergic synapse

Synapse is gap between 2 or more neurones.

Gap between two neurones = synaptic cleft 20nm wide
Synapses that use acetylecholine as neurotransmitter are called
cholinergic synapses

Synatpic knob:

Many mitochondria requires a lot of ATP active process

Large SER
 Vesicles of Acetylcholine
Voltage gated Ca ion channels

Post synaptic membrane

Contains Na ion channels that respond to transmitter substance

Channels made out of 5 polypeptide molecules. 2 have a special receptor
site specific to acetylcoline
When acetylcholine binds to the two receptors, Na ion channels open.

Transmission across synapse

1) AP arrived at synaptic knob

2) Voltage gated Ca channels open
3) Ca diffuse into synaptic knob causing synaptic vesicles to move and
fuse with presynaptic membrane
4) Acetylcholine released by exocytosis and diffuse across cleft
5) Binds to receptor sites on Na ion channels in post synaptic membrane
6) Na ion channels open and Na diffuses across postsynaptic membrane
into postsynaptic neurone
7) A generator potential or excitatory postsynaptic potential (ESPS) is
created
8) If sufficient generator potentials combine, then potential across
postsynaptic membrane reaches the threshold potential
9) A new AP is created in post synaptic neurone
Acetylcholineesterade in synaptic cleft.
Hydrolyses acetylecholine to ethanoic acid and coline
Stops trasnmsisions of signals so synapse doesnt continue to produce AP
They are recycled and renter synaptic knob by diffusion where they are
recombined to acetylcholine using ATP

Action potentials are all or nothing responses

Other roles of synapses

Presynaptic neurones might converge to one postsynaptic neurone

allowing signals from different parts of the nervous system to create the
same response. Useful when several different stimuli
One presynaptic neurone might diverse to several postsynaptic neurones.
Allow one signal to be transmitted to several places. Useful in the reflex
arc
Synapses ensures it is in correct direction and one direction
Synapses can filter out low level signals
Low level signals can be amplified by summation. If a low level signal
happens a lot, it will generate several successive action potentials. Post
synaptic generator signals combine to form AP. Summation can also occur
when several presynatpic neurones each release small numbers of
vesicles into one synapse
Acclimatisation Synapse = fatigued when its run out of transmitter
substance. Means that our nervous system no longer responds to stimulus,
 for example a smell of perfume or background noise. Helps avoid
overstimulation of an effecter which could damage it
Creation of specific pathways of conscious thought and memory
The pathways created by synapses enable nervous system to convey a
wide range of messages

Frequency of transmission

When a stimulus is at higher intensity, more generator potentials

produced
Causes more frequent AP in sensory
Our brain can determine intensity of stimulus through frequency of signals
arriving

Myelinated and non myelinated neurones

1/3 of peripheral neurones are myelinated

Sheath consists of several layers of membrane and thin cytoplasm from
the Schwann Cell
Nodes of ranvier occur at intervals of 1-3mm node is roughly (2-3um
long)
Remainder of peripheral neurones are most of the neurones in CNS are not
myelinated.
Non myelinated at still associated with Schwann cells but will only have
the odd one or so.
Means that action potential travels along neurone as a wave and doesnt
jump

Advantage of myelination

Myelinated travels at 100-120ms-1 non myelinated travels at 2-20ms -1

Carry signals from sensory to CNS and CNS to effectors over long
distances
Longest neurone in human is about 1metre
Enables a rapid response to a stimulus
Non-myelinated neurones are shorter used to coordinate functions such
as breathing and action of digestive system so speed isnt important

Endocrine System

Uses blood circulation to transport signals

Hormones
Released from endocrine glands ductless glands.
Consist of group of cells that produce and release the hormone into blood
capillaries running through the gland

Exocrine gland

These dont release hormone, they have small duct or tube that carries
their secretion to another place. E.g. salivary gland secrete saliva into a
duct and flows into mouth

Targeting the signal

 Cell receiving hormone must have a complementary receptor
This means hormone can travel around blood without affecting cells that
dont have a complementary receptor
Target cell: cells that possess specific receptor on their plasma membrane.
Shape is complementary to the hormone molecule. Many cells form
together to form a tissue

Nature of hormones

2 types of hormone:
-protein and peptide hormone (insulin and glucagon) and derivatives of
amino acids (adrenaline)
-Steroid hormones (sex hormones)
Protein hormones are not soluble in the phospholipid membrane and dont
enter the cell
Steroids can pass through membrane and enter the cell to have direct
effect on DNA

Adrenaline amino acid derivative unable to enter target cells

Must cause effect inside the cell without entering it the binds onto
receptor of cell surface membrane
Receptor is associated with an enzyme on inner surface of cell membrane
called Adenyl Cyclase
Adrenaline binds to receptor. Adrenaline is called the first messenger
When it binds it activates enzyme adenyl cyclise which converts ATP to
cyclic AMP (cAMP).
Camp is the second messenger and causes an effect inside cell by
activating enzyme action

Functions of adrenal gland

Lying above kidneys, one on each side of the bond. Can be divided into
medulla region and cortex region
Medulla:
-Found in centre of gland. Release adrenaline when pain/shock. Most cells
have adrenaline receptors. Effect is to prepare body for activity:
-Relax smooth muscle in bronchioles
-Increase stroke volume of heart. Increase heart rate. Vasoconstriction to
raise blood pressure. Stimulate conversion of glycogen to glucose. Dilate
pupils. Mental awareness. Inhibit action of gut. Body hair erect

Adrenal cortex:
-Uses cholesterol to produce certain steroid hormones
-Mineralcorticoids (ladosterone) to help control conc of K/Na in blood
-Glucocorticoids (cortisol) help to control metabolism of carbohydrates
and protein in liver

Regulation of blood glucose

 Pancreas is a small organic under stomach has exo and endocrine
system
Releases digestive enzymes exocrine part
Cells found in small groups surrounding tubules into which they secret
digestive enzymes the tubules join up to form pancreatic duct.
Pancreatic duct carries fluid containing enzyme into first part of small
intestine
Fluid: Amylase (carbohydrase) , Trypsinogen (Inactive protease) , Lipase
Fluid contains sodium hydrogen carbonate ions making itt alkaline helping
neutralise contents of digestive system that have left stomach acid
Pancreas has Islet of Langerhans containing different types of cells.
2 types Alpha cells Secrete hormone glucagon
Beta cells Manufacture and secret Insulin
Islets are well supplied with blood capillaries and these hormones go into
capillaries Endocrine function

Blood glucose is carefully regulated

Islets of langerhans monitor conc of glucose in blood. Normal blood conc is
90mg 100cm-3. OR 4 and 6mmol dm-3
If conc rises or falls, alpha and beta cells detect change and respond by
releasing hormone

If blood conc. too high

Too high beta cells secrete insulin into blood target cells hepatocytes,
muscle cells and other body cells including those in brain possess
specific membrane bound receptors for insulin Blood passes these cells
and the insulin binds to receptors 2nd messenger system activates a
series of enzyme controlled reactions in cell
Effects of insulin on liver cells:
-More glucose enters cell through glucose channels
-Glucose in cell is converted to glycogen for storage (glycogenesis)
-Glucose converted to fats
-Glucose used in respiration
Increase in entry of glucose through channels reduces blood glucose conc

If blood glucose conc too low:

Detected by Alpha cells and they secrete hormone glucagon
Target cells are the hepatocytes
Effects are:
1)conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
2) use of fatty acids in respiration
 3) Production of glucose by conversion from amino acids and fats
(gluconeogenesis)
Overall effect is to increase blood glucose conc

Insulin secreted when blood glucose is high when its low secretion needs
to stop
Control of insulin secretion
1) Cell membrane of B cells contain Ca and K ion channels
2) K ion channels are normally open and CA normal closed. K diffuses out
of cell, making inside more negative. PD of membrane = -70mV
3) When glucose conc outside is high, glucose molecules diffuse into cell
4) Glucose is quickly used in metabolism to produce ATP
5) Extra ATP closes K ion channels
6) K cant diffuse out no more and so PD across membrane becomes less
negative
7) Change in PD opens CA ion channels
8) CA ions enter and cause the secretion of insulin by making the vesicles
containing insulin move to cell surface membrane and fuse with it
releasing insulin by exocytosis

Diabetes Mellitus

Body can no longer control its blood glucose conc

Can lead to very high conc. of glucose Hyperglycaemia
Hypoglycaemia blood glucose conc too low

Type 1 diabetes

Insulin dependent starts in child hood

Result of autoimmune reponse in which bodys own immune system
attacks beta cellas and destroys them. Results from a viral attack body is
no longer able to manufacture sufficient insulin and cannot tore excess
glucose and glycogen

Type 2 diabetes

Non insulin dependent

Happens in older age responsiveness to insulin declines
Specific receptors on the surface of the liver and muscle cells decline and
cells lose ability to respond to insulin in blood
Levels on insulin secreted by Beta cells may decline.
Factors contributing to this: obesity, high sugar diet, Asian or Afro
Caribbean, family history.

Treatment

Type 2 Minotiring and control of diet. Match carbohydrate intake and

use. Eventually be supplemented by insulin injections or use of other
drugs which slow down the absorption of off glucose from digestive
system
 Type 1 insulin injections. Blood glucose conc must be monitored and
correct dose of insulin must be administered to ensure glucose conc
remains fair stable

Advantages of genetically engineered bacteria to produce insulin instead of using

ones from animals

Exact copy of human more effective

Less chance of developing tolerance
Less chance of rejection
Lower risk of infection
Cheaper to manufacture than of animals
Adaptable to demand
No moral objections as its not from animals

Blood supplies oxygen, nutrients, glucose, fatty acids, amino acids to cells
Removes waste products such as Co2 and urea so they dont inhibit cell
metabolism
The heart adapts to body to supply more oxygen and glucose by:
increasing/decreasing heart rate...Increase strength of
contractions....Volume of blood pumped per beat (stroke volume)

Rate at which heart beat is affected by many factors

Heart = myogenic initiate its own contractions

Own pacemaker sinoatrial node. Can initiate its own action potential by
sending a wave of exication over atria walls through AVN down purkyne
fibres to ventricles causing contractions
Heart is supplied by nerves from medulla oblongata of brain. These
connect to SAN and do not initiate a contraction but can affect frequency
of contractions. AP sent down accelerator nerve increase the heart rate.
AP sent down vagus nerve reduce heart rate

Under resting conditions, heart rate is controlled by SAN

60-80 per minute usually frequency controlled by cardiovascular centre
in medulla oblongata.
Factors affecting heart rate:
1) Movement of limbs detected by stretch receptors in muscles send
impulses to cardiovasulcar centre informing that extra oxygen may be
needed, usually increasing heart rate
2) When we exercise, CO2 produced. Some reacts with water in blood
plasma reducing PH, which is detected by chemoreceptors in carotid
arteries, aorta and the brain. Chemoreceptors send impulses to
cardiovasulcafr centre which increases heart rate
3) When we stop exercising, CO2 conc falls reducing activity of
accelerator pathway reducing heart rate
4) Adrenaline secreted in response to stress, shock, anticipation or
excitement. Presence of adrenaline increases heart rate helping
prepare the body for activity
 5) Blood pressure monitored by stretch receptors in walls of carotid sinus,
which is a small swelling in carotid artery. If blood pressure is too high,
stretch receptors send signals to cardiovascular centre which
responses by reducing heart rate

DIAGRAM PAGE 29

Artificial pacemakers deliver impulses via electrode pad on skin. Similar

method to electrical chair, was very painful
1950 patient wear small plastic box with wires inserted through skin to
act as electrons on heart muscle
Modern pacemakers only 4cm long and implanted under skin and fat on
chest and are responding on activity of patient
Some deliver impulses to ventricle walls. This deals with conditions where
AVN normally relays the impulse from atria to ventricles, via purkyne
fibres, is not functioning but the SAN maybe.

Respiration is where energy stored in complex organic molecules(carbs,

fats, proteins) is used to make ATP
Exists as potential energy and kinetic energy
Molecules have kinetic energy that allows them to diffuse down a
concentration gradient
Energy cant be created or destroyed, but converted to another. Measured
in Joules.
Types of energy: sound, light, heat, electrical, chemical and atomic
Anabolic metabolic reactions which build large molecules
Catabolic break large molecules into smaller ones

Metabolic process:

Active transport moving ions and molecules across a membrane

against concentration gradient. Sodium-Potassium pumps use this
Secretion large molecules made in cells exported by exocytosis
Endocytosis bulk movement of large molecules into cells
Synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones, such as proteins
from amino acids, steroids from cholesterol and cellulose from B
glucose. Example of anabolism
DNA replication and synthesis of organelles
Movements bacterial flagella, eurkaryotic cilia and undulipdia,
muscle contraction and microtubule motors moving organelles.
Activation chemicals glucose is phophorlated at beginning of
respiration so its unstable and can be broken down to release
energy
Some energy from catabolic reactions is released in heat form.

Where does energy come from?

Plants, Protoctists and bacteria - - - Photoautotrophs

 Respiration releases energy to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP

Role of ATP

ATP is a nucleotide Adenosine (adenine and ribose) + 3 phosphate

Can be hydrolysed to ADP and Pi releasing 30.6kj energy per mol.
Described as universal energy currency

ATP + H20 ADP + H20 AMP + H2O ADENOSINE

The H2O added is the substance being hydrolysed

1st step produces 30.6kJ mol, 2nd step 30.6kJ mol, 3rdstep 14.2kJ mol

Pi is produce at each step. Its a condensation reaction, the other way. ATP
Synthase is used here

4 stages of respiration

Glycolysis Happens in cytoplasm. Doesnt need oxygen, can be aerobic

or anaerobic. Glucose is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvate
Link reaction happens in mitochondrial matrix, Pyruvate is
dehydrogenated and decarboxlyated and converted to acetate
Krebs cycle Happens in mitochondrial matrix acetate is decarboxylated
and dehydrogenated
Oxidative phosphorylation Takes place on folded inner membrane
(crisate) of mitochondria ADP is phophorylated to ATP
Krebs, Link and Oxidative take place under aerobic conditions
If its anaerobic, pyruvate is converted to either Ethanol or Lactate

Coenzymes

In link, glycolysis and krebs, H atoms are removed from substrate

molecules in oxidation reactions catalysed by dehydrogenase
Enzymes arent good at catalysing oxidation or reduction reactions so
coenzymes help
Hydrogen atoms are combined with coenzymes such as NAD which carry
hydrogen atoms, to the inner mitochondrial membranes, to be split into
hydrogen ions + electrons
Oxidation phosphorylation happens now to produce a lot of ATP.
When Hydrogen atoms arrive, the coenzymes are reoxidised so they can
combine with more hydrogen from first three stages of respiration

NAD

Non organic, non protein molecule helping the dehydrogenase enzyme

carry out oxidation reactions
Made out of 2 nucleotides from nicotinamide, ribose, adenine and 2
phopsphate.
The nicotinamide acceots hydrogens
When NAD has accepted 2 hydrogens, it becomes NADH
NAD used in glycolysis, link, krebs and anaerbobic ethanol and lactate
pathways

Coenzyme A
 Adenosine, 3 phosphate, pantothenic (vitamin B5) acid and a small
cystemaine group (amine and sulphur)

Glycolysis
Happens in cytoplasm 4 stages:
Phosphorylation
-Glucose is stable and needs to be activated before it can be split into
two
-One ATP molecule is hydrolysed and phosphate group released attaches
to the glucose at carbon 6 forming Glucose 6-phosphate
-Glucose 6-phosphate turned into fructose 6-phosphate
-Another ATP is hydrolysed and phosphate attaches to the fructose at
carbon 1.
-Fructose 1,6 biphosphate is now formed
-The energy from hydrolysed ATP activates hexose sugar and prevents it
from being transported out of the cell. Its now called Hexose 1,6
biphosphate
-2 ATP molecules have been used for ONE glucose molecule
Splitting of hexose 1,6 biophsphate
- Split into two molecules of triose phosphate

Oxidation of triose phosphate

-Anaerobic process involving oxidation
-2 hydrogens are removed from each triose phosphate
-Involves dehydrogenase enzymes
-Aided by NAD which accepts the hydrogen atoms forming NADH
-So far, 2 molecules of NAD are reduces for each molecule of glucose
- 2 molecules of ATP are formed called substralte level phosphorylation

Conversion of triose phosphate to pyruvate

-4 enzyme catalysed reactions convert triose phosphate to pyruvate (3
carbon compound)
-2 molecules of ADP are phospohorylated to two molecules of ATP by
substrate level phospohorlyation

Products of glycolysis (per each glucose molecule)

2 molecules of ATP ( 2 used, 4 gained, net = 2)
2 molecules of NADH carry hydrogen to the inner
mitchodnrial membrane and be used to generate more ATP
during OP
2 molecules of pryvuate actively tansported to mitochondrial
matrix for next stage of aerobic respiration.

Mitochondria

Have an inner and outer phospholipid membrane making up an envelope

Outer membrane is smooth and inner folded into cristae (gives a larger
surface area)
The matrix is enclosed by the inner membrane
 Matrix is semi-rigid, gel like consisting of lipids and proteins. Also has
mitochondrial DNA, Ribosomes and enzymes
Rod or thread like. Most are 0.5-0.1um in diameter and 2-5um.
Athletes have larger mitochondria
Metabolically active cells have larger demand for ATP and so more
mitochondria
These usually are longer and have more densely packed cristae for more
electron transport chains and more ATP synthase enzymes.
Can be moved around by cytoskeleton.
Synaptic knobs have lots of mitochondria around them permanently as it
has a high ATP demand.

Structure to function (matrix)

Matrix is where link reaction and Krebs cycle

Molecules of NAD
Oxaloacetate 4 carbon compound accepts acetate from link
Mitochondrial DNA codes for mitochondrial enzymes and other proteins
Mitochondrial ribosomes where proteins are assembled

Structure to function (outer membrane)

Contains proteins to form channels to allow pyruvate to pass. Has

enzymes too

Structure to function (Inner membrane)

Different lipid composition and is impermeable to small ions and hydrogen

ions
Folded to cristae to increase surface area
Electron carriers an ATP synthase enzyme

Electron carriers are protein complexes arranged into ETC

Each EC is an enzyme with a cofactor non protein, haem group with n Fe

atom
Co factors accept and donate electrons as Fe reduces to Fe 2+ by accepting
an electron and oxidised to Fe3+ donating an electron to next electron
carrier
Haem group acts as oxidoreductase enzymes as they are involved in
oxidation and reduction
Some EC have coenzyme that pumps protons from matrix to inter
membrane space
Inner membrane is impermeable to small ions and so protons accumulate
in intermembrane space. Causes a lower pH in the space than in the
matrix

ATP Synthase enzymes

Large and protrude from inner membrane into the matrix

Known as stalked particles
 Allow protons to pass through them

Protons flow down proton gradient, through ATP synthase, into matrix from
inter membrane Chemiosmosis
Force drives the rotation of part of the enzyme and allows ADP and Pi to be
joined forming ATP.
Coenzyme FAD becomes reduced in Krebs cycle, is bound to a
dehydrogenase enzyme which is embedded in the intermembrane. The
hydrogen atoms accepted by FAD dont get pumped into the
inertmembrane space. They pass back into the matrix instead

FAD = Riboflavin, adenine, ribose and two phosphate

Link reaction and krebs cycle

Pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported across inner and outer

mitochondrial membranes into the matrix

Link reaction - - -( 2pyruvate + 2CoA 2Co2 + 2NADH + 2CoA

Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation of pyruvate to acetate are

catalysed
Pyruvate dehydrogenase removes H atoms
Pyruvate hydrogenase also removes carboxyl group which becomes Co2
NAD accepts H atoms
Coenzyme A accepts acetate forming Acetyl Coenzyme A. CoA carries
acetate to krebs
No ATP is produced, but the NADH will take a pair of H atoms to inner
mitochondrial membrane and will be used to make ATP in oxidative
phosphorylation

Krebs Cycle

Takes place in mitochondrial matrix

Acetate from Acetyl Coenzyme A joins with Oxaloacetate forming citric
acid. Coenzyme A is released and goes back to collect more acetate
Citrate is decarobxylated and dehydrogenated to form a 5 carbon
compound. Pair of hydrogen atoms is accepted by NAD which becomes
reduced
5 carbon compound is decarboxlyated and dehydrogenated to form 4
carbon compound and another NADH
4 carbon is changed to another 4 carbon and ADP is phosphorylated to
produce a molecule of ATP Substrate level phosphorylation
The second 4 carbon compound is changed to another 4 carbon
compound. Pair of hydrogen atoms is removed and accepted by FAD
forming FADH.
The 4 carbon compound is dehydrogenated and regenerates oxaloacetate.
Another NAD is converted to NADH
 Product per glucose Link reaction Krebs cycle
NADH 2 6
FADH 0 2
Co2 2 4
ATP 0 2

Oxygen isnt used but these stages wont occur without oxygen so are
aerobic
Other food substrates that are glucose can be respired
Fatty acids broken down to acetate can enter Krebs
Amino acid can be demainated (NH2 removed) and the rest of the molecule
can enter Krebs, or can be changed to Pyruvate or Acetate.

Final stage of aerobic respiration

Involves EC embedded in inner mitochondrial membranes

NADH and FADH are reoxidised when they donate Hydrogen atoms which
are split into protons and electrons, to the electron carriers
The first EC to accept electrons from NADH is called NADH Dehydrogenase
( NADH-Coenzyme Q reductase)
Protons go into the solution in the matrix

ETC

Electrons are passed along a chain of electron carriers and then donated
to molecular oxygen, the final electron acceptor

Chemiosmosis

As electrons flow along the ETC, energy is released and used by

coenzymes associated with the EC to pump protons across the inter
membrane space
Builds up a proton/ph gradient and a electrochemical gradient
Potential energy therefore builds up in the intermembrane space
H ions cannot diffuse through lipid part of the inner membrane bbut can
diffuse through ion channels in it. These channels are associated with ATP
synthase.

Oxidative phosphorylation

Formation of ATP by addition of inorganic phosphate to ADP in presence of

oxygen.
Protons flow thorugh ATP synthase, drive rotation of enzyme and join ADP
and Pi = ATP
Electrons passed from last EC in the chain to molecular oxygen which is
final electron acceptor
Hydrogen ions also join so oxygen is reduced to water.
-4h+ + 4e- + o2 2H2O
 For each glucose molecule, 2 ATP have been gained in glycolysis, 2 ATP
have been made in Krebs.
More ATP will be made in oxidative phosphorylation, where NADH and
FADH are reoxidised

Name of molecule Glycolysis Link Krebs

NADH 2 2 6
FADH 0 0 3

NADH and FADH provide electrons to ETC used in oxidative

phosphorylation
NADH provides H ions that contribute to the build up of proton gradient for
chemiosmosis. FADH stay in matrix but combine with oxygen to form
water
10 molecules of MADJ can produce 26 molecules of ATP during
oxidative......
Total yield of ATP molecules per glucose = 30
This is rarely achieved because:
-Some protons leak across mitochondrial membrane reducing proton to
generate proton motive force
-ATP used to actively transport pyruvate into mitochondria
-ATP is used to bring hydrogen from NADH made during glycolysis into
mitochondria

PAGE 92 -93
If oxygen is absent, ETC cant function and so Krebs and link will
sotp.
Only way to produce ATP is then glycolyisis.
Reduced NAD generated from oxidation of glucose has to be
reoxidised for glycolysis to keep occurring

For eukaryotic cells, there are to pathways to reoxidise NAD

Fungi , yeast, use ethanol fermentation

Animals use lactate fermentation

Lactate Fermentation

Mammalian tissue during vigorous activity when demand for ATP is high
NADH has to be oxidised to NAD
Pyruvate is hydrogen acceptor accepting from NADH
 NAD is now oxidised and is available to accept more hydrogen atoms from
glucose
Glycolysis can continue, generating AWTP
Enzyme lactate dehydrogenase catalyses the oxidation of NADH as well as
reduction of pyruvate to lactate
Lactatecarried from muscles to liver where more oxygen is available so it
can be converted back to pyruvate to respire again, or recycled to glucose
and glycogen
The reduction in pH that reduces enzyme activity causes muscle fatigure

Alcohol fermentation

Pyruvate loses CO2 molecule Decarboxylated to ethanal

Catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase and has a coenzyme (thiamine
dipohsophate) bound to it
Ethenall accepts H atoms from NADH which reoxdisesas Ethenal is
reduced to Ethanol (catalysed by ethanal dehydrogenase)
NAD can accep more Hydrogen atoms now from glucose during glycolyisis
Yeast is a facultative anaerobe can live without oxygen
Dies with Ethanol conc 15%
Yeast is grown until aerobic then anaerobic to undergo alcoholic
fermentation

More protons = More ATP

More Hydrogen atoms in a molecule of respiratory substrate, the more ATP
can be generated when it is respired.
More hydrogen = more oxygen needed to respire
Animals store glucose as glycogen, plants as starch

Fructore/Galactose are changed to glucose for respiration

Theoretical yield for glucose is 2870 kJ mol-1
Takes 30.6kJ to produce 1 mol ATP
Theoretically, respiration of 1 mol of glucose should produce nearly 94mol
of ATP
Actual yield is 30mol ATP, 32% efficiency
Remaining energy released as heat which helps maintain a suitable body
temp

Excess amino acids released after protein digestion may be deaminated.

Involves removal of amine group and its conversion to urea. Rest is
changed to glycogen or fat
Useful when fasting/starvation/exercise, protein from muscle can be
hydrolysed to amino acids which can be respired
Some can be converted to pyruvate or to acetate and be carried to krbes
Number of H atoms per mole accepted by NAD and then used in oxidative
phosphorylate is slight more than number of hydrogen atoms per mole of
glucose, so protein release slightly more energy than equivalent masses
of carbohydrate
 Triglycerides are hydrolysed by lipase to fatty acids and glycerol
Glycerol can be converted to glucose then respired, fatty acids cnat
Fatty acids have many proteins for oxidative phosphorylation so they
produce a lot of ATP
Each fatty acid is combined with CoA. Required energy from hydrolysis of
a molecule of ATP to AMP and 2 inorganic phosphate
Fatty acid CoA complex is transported into the mitochondrial matrix where
it is broken down into 2-carbon acetyl group that are attached to CoA
During ths breakdown, by the Beta oxidation pathway, NADH and FADH
formed
Acetyle groups released from CoA enter krebs
3 Molecules of NADH, One FADH and one ATP are formed for each acetate
here
Large amount of NADH is reoxidised at ETC during OP, producing large ATP

Respiratory substrate Mean energy value kj g-1

Carbohydrate 15.8
Lipid 39.4
Protein 17

Role of loop of Henle is to create a low water potential in the tissue of the
medulla
Ensures more water can be reabsorbed from the fluid in the collecting duct

Loop of Henle

Consists of descending limb descending into the medulla

(Ascending limb into the cortex)

Arrangement allows salts (Cl and NA ions) to be transferred from

ascending to descending
Overall effect is to increase conc. of salt in the tubule fluid and
consequently they diffuse out of thin walled ascending limb into the
surrounding medulla tissue, giving tissue fluid in medulla very low water
potential
As fluid descends deeper into medulla water potential becomes lower
because:
-Loss of water by osmosis to surrounding tissue fluid
-Diffusion if Na and Cl ions into tubule from surrounding tissue fluid
As fluid ascends back, water potential becomes higher because:
-Base of tubule, Na and Cl diffuse out of tubule into tissue fluid
-Higher up tubule, Na and Ck are actively transported out into the tissue
fluid
Arrangement of loop of Henle is known as a hairpin counter current
multiplier
Effect of this arrangement is to increase efficiency of salt transfer from
ascending limb ot descending limb.
Causes a build up of salt conc. in surrounding tissue fluid
 Movement of salts from ascending limb into medulla creates high salt conc
in tissue fluid so low water potential
Removal of ions from ascending limb means at the tp of ascending limb
the urine is dilute
Water may then be reabsorbed from urine in teh distal tubule and
collecting duct
Amount of water reabsorbed depends on needs of body
Kidney is also an organ of osmoregulation

Collecting duct
Top of ascending limb the tubule fluid passes along a short distal
convulatoed tubule where active transport is used to adjust the cconc of
various slats
Then goes to collecting duct and atm tubule fluid contains a lot of water
high water potent
Collecting duct carries fluid back down medulla into pelvis
Tissue fluid in medulla has a low water ptent that becomes even lower
deeper int the medulla
As tubule fluid passes down collecting duct, water moves by osmisos from
tissue to surrounding fluid
Then tners the blood capillaries by osmosis and is carried away
Amount of water reabsorbed depnds on permeability of walls in collecting
duct
By time urine reaches pelvis, it has lower wwater potential and conc of
urea and salts in urine is higher htran that of blood plasma

Osmoregulation

Control of water levels and salt levels in the body

Water gained from food, drink, metabolism (respiration)(
Water lost from urine, sweat, water vapour in exhaled air, faeces
Cool day a lot of drink large volume conc urine
Hot day little drink small concentrated urine
Walls of collecting duct can be made more/less permeable depending on
needs
Hot day, more permeable walls so more water is kept in
Walls respond to ADH level Cells in walls have ADH receptors
ADH binds, causing enzyme controlled reactions
Causes vesicles containing water permeable channels (aquaporins) into
the cell surface membrane. Makes the walls more permeable to water.
More ADH = More Aquaporins
If less ADH, cell surface membrane folds inwards to create new vesciles
that remove water permeable cahnnels from the membrane. Makes the
wals less permeable and less water is reabsorbed by osmosis.

Water potential is monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the

brain
 Cells probably respnd to the effects of osmosis when the water potential of
the blood is low, the osmoreceptor cells lose water by osmosis. This
causes them to shrink and stimulate neurosecretory cells in
hypothalamus.
The neuersecretory cells are neurones producing ADH. ADH is manufacted
in teh cell body which lies in the hypothalamus
ADH flows down aaxon to terminal bulb in posterior pituiraty gland and
stored till needed
When the neuerosecretory cells are stimulated they send action potentials
down their axosn and cause release of ADH
ADH enters blood capillaries running through posterior pituitary gland and
it is transported around body and acts on cells of the collecting ducts
Once water potent of blood rises again ADH released
ADH broken down half like 20mins. Therefore collecting ducts will receive
less stimulation
Page 49 diagram

Kidney failure

Can occur by diabetes mellitus

Hypertension
Infection
Means youre unable to remove excess water and certain waste products
from blood e.g. urea and salt
Cant regulate water and salt levels either

Dialysis treatment

Removes wastes, excess fluid and salt from blood by passing over a
dialysis partially permeable membrane allowing exchange of substances
between fluid and blood
Dialysis fluid contains correct conc of salt, urea, water and other
substances in blood plasma
Excess substances in blood diffuse across membrane into dialysis fluid
Too low conc substances diffuse into blood from fluid

Haemodialysis

Blood is passed into machine that contains an artificial dialysis

membrane. Heparin is added to avoid clotting, and any bubbles are
removed before blood returns to body.
Usually performed at a clinic 3 times a week for several hours

Peritoneal dialysis

Filter is the bodys own abdominal membrane

A permanent tube is implanted in abdomen
Diaylsysis solution is pour thorugh tube and fills space between abdominal
walls and organs
After several hours the used solution is drained out
 Performed in consevutive sessions daily at home or work

Kidney transplant

Patient is under anaesthesia, new organ is planted into lower abdomen

and attatches it to blood supply and bladder. Patients feel much better
after transplant
Immune system will recognise new organ as foreign and produce a
reaction so immunosuppressant drugs are given to prevent rejection

Advantages:

-Freedom from time consuming dialysis

Diet is less limited
Feel better
Better quality of life
No longer seeing as chronically ill

Disadvantages

Immunosuppressant drugs are needed for lifetime of kidney

Major surgery
Risk of surgery infection, bleeding, damage to surrounding orangs
Frequent checks of organ rejection
Anti rejection medicines cause fluid retention and high blood pressure,
more susceptibility to infections.

Pregnancy test:

HCG is small glycoprotein with molecular mass of 36700.

Found in urine 6 days after pregnant.
Monoclonal antibodies.
Antibody only binds with HCG. Anti body has blue bead. Mobilised anti
bodies at the bottom.
HCG anti body complex moves up to the strip until it sticks to a band of
immobilised antibodies
Top line is a test with mobile and immobilised antibody complex

Testing for anabolic steroids

Increase protein synthesis within cells

More cell tissue in muscles and give advantage in sports
Half life of 16 hours and remain in blood for days time taken for
substance for its conc to drop to half
Small molecules and can enter nephron easily
Testing it requires gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/ urine sample
Gas is vaporised in presence of gaseous solvent and passed down a long
tube lined by an absorption agent. Each substance dissolves differently in
teh gas and stays there for a unique specific time, retention time
Susssbstance comes out of gas absorbed onto lining then analysed to
create chromatogram.